(c) Gradient of a Scalar eld

Denition 3.3 Let be a dierentiable scalar eld dened on R. The gradient

of is dened by
@ @ @ @ @ @
grad = r = i+ j+ k = ; ; :
@x @y @z @x @y @z

where r (read nabla or del ) denotes the vector di erential operator

@ @ @
r= i+ j+ k:
@x @y @z

Example: Let = xy 2 z 3 then

r = y 2 z 3 i + 2xyz 3 j + 3xy 2 z 2 k.

Theorem 3.4 r is a vector eld.

Theorem 3.5: Given scalar elds ,
(i)
r( + ) = r + r
(ii)
r( )= r + r
Proof: (ii) From denition 3.3
@ @ @
lhs = r ( )= ( )i + ( ) j+ ( ) k:
@x @y @z
Using known properties of partial derivatives,
@ @ @ @ @ @
lhs = + i+ + j+ + k.
@x @x @y @y @z @z
Rearranging,
@ @ @ @ @ @
lhs = i+ j+ k + i+ j+ k
@x @y @z @x @y @z
= r + r = rhs;
using denition 3.3 again. This completes the proof.
The above proof provides a blueprint for many "identities" involving the
symbol r (see later lectures and examples sheets), namely (a) use denition(s)
to eliminate r,
(b) use known properties of partial dierentiation,
(c) do some algebra,
(d) use denition(s) to re-introduce r.
(d) Directional derivative
@ =@x, @ =@y, @ =@z are the rates of change of in the directions of the
x-, y-, z-axes respectively.

1
To obtain the rate of change of in any direction,
Denition 3.6: Let P 2 R, d ^ a unit vector dening a direction at P . Let C
^ Q a point on C distant s from P .
be the ray issuing from P in direction d,
^ is dened by
The directional derivative of at P in the direction of d
d (Q) (P )
= lim
ds s!0 s
provided the limit exists.
^
Thus d =ds is the rate of change of at P in the direction of d.
Theorem 3.7: Let d dene a direction at P then
d ^r ;
=d
ds
^ is a unit vector in the direction of d:
where d
^ in
Proof: The line through P in the direction d has equation r = r0 + sd,
component form

x = x0 + sd^1 ;
y = y0 + sd^2 ;
z = z0 + sd^3 :

Dierentiating these with respect to s gives

dx dy dz
; ; = d^1 ; d^2 ; d^3 = d;
^
ds ds ds
By the chain rule
d @ dx @ dy @ @z
= + + :
ds @x ds @y ds @z ds

@ ^ @ ^ @ ^
= d1 + d2 + d3 ;
@x @y @z
= r d.^

(e) Geometrical interpretation of r

Theorem 3.8: At the point P , if r 6= 0, the direction and magnitude of r
are
(i) the direction of maximum increase of at P
(ii) jr j is the magnitude of the maximum value of the directional derivative.
Proof: From the denition of scalar product

^ r = d
d ^ jr j cos

where denotes the angle between the vectors.This takes a maximum value when
^ r are parallel with same sense. So d
= 0, i.e. d; ^ r takes its maximum
^
value when d and r are parallel and have the same sense.

2
 Hence by 3.7 d =ds takes its maximum value when the direction d ^ of d=ds
and r are parallel and have the same sense. d ^ is a unit vector and so, for this
direction,
d
= jr j :
ds
Thus the magnitude of vector r represents the largest (in magnitude) spa-
tial rate of change of the function (r) and its direction is that in which this
largest rate of change occurs.
(f ) Normal to a surface
The equation
(x; y; z) = c;
where c is an arbitrary constant, represents a surface in 3-dim. space, called a
level surface S of . Varying the value of c gives a family of surfaces.