FABREGAR, N.C.
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LESSON1: MATERIAL SELECTION FOR EQUIPMENT
I. INTRODUCTION
Selection of materials of construction combined with
the appropriate techniques of fabrication can play a vital role in
the success or failure of a new chemical plant or in the
improvement of an existing facility.
II. MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
Problem
Task of choosing the best material that must be
based on a sound economic analysis of
competing materials
Metallurgist
- must have a working knowledge of the chemical
plant environment in which
the recommendations will be applied
Some of the major forms and types of materials
METALS
- divided into the two general classifications of
metals and nonmetals
- Pure metals and metallic alloys are included
under the first classification
Table 1 presents data showing the comparison of purchased
cost for various types of metals in plate form
Iron and Steel
- cost aspects favor the use of iron and steel
- often used as materials of construction when it is
known that some corrosion will occur
American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI)
- set up a series of standards for steel products
Example
Carbon steel plates for reactor vessels
- generally, requires a minimum level of
mechanical properties, weldability, formability,
and toughness as well as some assurance that
these properties will be uniform throughout
Stainless Steels
- more than 100 different types of stainless steels
- high chromium or high nickel-chromium alloys of
iron containing small amounts of other essential
constituents
- have excellent corrosion-resistance and heat-
resistance properties
Type 302 or type 304
- most common stainless steels
- contain approximately 18 percent chromium and
8 percent nickel, and are designated as 18-8
stainless steels
Alloy
Addition of molybdenum
- in type 316, increases the corrosion resistance
and high-temperature strength
If nickel is not included
- low-temperature brittleness of the material is
increased and the ductility and pit-type corrosion
resistance are reduced
Presence of chromium
- gives resistance to oxidizing agents
Example
Type 430
- which contains chromium but no nickel or
molybdenum, exhibits excellent corrosion
resistance to nitric acid and other oxidizing agent
Although fabricating operations on stainless steels are more
difficult than on standard carbon steels, all types of stainless
steel can be fabricated successfully
Stainless steel
- exhibit the best resistance to corrosion when the
surface is oxidized to a passive state
- corrosion can occur at places where foreign
material collects, such as in scratches, crevices,
or corners but mars or scratches should be
avoided, and the equipment design should
specify a minimum of sharp comers, seams, and
joints
- steels show great susceptibility to stress
corrosion cracking, example, stress plus contact
with small concentrations of halides can result in
failure of the metal wall
Passivation
- operation in which the surface is treated with
nitric acid and then rinsed with water
Table 5 indicates resistance of stainless steels to oxidation in
air
Hastelloy
- beneficial effects of nickel, chromium, and
molybdenum are combined in Hastelloy C to give
an expensive but highly corrosion-resistant
material
- typical analysis of this alloy shows 56 percent
nickel, 17 percent molybdenum, 16 percent
chromium, 5 percent iron, and 4 percent
tungsten, with manganese, silicon, carbon,
phosphorus, and sulfur
- used where structural strength and good
corrosion resistance are necessary under
conditions of high temperatures
- can be machined and is readily fabricated
- used in the form of valves, piping, heat
exchangers, and various types of vessels
Copper and its Alloys
Copper
- relatively inexpensive, possesses fair mechanical
strength, and can be fabricated easily into a wide
variety of shapes
- shows little tendency to dissolve in nonoxidizing
acids, it is readily susceptible to oxidation
- resistant to atmospheric moisture or oxygen
because a protective coating composed primarily
of copper oxide is formed on the surface
- not a suitable material of construction when it
must contact any acid in the presence of oxygen
or oxidizing agents
- exhibits good corrosion resistance to strong
alkalies, with the exception
- of ammonium hydroxide
- can handle sodium and potassium hydroxide of
all concentrations
- resists most organic solvents and aqueous
solutions of organic acids
Copper alloys
- such as brass, bronze, admiralty, and Muntz
metals
- exhibit better corrosion resistance and better
mechanical properties than pure copper
Nickel and its Alloys
Nickel
- exhibits high corrosion resistance to most alkalies

- strength and hardness of nickel is almost as
great as that of carbon steel, and the metal can
be fabricated easily
- oxidizing conditions promote the corrosion of
nickel, and reducing conditions retard it
Nickel-clad steel
- used extensively for equipment in the production
of caustic soda and alkalies
Monel
- alloy of nickel containing 67 percent nickel and
30 percent copper, is often used in the food
industries
- stronger than nickel and has better corrosion-
resistance properties than either copper or nickel
Inconel
- 77 percent nickel and 15 percent chromium
- presence of chromium in this alloy increases its
resistance to oxidizing conditions
Aluminum
- lightness and relative ease of fabrication of
aluminum and its alloys are factors favoring the
use of these materials
- resists attack by acids because a surface film of
inert hydrated aluminum oxide is formed
- This film adheres to the surface and offers good
protection unless materials which can remove the
oxide, such as halogen acids or alkalies, are
present
Lead
- has low creep and fatigue resistance, but its
physical properties can be improved by the
addition of small amounts of silver, copper,
antimony, or tellurium
- excellent corrosion-resistance properties of lead
are caused by the formation of protective surface
coatings
- good resistance to sulfuric acid and phosphoric
acid, but it is susceptible to attack by acetic acid
and nitric acid
Tantalum
- physical properties of tantalum are similar to
those of mild steel, with the exception that its
melting point (2996C) is much higher
- resistant to all other acids and is often used for
equipment involving contact with hydrochloric
acid
Silver
- low mechanical strength and high cost, silver is
generally used only in the form of linings
- resistant to alkalies and many hot organic acids
Galvanic Action between Two Dissimilar Metals
- When two dissimilar metals are used in the
construction of equipment containing a
conducting fluid in contact with both metals, an
electric potential may be set up between the two
metals. The resulting galvanic action can cause
one of the metals to dissolve into the conducting
fluid and deposit on the other metal
- example, if a piece of copper equipment
containing a solution of sodium chloride in water
is connected to an iron pipe, electrolysis can
occur between the iron and copper, causing high
rates of corrosion
FABREGAR, N.C.M
As indicated in Table 6, iron is higher in the electromotive
series than copper, and the iron pipe will gradually dissolve
and deposit on the copper. The farther apart the two metals
are in the electromotive series, the greater is the possible
extent of corrosion due to electrolysis.
NONMETALS
- glass, carbon, stoneware, brick, rubber, plastics,
and wood are common examples of nonmetals
used as materials of construction
- have low structural strength
- often used in the form of linings or coatings
bonded to metal supports
Glass and Glassed Steel
- excellent resistance and is subject to attack only
by hydrofluoric acid and hot alkaline solutions
- combines the corrosion resistance of glass with
the working strength of steel
Nucerite
- ceramic-metal composite made in a similar
manner to glassed steel and resists corrosive
hydrogen-chloride gas, chlorine, or sulfur dioxide
at 650C
- impact strength is 18 times that of safety glass
and the abrasion resistance is superior to
porcelain enamel
Carbon and Graphite
- completely inert to all but the most severe
oxidizing conditions, this property, combined with
excellent heat transfer, has made impervious
carbon and graphite very popular in heat
exchangers, as brick lining, and in pipe and
pumps
- One limitation of these materials is low tensile
strength
Stoneware and Porcelain
- as resistant to acids and chemicals as glass, but
with the advantage of greater strength
- offset somewhat by poor thermal conductivity and
susceptibility to damage by thermal shock
Porcelain enamels
- used to coat steel, but the enamel has slightly
inferior chemical resistance.
Brick and Cement Materials
- can be used for many severely corrosive
conditions, where high alloys would fail
Rubber and Elastomers
Natural and synthetic rubbers
- used as linings or as structural components for
equipment in the chemical industries
Hard rubbers
- chemically saturated with sulfur
Natural rubber
- resistant to dilute mineral acids, alkalies, and
salts, but oxidizing media, oils, benzene, and
ketones will attack it
Chloroprene or neoprene rubber
- resistant to attack by ozone, sunlight, oils,
gasoline, and aromatic or halogenated solvents
Styrene rubber
- has chemical resistance similar to natural
Nitrile rubber
- known for resistance to oils and solvents
Butyl rubber
- resistance to dilute mineral acids and alkalies is
exceptional; resistance to concentrated acids,
except nitric and sulfuric, is good

Silicone rubbers
- known as polysiloxanes, have outstanding
resistance to high and low temperatures as well
as against aliphatic solvents, oils, and greases
Chlorosulfonated polyethylene
- known as hypalon, has outstanding resistance to
ozone and oxidizing agents except fuming nitric
and sulfuric acids
Plastics
- use of plastics is limited to relatively moderate
temperatures and pressures (230C is
considered high for plastics)
- less resistant to mechanical abuse and have high
expansion rates, low strengths (thermoplastics),
and only fair resistance to solvents
- lightweight, are good thermal and electrical
insulators, are easy to fabricate and install, and
have low friction factors
- have excellent resistance to weak mineral acids
and are unaffected by inorganic salt solutions-
areas where metals are not entirely suitable
Wood
- readily dehydrated by concentrated solutions and
consequently shrinks badly when subjected to
the action of such solutions
- tendency to slowly hydrolyze when in contact
with hot acids and alkalies
III. LOW- AND HIGH-TEMPERATURE
MATERIALS
- extremes of low and high temperatures used in
many recent chemical processes has created
some unusual problems in fabrication of
equipment
- example, some metals lose their ductility and
impact strength at low temperatures, although in
many cases yield and tensile strengths increase
as the temperature is decreased
- choose materials resistant to shock
Table 7 provides a brief summary of metals and alloys
recommended forlow-temperature use
IV. GASKET MATERIALS
Choice of a gasket material depends on:
- corrosive action of the chemicals that may
contact the gasket
- location of the gasket
- type of gasket construction
- cost of the materials
- pressure and temperature involved
- frequency of opening the joint
V. SELECTION OF MATERIALS
Brief plan for studying materials of construction is as follows:
1. Preliminary selection
Experience, manufacturers data, special literature,
general literature, availability, safety aspects,
preliminary laboratory tests
2. Laboratory testing
Reevaluation of apparently suitable materials under
process conditions
3. Interpretation of laboratory results and other data
Effect of possible impurities, excess temperature,
excess pressure, agitation, and presence of air in
equipment
FABREGAR, N.C.M
Avoidance of electrolysis
Fabrication method
4. Economic comparison of apparently suitable materials
Material and maintenance cost, probable life, cost of
product degradation, liability to special hazards
5. Final selection
VI. ECONOMICS IN SELECTION OF
MATERIALS
Any cost estimation should include the following items:
1. Total equipment or materials costs
2. Installation costs
3. Maintenance costs
4. Estimated life
5. Replacement costs
Table 11 presents a typical analysis of comparative costs for
alternative materials when based on return on investment
VII. FABRICATION OF EQUIPMENT
ASME Codes
- can be used to indicate definite specifications or
tolerance limits without including a large amount
of descriptive restrictions
- exact methods used for fabrication depend on
the complexity and type of equipment being
prepared
The following steps are involved in the complete fabrication of
major pieces of chemical equipment, such as tanks,
autoclaves, reactors, towers, and heat exchangers:
1. Layout of materials
2. Cutting to correct dimensions
Shearing
- cheapest method and is satisfactory for
relatively thin sheets
Burning
- can be employed to cut and,
simultaneously, prepare a beveled edge
suitable for welding
Sawing
- expensive, and it is used only when the
heat effects from burning would be detrimental
3. Forming into desired shape
- can be accomplished by various methods, such as
by rolling, bending, pressing, bumping (i.e.,
pounding), or spinning on a die
4. Fastening
- riveting can be done
- is very important because the ability of equipment to
withstand pressure or corrosive conditions is often
limited by the conditions along the welds
5. Testing
- Hydrostatic tests can be conducted to locate leaks
- delicate tests, such as a helium probe test, are used
to check for very small leaks
6. Heat-treating
- necessary to heat-treat the equipment to remove
forming and welding stresses, restore corrosion-
resistance properties to heat-affected materials, and
prevent stress-corrosion conditions
7. Finishing
- involves preparing the equipment for final shipment
- sandblasting, polishing, and painting may be
necessary
- final pressure tests at 1 to 2 or more times the
design pressure are conducted together with other
tests as demanded by the specified code or
requested by the inspector.

process designer - responsible for recommending
materials that will be suitable for the process
conditions
- consider the requirements of the
mechanical design engineer; the material
selected must
have sufcient strength and be easily worked
factors to be considered when selecting engineering materials:
ability to resist corrosion
lowest cost over the working life of the plant
product contamination
process safety
mechanical properties
VIII. MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Most important characteristics to be considered when selecting
a material of construction are:
1. Mechanical properties
(a) Tensile strength
(b) Stiffness elastic modulus (Youngs modulus)
(c) Toughness fracture resistance
(d) Hardness wear resistance
(e) Fatigue resistance
(f) Creep resistance
2. The effect of high and low temperatures on the mechanical
properties
3. Corrosion resistance
4. Any special properties required; such as,
thermal conductivity,
electrical resistance,
magnetic properties
5. Ease of fabrication forming, welding, casting
6. Availability in standard sizes plates, sections, tubes
7. Cost
IX. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Tensile strength - a measure of the basic strength of a material
- the maximum stress that the material will
withstand, measured by a standard tensile test
- also, known as Ultimate Tensile Strength
(UTS)
Design stress - value used in any design calculations, based
on the tensile strength, or on the yield or proof stress
Proof stress - stress to cause a specied permanent extension,
usually 0.1 per cent
Stiffness ability to resist bending and buckling
a function of the elastic modulus of the material and
the shape of the cross-section of the member
Toughness - associated with tensile strength
- a measure of the materials resistance to crack
propagation
local yielding - stop the propagation of a
crack in the crystal structure of ductile materials, such as steel,
aluminium and copper
- structure in cast irons and glass it does not occur
and the materials are brittle
Brittle materials - weak in tension but strong in compression
- any incipient cracks present are closed up
- example, the use of prestressed concrete,
and glass-bre-reinforced plastics in pressure vessels
construction
FABREGAR, N.C.M
Surface hardness - indication of a materials ability to resist
wear
- important property if the equipment is
being designed to handle abrasive
solids, or liquids containing suspended solids which are likely
to cause erosion.
Fatigue failure - likely to occur in equipment subject to cyclic
loading
- example, rotating equipment, such as
pumps and compressors, and equipment subjected to
pressure cycling
Creep - gradual extension of a material under a steady tensile
stress, over a prolonged period of time
- only important at high temperatures; for instance,
with steam and gas turbine blades
Lead - rate of creep is signicant at moderate temperatures
- will creep under its own weight at room temperature
and lead linings must be supported at frequent intervals
Creep strength - the stress to cause rupture in 100,000 hours,
at the test temperature
Effect of temperature on the mechanical properties
- tensile strength and elastic modulus of metals decrease with
increasing temperature
- stainless steels are superior to operate at high temperatures
and retain their strength compared to plain carbon steels
Creep resistance - important if the material is subjected to high
stresses at elevated
temperatures
Inconel (International Nickel Co.) - Special alloys used for high
temperature equipment
such as furnace tubes
Brittle failure - associated with the crystalline structure of
metals
- Serious disasters have occurred through
the failure of welded carbon steel vessels at low temperatures
- Metals with a body-centred-cubic (bcc)
lattice are more liable to brittle failure than those with a face-
centred-cubic (fcc) or hexagonal lattice
austenitic stainless steel (fcc) or aluminium
alloys (hex) for low-temperature equipment used in cryogenic
plant and liqueed-gas storages
Charpy test - used to test the susceptibility of materials to
brittle failure
Brittle fracture - complex phenomenon and is dependent on
plate thickness and the residual stresses present after
fabrication; as well as the operating temperature
X. CORROSION RESISTANCE
Classification of corrosion:
General wastage of material uniform corrosion
Galvanic corrosion dissimilar metals in contact
Pitting localised attack
Intergranular corrosion
Stress corrosion
Erosion corrosion
Corrosion fatigue
High temperature oxidation
Hydrogen embrittlement
Components necessary to set up an electrochemical cell:
Anode the corroding electrode
Cathode the passive, non-corroding electrode

The conducting medium the electrolyte the corroding
uid
Completion of the electrical circuit through the
material
Cathodic areas can arise in many ways:
Dissimilar metals
Corrosion products
Inclusions in the metal, such as slag
Less well-aerated areas
Areas of differential concentration
Differentially strained areas
Uniform corrosion - more or less uniform wastage of material
by corrosion, with no pitting or other forms of local attack
- life of the material in service can be
predicted from experimentally
determined corrosion rates
Corrosion rates - penetration rate in inches per year, or mills
per year (mpy) (where a mill = 10-3 inches)
- weight loss in milligrams per square
decimetre per day (mdd)
- When expressed in mdd it must be
remembered that the penetration rate depends on the density
of the material. For ferrous metals 100 mdd = 0.02 ipy
- acceptable rate of attack will depend on the
cost of the material; the duty, particularly as regards to safety;
and the economic life of the plant
- dependent on the temperature and
concentration of the corrosive uid
- increase in temperature usually results in
an increased rate of corrosion;
- measured by the reduction in weight of a
specimen of known area over a xed period of time
12 w
ipy=
tA
Where w = mass loss in time t, lb,
t = time, years,
A = surface area, ft2,
= density of material, lb/ft3,
In SI units 1 ipy = 25 mm per year
Galvanic corrosion - dissimilar metals are placed in contact, in
an electrolyte, the
corrosion rate of the anodic metal will be increased,
as the metal lower in the electrochemical series will readily act
as a cathode
Series for sea water - good indication of the combinations of
metals to be avoided
- high cathode to anode area should be
avoided
Sacricial anodes - used to protect underground steel pipes
Passive - metals under certain conditions form a natural
protective lm
Pitting - term given to very localised corrosion that forms pits in
the metal surface
- caused by a variety of circumstances; any situation
that causes a localised increase in corrosion rate may result in
the formation of a pit
- occur if the composition of the metal is not uniform;
for example, the presence of slag inclusions in welds
- caused by impingement of bubbles
FABREGAR, N.C.M
Intergranular corrosion preferential corrosion of material at
the grain (crystal)
boundaries
- can cause the catastrophic failure
of equipment
- common form of attack on alloys
but occurs rarely with pure
metals
- caused by a differential couple
being set up between impurities
existing at the grain boundary
- classic example in chemical plant
is the weld decay of
unestablished stainless steel
Weld decay - can be avoided by annealing after welding, if
practical; or by using low carbon grades (<0.3 per cent C); or
grades stabilised by the addition of titanium or niobium
Effect of stress
Stress cracking form of attack in which cracks are produced
that grow rapidly, and can cause premature, brittle failure, of
the metal
- can be avoided by selecting materials that
are not susceptible in the specic corrosion environment; or,
less certainly, by stress relieving by annealing after
fabrication and welding
- examples of stress corrosion cracking are:
The season cracking of brass
cartridge cases.
Caustic embrittlement of steel
boilers.
The stress corrosion cracking of
stainless steels in the presence of
chloride ions
Corrosion fatigue - premature failure of materials in corrosive
environments caused by cyclic stresses
- can occur in any corrosive environment
and does not depend on a specic combination of corrosive
substance and metal
Erosion-corrosion - the increased rate of attack caused by a
combination of erosion and corrosion
Erosion - will tend to remove the products of corrosion and any
protective lm, and the rate of attack will be markedly
increased
- if it occurs more resistant materials must be
specied, or the material surface protected in some way
Plastics inserts - used to prevent erosion-corrosion at the inlet
to heat-exchanger tubes
High-temperature oxidation - can occur in dry conditions
Carbon and low alloy steels - will oxidise rapidly at high
temperatures and their use is
limited to temperatures below 500
deg C
Chromium - most effective alloying element to give resistance
to oxidation, forming a tenacious oxide lm
Hydrogen embrittlement - loss of ductility caused by the
absorption (and reaction) of
hydrogen in a metal
- important when specifying steels
for use in hydrogen reforming
plant
Alloy steels - have a greater resistance to hydrogen
embrittlement than the plain carbon steels
 FABREGAR, N.C.M
XI. SELECTION FOR CORROSION Relative cost of equipment made from different materials -
RESISTANCE depend on the cost of fabrication, as well as the basic cost of
the material
Factors: Annual cost - If the corrosion rate is uniform, then the optimum
Temperature affects corrosion rate and mechanical material can be selected by calculating the annual costs for the
properties possible candidate materials
Pressure - depend on the predicted life, calculated from the
pH corrosion rate, and the purchased cost of the equipment
In a given situation, it may prove more economic to install
Presence of trace impurities stress corrosion
a cheaper material with a high corrosion rate and replace
The amount of aeration differential oxidation cells it frequently; rather than select a more resistant but more
Stream velocity and agitation erosion-corrosion expensive material.
Heat-transfer rates differential temperatures Clad materials - more expensive, corrosion-resistant, alloys
are frequently used on carbon steel
Corrosion charts - used for the preliminary screening of XIII. CONTAMINATION
materials that are likely to be Textile processes - stainless steel or aluminium is often used in
suitable, but the fact that published data indicate that preference to carbon steel, which would be quite suitable
a material is suitable cannot be taken as a guarantee that it will except that any slight rusting will mark the textiles (iron
be suitable for the process environment being considered staining)
- show clearly those materials that are Processes that use catalysts - care must be taken to select
manifestly unsuitable materials that will not cause
Pilot plant tests - will help in the selection of suitable materials contamination and poisoning of the catalyst
if actual plant experience is not available Surface nish - important as the choice of material, to avoid
XII. MATERIAL COSTS contamination in industries such as the food, pharmaceutical,
Moore (1970) compares costs by cost rating factor dened by biochemical, and textile industries
the equation: - Stainless steel is widely used, and the
C surfaces, inside and out, are given a high nish by abrasive
Cost rating=
d blasting and mechanical polishing
- to prevent material adhering to the surface;
Where C = cost per unit mass, /kg, and to aid cleaning and
= density, kg/m3, sterilization
d = design stress, N/mm2 - important in textile bre processing to
Stainless and low alloy steels - Materials with a relatively high prevent the bres snagging
design stress can be
used more efciently than carbon steel