B.E.

Electronics SEM-8 Microwave Engineering

EXPERIMENT NO 1
Title: Study of microwave components in detail.

Objective: The main objective is to make familiar students with all microwave components that
are available in our laboratory for different experimentation.

Apparatus Required : Flanges, Twisted wave guide, wave guide tees, Directional
Coupler, Attenuator, Isolators, Circulators, Matched terminator, Slide screw tuner, Slotted
Section, Tunable probe, Horn antennas, Movable Short, Detector mount.

Theory: A pipe with any sort of cross- section that could be used as a wave guide or system of
conductors for carrying electromagnetic wave is called a wave guide in which the waves are
truly guided. We will see different waveguide components as below-

Rectangular Wave Guide

Wave guides are manufactured to the highest mechanical and electrical standards and
mechanical tolerances.
L and S band wave guides are fabricated by precision brazing of brass-plates and all other
wave guides are in extrusion quality.
W.G. sections of specified length can be supplied with flanges, painted outside and silver
or gold plated in side.

Fig.1.1 Rectangular wave guide

Fixed Attenuators
Series 5000 fixed Attenuators are meant for inserting a known attenuation in a wave
guide system. These consists of a lossy vane inserted in a section of wave guide, flanged on both
ends. These are useful for isolation of wave guide circuits, padding and extending the range of
measuring equipments. Fixed Attenuators are available for 3,6 or 10 dB attenuation values, but
any attenuation valve between 0 and 30dB can be provided.

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Fig 1.2 Fixed Attenuators

Tunable Probe
Model 6055 Tunable probe is designed for use with model 6051 slotted sections. These
are meant for exploring the energy of the EF in a suitably fabricated section of wave guide. The
depth of penetration into a wave guide - section is adjustable by the knob of the probe. The tip
pick up the RF power from the line and this power is rectified by crystal detector, which is then
fed to the VSWR meter or indicating instrument.

Fig 1.3 Tunable Probe

Wave Guide Detector Mount (Tunable)

Model 4051 Tunable Detector Mount is simple and easy to use instrument for detecting
microwave power through suitable detector. It consists of a detector crystal mounted in a section
of a Wave guide and shorting plunger for matching purpose. The output from the crystal may be
fed to an indicating instrument. In K and R bands detector mounts the plunger is driven by a
micrometer.

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Fig 1.4 Tunable Detector Mount

Klystron Mount
Model 2051 Klystron mounts are meant for mounting corresponding Klystrons such as
2K25, 723A/B, 726A or RK - 5976 etc. These consist of a section of wave guide flanged on one
end and terminated with a movable short on the other end. An octal base with cable is provided
for Klystron.

Fig 1.5 Klystron Mount

Circulators
Model 6021 and 6022 are T and Y types of three port circulators respectively. These are
precisely machined and assembled to get the desired specifications. Circulators are matched
three port devices and these are meant for allowing Microwave energy to flow in clockwise
direction with negligible loss but almost no transmission in the anti-clockwise direction.

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Fig 1.6 circulators

Slide Screw Tuners

Model 4041 slide screw tuners are used for matching purposes by changing the
penetration and position of a screw in the slot provided in the centre of the wave guide.
These consist of a section of wave guide flanged on both ends and a thin slot is provided in the
broad wall of the Wave guide. A carriage carrying the screw is provided over the slot. A VSWR
upto 20 can be tuned to a value less than 1.02 at certain frequency.

Fig 1.7 Slide Screw Tuners

MULTIHOLE DIRECTIONAL COUPLERS
Model 6000 series Multi-hole directional couplers are useful for sampling a part of
Microwave energy for monitoring purposes and for measuring reflections and impedance. These

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consist of a section of Wave guide with addition of a second parallel section of wave guide thus
making it a four port network. However the fourth port is terminated with a matched load. These
two parallel sections are coupled to each other through many holes, almost to give uniform
coupling; minimum frequency sensitivity and high directivity. These are available in 3,6,10,20
and 40dB coupling.

Fig 1.8 Multi-hole directional couplers

E Plane Tee
Model 3061 E - plane tee are series type T - junction and consists of three section of
wave guide joined together in order to divide or compare power levels. The signal entering the
first port of this T - junction will be equally dividing at second and third ports of the same
magnitude but in opp. Phase.

Fig 1.9 E Plane Tee

H - Plant Tee
Model 3065 H - Plane Tee are shunt type T - junction for use in conjunction with VSWR meters,
frequency - meters and other detector devices. Like in E-plane tee, the signal fed through first
port of H - plane Tee will be equally divided in magnitude at second and third ports but in same
phase.

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Fig 1.10 H plane Tee

Magic Tee
Model 3045 E - H Tee consists of a section of wave guide in both series and shunt wave guide
arms, mounted at the exact midpoint of main arm. Both ends of the section of wave guide and
both arms are flanged on their ends. These Tees are employed in balanced mixers, AFC circuits
and impedance measurement circuits etc. This becomes a four terminal device where one
terminal is isolated from the input terminal.

Fig 1.11 MAGIC Tee

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Movable Short
Model 4081 movable shorts consists of a section of waveguide, flanged on one end and
terminated with a movable shorting plunger on the other end. By means of this noncontacting
type plunger, a reflection co-efficient of almost unity may be obtained.

Fig 1.12 Movable Short

Matched Termination
Model 4000 are low power and non-reflective type of terminations. It consists of a small and
highly dissipative taper flap mounted inside the centre of a section of wave guide. Matched
Terminations are useful for USWR measurement of various waveguide components. These are
also employed as dummy and as a precise reference loads with Tee junctions, directional
couplers and other similar dividing devices.

Fig 1.13 Matched Termination

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Pyramidal Waveguide Horn Antenna

Model 5041 pyramidal Wave guide Horn antenna consists of waveguide joined to pyramidal
section fabricated from brass sheet. The pyramidal section shapes the energy to concentrate in a
specified beam. Wave guide horns are used as feed horns as radiators for reflectors and lenses
and as a pickup antenna for receiving microwave power.

Fig 1.14 Pyramidal Waveguide Horn Antenna

Gunn Oscillators
Model 2151 Gunn Oscillators are solid state microwave energy generators. These consist of
waveguide cavity flanged on one end and micrometer driven plunger fitted on the other end. A
Gunn-diode is mounted inside the Wave guide with BNC (F) connector for DC bias. Each Gunn
oscillator is supplied with calibration certificate giving frequency vs. micrometer reading.

Fig 1.15 Gunn Oscillators

Gunn Power Supply
Model X-110 Gunn Power supply comprises of a regulated DC power supply and a square wave
generator, designed to operate Gunn-Oscillator model 2151 or 2152, and pin modulators model
451 respectively. The DC voltage is variable from 0 - 10V. The front panel meter monitors the

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Gunn voltage and the current drawn by the Gunn diode. The square wave of generator is variable
from 0 - 10V. in amplitude and 900 - 1100 Hz in frequency.

Fig 1.16 Gunn Power Supply

Isolators
The three port circulators Model 6021 may be converted into isolators by terminating one of its
ports into matched load. These will work over the frequency range of circulators. These are well
matched devices offering low forward insertion loss and high reverse isolation

Conclusion: The construction, physical dimensions, applications of each microwave

components are learned in depth.
Outcome: Upon successful completion of this course, the student will be able to analyze the
microwave waveguides and passive circuit components in detail.

Questions:
1. What is microwave?
2. Mention the frequency band for a millimeter wave.
3. List some of IEEE microwave frequency bands.
4. List some of characteristic feature of microwave.
5. List some of the application of microwave technology.
6. Draw a simple microwave system.
7. What are waveguide `Tees?
8. List the basic type of waveguide tees.
9. What is an isolator?
10. What is a circulator?

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EXPERIMENT NO 2
Title: Reflex Klystron characteristics

Objective: To study the Characteristics of Reflex Klystron tube & to determine its electronic
tuning range.

Apparatus Required : Klystron tube, Klystron power supply, Klystron mount, Isolator,
Frequency Meter, Variable Attenuator, Detector mount, Wave guide stand, Cooling fan, VSWR
meter, CRO.

Block Diagram:

Fig.2.1 setup for study of Klystron Characteristics

Theory:
The reflex Klystron makes use of velocity modulation to transform a continuous electron
beam in to microwave power. Electron Beam emitted is accelerated towards the anode cavity.
After passing the gap in the cavity electron travels towards the repeller electrode which is at a
high negative potential (Vr). The electron beam never reaches the repeller because of the
negative field and returned back towards the gap. The accelerated electrons leave the resonator at
an increased velocity and the retarded electrons leave at the reduced velocity. The electrons
leaving the resonator will need different time to return, due to change in velocities. As a result,
returning electrons group together in bunches. As the electron bunches pass through resonator,
they interact with voltage at resonator grids. If the bunches pass the grid at such time that the
electrons are slowed down by the voltage, energy will be delivered to the resonator; and klystron
will oscillate. The dimension of resonant cavity primarily determines the frequency. A small
frequency change can be obtained by adjusting the reflector voltage. This is called Electronic
Tuning Range.
The characteristics curve of Klystron tubes are plotted by observing the variation of
microwave power output of klystron tube and the frequency of the oscillations with the reflector
voltage while keeping the beam voltage constant. Output of detector can be measured by VSWR
meter in db or observed on CRO in terms of mill volts.

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Operation of Klystron Power Supply:

1. Assemble Test Bench as shown in fig 2.1
2. Before switch ON, check and adjust following settings :
Repeller voltage control knob is at mid position.
Beam voltage control Knob is at min. position (leftmost)
3. Switch on Klystron power supply and the cooling fan.
4. Set following voltages:
Adjust the repeller voltage between 70 to 100 Volts.
Set beam voltage between 270 to 300 volts.
Switch to internal amplitude modulalion.
5. Switch to beam current and observe the beam current. It should be around 5-30 ma.
6. Observe the detector output. You may have to chough repeller slightly to see output.
7. Adjust the frequency meters tuning head till you get a dip in the power output this
position corresponds to the frequency of the wave travelling in the microwave
bench.Note the micrometer reading and power output. Repeal the measurement at differ
ent values of the repeller voltage and plot a graph between the repeller voltage end the
frequency as determined from the calibration chart. Use direct frequency meter or
frequency meter micrometer type with calibrated chart.

Procedure:

1. Set up the components and equipment as shown in fig. 2.1

2. Switch ON Klystron Power supply and check following

a) Beam voltage is set near 270 volts
b) Repeller is set near to 70 volts
c) Modulation is set to AM
d) Keep Variable attenuator at min position.

3. Keep the time/division scale of CRO around 1KHz frequency measurement and volt/div to
lower side.

4. Observe the detector output on CRO or in VSWR meter. Adjust to get neat square wave
pulses and maximum output.
5. After getting the maximum output about 1V on CRO, adjust the variable attenuator and
reduce output power to one forth of about 200 mV.

6. Plot the klystron modes by observing the output for different values of repeller voltage 40V
to 160V and tabulate the result for following-
Amplitude and frequency of AM
Beam voltage
Repeller voltage.

Precautions:

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1. Use fan to keep the Klystron temperature low.

2. Ensure tight connections of the apparatus
3. Avoid cross connections of the threads.
4. Use stabilized power supply

Observation Table:

Beam voltage = 270 Volts.

Sr.No. Repeller voltage Power O/P(db) Dip(mm) Direct freq. measurement

Observe the above value for repeller voltage in between 40 to 160 volts.

Klystron modes of operation: Model Graphs

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Conclusion:
Frequency and Repeller voltage curve is drawn and is in accordance with the
stipulated curves of Klystron. Due to inability of the apparatus to simulate too many repeller
voltages, only a limited portion of the graph could be obtained.

Outcome: Upon successful completion of this experiment, the students are able to Identify and
differentiate the state of art in Klystron tubes and their uses in real life.

Questions:
1. How many cavity Reflex Klystron does have?
2. Which principle Klystron tube does operate?
3. What are the applications of reflex klystron?
4. On what principle does multi cavity klystron Amplifier works?
5. What are different modes in a reflex Klystron?
6 .The Secondary cavity in a two-cavity klystron is called as?
7. What is the efficiency of Reflex Klystron?
8. The single cavity in Reflex Klystron is acts as?
9. What should be the transit time?
10. Why negative voltage is given to the Repeller?

EXPERIMENT NO 3

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Title: Frequency and wavelength measurement

Objective: To measure the frequency and wavelength of an X-band reflex klystron [2k25]
source

Apparatus Required : Klystron tube, Klystron power supply, Klystron mount, Isolator,
Frequency Meter, Variable Attenuator, Detector mount, Wave guide stand, Cooling fan, VSWR
meter, slotted line ,probe, shorting plate etc.

Block Diagram:

Fig. 3.1 setup for measuring guide wavelength and frequency

Theory:
The wavelength is measured by measuring the distance between the two consecutive
minimas on slotted line scale. The distance between two minimas gives half wavelength (x).
From the wavelength the frequency is computed by following formulae:

2 x = g=0 / 1(
1 2
2a
)

0 = 300/a
a= 22.86 (broad dimension of given rectangular waveguide)

Procedure
1. Using Slotted Line
1. Assemble the equipment as shown in the fig. Take care that the all components are
mechanically aligned and firmly screwed.
2. Setup the Klystron for maximum power output. Short the slotted line at load end
using reflector or shorting plate.

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3. Tune tunable probe for maximum power.

4. Move slotted line probe until you get a position of minimum signal power as
observed 0db scale of VSWR meter (red scale). Note this reading. Let it be X.
5. Now move further probe on slotted line until you get next minima on slotted line. Let
it be y.
6. Wavelength is then given by 2*(y-X) = g. From this compute the frequency using
given formula.
7. Take a few more readings and average them to get accurate frequency.

2. Using Frequency Meter

In this the frequency meter is rotated until a dip in power level is observed.
Using the system as shown in the fig, observe dip in the power level while rotating
plunger of frequency meter. At a plunger position where resonance frequency of
frequency meter will be same as that of klystron or Gunn source. A dip in the power level
of detector output will be observed. This frequency will be same as frequency calculated
using the slotted line method.

Observations:
First Minima Observed at (x)=
Second Minima Observed at (y)=
Wavelength (g )= 2*(y-x)=
Dip observed at distance =

Result: Measured frequency f =

Measured Wavelength =

Conclusion: Thus we measured the wavelength and frequency of a wave propagating through
rectangular waveguide in dominant Mode.

Outcome: Upon successful completion of this experiment student will able to learn the dominant
mode i.e. TE10 mode for rectangular waveguide and measure wavelength/frequency
of a wave.

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Precautions:
1. Use fan to keep the Klystron temperature low.
2. Ensure tight connections of the apparatus
3. Avoid cross connections of the threads.
4. Use stabilized power supply.

Questions:
Q.1 what is wavelength?
Q.2 what is guide wavelength g?
Q.3 what is cut off wavelength for a wave-guide?
Q.4 what is the relationship between frequency and velocity of light?
Q.5 Name various methods that can be used to measure frequency / wavelength.
Q.6 what is wave meter?
Q.7 for TE10 mode why c = 2a
Q8 what is down frequency conversion method of measuring frequency?
Q.9 In a wave meter dip indicates what?
Q10. In a wave meter, how resonant frequency can be changed

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EXPERIMENT NO 4

Title: GUNN Diode characteristics

Objectives: The main objective is to study the V-I characteristics of Gunn diode.

Apparatus Required: Gunn Diode, Gunn power supply, PIN Modulator, Isolator, Frequency
meter, Variable Attenuator, Detector mount, Wave guide stand, VSWR meter, CRO, Cables and
accessories.

Block diagram:

Fig.4.1 Set-up to study GUNN diode characteristics

Theory:
Transferred electron devices are two terminal semiconductor devices which have applica-
tions as sources of CW and pulsed power at microwave frequencies step conversion from d.c. to
microwave energy from a single low voltage supply. These devices are ideally suited for use in
low noise sources such as local oscillators, low power radar application and motion detection
applications. TEDs are fabricated from direct band-gap compound semi conductors.

Modes of Operation:
In the Gunn domain mode of operation the applied electric field is greater than the thresh-
old field and the domain formed at the cathode drifts to anode since drift velocity of electrons
varies with the electric field.
The Gunn Oscillator is based on negative differential conductivity effect in bulk
semiconductors which has two conduction bands separated by an energy gap (greater than
thermal energies). A disturbance at the cathode gives rise to high field region which travels
towards the anode. When this field domain reaches the anode, it disappears and another domain
is formed at the cathode and starts moving towards anode and so on. The time required for
domain to travel from cathode to anode (transit time) gives oscillation frequency. In a Gunn
Oscillator, the Gunn diode is placed in a resonant cavity. The Oscillator frequency is determined
by cavity dimensions.
Although Gunn Oscillator can be amplitude modulated with the bias voltage. We have
used a PIN modulator for square wave modulation of the signal coming from Gunn diode. A

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measure of the square wave modulation capability is the modulation depth i.e. the output ratio
between ON and OFF state.

Procedure:

1. Arrange the microwave experimental bench as shown in Fig 4.1

2. Check modulation output Gunn Rower Supply on CRO. Check for modulation amplitude
(0 to 10V) and Modulation frequency of Gunn Power Supply.
3. Switch of Gunn power supply and integrate the system as per block diagram.
4. Do not switch on Gunn diode power supply. Please check that the voltage Knob is in zero
voltage position. Conned the Gunn diode bias supply and the pin diode modulation supply to
Gunn oscillator and pin modulator respectively.
5. Switch on Power supply. Slowly increases the bias voltage and monitor the bias current.
The current will fall down al about 5 volts. Draw the voltage - current characteristics.
Measure the device current as a function of bias voltage end plot a graph similar to one
plotted in Fig 2.2
6. Measure the power output as a function of the micrometer position while keeping the bias
fixed and plot a graph.
7. Measure the frequency of-the Gunn diode as a function of the input bias voltage and plot
a graph.
8. After experiment, bring Gunn bias to zero voltage.
9. Remove BNC cables.
10. Switch off the Power supply.

Voltage Current Characteristic

1. Turn the meter switch of Gunn power supply to voltage position.
2. Measure the Gunn diode current Corresponding to the various voltages
3. Plot the voltage and current reading on the graph
4. Measure the threshold voltage, which corresponds to the graph.

Observations:

Graph:

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Results: The values of voltage and current are measured and the graph is drawn.

Outcome: Negative resistance concept is very easily understood after getting the V-I
characteristics of GUNN diode.

Precautions:
1. Use fan to keep the Klystron temperature low.
2. Ensure tight connections of the apparatus
3. Avoid cross connections of the threads.
4. Use stabilized power supply.
5. Never switch on/off Gunn power supply while Gunn and pin mode are connected to
Gunn power supply. Gunn power supply should be on while connecting / removing
Gunn/pin mod leads. Gunn & pin bias should be at zero.

Questions:
Q.1 what are the basis of classification of microwave devices?
Q.2 what is Gunn Effect?
Q.3 What are the applications of Gunn diode?
Q.4 What is negative resistance?
Q.5 What are the advantages of Gunn diode.
Q.6 What are the disadvantages of Gunn diode
Q.7 What is threshold voltage?
Q.8 What is the role of PIN diode in the test setup?
Q.9 What is the role of Isolator in the test setup?
Q.10 In a Gunn oscillator, Gunn diode is placed in a resonant cavity. In your opinion what shall
be the effect of this.

EXPERIMENT NO 5
Title: Measurement of VSWR

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Objective: To study the standing wave pattern in a waveguide at X band and to measure VSWR
of low, medium and high magnitudes.

Apparatus Required : Klystron tube, Klystron power supply, Klystron mount, Isolator,
Variable Attenuator, Detector mount, Wave guide stand, Cooling fan, VSWR meter, slotted line,
probe, shorting plate, CRO etc.

Block diagram:

Fig.5.1 set up for measurement of VSWR

Theory:
Slotted line is a transmission line with a slot cut longitudinally in the center of waveguide.
Standing waves are formed due to mismatch between source and load. The incident signal
entering from source end and the reflected signals coming from opposite load side combine to
form minima and maxima are detected and their ratio gives VSWR. The maxima is adjusted to
read as reference 1 .0, the subsequent minima is so calibrated that it directly reads as VSWR.
Procedure:

1. Assemble equipment as shown in Fig. 5.1. Take care that all the components are
mechanically aligned and firmly screwed. .
2. Set up the Klystron for maximum power output.
3. Put the probe on a standing wave minimum, increase the sensitivity of the amplifier to
nearly maximum and adjust the probe depth to the minimum sensitivity. Measure the
output frequency of the klystron as in experiment No. 3.

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For the measurement of low and medium VSWR

1. Let the stalled section be connected directly lo a matched termination. Move the
probe carriage and calculate the VSWR by noting the maximum and minimum
output readings. (For a matched condition, the square root of the maximum to the
minimum readings should be less than or equal to 1.1).
2. Insert the element under test. Move the probe in the slotted line to a voltage maxi
mum. Adjust the gain control on the VSWR meter so that the pointer on the output
meter is set exactly to full scale on the VSWR scale. Move the probe in the slotted
line lo a voltage minimum and note the reading on the output meter scale. This value is
directly the voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR).
3. In case VSWR is a greater than 2, voltage minimum become too small for accurate
reading on the same range as the voltage maximum. In such a case measure the
voltage minimum on two separate ranges of amplifier sensitivity such that both the
values are read accurately near half scale of the indicating meter. The VSWR can be 1
computed from the actual value of maxima and minima.

For high standing wave ratio

1. Move the probe slowly in the direction of the minimum and reach a point giving full
scale deflection. Plot a graph between power output and probe position. Determine x the
distance between the double minimum power points from the graph.
2. Compute the value of waveguide in free space from the expression 0= C/f where
C is the velocity of electro-magnetic waves in free space and f is the frequency
measured by the frequency meter in step (4). Compute the value of waveguide from the
expression. 0
1( 2 a)2
g= 0/
Where a is the inner larger dimension of the waveguide (here a= 22.86cm)
3. Compute the value of the VSWR by the expression VSWR= /( x )

Observations:

Beam Voltage =
Repeller Voltage =

Low VSWR
Reading on VSWR meter =

High VSWR
Position of first minima =
Position of second minima =
Distance between two minima=
Calculations:
VSWR= /( x )

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Conclusion: The observed VSWR is..

Outcome: Student will able to learn the concept of voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) and
reflection coefficients for microwave signal.

Precautions:
1. Use fan to keep the Klystron temperature low.
2. .Ensure tight connections of the apparatus
3. Avoid cross connections of the threads.
4. Use stabilized power supply.

Questions:

Q.1 What is Standing Wave Ratio?

Q.2 What is reflection coefficient?
Q.3 What is VSWR meter?
Q.4 What are the important controls of a VSWR meter?
Q.5 What is Full Scale Deflection?
Q.6 The values of VSWR can vary between which two extreme values.
Q.7 What are the methods to achieve impedance matching?
Q.8 What is the role of variable attenuator in the test setup?
Q.9 How many scales are there on a VSWR?
Q.10 What is guide wavelength?

EXPERIMENT NO 6
Title: Study of E plane /H plane and magic Tee

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Objectives: To study the division of power using magic tee.

Apparatus Required: Klystron along with a cooling blower and the power supply, VSWR
meter, Magic Tee, Termination (2 Nos) and X band microwave bench.

Block Diagram:

Fig.6.1 Measurement of Magic Tee

Theory:
The Magic Tee is a four port device & it is a combination of the E & H plane Tee. If the
power is fed into arm 3 (H- arm), the electric field divides equally between arm 1 and 2 with
same phase, and no electric field exist in arm 4. It divides equally into arm 1 and 2 but out of
phase with no power to arm 3. Further, if the power is fed from arm 1 and 2, it is added in arm 3
(H-arm), and it is subtracted in E-arm, i.e., arm 4.The basic parameters to be measured for magic
Tees are defined below:
A. Isolation: The isolation between E and H arms is defined as the ratio of the power supplied
by the generator connected to the E-arm (port 4) to the power detected at H-arm (port3) when
side arms 1 and 2 are terminated in matched load.
Hence, Isolation 3-4 = 10 log10 P4 / P3
B. Coupling Coefficient: It is defined as Cij = 10 / 20
Where is attenuation / isolation in db when i is input arm and j is output arm.
Thus = 10 log Pi / Pj
Where Pi is the power delivered to arm i and Pj is power detected at j arm.

Procedure:

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1. Assemble the equipment as shown in above fig. Take care that all the components are
mechanically aligned and firmly screwed.
2. Set up the klystron for maximum power output.
3. Connect BNC output of tunable probe into VSWR meter.
4. Connect the magic tee as shown below :

5. Measure of coupling port 1 to port 4

Port 1: Input power from source
Port 2, 3: Terminated
Measure power at port 1, connect magic tee and then measure at port 4
Coupling = P1-P4 db

6. Repeat above for coupling between port 1 and port 2. This should be same as that
between port 1 and port 4.
7. Measure insertion loss between port 1 and port 3 by terminating the port2 and port 4.
8. Measure isolation between port 2 and port4 . Measure power at port 2 while port1 and
port 3 are terminated and input power applied at port 4. Port 2 and port 4 should be 20db.
Observations and Calculations:
P3 =
P4 =
Calculate Isolation and coupling coefficient using
Isolation 3-4 = 10 log10 P4 / P3
= 10 log Pi / Pj
Result:
Measured values for Isolation and coupling coefficient are
I=
=

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Outcome: Upon successful completion of this experiment student will learn construction,
working principal and application of magic Tee in detail. The applications of Magic
tee are 1) Measurement of Unknown impedance 2) Duplexer 3) Mixer

Precautions:

1. Use fan to keep the Klystron temperature low.

2. Ensure tight connections of the apparatus
3. Avoid cross connections of the threads.
4. Use stabilized power supply.

Questions:

Q.1 What are the various type of Tees.

Q.2 What is H - plane Tee?
Q.3 What is E - plane Tee?
Q.4 What is Magic Tee?
Q.5 What is the electric property of H-plane Tee?
Q.6 What are the properties of E-plane Tee?
Q.7 What are the properties of Magic Tee?
Q.8 What are the applications of Magic Tee?
Q.9 What is the isolation between E & H arm?
Q.10 Define Coupling Coefficient?

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EXPERIMENT NO 7
Title: Study of directional coupler

Objectives: To measure the coupling factor of a directional coupler and to determine the
scattering parameters.

Apparatus Required: Gunn oscillator, Gunn power supply, Isolator, variable attenuator,
frequency meter and VSWR meter/CRO, Detector, Directional Coupler and Termination.

Block Diagram:

Theory:
A directional coupler is a four-port waveguide junction; it consists of a primary
waveguide between Port 1 and port 2 and a secondary waveguide between port 3 and pod 4.
When all ports are terminated in matched loads, there is free transmission of power, without
reflection, between port 1 and port 2 and there is no transmission of power between port 1 and
port 3 or port 2 and port 4 because no coupling exists between these two pairs of ports. The
degree of coupling between port 1 and port 4 and between port 2 and port 3 depends on the
structure of the coupler. The characteristics of a directional coupler can be expressed in terms of
its coupling facto and its directivity. Assuming that the wave is propagating from port 1 to port 2
in the primary line, the coupling factor and directivity are defined respectively by

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Assuming power is entering from port 1, and then the coupling factor is defined as
Coupling factor (db) = 10 log 10 P1 / P4
Directivity (db) = 10 log 10 P3 / P4
It should be noted that port 2, port 3 and port 4 are terminated in matched loads. The coupling
factor is the measure of the ratio of power levels in primary and secondary lines. The directivity
is associated to how well the forward travelling wave is isolated to the secondary waveguide.

Procedure:
1. Arrange the experimental setup and switch on the Gunn power supply and tune Gunn
oscillator until you get a clear square pulse in the range of minimum 100 mV signal.
2. Fix the directional coupler in the power input at port 1 and arrange the detector in port 2.
Set the variable attenuator to get the full scale reading on the VSWR meter on 30 or 40
db scale. Note the reading.
3. Terminate the directional coupler in a matched load in port 2 and arrange the detector unit
on the auxiliary arm. Since the output of the main arm is terminated, there will be no
reflection. The power going from the auxiliary arm can be measured by the meter and the
difference of the reading of main and auxiliary arm in db gives the value of the coupling
factor in db. Do not change the setting of the variable attenuator.
4. For directivity measurement, note down the reading of the meter in the above setting with
detector in the auxiliary arm. Reverse the direction of the power flow in the directional
coupler (by physically reversing the directional coupler in microwave test bench.) The
difference of the two readings will give the directivity of the coupler in db i.e. difference
in the level between port 3 and port 4 while either of them is terminated.
5. Determine the VSWR of the coupler at port 1, port 2, port 3 and port 4 (By reversing)
with the help of standing wave detector.

Observations:
1. Measurement of Coupling :
Sr.No. Gunn Osc. Position Corr.Freq. Power Power Coupling
GHz Port 1 (db) Port 4 (db) P1-P4 db
1
2
3
4

2. Measurement of insertion loss :

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Sr.No. Gunn Osc. Position Corr.Freq. Power Power Insertion

GHz Port 1 (db) Port 2 (db) loss
P1-P4db
1
2
3
4

3. Measurement of directivity :
Sr.No. Gunn Osc. Position Corr.Freq. Power Power Directivity
GHz Port 3 (db) Port 2 (db) P3-P4db
1
2
3
4

Result:
The measured values for directional coupler are
Coupling coefficient =
Insertion loss =
Directivity =

Outcome: Upon successful completion of the experiment students will be able to learn the
directional coupler in detail. They will also able to measure different
parameters of Directional couplers such as Coupling coefficient, Insertion loss and
Directivity.

Precautions:
1. Use fan to keep the Klystron temperature low.
2. Ensure tight connections of the apparatus
3. Avoid cross connections of the threads.
4. Use stabilized power supply.

Questions:
Q.1 What is directional coupler?
Q.2 What is Coupling?
Q.3 What is Directivity?
Q.4 What is Isolation?
Q.5 What is Insertion loss?
Q.6 In a two hole directional coupler, what is the distance between two holes?
Q.7 What is the material of directional coupler?
Q.8 Name a few other types of directional couplers?
Q.9 In a directional coupler, are ports matched?
Q.10 How many holes can be there in a Directional coupler?

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EXPERIMENT NO 8

Title: Radiation pattern of Horn Antenna

Objective:
1. To plot the radiation pattern in E- & H- planes.
2. To determine 3-dB beam width in both planes and compute directivity.
3. To determine gain using two identical horn antennas and compute radiation efficiency

Apparatus Required: Klystron tube, Klystron power supply, Isolator, Frequency meter,
Variable attenuator, Klystron mount, Waveguide stands, SWR meter, Detector mount, two horn
antennas, Turn table and accessories.
Block Diagram:

Fig.8.1 set up for radiation pattern of Horn Antenna

Theory:
In microwave communications, the transmission and reception of microwave signal
through free space, is a must. Antenna acts as an impedance transformer between the free space
and source in this communication. The fundamental antenna parameters are field patterns,
directivity, bandwidth and gain.
A waveguide may behave as an antenna if its open end is matched to free space intrinsic
impedance. Such an antenna will have shapes like that of horns and are called as horn antenna.

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Fig. 8.2 Energy radiated and reflected from an open waveguide end

Radiation pattern
The radiation pattern of an antenna is a diagram of electric field strength. Here, the
directional characteristics of an antenna would ideally be shown as a three-dimensional graph in
which, for each direction, the radius from a central point is proportional to the power density at a
given distance. For practical reasons, the radiation pattern is normally shown by two-dimensional
graphs which show a section or sections of the three-dimensional pattern (Fig. 8.4). The radiation
pattern of an antenna is 3-D graphical representation of the radiation properties of the antenna as
a function of position (usually in spherical coordinates). If we imagine an antenna is placed at the
origin of a spherical coordinate system, its radiation pattern is given by measurement of the
magnitude of the electric field over a surface of a sphere of radius r. For a fixed r, electric field is
only a function of and , so we can write E (,). 3-D radiation patterns are difficult to draw
and visualize in a 2-D plane like on a piece of paper. So usually they are drawn in two principal
2-D planes which are orthogonal to each other (E- and H- planes). E plane (H-plane) is usually
the plane in which there are maximum electric (magnetic) fields for a linearly polarized antenna.

Fig. 8.3 Energy radiated from a horn antenna (more concentrated in one direction)
Antenna
If a waveguide, which is propagating a signal, is left with an open end, some of the signal
energy will escape into space (Fig. 8.2). Some will be reflected because the end is not well
matched to free space, so a VSWR of about 2 will typically result. Let us consider first the
energy which does get radiated or transmitted into space. Suppose the transmitted power is Pt. If
it were radiated in all directions equally, then at a distance r from the source the total power P t
would be spread evenly across the surface of a sphere of surface area 4r 2. A receiving antenna
occupying area A of that sphere would receive a portion of the transmitted power,
P .A
Pr= t 2
4r

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When it is required to transmit energy efficiently into space, a device called an aerial or
antenna is used. The horn is a very simple form of antenna, being no more than a flare-out
shape of the waveguide walls. It improves the match between the waveguide and free space, and
narrows the angle over which energy is radiated (Fig. 8.3). By concentrating the radiation in a
particular direction, the power radiated in that direction is increased (at the expense of reduced
power in other directions). The factor by which it is increased is called the gain of the
transmitting antenna. Thus, the power received by the receiving antenna of area A becomes:
G . Pt . A
P r=
4 r2

(a)

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(b)
Fig. 8.4 A 2-D section of a 3-D radiation pattern (Beamwidth between first nulls: BWFN and
Half power beamwidth: HPBW) (a) Polar and (b) Linear plots
The gain G is often expressed in decibels as: 10 log 10 (G) dBi, where the i refers to an isotropic
radiator; one which radiates equally in all directions. Fig. 8.5 shows the planes used for a
rectangular waveguide, designated E-plane and H-plane because they contain the directions of
the electric and magnetic field respectively.

Fig. 8.5 End-view of waveguide showing E- and H- planes

As shown in Fig.8.4, a radiation pattern usually has several lobes. Generally, most energy is
concentrated into the main lobe. Radiation in side and back lobes represents a waste of power.

3-dB Beam Width

3-dB beam width is often used as a measure of the directivity of an antenna. It is the angle
(HPBW in Fig. 8.4) between the two points on the main lobe at which the radiated power density
is half the maximum. The gain is generally the highest if the beam width is narrow and the side
lobes are small, so that all the power is sent in the desired direction. An antenna which has these
entire characteristic will also generally be an efficient receiver of radiation.

Far-field pattern
The radiation pattern differs when measured close to the antenna and at a distance. It is usually
the latter condition which is of interest, referred to as the far-field. For practical purposes, and
in the case of a simple horn antenna, the far-field may be taken to start at a distance 2D 2/0 from
the horn, where D is its larger dimension at the opening, and 0 is the free-space wavelength.
Radiation measurements are easily disturbed by reflections from the ground and other objects.
These problems are avoided as far as possible in practice by using clear areas out of doors, or by
using anechoic chamber, rooms having walls specially designed to absorb radiation (pyramid
shaped carbon-impregnated polyurathene foams).

Procedure:

A. Radiation Pattern Plotting:

1. Set the components and equipments as shown in Fig. 8.1.

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2. Same type of transmitting and receiving antenna (horn antenna) are used, keeping the
axis of both antennas in the same axis line. To satisfy the Far-field Pattern a space of
about 15 cm between antennas may be tried at the start.
3. The variable attenuator is set accordingly for maximum deflection at the VSWR
meter.
4. The amplifier (Klystron or Gunn diode) is set for maximum sensitivity.
5. Align the antennas at 00 directions. Notice that antennas must be similarly
polarized.
6. Attenuator is adjusted for deflection near maximum (possibly at 0-dB).
7. Using a protractor (similar to Fig. 3.6) to measure angles, rotate the receiving antenna
about the centre of the broad edges of its aperture (opening). Set the angle to 100,
200, 300 and 400 in each direction. Record the meter reading in each case. They are
plotted on a graph sheet like Fig. 3.6. The 3-dB beam-width of the antenna for E- and
H-planes are found out from the graph (as the meter reading is proportional to
received power, consequently 3 dB, half power, means that the meter reading is half
the maximum reading).
8. Calculate the directivity from the HPBW in E- and H-planes as

41253
D=
HPBW E plane HPBW H plane

B. Gain measurement:

1. Set up the equipments like we used in the previous experiment (this is also known as
two antenna method since we are using two identical horn antennas at the transmitter
and receiver with same gain).
2. Keep the range dB switch of VSWR meter at 50 dB position with gain control full.
3. Energize the Gunn oscillator (or Klystron Amplifier) for maximum output at desired
frequency.
4. Obtain full scale deflection at VSWR meter with variable attenuator.
5. Obtain the reading at the VSWR meter at the receiving antenna and record it.
6. Without touching gain control knob, replace the transmitting horn by detector mount
and change the appropriate range dB position to get the deflection on scale. Note and
record the range dB position and deflection of VSWR meter.
7. Calculate the difference in dB between the power measured in step 4 and 5. Then
calculate the gain as explained in the following example.
8. Radiation efficiency can be calculated as

Gain
=
Direcivity

Example
Suppose that a deflection of 5 dB on 20 dB range dB position was obtained in step
5, the difference between 4 and 5 is 50 (20 5) = 25 dB. Convert the dB into power
ratio. For above example, it will come out to be 316, which will be Pt/Pr. Calculate gain
by following equation:

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G=
4 r
0 Pr
Pt

In our above example, suppose operating frequency is 9GHz. So, 0 = 3.33cm.

C is velocity of light and is 3x10 10cm/sec. Let the distance between antennas is 15
cm.

9. Convert G into dB in above example

G dB = 10 log 318 = 15.02 dB
10. The same setup can be used for other frequency of operation.

Observation:

Table 8.1 Meter deflection reading for movement of antenna by respective degree

Attenuator setting 00 100 200 300 400

Meter reading (mA)
----left side
----right side

Outcome: The radiation pattern of Horn antenna has been seen experimentally using a basic
microwave test bench. The polar radiation pattern has been plotted and 3dB beam width is
determined. Horn Antenna is having the directive radiation pattern.

Questions:
Q.1 What is Horn antenna?
Q.2 What is radiation pattern?
Q.3 What are various types of lobes.
Q.4 Where in the lobe the intensity is maximum.
Q.5 Are side lobes / back lobes desirable. Discuss?
Q.6 What are the disadvantages of side lobes / back lobes?
Q.7 What is beam width?
Q.8 What is antenna gain?
Q.9 What are the advantages of flaring?
Q.10 What are the various type of microwave antennas?

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EXPERIMENT NO 9
Title: To study Magnetrons.

Construction & Basic Operation:

Basic Magnetron Structure

The nucleus of the high-voltage system is the magnetron tube. The magnetron is a diode type
electron tube which is used to produce the required 2450 MHz of microwave energy. A magnetic
field imposed on the space between the anode (plate) and the cathode serves as the grid. While
the external configurations of different magnetrons will vary, the basic internal structures are the
same.
The ANODE is a hollow cylinder of iron from which an even number of anode vanes extends
inward. The open trapezoidal shaped areas between each of the vanes are resonant cavities that
serve as tuned circuits and determine the output frequency of the tube. The anode operates in
such a way that alternate segments must be connected, or strapped, so that each segment is
opposite in polarity to the segment on either side. In effect, the cavities are connected in parallel
with regard to the output.
The FILAMENT, which also serves as the cathode of the tube, is located in the center of the
magnetron, and is supported by the large and rigid filament leads. The ANTENNA is a probe or
loop that is connected to the anode and extends into one of the tuned cavities. The antenna is
coupled to the waveguide, a hollow metal enclosure, into which the antenna transmits the RF
energy.
The MAGNETIC FIELD is provided by strong permanent magnets, which are mounted around
the magnetron so that the magnetic field is parallel with the axis of the cathode.

Fig.1 Electron motion in a Magnetron tube

. Basic Magnetron Operation

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The theory of magnetron operation is based on the motion of electrons under the combined
influence of electric and magnetic fields. For the tube to operate, electrons must flow from the
cathode to the anode. There are two fundamental laws that govern their trajectory:
Effect of the Magnetic Field
In Figure 1-B two permanent magnets are added above and below the tube structure. In Figure
1-C, assume the upper magnet is a north pole and the lower is south pole, is located underneath
the page, so that the magnetic field appears to be coming right through the page. Just as electrons
flowing through a conductor cause a magnetic field to build up around that conductor, so an
electron moving through space tends to build up a magnetic field around itself. On one side (left)
of the electron's path, this self induced magnetic field adds to the permanent magnetic field
surrounding it. On the other side (right) of its path, it has the opposite effect of subtracting from
the permanent magnetic field. The magnetic field on the right side is therefore weakened, and the
electron's trajectory bends in that direction, resulting in a circular motion of travel to the anode.
The process begins with a low voltage being applied to the filament, which causes it to heat up
(filament voltage is usually 3 to 4 VAC, depending on the make and model). Remember, in a
magnetron tube, the filament is also the cathode. The temperature rise causes increased
molecular activity within the cathode, to the extent that it begins to "boil off" or emit electrons.
Electrons leaving the surface of a heated filament wire might be compared to molecules that
leave the surface of boiling water in the form of steam. Unlike steam, though, the electrons do
not evaporate. They float, or hover, just off the surface of the cathode, waiting for some
momentum.

Questions :

Q.1 What is a magnetron?

Q.2 How many types of magnetron are there?
Q.3 What is negative resistance type magnetrons?
Q.4 What is cyclotron frequency magnetron?
Q.5 What is cavity magnetron?
Q.6 What is mode?
Q.7 What is mode jumping?
Q.8 What is strapping?
Q.9 What is frequency pushing of magnetron?
Q.10 What is pulling?

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EXPERIMENT NO 10

Title: Study of the working of Microwave Transmitter and Microwave Receiver.

Objective: To study the working of microwave transmitter and microwave receiver using wave
propagation trainer kit.

Apparatus Required: Goniometer base unit, Microwave transmitter, Microwave receiver,

Transmitter & receiver arms (rectangular rods), Connector cables, Mains cord.
Theory:

Propagation of waves:

In the earth environment, electromagnetic waves propagate in ways that depend not only
on their own properties but also on those on the environment itself. Since the various
method of propagation depends largely on frequency, the complete electromagnetic spectrum is
now shown for reference.

Waves travels in straight lines, except where the earth and atmosphere alter their path. Thus,
except where in usual circumstances, frequency above the HF generally travel in straight
lines. They propagate by means of so-called space waves. These are sometimes called
troposphere waves, since they travel in the troposphere, the portion of the atmosphere
closest to the ground. Frequencies below the HF range travel around the curvature of the
earth, Sometimes right around the globe. The means are probably a combination of
diffraction and a type of waveguide effect which uses the earths surface and the lowest
ionized layer of the atmosphere as the two waveguide walls these ground waves, or
surface waves as are they called, are one of the radio signals received in daytimes
propagate by means of surface waves. Waves in the HF range, and sometimes frequencies
just above or below it, are reflected by the ionized layers of the atmosphere (to be
described) and are called sky waves. Such signals are beamed into the sky and come
down again after reflection, returning to earth well beyond the horizon. To reach receivers
on the opposite side of the earth, these waves must be reflected b y the ground and the
ionosphere several Times. It should be mentioned that neither surface waves nor sky
waves are possible in space or on airless bodies such as the moon.

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Figure 1. The electromagnetic spectrum

Fundamentals of electromagnetic waves :

Electromagnetic waves are oscillations t hat propagate through free space with the velocity
of light, which is Vc = 299,792,500 300 m/s (for most purposes approximated to 3 x
108 m/s). In some ways, propagation is similar to the outward travel of waves on a
pond after a stone has been thrown into it, but there is a big difference. Whereas the
water waves are longitudinal (oscillations in the direction of propagation), electromagnetic
waves are transverse (oscillation perpendicular to the direction of propagation). This is a
theoretical assumption which cannot be "checked," since the waves are invisible. However,
it may be used to predict the behavior of electromagnetic waves in all circumstances, such
as reflect ion, Refraction and diffraction.

Figure 2. Transverse electromagnetic wave in free space

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Waves In free space:

Since no interference or obstacles are present in free space, electromagnetic waves

will spread the wave front is thus spherical, as shown in cross section in To simplify
the description even further, "rays" are imagined which radiate from the point source
in all directions. The y are everywhere perpendicular to a tangential plane of the wave
front, just like the spokes of a wheel.
At the distance corresponding to the length of ra y P, the wave has a certain phase. It
may have left the source at an instant when its voltage and current wm maximum in the
circuit feeding the source, i.e., at an instant of maximum electric and magnetic
field vectors. If the distance traveled corresponds to exactly 100,000.25 wavelengths,
the instantaneous electric and magnetic intensities are at that moment zero at all such
points. This is virtually the definit ion of a wavefront; it is the plane joining all points of
identical phase. Here, of course, it is spherical. If the length of ray Q is exactly twice
that of ray P, then the area of the new sphere will be exactly four times the area of the
sphere with radius P. It is seen that the total power output of the source has spread itself
over four times the area when its distance from the source has doubled. Now, if power
density is defined as radiated power per unit area, it follows that power density is reduced to
one-quarter of its value when distance from the source has doubled. It is seen that
power densit y is inversely proporti onal to the square of the distance from the source.
This is the inverse-square law, which applies universally to all forms of radiation in free
space. Stating this mathematically , we have
pt
p= 2
4r

Where p= power densit y at a distance r from an isotropic source

pt =
transmitted power

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Figure 3: Spherical wavefront

An isotropic source is one that radiates uniformly in all directions in space. Although
no practical source has this property , the concept of the isotropic radiator is very useful
and frequency employed. As a matter of interest, it may be shown quite simply that the
inverse-square law applies also when the source is not isotropic, and students are invited
to demonstrate this for themselves. However, for wave fronts to be spherical, the velocity
of radiation must be constant at all points (as it is, of course, in free space). A propagation
medium in which this is true is also called isotropic.

The electric and magnetic field intensities of electromagnetic waves are also important.
The two quantities are the direct counterparts of voltage and current in circuits; they are
measured in volts per meter and amperes per meter, respectively. Just as for electrical
circuits we have V =Z.I, so for electromagnetic waves E=L.X
Where E = rms value of field strength, or intensit y, V/m
X = rms value of magnetic field strength, or intensity , A/m
L = characteristic impedance of a medi um is given by

L=

Where = permeability of medium

= electric permittivity of medium

For free space,

=4 10-7=1.257 10-6 H/m
= 1/36 109= 8.854 10-12 F/m

Microwave:

Microwaves are electromagnetic waves whose frequencies Flange from 1GHz to 1000GHz
(1 GHz =109 Hz). For comparison, the signal from an AM Radio station is 1 MHz (Mega
Hertz = 106 Hz) and the signal from FM Radio station is 100MHz.

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Microwaves (w's) are so called since they are defined in terms of their wavelength in the
sense that micro refers to tinyness- tinyness referring to the wavelength and the period of
a cycle of a cm Wave In other words, the wavelength () of cm waves at microwave
frequencies are very short; ty pically from a few tens of cm to a fraction of a mm. In short,
a microwave is a signal that has a wavelength of 1 foot or less i.e. 30.5 cms
= 1 foot. This converts to a frequency of 984MHz, approximately = 1 GHz. So, all
frequencies above approximately 1000 MHz. (l GHz) to about 1000 GHz are
microwave frequencies.

The higher frequency edge of Microwaves borders on the infrared and visible-light
regions or spectrum. This explains why Microwaves behave more like rays of light than
ordinar y radio waves. Due to this unique behaviour, microwave frequencies are classified
separately from radio waves.

History :

As already stated, Microwaves are electromagnetic waves. Hence, the history of

Microwaves is embodied in the evolution of electromagnetic waves.
1. James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) unified all previous known results, experimental
and theoretical on electromagnetic waves in four equations and predicted the
existence of electromagnetic waves.
2. Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (1857-1937) experimentally confirmed Maxwell' s prediction.
3. Guglielmo Marconi (1874-1937) transmitted informati on on an experimental basis
at microwave frequencies.
4. George C. Southworth (1930) really carried out Marconi's experiments on a
commercial basis.
5. During World War-II (1945) based on the previous developments; radar was
invented and was exploited for military applications.

Microwave region and band designations :

Microwave region in the electromagnetic spectrum is shown in following Table

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Standard band designat ions for microwave frequencies listed as per US/Militar y
standard are shown in following table.

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Advantages :

1) Increased bandwidth availability

2) Improved directive properties
3) Fading effect and reliability
4) Low Power requirements
5) Transparency property

Applications :

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Microwaves have a broad Flange of applications in modern technology. Most important

among them are in long distance communication systems, radars, radio astronomy ,
navigation etc. Broadly the applications can be in the areas listed below.
1) Telecommunication :
Intercontinental Telephone and .T.V., space communication (earth-to-space and
space-to-earth), telemetry communication link for railwa y s etc.
2) Radars:
Detect aircraft, track/guide supersonic missiles, observe and track weather
patterns, air traffic control (ATC), burglar alarms, garage door openers, police
speed detectors etc.
3) Commercial and industrial applications use heat property of Microwaves.
a) Microwave oven (2.45 GHz, 600 W).
b) Drying machines - textile, food and paper industry for drying Clothes, potato chips,
printed matter etc.
c) Food processing industry Precooling/cooking, pasteurising/sterility, heat
frozen/refrigerated precooled meats, roasting offood grains/beans.
d) Rubber industry /plastics/chemical/forest product industries.
e) Mining/ Public works, breaking rock, tunnel boring, drying/breaking up
concrete, breaking up coal seams, curing of cement.
f) Drying inks, drying/ sterlising grains, drying/ sterlising pharmaceuticals,drying
g) Textiles, leather, tobacco, power transmission.
h) Biomedical applications (diagnostic/t herapeutic) diathermy for localised
superficial heating, deep electromagnetic heating for treatment of cancer, hy pert
hermia (local, regional or whole body for cancer therapy), electromagnetic
transmission through human body has been used for monitoring of heart beat, lung
water detection etc.

Block Diagram:

Procedure:

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1) Arrange the setup as given in manual.

2) Switch ON the power supplies from goniometer base unit, transmitter and receiver.
Set the distance between transmitter and receiver horn antenna is 90
cm. Always measure the distance between transmitter and receiver fromt ransmitter
flange to receiver flange (while distance measurement consider the distance between
the two scales also).
3) Select tone/MIC switch towards tone side & switch on the display.
4) Set the transmitter power at 30 and receiver power adjust potentiometer at mid
position (for this experiment it is recommended to keep the low power of the
transmitter and receiver, due to square law characteristic of diode detector)
5) Select the probe/antenna switch of receiver towards antenna position.
6) Record the distance and receiver power in the observation table.
7) The above steps are repeated for different distance such as 30cm to 40cm etc..

Observation:

Distance between Receiver

transmitter & Power
Receiver (cm)

Outcome:

We can observe that the receiver power is not varying in an entirely predictable way. The meter
connected at transmitter and receiver is a relative power meter. As we know that
microwaves always form the SWR pattern, linear readings cannot be obtained. The points
where the power is maximum, more stability in readings can be observed. The readings of
lower power is not that much constant.

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