Introduction to Mathematical Logic and Counting (Fall 2009)

1. Propositions. Logical Operations: negation, conjunction, disjunction, implication, exclusive or,

biconditional. Truth Tables. Bitwise logical operations. Tautology and a contradiction. Prove that (p → (q
→ r)) → ((p → q) → (p → r)) is a tautology without using truth tables. Propositional Equivalences. Tables
of Logical Equivalences.
2. Truth Tables of basic logical operations. The number of all compound propositions consisting of n
elementary compositions. Prove this by mathematical induction.
3. Elementary conjunction and elementary disjunctions. Conjunctive Normal Form and Disjunctive Normal
Forms of formulae of Proposition Logic. Prove that for any proposition there is an equivalent proposition
which is either DNF, or CNF.
4. Functionally complete collection of logical operators. Show that all {¬, &, V}, and {¬, &},
form a functionally complete collection of logical operators.
5. Functionally complete collection of logical operators. Show that all {¬, V}, and {¬, →} form a functionally
complete collection of logical operators.
6. Functionally complete collection of logical operators. Show that all { | }, { ↓ } form a functionally complete
collection of logical operators.
7. Functionally complete collection of logical operators. Show that {+, ∙, 1} forms a functionally complete
collection of logical operators.
8. Language of Predicate Logic. Definition of a term and of a formula of First Order Logic. Examples.
9. Definition of a Model of First Order Logic (FO Logic). Examples. When a formula is true in a model. Valid
formula. Quantifiers. Existential Quantification, Universal quantification.
10. Quantifiers. Existential Quantification, Universal quantification. Free and bound variables. Examples. Table
of Negating Quantifiers. Prenex Normal Form of Formulae. Show that ∀x(P(x) ∧ Q(x)) and ∀x P(x)
∧ ∀x Q(x) are logically equivalent. Show that ∀x(P(x) ∨ Q(x)) and ∀x P(x) ∨ ∀x Q(x) are not
logically equivalent. Show that ∃x(P(x) ∨ Q(x)) and ∃ x P(x) ∨ ∃ x Q (x) are logically equivalent.
Show that ∃x(P(x) ∧ Q(x)) and ∃ x P(x) ∧ ∃x Q (x) are not logically equivalent.
11. Set. Subset. Equality of two sets. The Power Set. The cardinality of the power set (proof of this formula for
finite sets by mathematical induction). Cartesian Products. The cardinality of the Cartesian product of two
sets. Computer representation of sets.
12. Set Operations. Venn Diagrams of all essential set operations. Set Identities. The cardinality of the union of
two sets.
13. Function. Domain. Codomain (range). Image and pre-image of an element and of a set. Injective and
surjective functions. Bijection. Examples. Graph of a function. Floor and Ceiling functions. Inverse
function. Composition of functions. Prove that the composition of injective (surjective, bijective) functions
is an injective (surjective, bijective) function. What we can say about two functions if their composition is
injective (surjective, bijective).
14. Let f and g be functions from A to B and from C to D, respectively, where A and C have an empty
intersection. Then union of two functions h = f U g is a function from A U C to B U D, given as h(x) = f(x),
if x belongs to A, and h(x) = g(x) otherwise. Show that union of two surjections is a surjection. Show that
union of two bijections is a bijection. Give a condition guaranteeing that union of two injections is an
injection.
15. Cardinality of a set. Definitions of |A| = |B| and |A| ≤ |B|. Countable sets. Show that the set of integer and the
set of rational numbers are countable.
16. Prove that for any A, |P(A)| = 2n, , where n = |A|. Prove that |P(A)| > |A| (Cantor’s Theorem).
17. Reihbah’s Lemma.
18. Cantor–Bernstein's Theorem.
19. Show that the union of countably many countable sets is countable. If the Cartesian product of two sets is
uncountable, must one of them be uncountable? Show that the Cartesian product of two countable sets is
countable. If the union of countable many sets is uncountable, must one of them be uncountable? Let A and
B be disjoint subsets of C. Show that if |A| = |B| and C is finite, then |C–A| = |C–B|. Is this true for arbitrary
C?
20. Show that the set of reals is uncountable. Show that any interval of the set of reals and the set of reals have
the same cardinality. Show that any two circles on the real plane have the same cardinality. Show that a
family of disjoint intervals on a line is countable as well as a family of disjoint circles on a real plane.
21. Show that the image of the union of two sets under a function is equal to the union of the images of these
sets. Show that the image of the intersection of two sets under a function is a subset of the intersection of the
images of these sets.
22. Show that the pre-image of the union of two sets is equal to the union of pre-images of these two sets. Show
that the pre-image of the intersection of two sets is equal to the intersection of pre-images of these two sets.
Show that the complement of the pre-image of a set is equal to the pre-image of the complement of this set.
23. Let f be a bijection. Show that the image of the intersection of two sets under f is equal to the intersection of
the images of these sets under f. Show that the complement of the image under f of a set is equal to the
image under f of the complement of this set.
24. Rules of inference. The six basic rules of inference. Vacuous, trivial, indirect proof and proof by
contradiction. Prove that the square root of 2 is irrational.
25. Mathematical Induction. Well-ordering property. Basic and inductive steps. Why mathematical induction is
valid. Second principle of mathematical induction. Show that
12 + 22 + … + n2 = n(n+1)(2n+1)/6.
26. Basic counting principles. The sum rule. The product rule. Principle of inclusion-exclusion. Number of all
functions from a set A to a set B. The Pigeonhole principle. The Generalized Pigeonhole principle. Show
that there are either three mutual friends or three mutual enemies in a group of six people, such that each
pair of individual of the group consists of two friends or two enemies.
27. Show that among any n + 1 positive integers not exceeding 2n must be an integer that divides one of the
other integers.
28. Show that every sequence of n2 + 1 distinct real numbers contains a subsequence of length n + 1 that is
either strictly increasing or strictly decreasing.
29. r-permutations and r-combinations. Theorems 1 and 2, and Corollary.
30. Binomial coefficient. Pascal Identity. Give a combinatorial proof of C(2, 2n) = 2C(2, n) + n2.
31. Vandermonde’s Identity. The binomial theorem.
32. Show in two different ways that C(n, 0) + C(n, 1) + … + C(n, n) = 2n.
Show that C(n, 0) – C(n, 1) + … + (–1)kC(n, k) + … + (–1)nC(n, n) = 0.
33. Generalized permutation and combinations. Permutations and combinations with repetition. Permutations of
sets with indistinguishable objects, distributing objects into boxes.
34. Recurrence relations. Solution of a recurrence relation. The tower of Hanoi. Codeword enumeration.
35. Solving recurrence relations. Linear homogeneous recurrence relation of degree k. Characteristic equation.
Solving recurrence relation of the second degree.
36. Solving recurrence relation of degree k. Solving linear inhomogeneous recurrence relation.
37. Relations. Properties of relations (reflexivity, symmetry, etc). N-ary relations, and their domain and degree.
Projections.
38. Combining relations. Composite of two relations. The powers of a relation. Matrices representing relations
and their composition. The number of ways of length k from one element to another one. Representing
relations using matrices and digraphs. Digraph. Path in directed graphs.
39. Equivalence relations. Equivalence classes. Partitions. Theorem 1 and 2. Refinement.
40. Partial orderings. Comparable and incomparable elements. Linear ordering. Lexicographic order. Chains.
Show that if there is a unique minimal element in a finite poset, then this element is the least.
41. Hasse diagrams. Maximal and minimal, greatest and least elements. Bounds. Lattices. Show that each finite
poset has a minimal element. Lemma 1.
42. Show that every totally ordered set is a lattice. Show that every finite lattice has the least and the greatest
elements.
43. Types of graphs. Basic terminology. Theorem 1 and 2.
44. Terminology for directed graphs. Theorem 3. Special simple graphs. Bipartite graphs. Connectivity.
Connected components.
45. Isomorphism of graphs and its properties. Examples.
46. An Euler circuits and paths. Necessary and sufficient conditions for Euler circuits and paths.
47. Hamilton paths and circuits. For which values of n and m the complete bipartite graph Kn,m have a Hamilton
circuit?
48. Planar Graphs. Is K3,3 planar? Is K5 planar? Euler formula. Kuratowski's theorem.
49. The chromatic number of a graph. A graph which is dual for a map. The chromatic number of basic graphs
and of a planar graph.
50. Tree, tree traversal (infix, prefix, postfix), polish notation.