Journal of Marketing Education

Volume 31 Number 2
August 2009 120-130
2009 Sage Publications

Viva Voce (Oral Examination) 10.1177/0273475309334050

http://jmd.sagepub.com
hosted at
as an Assessment Method http://online.sagepub.com

Insights From Marketing Students

Glenn Pearce
Geoffrey Lee
University of Western Sydney, Australia

Viva voce (viva) or oral examinations are widely used in medical education, clinical examinations, and doctoral defenses, yet the
assessment method is seldom adopted by university marketing departments. Correspondingly, the marketing education literature
makes no reference to vivas as an alternative academic assessment technique. This research discusses the use of viva as a sum-
mative assessment method in university marketing education. Final-year marketing students undertaking an elective unit in ser-
vices marketing were given an end-of-unit viva instead of a written examination. Fifty-four cartoon completion tests were
analyzed to gain insight into student perceptions of the viva assessment task. Interpretive findings from this study suggest that
viva is a valid and novel method of assessing learning outcomes such as application of deep learning, application of theory to
practice, and problem-solving skills. The vivas enabled dialectic communication between the examiner and student and provided
invaluable experience for career interviews. Although some students were anxious prior to the viva examination, on reflection they
conceded that the process was user friendly. Based on these findings, implications for the adoption of vivas as an assessment
method are discussed.

Keywords: marketing education; viva voce; assessment; technique

D erived from Medieval Latin, the term viva voce (viva)

was recorded in The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary
in 1815 as an examination conducted by speech (Douglas
& Swift, 1997). Vivas have been of interest to education
researchers since the early 20th century. Pressey, Pressey,
and Barnes (1932) questioned the underlying assumption
that written exams comprehensively test a candidates edu-
cation learning outcomes and requisite professional life
skills, and suggested integrating systematic and objective
assessment tools by including both written exams and vivas.
Similarly, todays educators are concerned that assessment is
often inadequately conceived (Challis, 2008). Assessment
methods should be an integral part of the constructive
alignment of curricular design to ensure complementary
learning outcomes, teaching and learning approaches, and
evaluation methods (Biggs, 1999; Chadwick, 2004).
Understanding the role, value, and application of vivas will
assist educators in designing reliable and valid assessment
policy and practice (Jackson & Tinkler, 2001).
Although the viva voce method of assessment has been
called by various namesviva, oral(s), oral test, oral inter-
view, and oral examinationthe term viva is used in this
article. Irrespective of nomenclature, the viva method of
assessment was defined by Joughin (1998, p. 367) as
assessment in which a students response to the assess-
ment task is verbal, in the sense of being expressed or con-
veyed by speech instead of writing.
Among its multiplicity of applications, vivas have been
used to assess such programs as doctoral degrees (Douglas
& Swift, 1997; Jackson & Tinkler, 2001; Morley, Leonard,
& David, 2002), clinical dentistry (Yip, Smales, Newsome,
Chu, & Chow, 2001) medical studies (Bashook, 2000), and
various university degrees including natural sciences, engi-
neering, and the social sciences (Kehm, 2001).
Literature Review
Business schools have been criticized for producing
graduates without effective problem-solving and communi-
cation (written and oral) skills (Lunsford, 1991). Some
suggest that traditional marketing curricula focus on knowl-
edge acquisition, with less emphasis on skill development
(Lamb, Shannon, & Moncrief, 1995). However, marketing
educators are charged with the responsibility of providing
students with concepts and principles, tools, and experiences

120

in the practice of marketing to prepare students to enter the
workforce (Floyd & Gordon, 1998; Haffer & Hoth, 1981;
Lamb et al., 1995; Morrison, Sweeney, & Heffernan,
2003). Floyd and Gordon (1998) and Morrison, Sweeney, &
Heffernan (2006) purport that educators are responsible for
developing well-rounded graduates who fulfill employers
demands regarding knowledge and skills.
Employers seek graduates with more than technical
skills and knowledge; graduates need effective communica-
tion skills (Crosling, 2000; R. Davis, Misra, & van Auken,
2002; Haffer & Hoth, 1981), leadership, team-building and
decision-making skills (Lamb et al., 1995), and an ability to
cope with change (Morrison et al., 2003). Thus, it is argued
that the challenge for marketing educators is how to most
effectively teach students the desired skills, knowledge, and
competencies required for career-ready graduates who
match employers needs (Haffer & Hoth, 1981; Lamb et al.,
1995).
Oral communication skills are often cited by Western
universities as attributes that graduates should possess.
These skills are recognized as important because they
underpin a students development of social networks,
they are positively linked to academic achievement, and
they enhance the ability of the student to think on their feet,
express themselves meaningfully, and relate to others, thus
improving their future work opportunities and life chances
(Crosling, 2000). Crosling (2000) found that many univer-
sities were sporadic and unsystematic in their approach to
the developmental curriculum of undergraduate oral com-
munication skills as students progress through their
degree.
The literature is divided on how students individual dif-
ferences and preferences in student-learning styles can influ-
ence learning outcomes and the overall effectiveness of
teaching (see Karns, 2006; Kolb, 1984; Morrison et al., 2003,
2006; Solomon & Felder, 2004). Morrison et al. (2003)
recommend targeting teaching styles to learner preferences to
enhance students retention of information, improve teach-
ing efficiency, and facilitate students positive attitude to
the subject. Others suggest that marketing educators should
stretch students beyond their preferred learning style
(Frontczak, 1990). Karns (2006) recommends employing a
variety of learning activities to encompass multiple learn-
ing modalities, with only modest tailoring of course design
to meet individual learning style preferences, a strategy that
is most effective for active-oriented learners, such as mar-
keting students. Similarly, Ponder, Beatty and Foxx (2004)
recommend that a range of teaching activities and assess-
ment methods be incorporated into marketing course design.
Active learning pedagogies are effective in matching
learning activities with student-learning styles (Karns,
2006). Experiential learning (see Jarvis, 1987; Kolb, 1984)
as an active learning pedagogy and, more specifically,
Lee, Pearce / Viva Voce as an Assessment Method 121
problem-based learning (PBL) provide the theoretical
underpinning for using vivas as an assessment tool. PBL
starts with the premise of a problem, query, or puzzle to
be solved and assists student learning by integrating theory
and practice. Prior to solving the problem, students need
to acquire knowledge and professional and academic skills,
and understand client requirements and contextual factors
of the situation (Pinto Pereira, Telang, Butler, & Joseph,
1993). Furthermore, Borin, Metcalf, and Tietje (2008)
suggest PBL builds on coursework, such that students are
exposed to increasingly sophisticated and complex issues.
The policy and practice of assessing student-learning
outcomes in business schools is of increasing interest in
higher education (Borin et al., 2008). It is suggested that
assessment drives learning for many students (Boud, Cohen,
& Samson, 1999; Wass, Van der Vleuten, Shatzer, & Jones,
2001), and so there is a need to align student-learning objec-
tives, content, learning pedagogy, and assessment techniques.
Direct, embedded assessment techniques such as assign-
ments, exams, and presentations are considered the stron-
gest measures of learning outcomes. A critical component
of outcome-based education is students ability to demon-
strate their success in mastery of content, concepts, and
skills by focusing on what they have learned, rather than on
what they have been taught (Borin et al., 2008).
Blooms hierarchal six-level taxonomy (Bloom,
Englehart, Furst, Hill, & Krathwohl, 1956) can be used as
a framework to understand the ability of students to demon-
strate their mastery of the subject through the assessment of
higher order skills. Traditional marketing education has
been criticized for its focus on lower order skills such as the
retention of knowledge and understanding of content
(Lamb et al., 1995), often referred to as surface learning
(Sayce, 2007). Graduate attributes require higher order
skills of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation that take exist-
ing knowledge and apply it to new situations not previously
encounteredthat is, the ability to apply critical thinking
skills (Ponder et al., 2004). Higher order skills are regarded
as more reflective of a deeper approach to learning, in
which the learner takes control (Sayce, 2007).
Vivas provide the opportunity to examine a students
knowledge and understanding of the subject matter, applied
problem-solving ability, and interpersonal competence and
qualities (Joughin, 1998). Despite a long history of oral
examination techniques, educators use a range of tech-
niques to assess a students competencies, with written
assessment methods dominating higher education institu-
tions (Joughin, 1998). Chadwick (2004) asserts that multiple-
choice short-answer questions and essays test knowledge,
and constructed response questions assess application of
knowledge, whereas student portfolios, clinical examina-
tions, and vivas assess learning outcomes not easily assessed
by other methods. Vivas also have the potential to measure
122 Journal of Marketing Education
the students achievement in course outcomes not restricted
to knowledge, but related to professional tasks and the indi-
viduals professionalism (Harden, Crosby, & Davis, 1999).
Kehm (2001) argues that oral examinations provide evidence
of a students ability for reflective and critical thinking, and
vivas serve as a complementary part of a total examination
regime. Examples of disciplines using vivas to assess appli-
cation of knowledge in undergraduate degrees include
clinical medicine (Paul, 1994), sports (Oakley & Hencken,
2005), and physiotherapy (Kuisma, 2007). Clinical medical
faculties have used vivas in objective structured clinical
examinations, to provide objective, formative, and summa-
tive assessment that examines factual recall, applied knowl-
edge, and communication skills (Wass et al., 2001). Vivas have
been used in sport degrees to examine learning outcomes from
undergraduate units, where students answered six randomized
questions relating to the learning objectives during a 30-min
assessment period. In physiotherapy, vivas have been used to
delineate an individuals contribution to group projects that
form part of his or her overall mark (Kuisma, 2007).
The use of the viva is defended on the grounds of giv-
ing students the opportunity to show their strengths and pro-
vide the examiners with as clear and complete an impression
as possible of candidates knowledge and abilities (Kehm,
2001, p. 26). Examination through viva enables interactive
dialogue between candidate and assessor, allowing the exam-
inee to demonstrate strengths and letting examiners discrimi-
nate between superficial and real knowledge via in-depth
questioning.
Vivas are often used as an assessment component of a
Doctor of Philosophy defense (see Jackson & Tinkler, 2001;
Morley, Leonard, & David, 2003; Ponder et al., 2004; Tinkler
& Jackson, 2002; Trafford, 2003), demonstrating that the
material is the candidates own work through revealing mas-
tery of the material and its literature (Douglas & Swift, 1997).
Similarly, Jackson and Tinklers (2001) study of PhD asses-
sors identified the importance of vivas to check candidates
understanding and ability to produce research, clarifying areas
of weakness and testing their knowledge of the literature and
their positioning within the literature. It can be argued that
vivas employ an adaptive assessment methodology (a concept
used in computer-assisted adaptive testing; see Challis, 2008)
that enables educators to differentiate higher order cognitive
skills and probe a students knowledge, understanding, and
application of complex and abstract concepts (Ponder et al.,
2004) for decision making and problem solving (Wass et al.,
2001). Joughin (1998) pointed out that viva examinations
enable two qualities to be measured: student command of the
oral medium, and a students command of content. Some sug-
gest that vivas are the best way to assess recall and synthesis
of information (Wass et al., 2001).
No one assessment technique is ideal and viva has its
critics. Kehms (2001) review of the literature highlights
potential challenges when using vivas as sociophysiological
(unequal power distance between the candidate and the
assessors), psychoanalytical (ritual aspects of the process),
sociological (differences in cultural and social norms
affecting oral performance), and methodological issues of
measurement (low degree of objectivity, reliability, and
validity). Vivas reliability and validity are affected by many
factors, including examiner judgments, cases presented, the
students nervousness, and examination conditions (Wass et al.,
2001). Issues of bias and poor interexaminer reliability
were cited by Birley (2001) as reason for the method to be
de-emphasized in British pharmacy education. M. H. Davis
and Karunathilake (2005) and Ebel (1972) echoed concerns
for vivas low reliability and validity, citing the additional
problems of cost in professional time and energy. Paul (1994)
claimed vivas revolve around theory and are subjective,
with Park (2003) identifying problems associated with the
socially constructed nature of the assessment technique.
Wakeford, Southgate, and Wass (1995) warned that
examiners of vivas in medicine must be carefully selected,
trained, and monitored to avoid allocating marks that have
no bearing on competence. Schwarzer and Buchwald
(2000) argued that the student should trust the examiner,
otherwise defensive or aggressive behaviors can emerge.
Arndt, Guly, and McManus (1986) and Sayce (2007) noted
the stress associated with a viva; however, all exams are stress-
ful and there is no evidence to suggest that vivas are more
stressful than other assessment techniques (M. H. Davis &
Karunathilake, 2005).
Recommended preparatory techniques such as guidance
from the supervisor, clearly defined guidelines, and mock
vivas can reduce students stress levels (Tinkler & Jackson,
2002). Although 60% of surveyed students described their
experience defending their PhD dissertation through vivas
as positive, 20% described their experience as hostile, sar-
castic, and insulting (Jackson & Tinkler, 2001), findings
similar to Parks (2003) review of the literature on students
perceptions of their viva experience. Tinkler and Jackson
(2002) and Park (2003) highlighted the need for educators
to maintain a vivas consistency, openness and fairness, and
reliability and validity to avoid problematic situations.
Despite concerns about the subjectivity of vivas (Birley,
2001; M. H. Davis & Karunathilake, 2005), a longitudinal
study of oral practice examination within medical programs
revealed substantial internal consistency and reliability of
vivas, identifying a positive correlation to in-training exam-
ination scores and faculty evaluation scores (Schubert,
Tetzlaff, Tan, Ryckman, & Mascha, 1999). Other studies in
different disciplines report similar findings (e.g., Allison &
Katona, 1992; Levine & McGuire, 1970; Oakley & Hencken,
2005; Wakeford et al., 1995), providing the viva is well
structured, the assessment criteria are clearly defined, and
examiners are carefully selected, trained, and monitored.

Indeed, the use of mini-vivas (Carless, 2002) as a form of
summative assessment in assignments is reported to have
improved student learning through providing timely feed-
back for students.
The literature suggests quality assurance, standards, bench-
marks, and performance indicators need to be established
for effective vivas (Morley et al., 2003), with M. H. Davis
and Karunathilake (2005) recommending six techniques to
increase reliability: use several vivas, use several examiners,
ask candidates the same questions, use descriptors, employ
rubrics and criteria for answers, and train examiners. A
meta-analysis of teacher perspectives on oral assessment in
higher education (Joughin, 1998) identified six dimensions
of oral assessment: primary content type (objectives), inter-
action (reciprocity), authenticity (simulation), structure
(agenda), examiners (audience), and orality (tasks). These
dimensions guided the design and implementation of the
viva for the marketing students in this study. Two assess-
ment frameworks also underpinned the study of the viva
examination reported here. The first is Biggss (1999)
notion of constructive alignment, in which learning out-
comes (relating to graduate attributes), teaching activities,
and assessment methods are synchronized. The second is
Rowntrees (1994) five dimensions of assessment, relating
to mental activity undertaken by assessment designers,
which correspond to key activities in the process of assess-
ment (p. 11): (1) Why assess? (2) What to assess? (3) How
to assess? (4) How to interpret? and (5) How to respond? In
a review of the literature, Park (2003) develops a frame-
work for best practice in doctoral assessment using vivas,
which includes definition and status of a viva, role of the
participants, student preparation, membership of the review
panel, record keeping, timing and arrangements, examina-
tion guidelines, and strategies for conducting the viva.
Despite extensive debate on the use of vivas in medical
education and doctoral defense, relatively few business
studies on vivas, apart from some research on student anxi-
ety, reflect the students perspective. Moreover, there
appears to be a paucity of accounts on the use of viva
examinations in marketing education literature. This study
addresses these two gaps in the literature.
Method
Subject Context
At the time the study was conducted, Services Marketing
was a final-year marketing elective offered in a Bachelor of
Business (Marketing) program. The subject was taught in a
3-hr workshop format with a curricular orientation toward
service gap analysis rather than a 4Ps (i.e., product, pricing,
placement, and promotion) approach. The course had sev-
eral aims: to expose students to relevant theory and practice;
Lee, Pearce / Viva Voce as an Assessment Method 123
to develop students into more complete marketers capable
of operating in service marketing environments; and to
develop generic competencies in students such as learning
to learn, problem solving, creativity, and public speaking
through a process of peer tutoring. Independent learning
was identified as a key feature of the subject.
Assessment tasks and weighting for the unit were:
Lucky Draw Services Marketing Topic Seminar (30%),
Services Reflective Diary (30%), and The Service Interview
Viva Voce (Oral Exam; 40%). The Lucky Draw seminar
component required student pairs to randomly select a ser-
vice marketing topic (following the chapters in the assigned
textbook) as the basis of a 65-min interactive seminar
where the team taught the class through peer tutoring that
incorporated the textbook with published research and real-
world applications. The Services Reflective Diary required
individuals to reflect each week on their perceptions of
their learning outcomes, their experiences with services,
and how service marketing concepts are operationalized in
industry. Related to this assessment mix, seven stated student-
learning objectives were: (1) be more aware of key services
marketing concepts and developments, (2) be better informed
about/possess knowledge on a special services topic, (3)
have acquired skills as autonomous learners, (4) possess
advanced communication competencies, (5) have had the
opportunity to be orally examined as distinct from being
examined using written means, (6) be aware of what it takes
to perform in emerging service marketing areas, and (7)
have developed skills as reflective practitioners. Although
learning outcome (5) related directly to the viva task, it
could be argued that the other objectives were also relevant.
Learning objectives aside, the viva was implemented to
expose students to the assessment method as part of their
undergraduate learning experience.
How the Viva Was Conducted
Services classes in the last 2 weeks of semester (weeks
12 and 13) were allocated to in-class viva preparation,
rehearsal, and revision. Vivas were conducted in the study
week prior to the universitys 2-week formal exam period,
and were scheduled as half-hour appointments across 4 con-
secutive days with up to 15 vivas per day. Students nominated
their preferred appointment time between 9:00 a.m. and
5:00 p.m. So all vivas could incorporate a uniform set of
questions, students were asked to sign a confidentiality
agreement forbidding them from disclosing information
about their viva or the process. Any students uncomfortable
with this agreement were given the option of being inter-
viewed using an alternative viva format. No students elected
such an option.
Two panelists assessed the vivas: the teacher/principal
researcher and a consultant from industry who was familiar
124 Journal of Marketing Education
with service marketing concepts and practice and who was
employed to assist with viva assessment. The teacher/
principal researcher has more than 20 years experience in
teaching undergraduate and postgraduate marketing in
higher education, has received numerous awards for teach-
ing proficiency, and has extensive publications in marketing
education. The consultant, with 15 years of industry experi-
ence, was briefed prior to the vivas to ensure awareness of
the vivas procedure and assessment criteria, and to answer
any questions. The assessment items were derived from the
units espoused student-learning outcomes, which, in turn,
align to graduate attributes. Each students 20-min viva per-
formance was assessed by the panelists using a rating sheet
comprising a Likert-type scale from 1 (very poor) to 5 (very
good) across 12 criteria: appearance, knowledge of subject,
confidence, conciseness of responses, quality of responses,
thinking on the spot, communication skills, application of
theory to practice, ability to handle questions, body language,
professional manner, and clarity of responses. Panelists rat-
ings of each student were summated to give a score out of
60, which was then converted to a percentage contribu-
tion reflecting his or her performance for this assessment
component.
On arriving for the interview, the student was seated and
informed about the process, particularly that the viva was
trying to determine how much they knew rather than what
they didnt know. The student then selected 1 of 14 enve-
lopes containing four questions relating to chapter topics
such as Service Delivery, Building Customer Relationships,
and so forth. Students were given up to 6 min to think over
their questions before answering. The student then had to
interpret a photographic exhibit using knowledge and skills
gained in the subject. The photographic exhibit depicted a
salesperson serving a customer in a fast-food restaurant
environment. Before leaving, students were asked some
general questions including what they took away from the
subject, how they had developed, what grade they expected
from the viva, and how they thought they had performed in
the viva. Finally, they were reminded about the confidenti-
ality clause they had signed and were bid farewell.
Projective Test
Immediately after the viva, students were ushered into
another area to complete a cartoon projective test. Projective
tests generate valuable insights and understanding that can-
not be obtained by more direct methods (Malhotra, Hall,
Shaw, & Oppenheim, 2002), through the participants
projecting their personality, opinions, and self-concept to
give the situation structure (Donoghue, 2000). The projec-
tive tests used a cartoon drawing for which the respondents
suggest a dialogue between two characters (Zikmund,
2003). Cartoon tests are commonly used by practitioners
Figure 1
Cartoon Completion Test
conducting marketing research (see Donoghue, 2000) and
have been successfully deployed in educational studies (see
Catterall & Ibbotson, 2000; Lee & Holland, 2008; Pearce
& Lee, 2006, 2007). Projective testing was considered an
appropriate method to elicit responses that gave students
the freedom to express their perceptions and thoughts with-
out the potential biases associated with more structured
methods, such as student response to a series of statements
or sentence completion.
Participation in the projective test research was both
voluntary and anonymous. Without any forewarning about
the line of enquiry, students were instructed by the lec-
turer (also the researcher) to project themselves into a
cartoon and complete the empty bubble, in response to the
following statement: A viva is used as an assessment
method in services marketing . . . (see Figure 1). The
research objectives in this exercise were twofold: to deter-
mine what students studying the services unit would say
about the viva experience; and to ascertain the contribu-
tion, if any, of vivas as a method for assessing student
learning in the unit.
Students were encouraged to be frank and were given as
much time as they needed to complete the cartoon test. Fifty-
four responses were collected across the two classes, with all
but three students participating in the study. Written responses
were transcribed into a Word document for cross-sectional
indexing and thematic labeling. Data were analyzed using
QSR NVivo according to recommendations by Richards
(1999) and Bazeley and Richards (2000). QSR NVivo takes
a formal approach to qualitative data analysis (Hussey &
Hussey, 1997) and is suitable for making sense of a mass
of open-ended material (Mostyn, 1985). Emergent themes
were identified, using a grounded theory approach (Glaser
& Strauss, 1967) because the co-researcher was unfamiliar
with viva methodology and had not been exposed to the data
set or the objectives of the research prior to undertaking data
 Lee, Pearce / Viva Voce as an Assessment Method 125

Table 1
Self-Reported Attribute Identification
Construct Identified From Attribute Identified From Frequency of
Response Themes NVivo Coding Construct NVivo Coding Reporting Attribute

Positive Total positive responses See below 47a

Assessment Total positive assessment comments 42a
More effective and efficient assessment method 28a
Dialectic communication process 23a
Novel assessment method 21a
Encourages self-reflection 9c
Real-life application 6c
Communication NA 31a
Understanding NA 16b
Career NA 15b
Theory application NA 10c
Problem solving NA 10c
Negative Total negative responses See below 17d
Preactivity anxiety NA 14d
Assessment Total negative assessment comments 9e
Limited in scope 4e
Too comprehensive 4e
Suitability NA 5e
Future recommendations 12

a. Strong cluster for positive attributes.

b. Medium cluster for positive attributes.
c. Weak cluster for positive attributes.
d. Medium cluster for negative attributes.
e. Weak cluster for negative attributes.

analysis. Constructs and, where appropriate, attributes of Findings

constructs were identified within each theme using pattern
matching to explore student perceptions and opinions of the
technique. The relative importance of attributes was also
assessed by clustering both positive and negative responses
into strong, medium, or weak clusters on the basis of how
frequently themes were mentioned.
Despite its widespread acceptance, qualitative research,
as an interpretive methodology, has potential limitations
in the analysis of evidence, objective reporting, and lack
of generalizability (McGuiggan & Lee, 2008). Yin (1994)
and Denzin and Lincoln (1998) identified external valid-
ity and reliability as constructs to judge research design.
Validity reflects the accuracy with which the findings rep-
resent what is happening in the field. In this case, valid-
ity was enhanced through the use of NVivo for thematic
coding of data (Hussey & Hussey, 1997). Clustering of
themes (Miles & Huberman, 1994) that emerged from
the data identified salient constructs that were reported
in this article. Reliability refers to the generalizability of
the findings to other situations. As this research exam-
ined one cohort of students in a services marketing unit,
the replication of the study using different cohorts and
across marketing units would improve reliability of the
findings.
Three broad themes emerged from the data: positive
comments (n = 47), negative comments (n = 17), and rec-
ommendations for future use (n = 12; see Table 1).
Six main positive attributes of the viva technique were
identified: being preferable to written exams (n = 42);
facilitating oral communication, which was superior to
written exams in examining student knowledge (n = 31);
studying for the viva encouraged understanding of subject
matter as opposed to traditional exams, which rely on regur-
gitation of content (n = 16); preparing students for job inter-
views and therefore enhancing career prospects (n = 15);
aiding theory application (n = 10); and enabling demonstra-
tion of problem-solving skills (n = 10). The following
quotation reflects the feelings of the majority of students
toward the use of vivas as an assessment technique.
I think its a unique but practical method of assessment.
The viva allows you to comprehensively convey aspects
that would not be as evident in a written exam. The exam-
iners also allow you to be relaxed so as to enable you to
answer the questions more thoroughly. Good practice
especially if youre going into the workforce next year.
126 Journal of Marketing Education
Student sentiment in the use of vivas to facilitate oral
communication is illustrated in the quote below. This quote
demonstrates students perceptions that oral examinations
are a novel way to examine subject knowledge, they develop
student communication skills, and they are valuable prepa-
ration for job interviews.
Viva is a good way to test your knowledge on the
issues of services marketing. It is a good way to pre-
pare yourself for the real industry. It is very similar to
a job interview and you have to prepare yourself in
the same manner you would for an interview. It is
important to know your stuff otherwise the viva could
be your worst enemy!
Evaluation of positive assessment themes revealed: stu-
dents saw a viva as being a more efficient and effective
assessment technique than written exams (n = 28); the dia-
lectic communication process was beneficial in examining
in-depth knowledge because it allowed examiners to ask
probing questions in assessing overall student competency
(n = 23); the technique was regarded as a novel assessment
method (n = 21); and vivas encouraged self-reflection and
simulated real-life situations (n = 9 and n = 6, respec-
tively). The main recommendation offered by respondents
(n = 12) was that the viva method should be more widely
adopted throughout their university program, as it is better
able to assess a students knowledge. The following quota-
tion identifies the benefits of vivas by engaging students
with assessment technique by applying theory to practice.
Vivas are a good idea. Throughout viva exam you learn
a lot of things, not only you reflect and revise back all
theory you learn, but also it gives you an opportunity to
answers spontaneously, communicating skills and
apply theory to the practical. It is not going to be like
those boring written exams like we experience during
years we spent in university; it gives you a new era and
meaning of the fun exams. It seems hard, but it is not
because it is interactive and interesting. Definitely
worthwhile and useful for future marketers.
The novel nature of vivas was expressed by many stu-
dents who regarded the process as valuable preparation for
future employment interviews through experiential learn-
ing as illustrated in the following quotation: This is an
unorthodox and practical way of assessing your knowledge
on the subject and is immeasurable in preparing students
for the workforce and job interviews.
An exploration of negative themes identified the follow-
ing issues: previva anxiety concerns (n = 14); disagreement
that viva is an appropriate assessment technique (n = 9);
and vivas being suitable only for confident students (n = 5).
Within the construct of assessment, respondents reported
opposing attributes: some considered the technique too nar-
row to assess the units learning outcomes (n = 4) and, in
contrast, others considered the technique too comprehen-
sive in its examination scope (n = 4). The following quota-
tion reflects the anxiety of students prior to the viva and
their opinion after the experience that the technique is not
as difficult as first imagined.
The viva process is at first very nerve racking and
unexpected. Having now done a viva I can say that
the process is very easy going. For future reference
I think letting people know what to expect would be
much appreciated.
Projective tests uncovered several student recommenda-
tions: improved briefing on the process and more frequent
practice through the semester; continued use in services
marketing as an appropriate and preferred assessment
method; and adoption of vivas in other marketing units.
Students thought greater understanding of the viva process
and more practice in class would help reduce anxiety prior
to the viva.
Overall, students also regarded the viva as a better form
of assessment than exams because of the ability to engage
with the examiners and demonstrate knowledge and skills.
The positive opinion of vivas was reflected by several stu-
dents who considered that vivas should be more widely
adopted in other marketing units. The quotation below is
indicative of the students recommendations for use of
vivas in the future.
The very nature of services doesnt allow for it to be
confined in a set frameworkit is interactive and the
viva allows you to better elaborate and expand on dif-
ferent service experiences, within a service environ-
ment. It is an interactive and highly educational experience
that not only serves to assist you in University but
throughout your day-to-day life. I definitely recom-
mend it over traditional assessments.
Discussion and Conclusion
Many universities espouse generic graduate attributes such
as effective communication, critical thinking, problem solving,
thinking on their feet, decision making, and leadership.
Similarly, employers also seek marketing graduates with these
generic skills, as well as discipline-specific marketing knowl-
edge, concepts, tools, and experiences. Oral communication
skills are frequently mentioned in the literature as a graduate
attribute desired by employers and universities alike (Crosling,
2000; R. Davis et al., 2002; Haffer & Hoth, 1981).

Clearly, marketing graduates require both discipline-
specific knowledge and generic skills. However, some
suggest that many marketing educators concentrate on the
discipline-specific knowledge at the expense of the generic
skills (Lamb et al., 1995; Lunsford, 1991). Graduates deci-
sion making, problem solving, and communication skills
equip students with career-ready attributes with the poten-
tial to differentiate graduates and increase their marketabil-
ity through improved competence in communication skills
(Lamb et al., 1995). A challenge for marketing educators is
to design curricula to align to learning objectives with mul-
tiple methods of learning and assessment.
Ramsden (1992) suggests assessment should be about
learning, not just grades, and that students should be able to
display their knowledge and creativity using a variety of
assessment techniques to take responsibility for their learn-
ing. Correspondingly, the results of this study support the
use of vivas as an alternative and complementary form of
assessment. It offer educators more than another summative
assessment method, by assisting students in communication
skill development (Joughin, 1998), facilitating deep learn-
ing (Sayce, 2007), and preparing graduates for their careers
(Lamb et al., 1995). As a summative assessment method,
vivas are able to examine higher order complex and abstract
learning objectives (Kehm, 2001). Oral communication
skills are developed as students prepare for and participate
in their vivas. As an active learning pedagogy, vivas facili-
tate deep learning by students applying theory to practice
(Floyd & Gordon, 1998) through PBL activities to demon-
strate higher order skills such as analysis, synthesis, and
evaluation. Vivas allow students to demonstrate their appli-
cation of theory to practice and their mastery of what they
have learned, rather than what they have been taught (Borin
et al., 2008).
Vivas offer marketing educators an assessment method
that aligns to student-learning outcomes, which, in turn,
support graduate attributes by teaching oral communica-
tion, problem solving, and decision-making skills. The
results of this study concur with previous findings in the
literature that indicate some students consider that vivas
allow a more effective examination of their learning out-
comes (Chadwick, 2004), test their problem-solving ability and
application of theory to practice (Joughin, 1998). Vivas also
assist in the examination of areas that may not be easily
assessed by written work or presentations, through probing
and questioning, interpretation of the items, and the need to
demonstrate critical reasoning. The dialectic communica-
tion process between examiners and the student provides an
effective method to assess students understanding of theory
and examines deep knowledge (Kehm, 2001). Furthermore,
the use of vivas may assist in assessing professional skills
that are harder to examine by traditional methods (Harden
et al., 1999), with the process and experience offering
Lee, Pearce / Viva Voce as an Assessment Method 127
students the ability to develop skills regarded as essential
for graduates entering a marketing career.
Despite Kehm (2001) and others identifying sociophys-
iological, psychoanalytical, sociological, and methodologi-
cal problems with conducting vivas, the literature notes
frameworks or guidelines to improve reliability (Birley,
2001), validity (M. H. Davis & Karunathilake, 2005), objec-
tivity (M. H. Davis & Karunathilake, 2005; Ebel, 1972;
Paul, 1994), and fairness of the procedure (Park, 2003). The
use of trained examination staff, defined assessment criteria
and procedures, and student preparation can assist in ensur-
ing reliability, validity, and practicality of the vivas. Studies
of viva use in medical practice examination find viva results
positively correlate with overall grades (Birley, 2001;
M. H. Davis & Karunathilake, 2005). Thus, these findings
suggest that when vivas are carefully implemented, the
results may provide a reliable and valid assessment of can-
didates learning outcomes.
Results from this study indicate that examination by oral
defense is regarded by many students as a superior method
to traditional university techniques. These findings concur
with those of Borin et al. (2008), who suggest that learning
outcomes are best demonstrated in practice; indeed, the
majority of marketing students in this study reported vivas
offer a more engaging and comprehensive assessment method
that allows them to demonstrate application of their skills
and knowledge. Thus, it can be argued that vivas, as a com-
plementary component of schools assessment policies, have
the potential to improve quality assurance standards. In
addition, student responses during vivas provide in-depth
qualitative feedback to assess student-learning outcomes;
this feedback can be used to modify and improve curricu-
lum design. The use of qualitative feedback through dialec-
tic discussions with students will complement traditional
unit evaluations that rely primarily on Likert-type scale
(or similar) ratings and short comments.
The study has two main implications for marketing edu-
cators. First, it provides evidence of an alternative form of
assessment that students believe is superior to traditional
written examinations in allowing them to communicate and
demonstrate what they have learned. Despite vivas being an
established method of assessing doctoral defenses and clini-
cal examinations, the majority of marketing educators do not
use this technique, even though it may offer significant ben-
efits. The authors experience within their marketing school
aligns with that of Crosling (2000), who found that many
universities were sporadic and unsystematic in their approach
to the developmental curriculum incorporating oral commu-
nication skills. However, the study highlights the opportu-
nity to incorporate vivas to assess competencies that are
traditionally difficult to assess using traditional summative
assessment techniques such as single authored manuscripts,
examinations, and group projects.
128 Journal of Marketing Education
Second, student anxiety may be overemphasized. All
students who identified anxiety as an issue conceded, after
the viva process, that the technique was student friendly.
Furthermore, anxiety may have been exacerbated because
few, if any, students had previous experience with the viva
method. To reduce unnecessary anxiety, educators must
ensure that students who lack confidence in their interper-
sonal communication skills are thoroughly briefed on the
process and, if possible, are able to practice prior to the
examination. Perhaps if more use were made of vivas, stu-
dents confidence and career-enabling interview skills
would be enhanced.
This study makes a contribution to marketing pedagogy
by offering insight into marketing students perceptions of
vivas. In doing so, it reminds us there are alternative, potent
ways of assessing student learning that are underutilized.
Notwithstanding difficulties with planning and staging vivas
(such as selecting panel members, assembling panels, and
scheduling interviews), additional workload and resources
implications (Park, 2003), and reliability and validity con-
cerns, the method has distinct virtues. Crosling (2000)
purport that the costs of developing oral skills are out-
weighed by potential benefits of well planned and imple-
mented programs.
The call for the inclusion of a variety of learning activi-
ties (Karns, 2006) and assessment modalities (Floyd &
Gordon, 1998) supports the notion to incorporate vivas in
marketing curricula. As assessment drives learning (Boud
et al., 1999; Wass et al., 2001), vivas may assist in facilitat-
ing deep learning and problem-solving skills. Although the
literature and this studys results identify that not all stu-
dents prefer vivas as an assessment method, the use of vivas
aligns with the recommendation of Karns (2006) to stretch
students beyond their preferred learning style.
The incorporation of vivas into marketing course curri-
cula through in-class activities should be phased in to allow
students the opportunity to develop skills in a building-block
approach (Lamb et al., 1995). Initially, student-learning acti
vities may include in-class debates, role-plays, and short
presentations (individually and as part of a group). In the
later stages of their course, students should practice mock
vivas with their peers and formative vivas in preparation for
summative assessment vivas. Future research in the adop-
tion of vivas across marketing cohorts, subjects, and disci-
plines would assist in understanding the reliability and
validity of the method. In addition, further investigation on
the impact of student-learning outcomes and development
of graduate attributes based on individual preferred learning
styles and cultural nuances and as a way of facilitating deep
learning is warranted.
Limitations of this exploratory study included potential
bias associated with students not being given a cooling-off
period between undertaking the viva and completing the
cartoon test, researcher interpretations, and students report-
ing what they expect the researcher (lecturer) wants to hear.
Furthermore, the use of frequency counts is not intended to
infer statistical rigor, but rather to demonstrate a level of
importance reported by the sample group. Finally, it must be
acknowledged that because of human nature, an individuals
assessment may be influenced by an examiners potential
bias for attractive and/or like-minded individuals and thus
the interview process is not value free. Future research might
include broadening the application of the assessment tech-
nique for use in other subjects and disciplines, investigating
opinions of students for whom English is a second language,
exploring marketing educator attitudes to vivas, and using
quantitative methods to gauge and validate findings.
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Glenn Pearce, a senior lecturer in the School of Marketing at the
University of Western Sydney, is an innovative educator receiving several
external awards for teaching excellence. He has pioneered the somewhat
unorthodox technique of "applied theatre" is recognized by the wider
marketing education community as a leader in his field. He has extensive
publications in educational drama and services marketing.
Geoffrey Lee is the Associate Dean Engagement at the University of
Western Sydney, Australia. His research focuses on the strategic applica-
tions of ICT for SMEs, industry sectors, and education. He has completed
numerous industry-funded studies and advises government on innovation
and knowledge management. Dr. Lee publishes and works at conferences
and in journals in the areas of e-commerce, education, and post-modern
constructivism.