Ground Improvement

using
Vibro Replacement
in ASIA 1994 to 2004
A 10 Year Review

Dr. V.R. Raju

R. Hari Krishna
R. Wegner

Keller (M) Sdn. Bhd., Malaysia

Presented by
Keller Grundbau GmbH
Kaiserleistr. 44
D-63067 Offenbach 5th International Conference on
Tel. +49 69 8051 - 0 GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES
Fax +49 69 8051 - 244 22 23 March 2004, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
E-mail Info@KellerGrundbau.com
www.KellerGrundbau.com Technical paper 10-60E
 GROUND IMPROVEMENT USING
VIBRO REPLACEMENT IN ASIA 1994 TO 2004
A 10 YEAR REVIEW

Dr. V. R. Raju R. Wegner Y. Hari Krishna

Keller (M) Sdn. Bhd., Malaysia

Abstract
Along with the rapid growth of infrastructure development in Asia in the last decade, ground
improvement using Vibro Replacement (stone columns) has found increasing application and
acceptance. The soils treated range from loose silty sands, soft marine clays, ultra soft silts and
clays from mine tailings to peaty clays. Treatment purpose has been to limit settlements and to
ensure stability. In earthquake prone regions, it has also been used to mitigate liquefaction potential.
Structures supported have ranged from simple earth embankments, highway embankments, modern
expressway embankments, railway embankments to power plant structures, marine structures,
chemical plants and large LNG tanks.
This paper reports on specific projects executed by Keller in the last 10 years in various Asian
countries. Technical aspects with regard to soil type and behaviour and structure types and
performance requirements are highlighted.

1. Introduction

Countries in Asia have seen increasing growth in infrastructure development in the last decade.
The presence of large deposits of weak soils of varying types has necessitated the development and
application of various ground improvement techniques.
The technique of Vibro Replacement has found increasing acceptance owing to its flexibility with
regard to the type and depth of soil being treated and the type and intensity of loading being applied.
It has found application in the treatment of loose silty sands, soft marine clays, ultra soft silts and
clays from mine tailings, peaty clays etc.
The Vibro Replacement technique has found acceptance not only to limit settlements and to ensure
stability but also to mitigate liquefaction potential in earthquake prone regions. The range of structures
varied from highways, railways and airports to marine structures, power plant structures, chemical
plants and storage tanks.

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Dr. V. R. Raju R. Wegner Y. Hari Krishna, Keller Grundbau GmbH

This paper provides an update on various techniques of vibro replacement available today. It then
describes the types of soils that are suitable for treatment using this technique. Finally, various types
of structures that were founded on soils treated with vibro replacement are illustrated using actual
examples from projects executed in the last 10 years by Keller in Asia.

2. The Vibro Replacement Technique (Vibro Stone Columns)

The stabilisation of soils by displacing the soil radially with the help of a depth vibrator, refilling the
resulting space with granular material and compacting the same with the vibrator is referred to as
Vibro Replacement and was developed by Keller in the 1950s. The resulting matrix of compacted soil
and stone columns has improved load bearing and settlement characteristics. A schematic showing the
basic principle of the vibro replacement technique is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Basic principle of the vibro replacement technique

The vibro replacement technique provides an economic and flexible solution, which easily adapts to
varying ground conditions. Using vibro replacement, the following geotechnical improvements are
achievable:
Improvement in the stiffness of the subsoil to decrease settlements
Improvement in the shear strength of the subsoil to increase bearing capacity
Compaction of loose non-cohesive soils to mitigate liquefaction potential
Ability to carry very high loads since columns are ductile
Rapid consolidation of the subsoil

Column diameters typically range between 0.7 m and 1.1 m and spacings range between 1.5 m and
2.5m. Column lengths depend on soils encountered on site but typically range between 6 m and 20 m.
In exceptional circumstances where deep weak soil deposits are found, columns have been installed
to depths of up to 30 m. For further details on vibro replacement technique, the reader is referred to
Moseley M.P. and Priebe H.J. (1993) [1]. For the details on design aspects of vibro replacement
technique the reader is referred to Priebe H.J. (1995) [2].

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 Ground Improvement Techniques

3. Installation Methods
The basic tool for the process of vibro replacement is a depth vibrator. It consists of a long steel tube
in which an eccentric weight and an electric motor are mounted. The rotation of the eccentric weight
results in the generation of horizontal forces which are used to displace the soil and compact the
stones. Keller has developed a variety of depth vibrators such as the Mono, S and L vibrators to suit
various soil conditions. Feeding of stone can be done from the top (top feed) or from the bottom of
the vibrator (bottom feed). Keller also developed two types of bottom feed plant as an attachment to
the various types of vibrators and are referred as Alpha and Beta systems. Figure 2 shows cross
sections of typical top feed and bottom feed vibrators.

(a) Kellers top feed vibrator (b) Kellers bottom feed vibrator

Figure 2: Depth vibrators

There are different types of installation methods available and can be broadly classified
in the following manner:
Wet top feed method
Dry bottom feed vibrocat method
Dry bottom feed crane-hung method
Offshore bottom feed method

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Dr. V. R. Raju R. Wegner Y. Hari Krishna, Keller Grundbau GmbH

3.1 Wet Top Feed Method

The name arises from the fact that water jetting is used to assist penetration and stone is fed from
the top of the vibrator. In this method, a crawler crane of sufficient capacity is used to support the
assembly and penetration to the required depth is assisted by the combined action of vibrations and
high pressure water jets placed at the tip of the vibrator. After the vibrator reaches the required
depth, the stones (typically 35 mm to 75 mm) are fed to the compaction point from the ground surface
with the help of a loader. This method is a partial replacement process where some of the soil is
replaced and the rest is laterally displaced and compressed. This method has been successfully used to
treat weak soils to depths of 30 m. A schematic of the installation procedure is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Schematic of wet top feed method

3.2 Dry Bottom Feed Vibrocat Method

In this method, a custom built base machine (vibrocat) is used to support the bottom feed vibrator
assembly and penetration to the required depth is assisted by the combined action of vibrations and a
push down thrust from the base machine. No water jetting is used. Stones (typically 15 mm to 35 mm)
are fed using a skip to the top of the vibrator and transferred through a special stone tube attached to
the vibrator directly to its tip. This method is a pure displacement process where no soil is removed.
Also no water jetting is required which implies that the issue of water supply and disposal does not
arise. It is particularly well suited for congested working areas such as inner city areas, areas adjacent
to existing railways and roadways and where no water is available or disposal is a problem. This
method has been successfully used to treat soft grounds to a depth of 20 m. A schematic of installation
procedure is shown in Figure 4.

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 Ground Improvement Techniques

Penetration Displacement Completion

Filling of
Stone supply
material lock

Figure 4: Schematic of dry bottom feed vibrocat method

3.3 Dry Bottom Feed Crane - Hung Method

In this method, a crawler crane of sufficient capacity is used to support the bottom feed vibrator
assembly and penetration to the required depth is assisted by the combined action of vibrations and
the self weight of the vibrator. The whole installation procedure is similar to the dry bottom feed
vibrocat method except the use of the vibrocat, which is replaced by the crane-hung system. Typical
site photos showing both systems are shown in Figure 5.

(a) Crane-hung system (b) Vibrocat system

Figure 5: Typical site photos showing dry bottom feed systems

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Dr. V. R. Raju R. Wegner Y. Hari Krishna, Keller Grundbau GmbH

3.4 Offshore Bottom Feed Method

The offshore bottom feed method is similar to the crane hung method described in section 4.3 above.
A barge or pontoon is used to serve as a working platform on which a crawler crane of sufficient
capacity is mounted to support the custom built vibro string assembly. Positioning is often done with
the assistance of a global positioning system. Penetration to the required depth below seabed level is
assisted by the combined action of vibrations and compressed air. Stone is fed to the vibrator either
using a long arm excavator or other stone transport systems. A schematic diagram of a typical setup
for the offshore stone column installation is shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6 Schematic of offshore bottom feed system

4. Soil Types
The unique characteristic of the Vibro Replacement technique is that it is able to treat a wide range of
weak soils. The following section discusses various soil types that have been treated in the recent past
in Asia.

4.1 Loose Silty Sands

Loose sands and silts or a combination of the two are susceptible to liquefaction during earthquake
excitations. This is of concern for all structures in general, but of particular concern for petrochemical
facilities such as LNG tanks and chemical plants.
These soils can be effectively densified using vibro replacement to ensure that liquefaction does not
occur. Design procedures for this can found in Priebe H.J. (1998) [3]. Figure 7 shows soil information
from the Hazira LNG plant site in India. Of concern was the liquefaction of the layer between 3 m and
17 m. Figure 8 shows soil information from the Malampaya onshore gas plant site in Philippines. Of
concern was the liquefaction of the loose sandy layer between 3 m and 10.5 m. In both cases, the soils
were treated using vibro replacement to the satisfaction of the client, Shell Petroleum.

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 Ground Improvement Techniques

CONE PENETRATION TEST

Depth Description SPT CPT
Tip Resistance
bel.GL SC qc
Elev. [N] [MPa] Qc [MPa]
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
10 selected, well compacted 0
20,0
-1 fill (subgrade)
9
engineering fill 2,5 3
-3
7
sand 14 7,5
-10 6
0

depth [m]
sand, silt & clay 11 10,0
-17
-7 9
dense sand 30/75 20/30
-30
-20 12
stiff clay and sand 50
-50
-40
dense sand 75
-80 15
-70 base formation
(assumed as incompressible)
18

Figure 7: Typical soil profile and CPT plot from Hazira site (Gujarat, India)

cone resistance Qc [MPa]

0.0m 0 5 10 15 20
0
3.0m soft clay

loose to medium 3
dense fine sand
10.5m
depth [m]

silts and clays 9

12
25.0m
cone resistance Qc [MPa]
sandy base
required to prevent liquefaction
stratum without stone columns
required with stone columns

Figure 8: Typical soil profile and CPT plot from Malampaya site (Batangas, Philippines)

Loose silty sands are also found in areas where tin mining activities have taken place. They are often
found directly adjacent to mine tailings ponds. The treatment of these former mining areas entails the
densification of these loose silty sands also.

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Dr. V. R. Raju R. Wegner Y. Hari Krishna, Keller Grundbau GmbH

4.2 Soft and Ultra Soft Silts (Slimes)

Ultra soft silts (slimes) are man-made deposits as a result of ex-mining activities and normally pose
problems with regard to bearing capacity and stability because of their very low shear strength
(typically between 5 and 10 kPa). A typical example with ultra soft silts is shown in Figure 9 from
Kajang Ring Road Interchange H site (Kajang, Malaysia).

(a)

(b) Tip Resistance Qc [MPa]

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0
2
4
Depth [m]

6
8
10
12
Figure 9: Typical (a) soil profile and (b) CPT plot from
Kajang Ring Road Interchange H site
14
(Kajang, Malaysia)

Typically, CPT tip resistances are less than 200 kPa and the soil cannot even support a 1.0 m high
embankment. The silts have low plasticity and relatively high permeability (partly due to the presence
of sand lenses) which results in rapid consolidation. Once a working platform has been built after
partial displacement of the soft soil in the top 1 to 2m, these soils can be effectively treated using
Vibro Replacement to support high earth embankments (ref. Raju V.R. et. al. (2004) [4]) without the
need for placing any surcharge.

4.3 Soft and Ultra Soft Marine Clays

Ultra soft marine clays are natural deposits commonly found in coastal regions. These deposits always
pose problems with regard to bearing capacity, stability and long-term consolidation and creep
settlements because of their very low shear strength (typically between 6 and 12 kPa), high sensitivity,
low permeability and high plasticity. A typical example with ultra soft marine clays is shown in Figure
10 from Shah Alam Expressway Interchange Kebun site (Klang, Malaysia).

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 Ground Improvement Techniques

qc [MPa] Site Soil type w wl wp PI Clay Silt Sand St cv

[%] [%] [%] [%] [%] [%] [%] [-] [m2/yr]
0 1 2 3 4
0
Kebun Marine Clay 100 100 40 60 50 45 5 4-5 1.0

-5 w Water content PI Plasticity index

wl Liquid limit S t Sensitivity
wp Plastic limit cv Co-efficient of consolidation
Depth [m]

-10

-15

-20

Figure 10: Typical CPT plot and soil properties from Shah Alam
-25
Expressway Interchange Kebun site (Klang, Malaysia)

Even though the tip resistance for the marine clays are similar to that for the ultra soft silts, the soil
behaviour is quite different. Owing to the low permeability and highly plastic nature, the time for 90%
consolidation is longer than that for slimes and allowance has to be made for secondary consolidation
settlements. If necessary, a surcharge may be used to accelerate the treatment process.

4.4 Garbage Fills

A shortage of land often results in the necessity to build over former landfills. These are compressible
in nature and could result in excessive settlements. Figure 11 shows details of such a fill with a thick-
ness of 6 m overlying a soft clay deposit to 14 m depth in Penang, Malaysia. These fills and the under-
lying soft clay was treated using dry vibro replacement for the construction of the Jelutong expressway
with embankment heights of 4 to 7 m supported by RE walls.

0m

homehold and
municipal waste
6m

soft marine clay

14 m

stiff clay Figure 11: Typical soil profile and view of waste
dump at Jelutong expressway

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Dr. V. R. Raju R. Wegner Y. Hari Krishna, Keller Grundbau GmbH

5. Structure Types
Infrastructure projects involve the construction of a variety of structures. This section describes some
of the structure types that have been founded on soils treated with vibro replacement and specific
case histories that have been executed by Keller in the last decade in Asia. A summary of these case
histories is tabulated and presented in Annexure 1.

5.1 Earth Embankments

Stability against slope failure is of primary concern in earth embankments. Settlements should be
within reasonable limits and are of secondary concern.

Putrajaya Boulevard Package, Malaysia (1998 1999)

The construction of the Boulevard in Putrajaya, the new administrative capital of Malaysia
required the construction of earth embankments to heights of up to 18 m. The presence of
extremely soft organic clays to a depth of 8 m to 12 m posed problems of slope stability to the
proposed embankment. Soil investigations showed that the very soft organic clay layer had shear
strengths in the range of only 5 to 7 kPa and organic contents in the range of 10 to 20%.
Ground improvement using vibro replacement was chosen as a cheaper and environmentally
friendly alternative to the original excavate and replace option. Stone columns were installed to
dense layers to improve the shear strength of the soft organic clay and thereby achieving
adequate factor of safety against slope failure. The columns were installed using three dry units
and two wet units. Typical cross-section of the embankment with stone column treatment is
shown in Figure 12. For further details on Putrajaya Boulevard package, the reader is referred to
Raju V.R. et. al. (1998) [5].

+16 m
+13,5 m
+11 m

0m

Stone columns
8m

Soft clay

Dense layers
80 m lateral extent

Figure 12 Typical cross-section of the embankment with stone column treatment

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 Ground Improvement Techniques

5.2 Highways
Malaysia has seen extensive highway construction in recent times with several projects on a privatised
toll collection basis. As a result, speed of construction was of primary importance and long rest
periods for consolidation were not available. Vibro replacement proved to be an ideal solution to treat
the soft soils as described in sections 4.2 and 4.3 above. The treatment was designed to the
specifications laid down by the Malaysian Highway Authorities (MHA) which may be summarised as
follows:
Maximum total post construction settlement of 400 mm (including short-term and long-term).
Maximum differential settlement of 100 mm over a length of 100 m (1 in 1000) along
the centreline of embankment.
Overall embankment stability with a minimum factor of safety of 1.4 (short-term) and
1.5 (long-term).

Shah Alam Expressway Package A & B, Malaysia (1994 1997)

The Shah Alam Expressway connects the coastal city of Klang and Shah Alam with the capital city
of Kuala Lumpur. It is a modern 6 lane expressway designed and built to international standards;
the construction of which has been divided into two packages namely Package A and Package B
as shown in Figure 13.
The soils of Package A are predominantly alluvium interspersed with several tin mine tailing
deposits which includes loose sands and ultra soft slimes (undrained shear strength as low as
6kPa) whereas the soils of Package B are predominantly quaternary marine and continental
deposits of very soft clays and silts.

KUALA LUMPUR
N

Petaling Jaya

ng Valley
New Kla
11
Federal Route
STRAITS Shah Alam KINRARA
OF Klang SRI PETALING
MALACCA g NATIONAL
elan
Sun gai K TAMAN SPORTS
MAWAR COMPLEX
JALAN
GOLF

LANGAT
Jalan Puchong
SHAH ALAM
WEST (KEBUN)

Package B Package A

Figure 13: Location plan of the Shah Alam Expressway

The technique of Vibro Replacement has been used extensively in the both packages and stone
columns have been installed using both wet and dry systems to treat the soft / loose soils at 7
interchanges and overpasses with embankment / RE wall heights up to 10 m. The length of stone
columns varied between 8 m and 26 m with diameters of 1.0 and 1.2 m. Figure 14 shows typical
cross-section of the embankment along with a scheme of stone column treatment at Kinrara
interchange. For further details on Shah Alam Expressway project, the reader is referred Raju V.R.
and Hoffmann G. (1996) [6], Raju V.R. et. al. (1997) [7] and Raju V.R. (1997) [8].

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Dr. V. R. Raju R. Wegner Y. Hari Krishna, Keller Grundbau GmbH

Ramp C

25,2 m

9,2 m
RL 16,0

compacted sand banket

GW

16,0 m
Very soft clayey Silt
(Mining slime)

Stone Column
Dense layers = 1,2 m
2,0 2,0 2,0 1,8 1,8 1,8 1,8 1,8 1,8 1,8 1,8 1,8 1,8

qc = 0,1 0,8 MPa Cu = 6 40 kPa Es = 0,6 4,0 MPa

Figure 14: Typical cross-section of the embankment at Kinrara interchange

Putrajaya - Package R2a, Selangor, Malaysia (1999)

Road R2a is an extension of the BR8 bridge abutment embankment at Putrajaya. The 186 m long,
approximately 150 m wide earth embankment with heights ranging between 20 m and 24 m was
supported on stone columns. In addition, a concrete vehicular twin box culvert which was origi-
nally designed on a pile foundation was also founded directly on top of the stone column treat-
ment. The site is underlain by very soft clayey silts having undrained shear strength of 7 kPa at top
4 m and 12 kPa between 4 m and 8 m. This is followed by loose to medium dense sandy layers.
The purpose of the treatment was to limit post construction settlement of the roadway and
ensure slope stability of the embankment. Figure 15 shows a typical longitudinal section through
the embankment.

Figure 15: Longitudinal section through the embankment at package R2a

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 Ground Improvement Techniques

Jelutong Expressway Stage 1, Malaysia (2000 2001)

Jelutong expressway is a four lane road with a total width of 21m and 4.6 km long and divided
into three stages. Stage I starts from Sungai Penang interchange at Ch. 2000 to Diamond inter-
change at Ch. 4500. Within this stretch the alignment of expressway passes over a municipal
waste dump from Ch. 2085 to Ch. 2380. The height of embankment at this stretch varied
between 4 m and 7 m. The subsoil consists of 6m rubbish dump followed by soft marine clay
down to a depth of 10 m to 14 m. This is underlain by medium stiff to stiff clayey layers.
Ground improvement using vibro replacement was chosen In order to compact the municipal
waste dump as well as to improve soft clayey soils underlying the waste dump. Typical cross
section of the embankment supported on stone columns is shown in Figure 16.

Soil treatment for CH 2085 to CH 2200

surcharge level

0m 300 thick sand blanket

soil fill
2.6m

12.5m

vertical drains stone columns vertical drains

P.V.D. at 1.2m centres 1.0 m diameter at 2.5 m centres P.V.D. at 1.2m centres

Figure 16: Schematic cross section of embankment at Jelutong expressway

Kajang Ring Road, Malaysia (2002 2003)

As part of the long term development of the town of Kajang in the state of Selangor, the
Malaysian Highway Authority propose to build a ring road around the town by upgrading existing
perimeter roads to highway standard and linking them to new sections of highway. Interchange H
is to be built at a location where two large mining ponds are found. The presence of existing
roads and KTM railway line requires the construction of flyover and road over rail bridge, which
resulted in 15 m high embankments for the highway. The presence of ultra soft mining slimes
made up of clayey silts to depths of 15m with shear strength values ranging between 5 kPa and
15 kPa posed serious problems of stability and long term settlements.
After considering various options, a combination of partial replacement of the very soft slime in
the top 3 to 4 meters using earth fill and treatment using vibro replacement for the underlying
ultra soft soil was adopted. The spacing of the stone columns varied between 1.6 m and 2.2 m c/c
with a square grid pattern depending on road geometry and soil conditions. The diameter varied
between 1.0 m and 1.1m with depths ranging from 12 to 15 m. Figure 17 shows the plan layout of
interchange H showing locations of two ex-mining ponds and stone column treatment area.

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Dr. V. R. Raju R. Wegner Y. Hari Krishna, Keller Grundbau GmbH

Figure 17: Plan layout of interchange H showing pond locations and stone column treatment area

For further details on interchange H, the reader is referred to Raju V.R. et. al. (2004) [4]. In
addition to Interchange H, three more locations were also treated using vibro replacement for
the Kajang Ring Road project in order to improve soft or loose soils. The soils varied from soft
silty clays to loose silty sands to depths between 8 m and 12 m.

New Pantai Highway, Malaysia (2001 2003)

The New Pantai highway is another privatised highway in Malaysia. In total four locations were
treated using vibro replacement to support highway embankments and reinforced earth walls. The
heights of RE walls varied between 5 m and 13 m. Different types of soils were found at different
locations including loose silty sands, soft clays and soft mining slimes to depths of 6 m, 15 m and
18 m, respectively. Figure 18 shows the schematic cross section of the RE wall supported on stone
columns. Typical pictures showing the installation of stone columns and completed RE wall are
shown in Figure 19.

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 Ground Improvement Techniques

Figure 18: Schematic cross section of RE wall at New Pantai Highway

Figure 19: Typical pictures showing installation of stone columns and completed RE wall

5.3 Bridge Approaches and Abutments

Bridge approaches and abutments generally have heights ranging between 6 m and 10 m and are often
supported by reinforced earth walls on either side. In addition, they lie directly adjacent to the bridge
piers which are rigid structures founded on piles. This scenario poses a combination of slope stability
and settlement concerns, especially in the transition zone to the bridge deck. Differential settlement
requirements in the transition zones are generally 1 in 500. Vibro replacement has been used to
alleviate these concerns.

KLIA Perimeter Road, Sepang, Malaysia (1996 1997)

Bridge 3 and Bridge 11 are the prominent structures on KLIA, PRO2, Perimeter Roads, with
approach embankments having heights up to 7.5 m. The subsoil consists of very soft layers
typically to depths of 8 to 10 m and in one case to a depth of 22 m. Ground improvement using
vibro replacement was selected to treat soft soils to the maximum depth of 22 m.

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Dr. V. R. Raju R. Wegner Y. Hari Krishna, Keller Grundbau GmbH

Putrajaya Bridge BR 8, Selangor, Malaysia (1999)

Bridge BR8 is a cable stayed arch bridge having a span of over 300 m at Putrajaya. The bridge
consists of an abutment and anchor blocks supported on piles. However the construction of up
to 24 m high earth embankment on soft soils posed problems of stability, which was critical for
the structures to be built. The major concern was lateral movements of the earth embankment,
which would impose enormous lateral loads on the supporting bridge and pile foundation. Since
the piles were not designed to withstand such lateral movements, a ground improvement scheme
had to be designed to control lateral movements to within tolerable limits.
The site is generally underlain by alluvium comprising layers of soft clayey silts with intermittent
loose sandy layers. The undrained shear strength of the soft soils is in range of 7 kPa and 20 kPa
increasing with depth. The soft soil layers between levels RL +12.0 and RL +2.0 were treated
using stone columns so as to stabilize the slopes surrounding the bridge abutment.
A total of 35,000 linear meters of stone columns of diameter 1m were installed to depths
between 6m and 9m using two dry bottom feed vibrocat units. Figure 20 shows a longitudinal
section through the bridge abutment. A view of completed cable stayed arch bridge is shown in
Figure 21.

R.C. Structure
RL +32.0 Top of Bridge Deck
Water Lev.
RL +21.5
Embankment
RL +12.0 Pile cap

Bored piles
Stone Columns Stone Columns

Figure 20: Longitudinal section through the bridge abutment at Bridge BR8

Figure 21: View of completed cable stayed arch bridge BR8 at Putrajaya

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 Ground Improvement Techniques

Guthrie Overpass, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (1996)

As part of Guthries property development at Bukit Jelutong / Razak area (near Shah Alam
stadium), an overpass was constructed linking the surrounding Guthrie property to the Sungei
Buloh Highway. The overpass comprises of bridge deck and bridge abutment supported on piles
and approach embankments and Keystone walls founded on stone columns. The maximum height
of the Keystone wall is about 7 m.
The site is overlain by 2 m of earthfill followed by soft clayey silt layers to a depth of about 7 m.
This is underlain by medium stiff to stiff cohesive layers. Vibro replacement using dry bottom feed
method was chosen in order to improve soft cohesive soils to an average depth of 7 m below
ground level. Typical view of completed Keystone wall is shown in Figure 22.

Figure 22: View of completed Keystone wall founded on stone columns

5.4 Offshore Bridge Abutments

Projek Gerbang Selatan Bersepadu, Johor Bahru, Malaysia (2003)

The existing roadway (causeway) between Malaysia and Singapore was built using rock-fill in
1920s. It is proposed that a new bridge be built to replace the existing causeway. This required
the construction of an offshore bridge abutment.
The subsoil below seabed level consists of very soft clay having a thickness varying between 4 m
and 7 m and is underlain by bedrock. Offshore vibro replacement method was chosen to treat the
soft soils in the vicinity of the bridge abutment location in order to limit total and differential
settlements.
Offshore stone columns of 1m diameter were installed working from a floating barge to depths
between 4 m and 7 m below seabed level. Over 10,000 linear meters of offshore stone columns
were installed using the Keller bottom feed Alpha-S system. Figure 23 shows a site photo with the
Alpha S system and the stone being fed from a stone barge using a long arm excavator.

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Dr. V. R. Raju R. Wegner Y. Hari Krishna, Keller Grundbau GmbH

Figure 23: Photo showing the Alpha S system and the stone being fed from
a stone barge using a long arm excavator

5.5 Railways
Modern high speed railway lines require that track settlements are limited to within very tight
tolerances. An example specification from the Ipoh Rawang Double track project required
the following:
Maximum total post construction settlement of 25 mm over a period of 6 months
of commercial rail service.
Maximum differential settlement of 10 mm over a track length of 10 m (1 in 1000)
along the centreline of embankment.
Overall embankment stability with a minimum factor of safety of 1.4 (short-term) and
1.5 (long-term).
For details on railway projects that are executed by Keller world wide, the reader is referred
to Raju V.R. (2003) [9].

Petronas Kedah Fertilizer Plant Line at Gurun, Malaysia (1997)

The construction of the Petronas Kedah fertilizer plant in 1997 near Gurun in northern Malaysia
was accompanied by the construction of a special railway line connecting the KTM main railway
line to the fertilizer plant. The proximity of the existing KTM line did not allow the use of earth
slopes and a reinforced earth wall was used. The height of wall varied between 2 m and 8 m.
The presence of very soft clayey silts (SPT N = 0 to 2) to depths down to 9.0 m posed problems
of wall stability and excessive settlements.
Vibro Replacement using the dry bottom feed technique was used to treat the soft soils. In total
over 18,000 linear meters of 1.0 m diameter stone columns were installed using two Keller
Vibrocats. Typical cross section of RE wall founded on stone columns is shown in Figure 24.

18
 Ground Improvement Techniques

Figure 24: Typical cross section of RE wall founded on stone columns

Kerteh Kuantan Railway Project, Malaysia (2000 2001)

The development of Petrochemical facilities on the east coast of Malaysia necessitated the con-
struction of a dedicated railway line between Kerteh and Kuantan by Petronas. Soils along the
alignment ranged between loose sands along coastal areas to sensitive fine grained soils (silts and
clays) and also highly organic soils in inland forest and swampy areas.
Where soft cohesive and organic silts and clays were found (SPT N = 0, CPT Qc = 200 to
300 kPa) to depths of 8 m to 14 m, Vibro Replacement using the wet top feed method was used.
The alignment often passed through thick jungles with swampy soil conditions. The trees, shrubs
and decomposed materials were first cleared and an access road was built adjoining the railway
alignment as shown in Figure 25.
Up to 8 wet top feed stone column installation rigs were used in order to treat a total of
3,800 m of railway track using vibro replacement technique. The works were carried out at 12
different sites.

Figure 25: Railway alignment through a

jungle after site clearing and
construction of access road

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Dr. V. R. Raju R. Wegner Y. Hari Krishna, Keller Grundbau GmbH

Ipoh Rawang Electrified Double Track Project, Malaysia (2001 2004)

Malaysia is to play a key role in the planning and coordination of the Trans-Asia Railway line
between Kunming in China and Singapore. The line covering a total distance of approx. 5,500 km
is expected to link and promote the economic development of countries such as China, Vietnam,
Laos, Burma, Cambodia, Thailand, Malaysia and Singapore. The Ipoh to Rawang Double Track
project which is under construction will form a part of the Trans-Asia Railway line and covers a
distance of approx. 150 km. The alignment of the new double track line follows closely the
existing single track line and in many locations one of the lines is shared. However, more stringent
gradient requirements of the new line resulted in an increase in embankment heights ranging
between 2 m and 11 m.
The Ipoh to Rawang stretch has seen extensive tin mining activity in the past and the soil
conditions encountered on site have been largely influenced by these activities. Soils are highly
variable mixtures of loose sands and very soft silts and clays to depths ranging between 6 m and
in certain extreme cases as deep as 24 m.
Vibro replacement was chosen as a technically sound, flexible and economically viable solution to
treat these soils to meet specifications for high speed railway line. Figure 26 shows a schematic of
the half-width treatment and where necessary, the soil under the rehab track is to be treated
later, once the train has been shifted to the newly built track. Where the new alignment was
separated from the existing line, full-width treatment was carried out in one go as shown in
Figure 26.

Figure 26: Schematics showing half-width and full-width treatment adjoining the existing railway line

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 Ground Improvement Techniques

In total, stone columns were installed at 23 separate locations (by Keller) covering a track length
of approximately 7km. Works were often carried out very close to the existing track (approx. 2 m
away) without any disturbance to normal train operations. Typical picture showing the installation
dry stone columns adjoining the existing track using vibrocat and crane-hung units is shown in
Figure 27.

Figure 27: Installation of dry stone columns adjoining the existing track

The double tracking of the existing line necessitated the increase in the bridge spans which
implied that in most cases, new bridges had to be built adjoining the existing ones. Approach
embankments for the bridges reached a maximum height of 12 m and were often supported by
reinforced soil walls. Figure 28 shows the treatment scheme for the new embankment adjoining
the existing one. Vibro replacement was carried out at 4 bridge locations covering a treatment
area of about 48,000 sq.m.

Figure 28: Schematic showing treatment for road over rail embankments

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Dr. V. R. Raju R. Wegner Y. Hari Krishna, Keller Grundbau GmbH

5.6 Airport Runways and Taxiways

Alor Setar, Malaysia (2003 2004)

The redevelopment of the existing Alor Setar airport in northern Malaysia at Kepala Batas
required the extension of the existing taxiway, runway and turn-pad. The subsoil at site consists
of very soft to soft silty clay layers to a depth of 8 to 12 m with intermittent sandy layers.
Vibro replacement using dry bottom feed method was chosen in order to improve the soft soils.
In view of the operational airport, only the dry bottom feed method was feasible, as water jetting
adjacent to the runway was not allowed. Due to operation of the existing airport in the day time,
improvement works (including setting up and removal of the rig) were carried out only during
the night time between takeoff of the last flight and landing of the first flight. Over 50,000 linear
meters of 1m diameter stone columns were installed using two vibro cat units. Typical pictures
showing the installation of dry stone columns and removal of the setup upon completion of the
night shift are shown in Figure 29.

Figure 29: Installation of dry stone columns at Alor Setar airport

5.7 Storage Tanks

A common application for Vibro replacement is tank foundations. Typical requirements are:
Maximum total post construction settlement of 300 mm and 150 mm (including short-term and
long-term) for fixed and floating roofs, respectively.
Maximum differential settlement of 1 in 180 and 1 in 360 (both radial and circumferential) for
fixed and floating roofs, respectively.

Hazira LNG Terminal, India (2002)

Hazira LNG terminal is located at an estuary on the west coast of the Khambhat Gulf in India.
Two liquid gas tanks of diameter 84 m each and with a filling level of approximately 35 m were
founded on vibro stone columns. The subsoil at site consists of loose silty sands to a depth of
16m. This was followed by very dense sandy layers with SPT N more than 50.
The technique of vibro replacement was chosen in order to reduce overall settlement of the
tanks and to mitigate liquefaction potential in a possible seismic event. Over 45,000 linear meters
of stone columns of diameter 1m and 16 m long were installed using the wet top feed method.
Figure 30 shows schematic view of two LNG tanks founded on stone columns. For further details
on Hazira project, the reader is referred to Raju V.R. et. al. (2003) [10].

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 Ground Improvement Techniques

T1001 T1002

Inner Shell Outer Shell

LNG Storage Tanks
Double-Wall Tanks
160,000 m

16 m

Stone columns
Pipe route

Zone of improvement
T1001 T1002

105 m dia.
84 m dia.
Tank

Pumps Pumps
Pipe Rack

Figure 30: Cross-section and plan view of LNG tanks

5.8 Other Infrastructure Projects

Bangkok Flood Protection Scheme, Thailand (1995 1996)

As part of the flood protection scheme for Bangkok city (capital city of Thailand), an approxi-
mately 11 km long embankment was constructed at the mouth of Bangkok river. The height of
embankment varied between 1 m and 3.5 m. The site is characterised by mudflats and mangrove
swamps and flooded with 1 m of water during high tide whereas the waterline recedes to
distance of about 100 m during low tide.
Subsoil at the site consists of very soft silty clay (Bangkok clay) up to a depth of 16 to 20 m
followed by dense sandy layers. The undrained shear strength of very soft clay at top is in the
order of 5 kPa and gradually increases with depth at a rate of about 1 kPa per meter.
Ground improvement using stone columns was carried out in order to stabilise the embankment
and to reduce long-term settlements. Stone columns were installed down to a depth of 10 m
below ground. A total of over 165,000 linear meters of 1m diameter stone columns were
installed using wet top feed method of installation.

Santa Rita Power Station, Philippines (1998 1999)

As part of development of 1,000 MW combines cycle power station in Santa Rita, Batangas in
Philippines required the construction of approach embankment in order to connect the unloading
jetty with the power station area. The cooling water intake and outfall pipes are built within the
embankment. In addition the embankment also supports oil pipe lines (see Figure 31).

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Dr. V. R. Raju R. Wegner Y. Hari Krishna, Keller Grundbau GmbH

The site is overlain by 3 to 4 m thick soft silty, sandy clay layer followed by loose to medium
dense silty sand layers having fines content in the range of 10% to 30%. This is underlain by dense
to very dense sand layers which were found at depths varying between 3 m and 15 m. In addition
to instability of the embankment due to soft clay layer a surface, a maximum peak ground
acceleration of 0.4 g is to be expected during possible seismic event which makes the loose to
medium dense silty sand layer susceptible to liquefaction.
Ground improvement using vibro replacement method was chosen in order to provide adequate
stability to the embankment and to reduce liquefaction potential and build up of excess pore
water pressure. Over 20,000 linear meters of stone columns were installed in primary and
secondary grids with varying depths using the dry bottom feed method. Typical plan and cross-
section view of the jetty approach embankment is shown in Figure 31. For further details on
Santa Rita Power Station project, the reader is referred to Raju V.R. et. al. (1998) [5].

Primary SC - grid
Second. SC - grid
30 m

Oil pipelines

Intake pipes Outfall pipes

Embankment

Stone columns not to scale

Intake pipes

Jetty
Stone columns under
jetty approach embankment

Outfall pipes
Figure 31: Plan and cross-sectional
view of jetty approach Treatment area Power
embankment plant

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 Ground Improvement Techniques

Malampaya Onshore Gas Plant, Batangas, Philippines (1999 2000)

The Shell Malampaya onshore gas plant is an extension of an existing complex near Batangas in
the Philippines (approximately 100 km south of Manila). The subsoil consists of soft clay in the
upper 2 to 4 m and a liquefiable loose to medium dense sandy soils up to a depth of 8 to 13 m.
This is underlain by stiff silts and clays down to a depth of 20 to 30 m.
Ground improvement using vibro replacement was chosen in order to allow for a bearing
pressure of up to 150 kPa with specified settlement limits (less than 25 mm). In addition, stone
columns were designed to reduce the liquefaction potential of the loose sands. A total of 300,000
linear meters of stone columns of diameter 1m were installed on a square grid spacing of 2 m c/c
using dry bottom feed vibrocat and crane-hung systems. The length of columns varied between
8 m and 18 m. Typical picture showing the installation of stone columns is shown in Figure 32.

Figure 32: Typical picture showing installation of dry bottom feed stone columns

CAPCO PTA Project, Taichung Harbour, Taiwan (2000 2001)

China American Petrochemical Co. Ltd. (CAPCO), the largest manufacturer of PTA (Purified
Terephthalic Acid) in Taiwan planned to build its sixth PTA plant on the island. The proposed site
was in a reclaimed area close to the harbour of Taichung. The subsoil consisted of sandy fill with
10% to 25% fines up to a depth of 10 m, followed by sand of 8% to 15% fines to a depth of
approx. 20 m. The in-situ testing at site showed that the sand deposits were of low density and
were extremely sensitive to liquefaction, what was drastically demonstrated at site during the
Chi Chi Earthquake in 1999. Soil improvement in these sand layers was necessary to mitigate the
liquefaction potential as well as to reduce expected settlement. Below the level of 20 m, stiff clay
and over-consolidated sands were encountered, which had high density and low compressibility
and the influence of this base formation could be neglected with regard to the settlement and
liquefaction analyses.
After intensive studies (with field trials) of soil improvement techniques possibly suitable for the
difficult issues at site dynamic compaction improved the soil only up to a depth of approx. 8 m,
whereas sand compaction piles did not bring the required level of densification the stone
column method using the Vibro Replacement technique was selected. In total approx. 200,000
linear meters of stone columns with 1m diameter were constructed in a triangular grid of 2.5 m
using crane hung bottom feed system. The works were carried out in cooperation with a
Taiwanese partner, where Keller provided expertise, experienced personnel and the specialized
bottom feed plant.

25
Dr. V. R. Raju R. Wegner Y. Hari Krishna, Keller Grundbau GmbH

A typical CPT profile comparing pre and post treatment results can be seen in Figure 33. The
sand layer up to 10 m improved from approx. 5 MPa to 10 12 MPa, the layer below from approx.
7.5 MPa to 14 MPa and more.

Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

Tip Resistance Qc [MPa]
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
0

10
Depth [m]

15

20

25

30

Pre CPT Post CPT

Figure 33: Typical CPT profile showing pre and post treatment results

6. Words of Caution for Treating Ultra Soft Soils

Vibro replacement by virtue of its flexibility and reliability has proven to be suitable for a wide range
of soils and structure types. Its application has been extended to treat very soft and even ultra soft
soils. However, it should be kept in mind that such works, especially the treatment of ultra soft soils
have to be undertaken only by experienced geotechnical engineers and site personnel. Precise soil
investigation and detailed design prior to commencement of works, computerised online monitoring
of installation parameters during column construction and detailed post construction monitoring is a
must.

Based on the authors experience, the following issues need special attention when treating soft to
ultra soft soils.

6.1 Depth of Treatment

Even though it is often tempting to limit treatment to shallow or partial depths in deep soft soil
deposits (from a cost economics point of view), this is not recommended or should be taken up only
after careful review and acceptance of the possible consequences of such limited depth treatment
which could be long term settlements from the deeper untreated soft soils and the risk of deep
seated failures.

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 Ground Improvement Techniques

6.2 Column Diameters, Spacings and Area Ratios

The construction of well compacted columns in very soft soils can only be reliably done, when column
diameters are 0.8 m or more. For ultra soft soils, a diameter below 1.0 m is not recommended.
To ensure group action in soft soils, a spacing greater than 2.5 m c/c is not recommended. Area ratios
generally range between 12% on the lower end and 30% on the higher end.

6.3 Load Transfer

Due care should be given to this aspect to ensure proper load transfer to the stone columns. Using a
simple practical rule of placing a 1.0 m thick sand platform over the soft soil and ensuring that at least
a 1.0 m thick earthfill is placed over the columns has ensured that this issue is adequately addressed.
None of the case histories in this paper have experienced problems with regard to this matter.

7. Future Developments
The method and equipment is continuously being improved. Special vibrators to penetrate dense top
layers, robotic systems where column installation is automated (to minimise operator errors),
automated quality control systems, new systems for efficient transport of stone to the compaction
point are some of the ongoing developments
Refinements in design methodology, numerical analysis using 2D and 3D finite element modelling (ref.
Kirsch F. and Sondermann W. (2003) [11]), detailed in situ stress measurements on soil and columns all
lead to a better understanding of the load transfer and load sharing mechanisms between soil and
column which in turn leads to a better assessment of the overall soil improvement.

8. Conclusions
This paper describes the use of vibro replacement to treat a variety of soils and structure types. Over
3 million linear meters of stone columns have been installed by Keller in Asia in the last 10 years using
a variety of vibro replacement methods to suit site specific conditions.
Careful soil investigation, design, column installation with online quality control and post construction
monitoring has ensured a stable foundation for the structures resting on soil improved by vibro
replacement.

9. Acknowledgments
The construction and completion of the works described in this paper naturally involved several
organisations ranging from owners, main contractors, design consultants and of course several Keller
staff. Their assistance and contribution is gratefully acknowledged.

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Dr. V. R. Raju R. Wegner Y. Hari Krishna, Keller Grundbau GmbH

References:
[1] Moseley, M.P. and Priebe, H.J. (1993), Vibro techniques, Ground Improvement, Edited by
M.P. Moseley, Blackie Academic & Profession, pp. 119.
[2] Priebe, H.J. (1995), The Design of Vibro Replacement, Ground Engineering,
December 1995, pp. 31-37.
[3] Priebe, H.J. (1998), Vibro Replacement to Prevent Earthquake Induced Liquefaction,
Proceedings of the 5th Geotechnique-Colloquium, Darmstadt, Germany, March 1998.
[4] Raju, V.R., Yee, Y.W., Tam, E. and Sreenivas, P. (2004), Vibro Replacement for the Construction of
a 15 m High Highway Embankment over a Mining Pond, Malaysian Geotechnical Conference,
Kuala Lumpur, 2004.
[5] Raju, V.R., Wegner, R. and Godenzie, D. (1998), Ground Improvement using Vibro Techniques
Case Histories from S.E. Asia, Ground Improvement Conference, Singapore, 1998.
[6] Raju, V.R. and Hoffmann, G. (1996), Treatment of Tin Mine Tailings in Kuala Lumpur using
Vibro Replacement, Proceedings of the 12th SEAGC, May 1996.
[7] Raju, V.R., Masud, A. and Ha, P. (1997), Vibro Replacement - A Technique for Extensive Ground
Improvement Works in Very Soft Cohesive Soils at the Shah Alam Expressway, 4th Geotechnique-
Colloquium, Darmstadt, Germany, March 1997.
[8] Raju, V.R. (1997), The Behaviour of Very Soft Cohesive Soils Improved by Vibro Replacement,
Ground Improvement Conference, London, June, 1997.
[9] Raju, V.R. (2003), Ground Improvement Techniques for Railway Embankments, Railtech Conference,
Malaysia, 2003.
[10] Raju, V.R., Wegner, R. and Vetriselvan, A. (2003), Application of Vibro Techniques for Infrastructure
Projects in India, Proceedings of the Indian Geotechnical Conference, Roorkee, India, 2003.
[11] Kirsch, F. and Sondermann, W. (2003) Field Measurements and Numerical Analysis of the Stress
Distribution below Stone Column Supported Embankments and their Stability, International
Workshop on Geotechnics of Soft Soils-Theory and Practice, Vermeer, Schweiger, Karstunen & Cudny
(eds.) 2003 VGE.

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Annexure I
Vibro Replacement projects executed by Keller in Asia in the last decade (1994 2004)

Name of the
S. No. Year Country Soil Structure Purpose of Improvement
Project

Ultra soft silts (mining

Shah Alam Highway embankments
slime), loose sands and Settlement reduction and
1. 1994 1997 Expressway Package Malaysia and reinforced earth walls
marine soft clays up to slope stability for highway
A&B up to a height of 10 m
a depth of 26 m
Very soft silty clay Embankment as a flood Settlement reduction and
Bangkok Flood
2. 1995 1996 Thailand (Bangkok clay) up to a protection bund up to a slope stability for flood
Protection Scheme
depth of 20 m height of 3.5 m protection bund
Keystone wall as an Settlement reduction and
Guthrie Overpass, Soft clayey silts up to a
3. 1996 Malaysia approach embankment up slope stability for keystone
Kuala Lumpur depth of 7 m
to a height of 7 m wall
Settlement reduction and
KLIA Perimeter Road, Very soft silty clay up Approach embankments
4. 1996 1997 Malaysia slope stability for approach
Sepang to a depth of 22 m up to height of 7.5 m
embankments
Petronas Kedah Reinforced earth walls up Settlement reduction and
Very soft clayey silts up
5. 1997 Fertilizer Plant Line Malaysia to a height of 8 m for slope stability for reinforced
to a depth of 9 m
at Gurun railway line earth walls
Mitigation of liquefaction
Soft silty sandy clay Approach embankment to
Santa Rita Power potential; settlement
6. 1998 1999 Philippines and loose silty sands up connect the jetty and
Station reduction and slope stability
to a depth of 15 m power plant area
for approach embankment
Putrajaya Settlement reduction and
Very soft organic clay Earth embankments up to
7. 1998 1999 Boulevard Malaysia slope stability for earth
up to a depth of 12 m a height of 18 m
Package embankments
Very soft clayey silts Approach embankment up Settlement reduction and
Putrajaya Bridge
8. 1999 Malaysia and loose silty sands up to a height of 24 m for slope stability for bridge
BR 8, Selangor
to a depth of 10 m cable stayed arch bridge approaches
Earth embankments up to
Putrajaya R2a, Very soft clayey silts up Settlement reduction and
9. 1999 Malaysia a height of 24 m for
Selangor to a depth of 8 m slope stability for highway
highway
Mitigation of liquefaction
Soft clay and loose silty Onshore gas plant with
Malampaya Onshore potential; settlement
10. 1999 2000 Philippines sands up to depth of a bearing pressure of
Gas Plant, Batangas reduction and improvement in
13 m 150 kPa
bearing capacity
Organic soft silts and
Kerteh - Kuantan Railway embankments up Settlement reduction and
11. 2000 2001 Malaysia clays and loose sands
Railway Project to a height of 7 m slope stability for railway
up to depth of 14 m
Municipal waste and
Jelutong Expressway Highway embankments up Settlement reduction and
12. 2000 2001 Malaysia soft marine clay up to a
Stage 1 to a height of 7 m slope stability for highway
depth of 14 m
Reclaimed sand up to a Mitigation of liquefaction
13. 2000 2001 CAPCO - PTA Project Taiwan depth of 20m with fines Petrochemical plant potential and settlement
of 8 to 25% reduction
Ipoh Rawang Very soft silts and clays Railway embankments and
Settlement reduction and
14. 2001 2004 Electrified Double Malaysia and loose sands up to a reinforced earth walls up
slope stability for railway
Track Project depth of 24 m to a height of 12 m
LNG tanks of 84 m Mitigation of liquefaction
Loose silty sands up to
15. 2002 Hazira LNG Terminal India diameter each and filling potential and Settlement
depth of 16 m
height of 35 m reduction
Ultra soft silts (mining
slime), loose sands, Highway embankments
Settlement reduction and
16. 2002 2003 Kajang Ring Road Malaysia silty clays and sandy and reinforced earth walls
slope stability for highway
silts up to a depth of up to a height of 15 m
14 m
Soft clays, ultra soft
Highway embankments
silts (slimes), and loose Settlement reduction and
17. 2001 2003 New Pantai Highway Malaysia and reinforced earth walls
silty sands up to depth slope stability for highway
up to a height 13 m
of 18 m
Projek Gerbang Very soft muddy clay Settlement reduction and
18. 2003 Selatan Bersepadu, Malaysia and soft clay up to a Offshore bridge abutment forming smooth transition
Johor Bahru depth of 7 m zone
Extension of taxiway, Settlement reduction and
Alor Setar Airport, Very soft silty clay up
19. 2003 2004 Malaysia runway and turn-pad improvement in bearing
Kepala Batas to a depth of 12 m
areas capacity

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