Key

= Students learn to:

= Students:

1. Vehicles do not typically travel at a constant speed

Identify that a typical journey involves speed changes
In a typical journey, your speed changes throughout. Your journey usually begins with a speed
of zero, so your speed must change in order to get anywhere.

Distinguish between the instantaneous and average speed of vehicles and other bodies
Average speed is the total distance travelled divided by the time it takes to travel that distance
whilst instantaneous speed is the speed that you are travelling at any given instant.
Instantaneous speed is more accurate, since in reality, a typical journey involves speed
changes.

Distinguish between scalar and vector quantities in equations

Scalar quantities only specify a magnitude with no direction. Examples include time, distance,
speed and mass. On the other hand, vector quantities specify both magnitude and direction.
Examples include displacement, velocity and acceleration.

Compare instantaneous and average speed with instantaneous and average velocity
Instantaneous speed is a scalar quantity and only specifies magnitude.
On the other hand, instantaneous velocity is a vector quantity and specifies both
magnitude and direction.
Average speed is also a scalar quantity whilst average velocity is a
vector quantity. Average speed is the distance of the whole journey divided by the time
it takes to travel that distance whilst average velocity is the change in displacement
divided by the change in time.
As such, average speed takes into account your whole journey, whereas
average velocity only takes into account the displacement between starting and ending
points.

r
Define average velocity as: V av =
t
Average velocity is defined as the change in displacement divided by the change in time.
2. An analysis of the external forces on vehicles helps to understand the effects of acceleration
and deceleration
Describe the motion of one body relative to another
The motion of a body is measured relative to another body (i.e. the frame of reference). A
frame of reference is the perspective or object taken, such as a car. This gives rise to what is
called relative motion, the perceived speed of one object to another as they are both moving
with given velocities. For example a car is travelling on a road at 60km/h. The cars relative
velocity to the road is 60km/h.

Identify the usefulness of using vector diagrams to assist solving problems

In reality, object may encounter more than one vector (force, velocity or displacement). The
addition of two or more vector quantities requires manipulation of vector arrows. Thus vector
diagrams are used to add vectors to determine the resultant vector. This can be used to find
the net force on an object from many smaller forces.

Explain the need for a net external force to act in order to change the velocity of an
object
According to Newtons first law of motion, an object will continue to move at a constant velocity
or remain at rest unless acted upon by a net external force. Hence, to change a bodys state of
motion, a net external force is required.

Describe the actions that must be taken for a vehicle to change direction, speed up and
slow down
As stated by Newtons first law of motion, in order to change a vehicles direction or speed, a
net external force is required to act on the vehicle. Net external forces include:
Gravitational force affects vehicles travelling up or down hill.
Air resistance opposes the vehicles motion
Friction opposes the vehicles motion
Thrust is the force that propels the vehicle forward

Describe the typical effects of external forces on bodies including:

Friction between surfaces
Air resistance
In most real life situations, forces of air resistance and friction are involved. These forces
oppose the motion of a body and acts between the body and the contacting force. Air
resistance is a specific type of friction force between a moving body and air particles. Because
of the presence of friction and air resistance, an equal pushing force needs to be applied to
maintain a constant velocity.

Define average velocity as:

v vu
aav and therefore aav
t t
Average acceleration is the rate of change of velocity and is given by the change in velocity
divided by the change in time.
 Define the terms mass and weight with reference to the effects of gravity
Mass is a scalar quantity to describe the absolute quantity of matter in a body or object. Thus,
wherever an object is placed, its mass remains constant and is unaffected by gravity. On the
other hand, weight is a vector quantity and is the measure of the force that acts on a mass
when placed in a gravitational field. Weight is given by the mass times the force due to gravity.

Outline the forces involved in causing a change in the velocity of a vehicle when:
Situation Forces acting on the vehicle

Coasting with no pressure on the accelerator Air resistance, friction with the ground

Pressing on the accelerator Engine pushing the car forward

Pressing on the brakes Friction with the brake pads

Passing over an icy patch on the road Not much friction. Little change in velocity.

Climbing and descending hills Gravity either opposes or assists the motion

Following a curve in the road Centripetal force

Interpret Newtons Second Law of Motion and relate it to the equation: F=ma
Newtons second law of motion states that the acceleration of an object is directly proportional
to the net unbalanced force acting upon the object and inversely proportional to the mass of
the object.

Identify the net force in a wide variety of situations involving modes of transport and
explain the consequences of the application of that net force in terms of Newtons Second Law
of Motion
Net force is the sum of all the forces acting on a body. In transportation, the net force is the
vehicles direction of motion.The net force depends upon the mass and the acceleration of the
vehicle as stated by Newtons second law of motion. So if the acceleration is kept the same for
all vehicles, heavier vehicles will exert a greater force than lighter ones.

Analyse the effects of external forces operating on a vehicle

External forces acting on a vehicle include: air resistance, friction with the ground and gravity.
Air resistance and friction oppose the motion of a vehicle. However, without friction the vehicle
would remain at rest. Gravity opposes motion when travelling uphill whilst assists motion when
travelling downhill.
3. Moving vehicles have kinetic energy and energy transformations are an important aspect in
understanding motion
Identify that a moving object possesses kinetic energy and that work done on that
object can increase that energy
Energy can be described as an entity that can make thing happen, make
things move, transform, etc.
Energy is the ability to do work.
Energy and work are scalar quantities measured in joules (J)
Kinetic energy is energy which a body possesses by virtue of being in
motion. Thus anything that is moving has kinetic energy. The formula for kinetic energy
1 2
is KE= m v . Work done on an object can increases its kinetic energy.
2

Describe the energy transformations that occur in collisions

A collision is defined as a mechanical interaction between two (or more)
objects that results in an exchange of energy.
There are two main types of collisions:
Elastic
Kinetic energy is conserved.
When the objects collide then bounce off.
Kinetic energy is transformed into heat,
light, sound.
Momentum is conserved.
Inelastic
Kinetic energy is not conserved.
When the objects fuse together to behave
as one after the collision.
The kinetic energy of each colliding object
can change, but the total kinetic energy of the system does not change.
Momentum is conserved.

Define the law of conservation of energy

In a closed system, energy can be transferred from one type to another,
but the total energy of the system remains constant.
A closed system is defined as one where no energy can leave or enter
the system. The entire universe is considered a closed system.
The law of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created
or destroyed, only transferred or transmitted into other form or from one place to
another.
4. Change of momentum relates to the forces acting on the vehicle or the driver
Define momentum as: p=mv
Momentum is defined as the product of the mass and the velocity of an object. It is a vector
quantity with both magnitude and direction. The direction of momentum is the same as the
objects velocity (or direction of motion).

Proof
F=ma (Newtons 2nd Law of Motion)
vu
a= (where v is final velocity and u is initial velocity)
t
v u
Therefore: F=m( )
t
mvmu
F=
t
Since mv is the final momentum ( pf ) and the mu is the initial
momentum ( pi ),
p pi p
Therefore: F= f =
t t

Solve problems and analyse information to determine the kinetic energy of a vehicle
and the work done using the formulae:
1 2
KE= m v
2
W =Fs

Define impulse as the product of force and time (i.e. I =Ft )

Impulse is a vector quantity defined as the product of the net force acting and the time over
which it acts. It is also defined as the change in momentum.

Explain why momentum is conserved in collisions in terms of Newtons Third Law of

motion
Newtons Third Law of motion states that for every action, there is an equal and opposition
reaction. Thus, in the entire system of the collision, the total momentum is conserved. The total
action force before a collision and total reaction force after a collision remains unchanged as a
result. This is also due to the law of conservation of momentum which states that during a
collision, the total momentum before and after the collision is unchanged.
5. Safety and Inertia
Define the inertia of a vehicle as its tendency to remain in uniform motion or at rest
According to Newtons first law of motion, also known as law of inertia, a
vehicle will remain at rest or travel at a constant motion unless acted upon by a net
external force.
Inertia is the tendency of a body to remain in uniform motion or at rest.
This means that an object has a tendency to continue to do what it is doing. That is why
when you crash a vehicle into a wall, it will continue to collide and squash into the wall
instead of just stopping. This is also why a passenger in a vehicle continues to go
forward when the brakes of a vehicle are applied. Because the car may have forces
slowing it down but the passenger has a tendency to continue forward.

Discuss reasons why Newtons First Law of Motion is not apparent in many real world
situations
Because there are many forces acting on a body on earth to oppose its motion, such as, air
resistance, friction and gravity.

Assess the reasons for the introduction of low speed zones in built-up areas and the
addition of airbags and crumple zones to vehicles with respect to the concepts of impulse and
momentum
Impulse (or change in momentum) is the product of the net force and
time ( I =Ft ).
During collisions, the change in momentum is very large due to the large
mass of the car and the car being brought from a high velocity to rest very quickly.
By lengthening the time of the change in momentum, the net force
experienced by the vehicle and its occupants is reduced. Since I =Ft , impulse is
constant. So if time increases, force must decrease.
Thus, the addition of airbag and crumple zones to vehicles, and the
introduction of low speed zones in built-up areas, was to increase the amount of time of
the collision in order to decrease the net force experienced by the objects involved in
the collision.
Low speed zones
Slower moving cars have less momentum thus less damage will be
caused if a collision does occur.
Slower moving cars have less chance of collisions since braking
distances are reduced.
Speed humps
Physical humps in the ground made from a mound of bitumen reduce
the speed of cars, usually to 25km/h
Speed humps make it difficult for drivers to exceed speed limits,
otherwise they experience discomfort and therefore reduce the chance of collision.
Air bags
An airbag is an inflatable bag containing explosive chemicals that cause
rapid inflation during a collision.
Air bags are normally deflated and hidden within the steering wheel and
also in other positions around passengers and driver.
 Air bags are activated when a collision is detected by the cars computer
linked accelerometers as any abnormal acceleration.
Air bags protect the occupant by increasing the time interval for the
collision in order to reduce the force, so occupants experience less force and there is
less chance of injury.

Crumple zones
Crumple zones are the front and back of the vehicle, which are designed
to be less rigid than the chassis of the car. They will compress during a collision, absorb
the impact, and lengthen the duration of the collision.

Evaluate the effectiveness of some of these safety devices

Safety Devices Effectiveness

ABS Braking

Air Bags There have been concerns that airbags cause severe injuries to the
occupants themselves. However, in most cases, airbags have
saved many lives and reduced the severity of injuries. Now, airbags
have become a compulsory addition to cars and are a very effective
safety device.

Crumple Zones Crumple zones are expensive but are an efficient safety feature for
cars.

Head Restraint This stops the passenger's head being hyper extended. It
prevents whiplash to some extent.

Low Speed Zones Low speed zones are very effective, but only if drivers strictly
adhere to the speed limits.

Seat Belts Despite the possible injuries, seat belts are a very effective safety
feature that has saved many lives.

Speed Humps A cheap method of promoting lower speeds in neighbourhood

areas, but can be frustrating for drivers.

Gather and process first-hand data and/or secondary information to analyse the
potential danger presented by loose objects in a vehicle
During a collision, a vehicle is brought to rest very quickly. Any loose or unsecured objects
within the vehicle have inertia that will cause them to continue moving forward. Loose objects
could fly forward and injure occupants. Occupants may also become the loose objects if seat
belts are not worn, and severe injuries can be caused.

Identify data sources, gather, process, analyse, present secondary information and use
the available evidence to assess benefits of technologies for avoiding or reducing the effect of
a collision
Some new forms of car technology are being directed to avoid collisions
rather than just reduce the effect of collisions, like seat belts and airbags.