08 Instruction Manul of Fluid Mechanics Lab

Northern Border University
College of Engineering
Department of mechanical Engineering
NORTHERN BORDER UNIVERSITY
Mechanical Engineering Department
Instructions Manual (Fluid Mechanics Lab)

1- Investigation of Bernoulli's Theorem
1. INTRODUCTION
The flow of a fluid has to conform with a number of scientific principles in particular the
conservation of mass and the conservation of energy. The first of these when applied to a liquid
flowing through a conduit requires that for steady flow the velocity will be inversely proportional
to the flow area. The second requires that if the velocity increases then the pressure must
decrease. Cussons P6231 Bernoulli's Apparatus demonstrates both of these principles and can
also be used to examine the onset of turbulence in an accelerating fluid stream. Both Bernoulli's
equation and the Continuity equation are essential analytical tools required for the analysis of
most problems in the subject of Mechanics of Fluids
. 2. DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS
Cussons P6231 Bernoulli's Apparatus consists essentially of a two dimensional rectangular

section convergent divergent duct designed to fit between Cussons P6103 Constant Head Inlet
Tank and P6104 Variable Head Outlet Tank. An eleven tube static pressure manometer bank is
attached to the convergent divergent duct. A dye injection system is provided which allows for a
single filament of dye to be introduced into the entrance to the convergent section to enable
laminar and turbulent flow regimes to be demonstrated. The differential head across the test

section can be varied from zero up to a maximum of 450mm. The test section, which is
manufactured from acrylic sheet, is illustrated in figure 1 below.
Figure 1 P6231 Bernoulli's Apparatus

The convergent divergent duct is symmetrical about the centre line with a flat horizontal upper
surface into which the eleven static pressure tappings are drilled. The lower surface is at an angle
of 4 29'. The width of the channel is 635 mm. The height of the channel at entry and exit is
19525 mm and the height at the throat is 635 mm. The static tappings are at a pitch of 25 mm
distributed about the centre and therefore about the throat. The flow area at each tapping is
tabulated below the dimensions which are shown in figure 2.

Tapping
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Number
Flow
102 56 90 11 77 66 65 22 52 77 40 32 52 77 65 22 77 66 90 11 102 56
Area
Figure 2 Duct Dimension
3. THEORY
3.1 Bernoulli's Theorem
Bernoulli's equation is applicable to the steady flow of an incompressible and inviscid fluid.
Bernoulli's equation shows that the sum of the three quantities is constant.

are constant. Therefore the three terms must be interchangeable so that, for example, if in a
horizontal system the velocity head is increased then the pressure head must decrease.
3.2 Loss of Head due to Friction
If the fluid is not inviscid then there will be a small loss of head due to friction within the fluid
and between the fluid and the walls of the passage. Bernoulli's Equation can then be modified by
the inclusion of the frictional head loss Hf
where Bernoulli's equation has been written in the integrated form and has been applied between
the upstream section 1 and the downstream section 2.
3.3 The Continuity Equation
The continuity equation is a statement of the conservation of mass. Consider the steady flow of a
fluid through a streamtube of varying cross sectional area as shown in figure 3. For steady flow
the mass of fluid entering the streamtube at section 1 must equal the mass of fluid leaving the
streamtube at section 2. The mass flow rate of fluid at any section along the streamtube must be
constant so that :
For an incompressible fluid the density is constant and the continuity equation can be written as :
For an incompressible fluid flowing in a converging duct it follows that as the area reduces then
the velocity must increase, whilst in a diverging duct as the area increases then the velocity must
decrease. Applying Bernoulli's equation if the velocity increases then the pressure must decrease
whilst as the velocity decreases the pressure must increase. These processes are illustrated in
figure 4 below.

A decreases A increases
V increases V decreases
P decreases P increases
This is a NOZZLE This is a DIFFUSER
Figure 4 Nozzle and Diffuser
3.4 Application to Cussons P6231 Bernoulli's Apparatus
In Cussons P6231 Bernoulli's Apparatus the passage is two dimensional with a constant width
but with a linearly varying height. The flow area of the passage therefore also varies linearly.
From the continuity equation
where
For this channel w is constant in size throughout since the channel is formed between two
parallel plates, hence the product h V = Constant. The velocity head V2/2g will be proportional
to h2 and therefore to S2. A graph of static head against distance S will be an inverted parabola.

The effect of loss of head due to friction can be investigated by comparing the static head at
positions of equal area for the converging and diverging parts of the duct. Using Bernoulli's
equation
Since the passage is horizontal Z1 = Z2. At two positions of equal area the two velocities will be
equal thus the equation reduces to
Most of the pressure loss in the converging part of the duct is recovered in the diverging part of
the duct. The degree of pressure recovery is given by :
Experiments show very clearly that whilst it is possible to change pressure head to velocity head
without appreciable loss of energy, it is impossible to change velocity head to pressure head
without loss.
3.5 Laminar and Turbulent Flow
Laminar and turbulent flow regimes may be seen by the behaviour of a fine line of dye injected
into the centre of the converging passage. If a condition can be set up in which the flow velocity
at the start of the converging duct is high but laminar then as the velocity increases in the
converging duct the flow will become turbulent and this transition can be observed by the
behaviour of the dye line.
The Reynolds number is defined as

For a rectangular duct the equivalent dimension to diameter to include in the calculation of
Reynolds number is :
The value of Re at which turbulence commences is indicative of the higher critical Reynolds
number of the fluid. Similarly, the value at which turbulence finally subsides is indicative of the
lower critical Reynolds number. Careful manipulation of the flow rate will show turbulence at
the throat while the flow in the convergent passage is still laminar. One of the important aspects
of this experiment is in the facility with which random variation of flow may be achieved and the
corresponding flow patterns observed.
4. EXPERIMENTS
Equipment Preparation
Position the Inlet Head Tank P6103 and the Variable Head Outlet Tank P6104 on the mounting
studs provided on the Hydraulic Bench working surface and connect the Bernoulli Apparatus
between them using the union connections. Connect the Bench Feed hose to the Inlet Head Tank
and attach an overflow hose to the overflow outlet of the Inlet Head Tank. Attach the Dye Reservoir
to the top of the Inlet Head Tank using the attached mounting clip and ensure that the spring clip is
attached to the rubber hose so that ink cannot flow to the injector needle. Fill the ink reservoir with
a water miscible dye, washable blue ink is recommended. Make sure that the dye is free to flow
through the dye injector needle when the spring clip is adjusted. If a blockage of the ink does occur
in the injector needle, this is usually caused by a failure to wash out all the ink when the equipment
has been previously used. The blockage can normally be rectified by flushing the dye injection
system thoroughly with clean water. Remove the brass blanking plug from the side of the Inlet
Head Tank and insert the Dye Injector Needle so that the tip protrudes approximately 20mm into
the transparent Bernoulli Test section. In order to record the height of the water level in each of the
manometer tubes, a sheet of paper should be positioned as in figure 1.
EXPERIMENT 1 - VERIFICATION OF BERNOULLI'S EQUATION
Aim. To verify Bernoulli's equation by demonstrating the relationship between pressure head and
kinetic head.
Equipment Preparation. Prepare the equipment to the following specification
Inlet P6103 Constant Head Inlet Tank with overflow extension fitted.

Test Section P6231 Bernoulli's Apparatus
Exit P6104 Variable Head Outlet Tank
Manometer Insert a sheet of graph paper 440mm high by 325mm wide behind the
manometer tubes to provide an easy method of obtaining a record of the
results.
Experimental Procedure.
1. Start the pump and initiate a flow of water through the test section. Regulate the flow to
the inlet head tank so that there is a small but steady overflow from P6103. Adjust the
swivel tube of the outlet tank to obtain a differential head of 50mm.
2. Measure the height of the water level in each manometer tube by marking the paper
positioned behind the tubes and record on the test sheet. Measure the time taken to fill the
bench measuring tank from zero to 10 litres and record.
3. Increase the differential head between the inlet and outlet head tanks by 50mm
increments, until the water level in the centre manometer tubes drops off the scale. For
each condition record the heights of liquid in the manometer tubes by once again marking
the paper positioned behind the tubes and measure the flow rate.
Results and Analysis.
1. Record the results on a copy of the result sheet provided.

2. Calculate the flow rate for each set of results.
3. For each set of results calculate at the cross-section adjacent to each manometer tube, the
flow velocity and the Reynolds number.
4. Plot a graph of head against distance and also H + V2 / 2g against distance.
Water Vicosity of
Density of
Temperature 3 Water
o Water kg/m 2
C Ns/m
Volumetric
Quantity of
Time to Collect Flow Rate
Water
Water sec Q
Collected litres
litres/min
Tapping 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Number
Flow Area 102.56 90.11 77.66 65.22 52.77 40.32 52.77 65.22 77.66 90.11 102.56
2
mm
Static Head
mm
Velocity m/s

Reynolds
Number
Table 1: Experimental Results
EXPERIMENT 2 - DEMONSTRATION OF LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW
Aim. To demonstrate visually laminar (or streamlined) flow and its transition to turbulent
flow at a particular velocity.
Equipment Preparation. Prepare the equipment to the following specification
Inlet P6103 Constant Head Inlet Tank with overflow extension fitted.
Test Section P6231 Bernoulli's Apparatus
Exit P6104 Variable Head Outlet Tank
Manometer Insert a sheet of graph paper 440mm high by 325mm wide behind the
manometer tubes to provide an easy method of obtaining a record of the
results.
1. Start the pump and initiate a flow of water through the test section. Regulate the flow to the
inlet head tank so that there is a small but steady overflow from P6103. Adjust the swivel
tube of the outlet tank to obtain a differential head of 20mm.
2. Raise the dye reservoir to the top of its column (the spring loaded bracket can be freed by
squeezing the two ends together between the fingers) and open the tube clip.
3. Open the small cock on the base of the reservoir to permit dye to flow from the nozzle at the
entrance to the channel. This will be visible as a coloured stream along the passage. If the
dye accumulates around the nozzle, increase the velocity of flow in the passage and/or check
the flow from the dye reservoir.
4. Under laminar flow conditions the stream will be visible along the whole length of the
passage. If this is not so, reduce the flow until a continuous stream of dye is visible along the
passage.
5. Steadily increase the flow rate by increasing the total differential head, while carefully
observing the condition of the fluid in the channel. When instability occurs leading to the
break-up of the dye stream, note the position in the passage and measure the corresponding
value of the flow rate.
6. Continue to maintain close observation of the passage while further increasing the flow rate
until the whole system is turbulent with no visible dye stream at any point.

7. Reduce the flow rate to the point at which turbulence disappears and stable laminar flow
conditions are regained along the whole passage. Measure the flow rate and position of the
last traces of turbulence.
8. Continuous manipulation of the flow rate while observing the flow conditions may be
conducted as a useful visual aid to the appreciation of laminar and turbulent flow conditions.
9. Switch off the pump and allow the apparatus to drain back to the main reservoir.
Note : Continuous use of the dye will tint the circulating water. When this becomes severe
the water should be changed. Do not use water containing dye in other apparatus
10. Completely clean all the apparatus of any trace of water containing dye before returning the
apparatus to store.
1. Record the results on a copy of the result sheet provided.

2. Calculate the flow rate for each set of results.
3. For each set of results calculate at the cross-section adjacent to each manometer tube, the
flow velocity and the Reynolds number.
4. For a set of results in which the flow changed from laminar to turbulent determine the higher
critical Reynolds number.

2. Flow in Pipes and Fittings
1. INTRODUCTION
The flow of fluids in closed conduits or pipes is a major topic in the Mechanical Engineering
subject of Mechanics of Fluids due to its practical importance in so many fields of study. It is
also of significant interest in such diverse fields as Civil and Chemical Engineering, and Biology
and Medicine.
Early work in the subject was essentially empirical and despite many advances in mathematical
analysis the complexity of the flow of real fluids is such that very few complete solutions of flow
situations exist and therefore a large part of the topic of fluid flow in closed conduits remains an
empirical science.
In this, the third part of Cussons Hydraulics Bench manual, three sets of experiments are
considered which are all concerned with the flow of water through circular pipes or tubes, the
head loss through pipe fittings, the loss of head at changes in pipe section, the head loss which
occurs at entry and exit to pipes, the pressure loss across valves and valve characteristics.
2. DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS
2.1 P6220 Laminar Flow Apparatus
The P6220 Laminar Flow Apparatus consists of a tubular test section of 3mm internal bore and
508mm long, including a 13mm bell nose entry, which is supported inside a protective outer
25mm tube and is terminated at each end in bushed unions. Two static pressure tappings are
provided, the first tapping being 95mm from the entry plane with a distance between the two
tapping points of 360mm. It is intended that the test section should be mounted between the

P6103 Constant Head Inlet Tank and the P6104 Variable Head Outlet Tank. The P6106
Manometer Board is to be used to measure the head loss across the tubular test section. The test
section is shown in figure 1 below.
Figure 1 3mm Bore Laminar Turbulent Flow Test Section
2.2 P6221 Losses In Pipes And Fittings Apparatus.
The P6221 Losses In Pipes and Fittings Apparatus consists of a set of six test sections each
464mm long. The test sections may be used one at a time by mounting the required test section
between the P6103 Constant Head Inlet Tank and the P6104 Variable Head Outlet Tank. The six
test sections, which are shown in figure 2 are :
a. 7mm nominal bore pipe with two static pressure tappings 360mm apart.
b. 10mm nominal bore pipe with two static pressure tappings 360mm apart.
c. 10mm nominal bore pipe incorporating four bends 40mm bend radius with two
static pressure tappings with a total pipe length of 540mm between the tappings.
d. 10mm nominal bore pipe incorporating four elbows with two static pressure
tappings with a total pipe length of 540mm between the tappings.
e. 10mm nominal bore pipe incorporating a ball valve, two static pressure tappings
are provided 360mm apart.
f. 10mm nominal bore pipe incorporating an angle seat valve, two static pressure
tappings are provided 360mm apart.

a) 7mm Bore Test Section
b) 10 mm Bore Test Section
c) Bore Test Section With Four Bends


P6222 Energy/Exit and Contraction/Expansion Losses Apparatus
The P6222 Entry/Exit and Contraction/Expansion Losses Apparatus comprises of a set of two
test sections each 464mm long and four adaptor test pieces, as shown in figure 3 below. The two
test sections consist of a 10mm nominal bore pipe at one end and a 20mm nominal bore pipe at
the other end, one of the test sections has a sudden or stepped transition between the two
diameters, whilst the other test section has a 30 included angle gradual transition between the
two sections. Each of the two test sections can be used by mounting them either way round
between the P6103 Constant Head Inlet Tank and the P6104 Variable Head Outlet Tank. The
four adaptor test pieces can be used with the 10mm section to provide either a sudden inlet
contraction, sudden exit enlargement, gradual inlet contraction (30 ) or a gradual exit
enlargement (30 ). They are designed to be used by inserting them into the experiment
attachment boss of the inlet head tank or outlet head tank as appropriate. Alternatively they can
be used in pairs with the 10mm test section of P6221.

Figure 3 P6222 Enery/Exit and Contraction/Expansion Losses Apparatus
2.4 Use of Accessories
To provide a greater range of inlet heads and hence a large differential head across the test units
the P6105 Feed Block may be used instead of the P6103 Constant Head Inlet Tank. The Variable
Speed Pump Control Unit may also be used to control the pump speed and hence the flow rate.
At low flow rates it may be convenient to use graduated measuring cylinders (not supplied) of
approximately 100cc and 1000cc capacity to measure the flow rate.
3. THEORY.
3.1 Flow In Pipes.
Reynolds was able to show that the character of the flow could be described with the aid of a
dimensionless parameter, which is now known as Reynolds Number,
- - - - - - - - - - (1)
Fluid motion was found to be laminar for values of below 2000 and turbulent for values of Re
greater than 4000. Different laws of fluid resistance apply to laminar and turbulent flows
For laminar flow it is found that the pressure drop or head loss is proportional to velocity and
that this can be represented by Poiseuille's equation for the hydraulic gradient
- - - - - - - - - - (2)
For turbulent flow the relationship between head loss and velocity is exponential
- - - - - - - - - - (3)
and although there is no simple equation for turbulent flow it is accepted engineering practice to
use an empirical relationship for the hydraulic gradient which is attributed to Darcy and
Weisbach.
-- - - - - (4)
where f is an experimentally determined friction factor which varies with both Reynolds number
and the internal roughness of the pipe.

3.2 Newton's Law of Viscosity.
A measure of the fluidity of a substance is the kinematic viscosity which is defined as :-
i.e.
3.3 Laminar Flow in a Circular Pipe.
Expressing the pressure loss as a head loss due to friction, H over the pipe length l:
The head loss per unit length of pipe hf /L which is known as the hydraulic gradient ,symbol `i',
is then given by
- - - - - - - - - - (8)
which is known as Poiseuilles equation for laminar flow. Note that V is now taken to signify the
mean velocity.
3.4 Turbulent Flow in Circular Pipes.
The pressure loss as a head loss due to friction,
where f = is the Darcy friction factor.

The alternative definition of friction factor is often shown as f (f dash) and the head loss
equation is then written as
3.5 Reynolds Number.
In the laminar region the hydraulic gradient is directly proportional to the mean velocity. In the
turbulent flow region the hydraulic gradient is proportional to the mean velocity raised to some
power n the value of n being influenced by the roughness of the pipe wall.
i V for smooth pipes
i V for very rough pipes
i V to in the transition region
3.6 Critical Velocity.
Since the velocity marking the transition from laminar to turbulent flow is not precisely defined,
two values of critical velocity can be obtained from the plot of log i against log V as shown in
figure 6.
Figure 6 Graph of Log i Against Log e V
The dimensionless group Reynolds number (Re) = Vd / has a value below 2000 for laminar
flow and above 4000 for turbulent flow (when any consistent set of units is used) - the transition

zone lying in the region of Re 2000-4000 (i.e. `lower critical velocity' LCV at a Reynolds
number of 2000 and 'upper critical velocity' UCV at a Reynolds number of 4000).
3.7 Friction Factors.
The head loss due to friction for both laminar and turbulent flow can be predicted by the Darcy
Weisbach equation, and remembering that there are two definitions of the friction factor, f and
For laminar flow the friction factor is a function of Reynolds number only
Care has to be used due to these two different definitions of the friction factor, which are both in
equally common use, and therefore in choosing the appropriate relationship between the friction
factor and the head loss. When using graphs of friction factor against Reynolds number always
check the relationship for laminar flow as a means of distinguishing between the two
For turbulent flow the friction factor is a function of Reynolds number, and the relative
dependent on the pipe wall roughness only and becomes independent of the Reynolds number in
a flow regime known as fully developed turbulent flow.
3.8 Selection of Pipe Size.
The selection of the best size for a pipe to carry a given flow rate, which is a very common
design exercise, is made easier if the relationship between the head loss and pipe diameter is
known for the specific case of constant flow rate
For a given flow rate, the mean velocity in the pipe is given by:
Substituting for V into Poiseuille's equation for laminar flow

And using the Darcy-Weisbach equation for turbulent flow
The head loss is therefore inversely proportional to the diameter of the pipe raised to the fourth
power for laminar flow and inversely proportional to the diameter raised to the fifth power for
turbulent flow.
Figure 7 Stanton Diagram

4. EXPERIMENTS.
4.1 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
The experiments which can be carried out with the equipment covered by this part of the manual
include:
P6220
Experiment 1 Laminar and Turbulent Flow
P6221
Experiment 2 Friction Losses in Pipes
4.2 GENERAL EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
The Constant Head Inlet Tank (P6103) is positioned on the horizontal operating surface of the
Hydraulics Bench (P6100) using the locating pegs situated on the left hand side at the rear of the
bench. The required test section is then clamped to the Inlet Tank with the pressure tapping
points situated at the bottom. The Variable Head Outlet Tank (P6104) is positioned on its
appropriate positioning pegs and connected to the right hand side of the test section. The pressure
tapping points are then connected, by the clear plastic tube provided, to the water manometer of
the Manometer Board (P6106). The delivery hose from the Bench is connected to the Constant
Head Inlet Tank. The overflow hose from the inlet tank is inserted into the overflow pipe situated
in the volumetric measuring tank
With the Flow Regulating Valve of the bench closed, switch on the Bench Pump and allow water
to be pumped to the experiment by controlling the opening of the Flow Regulating Valve until
water just begins to flow into the Inlet Head Tank overflow pipe. The overall head across the test
section can now be regulated by adjusting the position of the variable overflow pipe of the
Variable Head Outlet Tank. With this pipe in the vertical position there is only a very small head
to cause any flow to take place, i.e. minimum value. By swiveling the pipe to give an angle of
about 5 to the horizontal a maximum flow is achieved without allowing the level in the second
leg of the manometer to fall below zero. With the outlet head tank overflow pipe adjusted to give
a maximum pressure drop across the experiment of approximately 500mm of water, as measured
on the manometer, ensure that the inlet head tank overflow pipe is still discharging.
To achieve higher flow rates than can be obtained with a differential head of 500mm it is
necessary to replace the Constant Head Inlet Tank (P6103) with the Feed Block (P6105). It will
then be necessary to use the water on mercury manometer to measure the higher head losses.
A source of disturbance in the equipment can be vibration transmitted from the pump mountings
when the pump speed is high. This may be considerably reduced by the use of Variable Speed
Pump Control Unit to control the fluid flow.

EXPERIMENT 1 LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW
Aim: To investigate the laminar and turbulent flow regimes of the flow of a liquid in a pipe and
to determine the lower and upper critical Reynolds numbers.
Equipment Preparation: Prepare the equipment to the following specification referring as

necessary to section 4.1.
Inlet Initially P6103 Constant Head Inlet Tank with overflow pipe extension fitted
but replaced later by P6105 Feedblock
Test Section P6220 Laminar and Turbulent Flow Experiment
Outlet P6104 Variable Head Outlet Tank
Manometer Initially use two of the single manometer tubes. When using the feedblock
change to the water on mercury manometer
Assembly Ensure the bell mouthed entry end of the P6220 test section is at the left hand
end and that it is correctly inserted into the inlet tank or feedblock
Experimental Procedure
1. Start the pump and establish a water flow through the test section. Raise the swivel tube
of the outlet tank so that it is close to the vertical. Adjust the bench regulating valve (or
pump speed) to provide a small overflow from the inlet tank and overflow pipe. Ensure
that any air bubbles are bled from the manometer tubes.
2. Set up a series of flow conditions with differential heads starting at 25mm in steps of
25mm up to 150mm and thereafter in steps of 50mm up to a maximum of 500mm. At
each condition carefully measure the flow rate using the volumetric tank and a stop
watch.
3. Stop the water flow, allow the test unit to drain and replace the inlet tank with the
feedblock. Connect the test section pressure tappings to the water-mercury manometer.
Establish a water flow and bleed the manometer.
4. Set up a series of flow conditions with differential heads in steps of 25mm of mercury. At
each condition measure the volumetric flow rate.
5. Measure the water temperature
1. Record the results on a copy of the results sheet.

2. Determine the water density and viscosity from Annex 1 of Part 1 of the manual.
3. For each result calculate the mean velocity and hence the Reynolds number and the
friction factor .
4. Plot a graph of against V. Draw separate straight lines through the lower set
of results (laminar) and the upper set of results (turbulent). Measure the slope of these
lines to establish a separate index n for the laminar and turbulent regions, and hence
express the head loss in terms of the velocity for each region using an equation of the

form . Extrapolate the two lines and estimate the highest velocity for the laminar
flow and the width of the transition region. Calculate and report these points as lower and
upper critical Reynolds numbers.
5. Plot a graph of loge against loge Re. Draw a straight line through the results for the
laminar region and measure the slope and interception
obtain an expression in the form
Draw on the graph the line representing
RESULT SHEET FOR LAMINAR AND TUBULAR FLOW EXPERIMENT.
Experiment Number Water Temperature..........................................
Experiment Title Density.................................................kg/m2
Test Conditions Viscosity....................................................cP
Test Section Diameter................................mm

Quantity of
Water
Collected Q
Litres
Time To
Collect Water
T Seconds
Time To
Collect Water
T Seconds
Volume Flow
Rate Q
litres/min
Mean Velocity
V m/sec
Logic eV
Reynolds
Number Re
Loge Re
Inlet Head h1
mm
Outlet Head h2
mm
Friction Head
Loss hf mm
Loge hf
Friction Factor
f1
Loge f1
Observations

EXPERIMENT 2. FRICTION LOSSES IN PIPES.
Aim. To investigate the pressure loss due to friction in a pipe, and to compare the relationship
between the friction factor and Reynolds number with empirical data.
Equipment Preparation.
Inlet Initially P6103 Constant Head Inlet Tank with overflow pipe extension fitted but replaced
later by P6105 Feedblock.
Test Section P6221 Losses in Pipes 7mm and 10mm test sections.
P6220 Laminar and Turbulent Flow Experiment test section (if available)
Outlet P6104 Variable Head Outlet Tank
Manometer Initially use two of the single manometer tubes. When using the feedblock change to the
water on mercury manometer.
Manometer Initially use two of the single manometer tubes. When using the feedblock
change to the water on mercury manometer.
Assembly Ensure the bell mouthed entry end of the P6220 test section is at the left hand
end and that it is correctly inserted into the inlet tank or feed block. Ensure that
the P6221 7mm bore test section is installed the correct way round with the
conical inlet at the left hand end.
1. Start the pump and establish a water flow through the test section. Raise the swivel tube of
the outlet tank so that it is close to the vertical. Adjust the bench regulating valve (or pump
speed) to provide a small overflow from the inlet tank and overflow pipe. Ensure that any air
bubbles are bled from the manometer tubes.
2. Set up a series of flow conditions with differential heads starting at 25mm in steps of 25mm
up to 150mm and thereafter in steps of 50mm up to a maximum of 500mm. At each
condition carefully measure the flow rate using the volumetric tank and a stop watch.
3. Stop the water flow, allow the test unit to drain and replace the inlet tank with the feedblock.
Connect the test section pressure tappings to the water-mercury manometer. Establish a
water flow and bleed the manometer.
4. Set up a series of flow conditions with differential heads in steps of 25mm of mercury. At
each condition measure the volumetric flow rate.
5. Measure the water temperature.
6. Repeat the test with the other test sections.
Results and Analysis

2. Determine the water density and viscosity from Annex 1 of Part 1 of the manual.
3. For each result calculate the mean velocity and hence the Reynolds number and the friction factor
4. Plot a graph of against loge V, draw a straight line through the results and measure
its slope to express the relationship between and V in the form
5. On a photocopy of the graph on page 16 plot the points of friction factor against
Reynolds number.

6. From the graph of friction factor against Reynolds number determine the empirical
friction factor using the Reynolds number for each result and assuming a pipe
roughness of 0.0015mm.
RESULT SHEET FOR FRICTION LOSSES IN PIPES.

Experiment Title Density.................................................kg/m2
Test Conditions Viscosity....................................................cP
Test Section
Date Diameter................................mm
Quantity of Water
Collected Q Litres
Time To Collect
Water T Seconds
Volume Flow Rate
Q litres/min
Mean Velocity V
m/sec
Loge V
Reynolds Number
Re
Loge Re
Inlet Head h1 mm
Outlet Head h2 mm
Friction Head Loss
hf mm
Loge hf
Friction Factor f1
Loge f1
Observations

3- Flow through orifices
1. INTRODUCTION
The analysis of the quantity of water which can be discharged through an orifice is arrived at in a
simple, straightforward ma nner by the application of Bernoulli's equation. However,
experimental tests typically produce a result which is only some 65% of the solution indicated by
the simple analysis. The study of water flow through an orifice is therefore a classic topic to
illustrate the need for a semi-empirical approach which is so often required in Mechanics of
Fluids.
2. DESCRIPTION
2.1 General Description
The Cussons Inlet Head Tank P6103 can be used for the investigation of the flow of water
through a horizontal or a vertical orifice. This tank is detailed in Part 1 of the manual. Water is
supplied to the tank via a hose connection to the base inlet, and is then distributed within the tank
by a vertical perforated sparge pipe. This arrangement avoids excessive turbulence and enables a
steady level surface to be maintained. Two threaded holes are cut into the tank in which to mount
the orifice being studied, one in the tank base for 'vertical' discharge, and the other in the tank
side for 'horizontal' discharge. An orifice can be screwed into either of the threaded holes and the
unused aperture sealed with the blanking plug provided. The union adaptor piece supplied with

the Inlet Head Tank is not required for the orifice experiments and should be removed before
insertion of the orifice under test. A scale is mounted on the side of the tank to enable the height
of the water above either orifice position to be determined. The zero of the scale coincides with
the centre of the side outlet position, but note that the face of the bottom outlet position is 38mm
below the centre line of the side outlet. When an orifice is fitted in the horizontal discharge
position a Trajectory Profile Hook Gauge P6107 can be used to determine the jet profile. The
details of the gauge are given in Part 1 of the manual. Details of the orifices are given below and
are illustrated in figure 1.
2.2 P6223 Elementary Orifices
A set of three circular orifices are supplied in a plastic case. Each orifice is mounted in a 1" BSP
threaded orifice holder, secured between an 'O' ring and a circlip. The orifice details are :-
a) 3mm diameter orifice, square edged 061mm thick

b) 5mm diameter orifice, square edged 122mm thick
c) 8mm diameter orifice, square edged 122mm thick
2.3 P6224 Advanced Orifices
A set of four orifices each mounted in a threaded orifice holder, a pair of calipers and an
orientation tool are supplied in a plastic case. The orifice details are :
a) Borda mouthpiece consisting of an orifice with extended upstream inlet tube which projects
into the inlet head tank thus preventing flow of water across the face of the orifice. The leading
edge of the inlet tube is reduced to a knife edge.
Orifice diameter 8mm

Length of inlet tube 7mm
Internal Diameter of inlet tube 8mm
b) Bell mouthed orifice having a bell shaped entry section.
Entry radius 2mm

Bell mouth semi angle 23
Orifice diameter 8mm
c) Triangular shaped orifice of side 10mm (equilateral), square edged 122mm thick.
d) Square shaped orifice of side 7mm square edged 122mm thick.

P6223 Elementary Orifice Set
P6224 Advanced Orifice Set
Figure 1 Orifice Details

3. THEORY
3.1 Introduction
There are two methods of analysing the discharge of a vessel through an orifice. The first of
these applies when the orifice is small in comparison with the head above the orifice, this is
known as small orifice analysis. In this case variations in velocity with height within the jet of
water can be ignored and the velocity is assumed to be constant.
The alternative analysis for large orifices takes into account the variation of velocity with height
within the jet of water issuing from the orifice.
3.2 Flow Through A Small Orifice
Consider a small orifice in either the base or side of a vessel with the head of water above the
orifice kept constant.
Figure 2 Discharge Through an Orifice
The theoretical velocity of the water passing through the orifice is given by
hence the quantity of water being discharged through the orifice is given by
However in practice the discharge is always less than this theoretical amount due to the viscosity
of the fluid, to surface tension and due to resistance of the air. The disparity between the
theoretical discharge velocity and the actual discharge velocity is allowed for by introducing a
factor Cv known as the Coefficient of Velocity so that

If the discharge from a sharp edged orifice is examined closely it will be observed that the
minimum diameter of the jet of water discharging from the orifice is smaller than the orifice
diameter. The plane at which this occurs is known as the Vena Contracta, which is the plane
where stream lines first become parallel. Applying the discharge equation at the vena contracta
which can be written as
where
or more simply as
where
Typical values of Cd range from 06 to 065, i.e. the actual flow through a sharp edged orifice is
approximately 60% of the theoretical value. The value of the Coefficient of Discharge may be
determined by measuring the quantity of water discharged over a period of time whilst the head
is maintained at a constant level.
3.3 Trajectory Of Horizontal Jet
Consider the trajectory of a jet formed by the discharge of water through an orifice mounted in
the side of a tank. The jet will be subjected to a downward acceleration of g due to gravity.
Figure 3 Trajectory of Horizontal Jet

Taking the origin of co-ordinates at the vena-contracta and applying the laws of motion in the
horizontal and vertical planes then ignoring any effect of air resistance on the jet.
In the horizontal direction
In the vertical direction
solving simultaneously by eliminating t
but
therefore
It may be difficult to accurately locate the position of the vena contractor in which case
measurements may be taken from any convenient datum for two points in the trajectory and
in which case it can be shown that
3.4 Time To Empty A Vessel
Consider a vessel being emptied through an orifice in the base (or side) of the vessel.

Figure 4 Emptying a Vessel
Whilst the head falls from height H1 to height H2 in time T seconds, consider the situation in
If the cross sectional area of the vessel is A and that of the orifice is a then let the volume of
through the orifice.
separating the variables
and integrating between H1 at T = 0 and H2 at time t = T then
4. EXPERIMENTS
4.1 List Of Experiments
Cussons P6223 Elementary Orifice Set and Cussons P6224 Advanced Orifice Set allow the
following experiments to be performed.
P6223 Elementary Orifices
Experiment 1 Flow Through a Circular Orifice

Experiment 2 Trajectory of a Horizontal Jet
Experiment 3 Time to Empty a Vessel
Cussons P6103 Constant Head Inlet Tank is an essential accessory for all of these experiments.
P6107 Hook Gauge and Scale is necessary for experiment 2.

4.2 Setting Up The Orifice Experiment
a) If the Hook Gauge and Scale P6107 are to be used to measure the trajectory of
horizontal jets then place the two positioning rails on the worktop of the Hydraulics
Bench engaging them onto the locating pegs. Ensure that the engraved rail is placed
closest to the front of the Hydraulics Bench with the engraved side uppermost.
b) Position the Constant Head Inlet Tank P6103 onto the worktop of the Hydraulics
Bench (over the Hook Gauge positioning rails, if fitted) at the left hand side engaging
two of the feet of the Inlet Tank onto the locating pegs. If the orifices are to be fitted
into the base of the inlet tank then the left hand support feet of the inlet tank should
engage with the locating pegs so that the orifice can discharge downwards into the
weir channel. If the orifice is to be fitted into the side of the inlet tank then it should be
moved to the left so that the right hand support feet engage with the locating pegs.
c) Remove the hexagonal (37mm across flats) bush and adaptor from the side of the inlet
tank. Fit the required orifice into either the screwed hole in the base or in the side and
plug the unusued hole using the blanking plug provided.
d) Measurement of Head The scale attached to the side of the inlet tank has its zero
level with the centre line of the side outlet boss. The face of the bottom outlet is
38mm below the centre line of the side outlet. When the bottom outlet is used, a fixed
increment should be added to the scale reading of 26mm (38 - 12) for all orifices
except the Borda mouthpiece where the increment is 19mm (38 - 12 - 7).
EXPERIMENT 1 FLOW THROUGH A CIRCULAR ORIFICE
Aim To investigate the discharge characteristics of circular orifices subjected to a constant

head.
Equipment Preparation Prepare the equipment following the general experimental method
detailed in section 42.
Vessel P6103 Constant Head Inlet Tank.
Orifice P6223 3, 5 and 8mm circular orifices.
1. Fit the 3mm diameter orifice into the side of the inlet head tank. Remove the overflow
extension pipe. Start the pump and set up an inlet head of 25cm. Measure the flow rate
using the volumetric measuring tank.
2. Replace the overflow extension pipe and set up an inlet head of 50cm. Measure the flow
rate.

3. Remove the orifice and refit it into the base of the inlet tank and refit the blanking plug
into the side of the tank. Repeat the readings with the inlet head tank levels of 25 and
50cm, which are now equivalent to a head above the orifice of 276 and 526cm.
4. Repeat the procedure using the 5mm and 8mm orifices.
1. Record the results on a copy of the result sheet for discharge characteristics.
2. For each result calculate the flowrate.
3. Plot a graph of square root of the head against the flow rate for each orifice diameter, the
results should lie on a straight line passing through the origin to confirm that
Measure the slope of each graph and calculate the coefficient of discharge for each orifice from
EXPERIMENT 1 RESULTS SHEET - FLOW THROUGH A CIRCULAR ORIFICE
Orifices Diameter Orifice Area a

3 7 - 0686E - 6
d mm m2
Orifice Position Base Slide Base Slide
Head Ho cm
Quantity of Water
Collected Q litres
Time to Collect
Water t secs
Volume Flow Rate
Q litres/min

1 Q
Slope Of Grapg ........... C d ................
a 2g Ho

5 1 - 9635E - 5
d mm m2
Head Ho cm
Quantity of Water
Collected Q litres
Time to Collect
Water t secs
Volume Flow Rate
Q litres/min
Slope Of Graph
1 Q
........... C d ................
a 2g Ho

8 5 - 0265E - 5
d mm m2
Head Ho cm
Quantity of Water
Collected Q litres
Time to Collect
Water t secs
Volume Flow Rate
Q litres/min

1 Q
Slope Of Graph ........... C d ................
a 2g Ho
EXPERIMENT 2 TRAJECTORY OF A HORIZONTAL JET
Aim To investigate the trajectory of a horizontal jet issuing from an orifice and hence
determine the coefficient of velocity for the orifice.
Equipment Preparation Prepare the equipment to the following specification following the
general method detailed in Section 42.
Tank P6103 Constant Head Inlet Tank.
Orifices Any circular orifice fitted into the side of the Inlet Tank.
Accessories P6107 Hook Gauge and Scale.
1. Fit the 3mm diameter orifice into the side of the inlet head tank. Remove the overflow
extension pipe. Start the pump and set up an inlet head of 250mm.
2. Measure the trajectory of the jet using the hook gauge by positioning the cross wire
through the centre of the jet. Record the horizontal and vertical distances.
3. Replace the overflow extension tube and establish an inlet head of 500mm. Measure the
trajectory of the jet.
4. Repeat the experiment using the 5mm and 8mm diameter orifices.
1. Draw a graph of y against x to represent the trajectory.

2. Draw a graph of y0.5 against x and draw the best straight line through the points to
represent the results. Measure the slope of the line and hence calculate the coefficient of
velocity from :

Orifice
3 5 8
Diameter d mm
Head Ho cm 25 50 25 50 25 50
Horizontal Verticle Distance below Orifice
Distance x cm centre Line y cm
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
Slope of Graph
Coefficient of
Discharge

EXPERIMENT 3 TIME TO EMPTY A VESSEL
Aim To investigate the time required to empty a vessel through an orifice and hence determine
the coefficient of discharge for the orifice.
Equipment Preparation Prepare the equipment to the following specification.
Vessel P6103 Constant Head Inlet Tank with overflow extension tube fitted.
Orifice 3mm orifice from the P6223 Elementary Set.
1. Start the pump and open the bench regulating valve sufficiently to just maintain a
constant head of water above the 50cm scale.
2. Close the bench regulating valve as quickly as possible.
3. Measure the time taken for the water level to fall in the inlet tank from 45cm to 30cm,
20cm and 10cm. Repeat this procedure twice more and record an average of the readings.
4. Repeat the test using the 5mm and 8mm diameter orifices.
5. If required, repeat the test with the orifices installed in the base of the tank.

2. Plot a graph of the discharge time against the difference between the square roots of the initial
and final heads. Draw a straight line from the origin through the results for each orifice to
confirm that
Measure the slope of the lines and calculate the coefficient of discharge for each orifice from
3. Compare the results for the coefficients of discharge obtained from experiment 1 (which used
a constant head test and volumetric flow measurement) with the results from this experiment.

EEXPERIMENT 3 RESULTS SHEET - TIME TO EMPTY A VESSEL
Orifice Position
Orifice Diameter d
3
mm
Initial Head H1 cm
Final Head H2 cm
Time to Discharge
Water t secs
H1 H2 m
1 H
2
D 2 H
..........Cd ..........
2
Slope of Graph
d g T
Orifice Position
Orifice Diameter d
5
mm
Initial Head H1 cm
Final Head H2 cm
Time to Discharge
Water t secs
H1 H2 m

Orifice Position
Orifice Diameter d
8
mm
Initial Head H1 cm
Final Head H2 cm
Time to Discharge
Water t secs
H1 H2 m
D
2
2 H1 H2
.......... Cd ..........
Slope of Graph d g T
Observations
Conclusions

4- Flow over weirs.
1. INTRODUCTION.
In open channel hydraulics, weirs are commonly used to either regulate or to measure the
volumetric flow rate, they are of particular use in large scale situations such as irrigation
schemes, canals and rivers. For small scale applications, weirs are often referred to as notches
and invariably are sharp edged and manufactured from thin plate material. The flow pattern over
a notch or weir is complex and there is no analytical solution to the relationship between
discharge and head so that once again a semi-empirical approach has to be used.
2. DESCRIPTION
Cussons P6100 Hydraulics Bench incorporates a weir channel which is 158mm wide tapering to
152mm wide at the bottom, x 150mm deep x 735mm long in the working surface. The weir
channel is fitted with an acrylic 60 triangular notch weir with an integral scale which can be
used to provide an approximate indication of the flow rate. For a detailed study of the discharge
over weirs, Cussons have provided two sets of weirs and a hook gauge. The P6107 Hook Gauge
and Scale, which is described in Part 1 of the manual, is an essential accessory for the accurate
measurement of the upstream head.
P6225 Elementary Weirs comprises a set of three stainless steel weirs each 1.625mm thick and
215mm wide by 160mm deep, the three weirs comprise: a rectangular weir with a 100mm wide
by 90mm deep notch, and two triangular or V notch weirs having included angles of 90 and 60
with a depth of 90mm. Included with this set of weirs is a very effective flow smoothing basket.
The dimensional details of the weirs are shown in Figure 1 below.

P6226 Advanced Weirs comprises two stainless steel weirs: first a trapezoidal or Cippoletti weir,
and secondly a weir with a special profile notch which produces a linear head-flow
characteristic. A 9mm thick full width or suppressed weir, manufactured from upvc, is also
supplied, which enables both conditions of clinging and free nappes to be studied. Details of
these weirs are also shown in Figure 1 below.
A) Elementary Weir Set
B) Advanced Weir Set
Figure 1 Details of Weirs

3. THEORY
3.1 Flow Through A Rectangular Notch.
A rectangular notch in a thin square edged weir plate installed in a weir channel as shown in
figure 2.
Figure 2 Rectangular Notch
Consider the flow in an element of height at a depth h below the surface. Assuming that the
flow is everywhere normal to the plane of the weir and that the free surface remains horizontal
up to the plane of the weir, then
velocity through element
Integrating between h = O and h = H
Total theoretical discharge
In practice the flow through the notch will not be parallel and therefore will not be normal to the
plane of the weir. The free surface is not horizontal and viscosity and surface tension will have
an effect. There will be a considerable change in the shape of the nappe as it passes through the

notch with curvature of the stream lines in both vertical and horizontal planes as indicated in
Figure 3, in particular the width of the nappe is reduced by the contractions at each end.
Figure 3 Shape of a Nappe
The discharge from a rectangular notch will be considerably less, approximately 60%, of the
theoretical analysis due to these curvature effects. A coefficient of discharge is therefore
introduced so that
However, is not a true constant tending towards a constant only for large heads and a low
velocity of approach in the weir channel.
3.1.1 Francis Formula.
An empirical equation known as the modified Francis formula is often used for large weirs. The
formula takes into account the contraction in the physical size of the nappe as it issues over the
notch
where the 0.2H is to allow for the two end contractions. This formula provides solutions within
if B>2H, the velocity of approach is less than 1m/s and the base of the weir channel is
more than 3H below the sill of the weir and that H>0.1m.

3.1.2 Kindsvater-Carter Formula. In British Standard BS3680 : Part 4a : 1981, which covers
the measurement of liquid flow in open channels by the use of weirs and flumes, the Kindsvater-
Carter formula is used for thin plate rectangular weirs.
where
The relationships between the constants are tabulated below. The Kindsvater-Carter formula can
be applied if
B/W A
1.0 0.602 0.075 -0.0009
0.9 0.598 0.064 0.0031
0.8 0.596 0.045 0.0042
0.7 0.594 0.030 0.0041
0.6 0.593 0.018 0.0036
0.5 0.592 0.010 0.0031
0.4 0.591 0.0059 0.0027
0.2 0.589 -0.0028 0.0024
o ( Full 0.587 -0.0023 0.0024

Width)
For the rectangular weir provided as part of P6225 the vertical height between the bed of the
upstream channel and the crest of the weir is 0.07m whilst the limiting value for the proper
application of the Kindsvater-Carter formula requires this height to be at least 0.1m.
Nevertheless it is a useful empirical standard with which to compare the experimental results.
The values of the constants applying to this weir by graphical interpolation from the table for:
Substituting these values into the Kindsvater-Carter formula gives
which reduces to
3.2 Flow Through A Triangular Notch
A sharp edged triangular notch with an included angle of is shown in Figure 4
Figure 4 Triangular or V Notch
Again consider an element of height at a depth h
Breadth of element

Hence area of element
Velocity through element
Discharge through element
Integrating to obtain the total discharge between h = o and h = H
Again, a coefficient of discharge has to be introduced.
Actual discharge
The triangular notch has advantages over the rectangular notch since the shape of the nappe does
not change with head so that the coefficient of discharge does not vary so much. A triangular
notch can also accommodate a wide range of flow rates.
3.2.1 Kindsvater-Shen Formula.
British Standard BS3680: Part 4a: 1981 uses the Kindsvater-Carter formula for triangular weirs.
The coefficient of discharge is a function of the vertex angle , and to a lesser extent the value
of and . The effective head is given by:

Values of and are tabulated below for weirs in which the approach velocity in the weir
channel is negligible. The British Standard tabulates data for some cases where the approach
velocity is not negligible.
20 0.592 0.0029
40 0.581 0.0017
60 0.577 0.0011
80 0.577 0.0009
90 0.578 0.0008
100 0.580 0.0008
For the 60 weir the Kindsvater-Shen formula reduces to
and for the 90weir
4 EXPERIMENTS
4.1 List of Experiments.
The following experiments can be carried out using Cussons P6225 Elementary Weirs and
Cussons P6226 Advanced Weirs. Cussons P6107 Hook Gauge and Scale is an essential
accessory for these experiments which is required to measure the approach head to the weirs.
P6225 Elementary Weirs

Experiment 1 Discharge over rectangular and triangular weirs
4.2 Set Up Procedure.
a) If the P6107 Hook Gauge and Scale is to be used to measure the upstream water level

then place the two positioning rails on the worktop of the Hydraulics bench engaging
them onto the locating pegs. Ensure that the engraved rail is placed closest to the front of
the bench with the engraved side uppermost.
b) Place the Hook Gauge across the two positioning rails engaging the pegs into any pair of
locating holes in the rails. If necessary remove the thumb nut and reposition the scale so
that the weir logo is at the top of the scale and facing the front of the bench. If necessary
remove the hook from the block and reinsert it into the block so that the hook is concave
upwards, that is shaped. Refer to figure 7 of Part 1 of the manual for an illustration of
the correct assembly of the Hook Gauge.
c) Place the flow stilling basket of glass spheres into the left end of the weir channel and
attach the hose from the bench regulating valve to the inlet connection into the stilling
basket.
d) Remove the five thumb nuts which hold the standard acrylic weir in place, remove the
standard weir and replace it with the specific weir plate which is to be tested first. Ensure
that the square edge of the weir faces upstream
4.3 Operation.
a)Flow Measurement. The discharge from the weir may be measured using either the P6108
Rotameter (if fitted) or by using the volumetric measuring tank and taking the
time required to collect a quantity of water. The quantity should be chosen so
that the time to collect the water is at least 120 seconds to obtain a sufficiently
accurate result.
b) Measuring the Weir Fill the weir channel with water up to the weirplate crest level and use the
Datum. Hook Gauge to measure the level of the water. This will be the zero or datum
level for the weir. Ensure that the weir channel is filled to the correct level
when making this measurement, to do this look at the weir from the
downstream side and check that the channel has not been overfilled by
ensuring that a meniscus is not present, also look at the weir from the
upstream side and check the reflection of the weir in the water meets the weir
notch at a point or a line as appropriate.
c) Measuring the Head. The surface of the water as it approaches the weir will fall, this is particularly
noticeable at high rates of discharge caused by high heads. To obtain an
accurate measure of the undisturbed water level above the crest of the weir it
is necessary to place the hook gauge at a distance at least three times the head.
d) Suppressed Weir. The suppressed weir is fitted with an aeration tube which can be used to
demonstrate how an initial clinging nappe can be made to spring clear as air is
blown into the tube.
EXPERIMENT 1 RECTANGULAR AND TRIANGULAR WEIRS
Aim To investigate the discharge-head characteristics of a rectangular weir and 60 and 90

triangular weirs.

Equipment Preparation. Prepare the equipment to the following specification in accordance

with section 4.2
Weirs P6225 Elementary Weirs
Accessories P6107 Hook Gauge and Scale
1. Start the pump and slowly open the bench regulating valve until the water level
reaches the crest of the weir and measure the water level to determine the datum
level.
2. Adjust the bench regulating valve to give the first required head level of
approximately 10mm. Measure the flow rate using the volumetric tank or the
rotameter. Observe the shape of the nappe.
3. Increase the flow by opening the bench regulating valve to set up heads above the
datum level in steps of approximately 10mm until the regulating valve is fully open.
At each condition measure the flow rate and observe the shape of the nappe.
4. Close the regulating valve, stop the pump and then replace the weir with the next
weir to be tested. Repeat the test procedure.
5. Repeat the test with the third weir.
Record the results on a copy of the results sheet. Record any observations of the
1. shape and type of nappe paying particular attention to whether the nappe was
clinging or sprung clear, and of the end contraction and general change in shape.
2. Plot a graph of loge Q against loge H for each weir. Measure the slopes and the
intercepts. Calculate the coefficient of discharge from the intercept. Express the
relationship between the head and the discharge in the form:
for each weir. From the intercept calculate the coefficients of discharge and from the
slopes of the graphs confirm that the index is approximately 2.5 for the rectangular
weir and 1.5 for the triangular weirs.
Compare the results with those predicted using the empirical Kindvater -Carter and
3.
Kindsvater-Shen formula for rectangular and triangular weirs respectively

RESULTS SHEET
EXPERIMENT 1
RECTANGULAR AND
TRIANGULAR WEIRS
RECTANGULAR WEIRS
Head H mm
Quantity of Water Collected Q
litres
Time to Collect Water t secs.
Volume Flow Rate q litre/min
Loge Q
Loge H
e int ercept
C
Slope of Graph = .......... Intercept =.......... ..........
2 g
d
2 B
3
60O TRIANGULAR WEIRS
Head H mm
litres

Loge Q
Loge H
e int ercept
Cd
Slope of Graph = .......... Intercept = ........... 8
15 tan 2 2 g
.............
RECTANGULAR WEIRS
Head H mm
litres
Loge Q
Loge H
eint ercept
Cd
Slope of Graph = .......... Intercept = .......... 8 tan
15 2
2.......................
g

5. Water flow Measuring Apparatus
1. INTRODUCTION
The measurement of water flow rate is an important topic in the study of fluid dynamics.
Cussons Water Flow Measuring Apparatus P6239 includes three commonly used flow measuring
devices. Venturi, Orifice plate and Variable area meter.
The first two of these devices utilise pressure drop across a fixed geometry and there design has
been standardised by the publication of both national and international standards. The third
device is a tapered area tube and float which uses a constant pressure drop but a variable
geometry, this type of meter is in common use with a wide variety of proprietary models being
available from a number of manufacturers.
The pressure drop across any length of pipe can be used as a means of measuring the flow as can
the pressure drop across any fitting or combination of fittings. In this apparatus a sudden
enlargement and an elbow are also included, however, the pressure drop across them is very
small and the possibility of secondary effects detracts from their use.

2. DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS.
2.1. Introduction.
Cussons P6239 Water Flow Measuring Apparatus is designed as a free-standing apparatus for
use on the Cussons Hydraulics Bench P6100, although it could be used in conjunction with a low
pressure water supply controlled by a valve and a discharge to drain. Water enters the apparatus
through the lower left-hand end and flows horizontally through a sudden enlargement into a
transparent venturi meter, and into an orifice plate, a 90 elbow changes the flow direction to
vertical and connects to a variable area flow meter, a second bend passes the flow into a
discharge pipe which incorporates an atmospheric break.
The static head at various points in the flow path may be measured on a manometer panel. The
water flow through the apparatus is controlled by the delivery valve of the Hydraulics Bench and
the flow rate may be confirmed by using the volumetric measuring tank of the Hydraulics Bench.

2.2. Sudden Enlargement.
The test section consists of a 10mm diameter bore with a sudden enlargement to 20mm diameter.
Two manometer are provided.
2.3. Venturi Meter.
The venturi is manufactured from transparent acrylic materials and follows the classic 21-10
convergent-divergent design which forms the basis of most engineering standards for venturi
flow meters The design of the plate conforming with the British Standard for flow measurement
BS1042 for venturies in all respects other than that of minimum size.
2.4. Orifice Plate.
The orifice flowmeter consists of a 20mm bore tube with an orifice of 12mm. The design of the
orifice plate conforming with the British Standard for flow measurement BS1042 for D and D/2
orifices in respects other than that of minimum size for orifice plates. The downstream bore of

the orifice is chamfered at 40 to provide an effective orifice plate thickness of 0.35mm.

Manometer tappings are positioned 20mm before the orifice and 10mm after the orifice plate.
2.5. Elbow.
A 90 elbow is placed immediately after the orifice plate and before the rotameter. There is a
constant bore diameter throughout the bend with manometer tappings positioned normal to the
plane of the bend before and after the elbow.
2.6. Rotameter.
The rotameter is a variable area constant pressure drop device which consists essentially of a
float which is free to move up or down in a vertical tapered tube with the small end of the tube at
the bottom. With no flow the float rests at the bottom of the tapered tube. Upward fluid flow
causes the float to be lifted upwards until the pressure drop occurring across the annular space
surrounding the float and acting on the cross sectional area of the float exactly matches the
weight of the float. In operation it is essential that the float should not touch the sides of the
tapered tube, otherwise erroneous readings will occur. To ensure good repeatability the float
should be concentric with the tube. This can be arranged by either guiding the float or, as is more
usual, by causing the float to spin by incorporating angled grooves or vanes on the float. The
float is then stabilised in the centre of the tube by the gyroscopic effect due to the spin.
The rotameter utilises a transparent tube and a stainless steel float providing a visual indication
of the flow rate by measuring the position of the float relative to the position of the tube by using
the integral scale, which is calibrated from 1.5 to 10 litres/minute.
The static head at various points in the flow path may be measured on a manometer panel. The
water flow through the apparatus is controlled by the delivery valve of the Hydraulics Bench and
the flow rate may be confirmed by using the volumetric measuring tank of the Hydraulics Bench.
3. THEORY.
3.1. Head Loss at Sudden Enlargement.
Consider a sudden enlargement in pipe flow area from area A1 to area A2.
The head Loss at Sudden Enlargement.
By defining a loss coefficient so that
then where so that

3.2 The Venturi Meter.
From consideration of continuity and Bernoullis equationsbetween the mouth of the venturi of
area A1 and the throat of area A2 :
The volumetric flow rate is then given by
The actual discharge will be less than this due to losses causing the velocity through the throat to
be less than that predicted by Bernoullis theorem, therefore it is necessary to introduce an
experimentally determined coefficient of discharge . The actual discharge will then be given
by :
The coefficient of discharge varies with both the Reynolds number and area ratio. Typical values
for a machined venturi meter are between 0.975 and 0.995.
The pressure loss across the venturi meter is less than the pressure difference measured between
the mouth and the throat due to the pressure recovery which occurs in the divergence as the
kinetic energy is reduced.
3.3 Orifice Plate.
Due to the sharpness of the contraction in flow area at the orifice plate a vena contracta is formed
downstream of the throat in which the area of the vena contractor is less than that of the orifice.
Applying the continuity equation between the upstream conditions of area A1 and the vena
contracta of area A2:
The volumetric flow rate is then given by
The flow area at the vena contracta is not known and therefore a coefficient of contraction may
be introduced so that

The coefficient of contraction will be included in the coefficient of discharge and the equations
rewritten in terms of the orifice area with any uncertainties and errors eliminated by the
experimental determination of the coefficient of discharge. The volumetric flow rate is then
given by :
The position of the manometer tappings has a small effect on the values of the discharge
coefficients which also vary with area ratio, with pipe size and with Reynolds number. The
variations of with Reynolds number is tabulated below for orifice plates with .
Reynolds 1x 2x 3x 5x 7x 1x 3x 1x 1x
Number 104 104 104 104 104 105 106 106 107
D & D/2 0.6127 .06102 0.6079 0.6068 0.6060 0.6043 0.6036 0.6032
taps
The discharge coefficient can be calculated from an empirical equation, due to Stolz, which is
quoted from British Standard BS 1042:section 1.2:1984.
For orifice plates with corner tappings :
where the additional suffix D applied to the Reynolds number shows that it is
based on pipe diameter, not orifice diameter.
For orifice plates with D and D/2 tappings there are two additional terms to be included so that :
3.4 Flow Round Bends and Elbows.
Whenever the direction of the flow is changed at a bend or elbow, the velocity distribution across
the pipe is disturbed. A centrifugal effect causes the maximum velocity to occur towards the
outside of the bend or elbow whilst at the inside of the bend or elbow the flow is slowed or even

reversed in direction if the flow separates from the wall and a vena-contracta formed. A
secondary flow is set up at right angles to the pipe cross section which increases the velocity
gradient and hence the shear stress of the wall.
The loss of head is related to the velocity head by defining a bend loss coefficient so that
Values of are related to the pipe friction factors or by a constant which is dependent on
the ratio of the bend radius to the pipe diameter R/D. This constant may also be treated as an
equivalent length of straight pipe expressed as diameters by using the Darcy Weisbach equation
hence
For single 90 bends and elbows the bend resistance coefficient and the equivalent Length
are typically:
R/D Elbows 1 1.5 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
30D 20D 14D 12D 14D 17D 24D 30D 34D 38D
120 80 56 48 56 68 96 120 136 158
30 20 14 12 14 17 24 30 34 38
Note that Which suggests a significant advantage in the use of in comparison with
using
for pipe work design
3.5 Rotameter.
The fluid passing through the Rotameter flows upwards through the tapered tube and lifts the
float due to the pressure drop across the float as the fluid passes through the annular orifice

formed between the tube and the float. Since the tube enclosing the float is tapered, the area of
the annular orifice is dependent on the vertical position of the float within the tapered tube. The
position of the float is automatically determined within the tube when there is a balance between
the downward gravitational force on the float and the upward fluid drag force.
The effective weight of the float immersed in the fluid is :
The fluid drag force generated by the pressure drop across the float acting on the cross sectional
area of the float is :
The pressure drop across the float is related to the volumetric flow rate by an equation of the
form
where is a flow coefficient for the annulus between the tube and the float.
Substituting for
and replacing by the equation for the volume flow rate is given by :
and the mass flow is then
The annulus area can be related to the height of the float in the tube from a knowledge
of the float and tube geometry.

4. EXPERIMENTS.
4.1. Introduction.
The experiment which can be carried out with the P6239 Water Flow Measuring Apparatus
provides a comparison of flow measurement using the following devices:-
Flow measurement using a sudden enlargement
Flow measurement using a venturi meter
Flow measurement using an orifice plate
Flow measurement using an elbow
Flow measurement using a rotameter
4.2. General Experimental Method.
a. Position the P6239 Water Flow Measuring Apparatus on the horizontal operating surface
of the P6100 Hydraulics Bench using the locating pegs on the top surface of the bench.
Connect the delivery hose from the bench to the inlet connection of the Water Flow
Measuring Apparatus. Insert the overflow hose from the inlet tank into the overflow pipe
of the volumetric measuring tank.
b. With the flow regulating valve of the bench closed, switch on the bench pump and allow
water to be pumped into the apparatus by controlling the opening of the flow regulating
valve until water just begins to flow into the equipment and just overflows through the air
vent above the rotameter. Ensure that there are no air bubbles trapped in the manometer
tubes, if necessary open the supply valve until water spills out of the top of the
manometer tubes so that the water flushes out all air bubbles, close the valve and allow
the level to stabilise with no flow when the height of the water in each manometer tube
should be level with the top of the air vent.
c. Adjust the supply valve to obtain 6 or 7 readings with the height of water in the left hand
manometer tube increasing in increments of approximately 50mm. The maximum flow
which can be achieved for the experiment is when the height of water in the left hand
manometer tube reaches the top of the manometer scale. At each steady state condition
record the heights on each manometer tube and the flow shown on the rotameter. Also
measure the flow using the volumetric flow tank of the hydraulics bench with a stop
watch.
4.3. Results and Analysis.
a. Record the results on a copy of the results sheet.

b. Determine the water density and viscosity from Appendix 1 of Part 1 of the manual.
c. Flow Rate. Calculate the flow rate from the time and quantity collected in the
volumetric measuring tank.

d. Sudden Enlargement. Calculate the head loss due to the enlargement and the velocity
head for the smaller pipe diameter. Express this head loss per bend as a loss coefficient k
by dividing the head loss by the velocity head. Compare the result with that predicted
from the results given in theory section for the appropriate area ratio .
e. Venturi Meter. Calculate the head loss across the venturi and plot a graph of the flow
rate against the square root of the head and draw the best straight line from the origin
through the results. Measure the slope of the line and hence determine the coefficient of
discharge for the meter.
f. Orifice Plate. Calculate the head loss across the orifice plate and plot a graph of the
flow rate against the square root of the head for the orifice. Draw the best straight line
from the origin. Measure the slope of the line and hence determine the coefficient of
discharge for the orifice plate.
g. Elbow. Calculate the head loss due to the bend and the velocity head for the pipe
section. Express the head loss as a loss coefficient k by dividing the head loss by the
velocity head. Compare the result with that predicted from the results given in the theory
section.
h. Rotameter. Plot a graph of the volumetric flow rate measured with the rotameter
against that obtained using the volumetric measuring tank. Draw a straight line from the
origin to obtain a best fit of the results. Measure the slope of this line.
i. comparison of Results. Calculate the error in reading for each device using the flow
rate obtained by the volumetric tank as the correct volume flow rate. Draw a graph of the
flow error for each device against the volumetric tank measured flow rate. Use this graph
to draw conclusions on the repeatability and accuracy of each flow measuring device.
Results sheet
Quantity of Water
Collected Q Litres
Time To Collect Water t
Seconds
Volume Flow Rate Q
litres/min
Mean Velocity V m/sec
Velocity Head V2/2g
Head at Tapping 1 h1 mm

Friction Loss at Sudden
Enlargement
Head Loss Across Venturi
Head loss Across Orifice
Head Loss Across Elboe

Rotameter Flow Rate
Reading
Error in Sudden
Enlargement Flow Rate
Error in Venturi Flow Rate
Error in Orifice Flow Rate
Error in Elbow Flow Rate
Error in Rotameter Flow
Rate

6- Impact of Jets
1.INTRODUCTION
Cussons P6233 Impact of Jets Apparatus enables experiments to be carried out on the reaction
force produced on vanes when a jet of water impacts on to the vane. The study of these reaction
forces is an essential step in the subject of mechanics of fluids which can be applied to hydraulic
machinery such as the Pelton Wheel and the Impulse Turbine.
2.DESCRIPTION
Cussons P6233 Impact of Jets Apparatus, which is illustrated in figure 1 below, is intended to be
used with Cussons P6100 Hydraulics Bench which provides the water supply and the means of
measuring flow rate. The apparatus consists essentially of a UPVC base assembly with a vertical
nozzle supply pipe inside a transparent acrylic tube which supports a removable top flange
assembly. A vertical shaft, which passes through a plain bearing in the top flange assembly, has
provision for attaching the target vane at its lower end. The top of the shaft is screwed to a
weight platform and a spring between the top flange and the weight platform provides vertical
support to an equilibrium position. A weight carrier and a set of brass weights are supplied.
(Prior to serial no. 199 a weight beaker and lead shot were provided instead of a weight carrier
and brass weights).
Three interchangeable target vanes are supplied, one flat, one conical and one semi-spherical,
dimensional details of the three target vanes are shown in figure 2 overleaf. Two interchangeable
plain bore nozzles are supplied, one 5mm diameter and one 8mm diameter. Screwed studs are

provided on the base plate of the apparatus for storage of the nozzle and target vanes which are
not in use. In operation water from the Hydraulic Bench issues vertically from the nozzle and
impacts onto the target vane. The impulse force produced by the impact of the jet onto the vane
lifts the vane, shaft and weight platform to its equilibrium position.
Figure 1 P6233 Impact of Jets Apparatus
Figure 2 Interchangeable Target Vanes

3.THEORY
3.1 General Analysis.
When a jet of water flowing with a steady velocity strikes a solid surface the water is deflected to
flow along the surface. Unlike the impact of solid bodies there is no rebound and unless the flow
is highly turbulent there will be no splashing. If friction is neglected by assuming an inviscid
fluid and it is also assumed that there are no losses due to shocks then the magnitude of the water
velocity is unchanged. The pressure exerted by the water on the solid surface will everywhere be
at right angles to the surface.
Figure 3 Impact of a Jet
Consider a jet of water which impacts on to a target surface causing the direction of the jet to be
changed through an angle q as shown in figure 3 above. In the absence of friction the magnitude
of the velocity across the surface is equal to the incident velocity V1. The impulse force exerted
on the target will be equal and opposite to the force which acts on the water to impart the change
in direction.
Applying Newtons Second Law in the direction of the incident jet
Force = Mass x Acceleration

= Mass Flow Rate x Change in Velocit y

and dividing through by Q V1 which is the incident momentum
3.2 Application to Cussons Impact of Jet Apparatus
In each case it is assumed that there is no splashing or rebound of the water from the surface so
that the exist angle is parallel to the exit angle of the target.
a. Effect of Height. The jet velocity can be calculated from the measured flow rate and the
nozzle exit area.
Vn = Q/A
However, as the nozzle is below the target the impact velocity will be less than the nozzle velocity
due to interchanges between potential energy and kinetic energy so that :
where h is the height of target above the nozzle exit.
b- Impact on Normal Plane Target. For the normal plane target q = 90

Therefore Cos q = 0
c- Impact on Conical Target. The cone semi-angle q = 45

Cos q = 0.7071
d- Impact on Semi-spherical Target. The target exit angle is 135

Cos q = -0.7071

4. EXPERIMENT IMPACT OF JETS
Aim. To investigate the reaction force produced by the impact of a jet of water on to various
target vanes.
Equipment Preparation. Set up the apparatus on top of the Hydraulics Bench with the left hand
support feet of the Impact of Jets Apparatus located on the two left hand locating pegs of the
Hydraulics Bench so that the apparatus straddles the weir channel. Connect the feed tube from
the Hydraulics Bench to the boss on the rear of the base of the Impact of Jets Apparatus. If an
Auxiliary Pump P1601 is fitted to the Hydraulics Bench, arrange the pump valves so that only
one pump is used. Fit the 5mm nozzle and the normal flat target.
1. Position the weight carrier on the weight platform and add weights until the top of the
target is clear of the stop and the weight platform is floating in mid position. Move the
pointer so that it is aligned with the weight platform. Record the value of weights on the
weight carrier.
2. Start the pump and establish the water flow by steadily opening the bench regulating
valve until it is fully open.
3. The vane will now be deflected by the impact of the jet. Place additional weights onto the
weight carrier until the weight platform is again floating in mid position. Measure the
flow rate and record the result on the test sheet, together with the corresponding value of
weight on the tray. Observe the form of the deflected jet and note its shape.
4. Reduce the weight on the weight carrier in steps and maintain balance of the weight
platform by regulating the flow rate in about eight or ten even steps, each time recording
the value of the flow rate and weights on the weight carrier.
5. Close the control valve and switch off the pump. Allow the apparatus to drain.
6. Replace the 5mm nozzle with the 8mm diameter nozzle and repeat the tests.
7. Replace the normal vane with the 45 conical vane and repeat the test with both the 5mm
and 8mm nozzles.
8. Replace the 45 conical vane with the hemispherical vane and repeat the tests with both
the 5mm and 8mm nozzles.
1. Record the results on a copy of the results sheet provided.

2. Calculate for each result the flow rate and the nozzle exit velocity. Correct the nozzle
velocity for the height of the target above the nozzle to obtain the impact velocity.
3. Calculate the impact momentum and plot graphs of impact force F against impact
momentum and determine the slope of the graphs for each target. Compare with the
theoretical values of 1, 0.2929 and 1.7071 for the normal plane target, conical target and
hemispherical target respectively.


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Northern Border University

NORTHERN BORDER UNIVERSITY

Instructions Manual (Fluid Mechanics Lab)

1- Investigation of Bernoulli's Theorem

Cussons P6231 Bernoulli's Apparatus consists essentially of a two dimensional rectangular

Instructions Manual (Fluid Mechanics Lab)

Figure 1 P6231 Bernoulli's Apparatus

Instructions Manual (Fluid Mechanics Lab)

Figure 2 Duct Dimension

3.1 Bernoulli's Theorem

Instructions Manual (Fluid Mechanics Lab)

3.2 Loss of Head due to Friction

3.3 The Continuity Equation

Instructions Manual (Fluid Mechanics Lab)

Figure 4 Nozzle and Diffuser

3.4 Application to Cussons P6231 Bernoulli's Apparatus

Instructions Manual (Fluid Mechanics Lab)

3.5 Laminar and Turbulent Flow

The Reynolds number is defined as

Instructions Manual (Fluid Mechanics Lab)

EXPERIMENT 1 - VERIFICATION OF BERNOULLI'S EQUATION

Equipment Preparation. Prepare the equipment to the following specification

Instructions Manual (Fluid Mechanics Lab)

Test Section P6231 Bernoulli's Apparatus

Exit P6104 Variable Head Outlet Tank

Results and Analysis.

1. Record the results on a copy of the result sheet provided.

Instructions Manual (Fluid Mechanics Lab)

Table 1: Experimental Results

EXPERIMENT 2 - DEMONSTRATION OF LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW

Test Section P6231 Bernoulli's Apparatus

Exit P6104 Variable Head Outlet Tank

Instructions Manual (Fluid Mechanics Lab)

Results and Analysis.

1. Record the results on a copy of the result sheet provided.

Instructions Manual (Fluid Mechanics Lab)

2. Flow in Pipes and Fittings

2.1 P6220 Laminar Flow Apparatus

Instructions Manual (Fluid Mechanics Lab)

Figure 1 3mm Bore Laminar Turbulent Flow Test Section

2.2 P6221 Losses In Pipes And Fittings Apparatus.

Instructions Manual (Fluid Mechanics Lab)

a) 7mm Bore Test Section

b) 10 mm Bore Test Section

c) Bore Test Section With Four Bends

Instructions Manual (Fluid Mechanics Lab)

Instructions Manual (Fluid Mechanics Lab)

P6222 Energy/Exit and Contraction/Expansion Losses Apparatus

Instructions Manual (Fluid Mechanics Lab)

Figure 3 P6222 Enery/Exit and Contraction/Expansion Losses Apparatus

2.4 Use of Accessories

3.1 Flow In Pipes.

Instructions Manual (Fluid Mechanics Lab)

3.2 Newton's Law of Viscosity.

A measure of the fluidity of a substance is the kinematic viscosity which is defined as :-

3.3 Laminar Flow in a Circular Pipe.

3.4 Turbulent Flow in Circular Pipes.

The pressure loss as a head loss due to friction,

where f = is the Darcy friction factor.

Instructions Manual (Fluid Mechanics Lab)

3.5 Reynolds Number.

i V for smooth pipes

i V for very rough pipes

i V to in the transition region