Earth Science Reviewer|Finals

Brief History of Geology as parent isotope decays, its daughter

James Ussher accumulates in the rock
o determine creation of Earth to be at 4004 B.C. Fossils
Catastrophism o remnants or traces of prehistoric life as inclusions in
o Earth's landscape has been widely developed by great sediments or sedimentary rocks
catastrophes o focus of paleontology
o partly true, (e.g ice age) differs from archaeology
Uniformitarianism focuses on structures, nonliving things
o James Hutton, Theory of the Earth o sedimentary rocks are deposited into layers called strata
the present is the key to the past and are the richest source of fossils
time is the only requirement o Types
no beginning and no end Petrified
things repeat, but the rate varies "turned into stone"
internal cavities filled with mineral matter
Tools and Techniques in Geology Mold
Radiometric Dating shell buried in sediment and dissolved
o Definition of Terms underwater
Isotopes Cast
isotopes of an element have the same hollow spaces of mold filled with mineral
number of protons but differ in number of matter
neutrons Carbonized film
Radioactivity usually for leaves and delicate animals;
energy emitted by unstable elements fine sediments encase the organism to
Half-life remove the water
time it takes for half on an element to Impressions
stabilize replica of surface from carbonized film
o process of determining ages of rocks, minerals, and Amber
fossils by measuring the relative amounts of parents and hardened resin of ancient trees; good for
daughter isotopes preserving delicate organisms
o a good method for investigating absolute age, an o Conditions favoring preservation
approach to measuring geologic time in years rapid burial
o while the percentage of radioactive atoms that decay prevents being eaten by scavengers or
during one half-life is always the same, the actual number decomposition by bacteria
of atoms that decay decreases possession of hard parts
o Properties of Radioactivity
shells, bones, teeth
half-life of radioactive isotope is constant
o Principle of fossil succession
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fossil organisms succeed one another in a definite layers sediment are usually deposited in a
and determinable order, and therefore any time horizontal position
period can be recognized by its fossil record o Principle of Lateral Continuity
materials forming any stratum were continuous
o Index Fossils over the surface of Earth unless other solid bodies
useful in matching rocks of same age stood in the way
Characteristics o Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships
abundantly preserved an intrusive rock body is younger than the rock it
widespread geologically intrudesa fault is younger than the layer it cuts
existed for a short lifespan o Inclusions (Intrusions)
pieces of one rock unit that are contained within
have hard parts
another
easily identified in the field
Unconformities
o Problems with fossils
o long period which deposition stopped, erosion moved
singleton
previously formed rocks and deposition resumed
one fossil set isn't enough to prove a o indicator of crustal movement
species existed o conformableno interruption
pull of the recent
o angular conformity
it's easier to find more recent fossils than tilted or folded sedimentary rocks, overlain by
older ones
younger, more flat-lying strata
Indirect evidences o disconformity
o Tracks parallel strata w/upper and lower layers with
animal footprint in soft sediments irregular boundaries because of exposure to
o Burrows weathering and erosion
tubes in sediment, wood, or rock o nonconformity
o Coprolites break separates older metamorphic or intrusive
fossil dung igneous rocks from younger sedimentary strata,
o Gastroliths punctuates by a period of uplift or erosion of
highly polished stomach stores used in food underlying rocks
grinding Minerals
Relative Dating building blocks of rocks
o placing rocks in their proper sequence of formation characteristics
Law of Superposition/Steno's Law of Statigraphy (Nicolaus Steno) o naturally occurring
o in an undisturbed and unformed sequence of sedimentary o inorganic
rocks, each bed is older than the one above it o solid
o Principle of Original Horizontality o with crystalline structure
o definite chemical composition

physical properties
o luster
quality and intensity of reflected light
exhibited by the mineral
types
metallic
o usually opaque, polished
non-metallic
o vitreous (glassy)
o adamantine
(brilliant/diamond-like)
o resinous (appearance of
resin or tree sap, silky,
slighly reflective)
o pearly (sheen of a pearl
or inside of a shell)
o dull (not reflective)
o hardness
measure of resistance of a mineral to
abrasion
uses Mohs scale
pros
o easy to use
o good for comparison
cons
o not a definite measure
o requires all materials on
the scale to be present
o color
absorption of visible light by electrons
not viable for classification because color
may change due to chemical impurities
o streak
color of mineral in powdered form
Earth Science Reviewer|Finals
more viable for classification than color
because it reflects the mineral itself
regardless of impurities
o crystal form
a.k.a habit
external shape of crystal reflective of the
internal structure of crystals
natural form before breaking up
due to chemical arrangement
can change (esp. due to heat, but also
pressure, saltiness, etc.)
o cleavage
property to break along parallel planes of
weakness to form smooth, flat surfaces
dictated by the bonding of atoms
described by number of directions and
angles between planes
o fracture
opposite of cleavage
breaking into irregular, non-planar
surfaces
o specific gravity/density
ratio of weight of a mineral to the weight
of an equal volume of water
o other properties
odor
taste
magnetism
acid reactivity
chemical composition of minerals
o better for classification than properties
properties can be similar, but not the
chemical composition
o native minerals
consist of a single element
o silicates
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(element + SiO4) vesicular

o oxides o voids of air bubbles
(element + O2) classified according to silicon content
o sulfide felsic (>65% silica, generally light-
(element + S2-) colored)
o sulfates intermediate (55-65% silica,
(element + (SO4)2-) generally medium
o halides colored/medium gray)
(element + halogen) mafic (45-55% silica, generally
o carbonates dark colored)
(element + (CO3)2-) ultramafic (<45% silica, generally
Rocks dark colored)
aggregates of minerals o sedimentary
may be single or multiple minerals rocks that form through the accumulation
classified by formation of sediments
types form at surface or near-surface conditions
o igneous may be clastic or non-clastic
formed from cooling and solidification of clastic
magma and/or lava o composed of grains,
may be intrusive/plutonic matrix and cements
has visible crystals which form o classified by particle size
due to heat non-clastic
phaneritic texture o formed through
o large interblocking evaporation and
crystals precipitation from solution
may be extrusive/volcanic or lithification of organic
matter
rapid cooling
o can be classified as
apharatic
evaporates, precipiates
o fine-grained texture and bioclastics
porphyritic o metamorphic
o formed through two formed through transformation of existing
stages of crystallization rocks through metamorphism
wherein magma partly involve changes in physical and chemical
cooled below the surface properties of rocks in response to heat,
and then extruded to the pressure and/or chemically active fluids
surface regional metamorphism
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o pressure as main factor o coal

contact metamorphism black, combustible rock
o heat as main factor usually from carboniferous plants in
Mining anoxic swamps and nearby forests
o surface mining anoxic conditions help due to the
utilized to extract ore minerals close to fact that oxygen is highly reactive
Earth's surface and can change coal composition
o underground mining continuous burial and compaction
utilized to extract ore minerals from the transforms decaying vegetation into peat
ore body that is under the surface (50% carbon), which is buried 4 to 10km
o effects of improper mining from the surface
flooding, erosion, water/air pollution, carbon content and color vary with
damage to habitats temperature of formation, pressure and
e.g. Egerton Mining time
peat (50%) -> lignite (70%) -> sub-
improper mining in Batangas
bituminous (75%) -> bituminous (80%) ->
residue spilled over to Verde
95% anthracite
Island Passage
Energy carbon percentage increases as
Renewable energy other elements decay
o petroleum and natural gas
o can be replenished on a human time scale
derived from large quantities of algae and
o current examples of renewable energy use in the
planktons buried beneath fine sediments
Philippines
in anoxic conditions
SALT lamp
stored within porous reservoir, such as
Pililia wind farm
sandstone
e-jeeps
organic matter becomes kerogen, and
Solar PH
then becomes either petroleum (at 50-150
Non-renewable energy degrees Celsius through catagenesis) or
o cannot be replenished on a human time scale natural gas (beyon 150 degrees Celsius
o high energy output through thermal cracking)
o very accessible
o causes pollution and climate change Sustainable Development
Fossil Fuels brand of development
o world's primary source of energy meets the needs of the present, but doesn't compromise the ability
o derived from prehistoric plants and animals which of the future to meet their needs
were buried under the right conditions to form follows the three Ps, people, planet and profit (society,
fossils environment, economy)
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o glacier
Water formed through glaciation
Hydrologic Cycle permanent mound chain of ice and crystallized
o movement of water through interconnected pathways and snow
reservoirs (saltwater, freshwater, surface water) longer periods of glaciation means lower
o evaporation -> condensation -> precipitation and repeat sea levels
involves smaller processes like transpiration Vatnajokull
(evaporation of water from plants), infiltration most voluminous freshwater reservoir
(water infiltrates the ground), and percolation (glacier) in Europe
(water infiltrates deeper areas of the ground) if it melts, 6m rise in sea level
Reservoir o ice sheet
o container of water is a mass of glacial land ice
o residence time o permafrost
average time spent by a water molecule in a frozen ground of soil, rock or sediment for years
reservoir o calving
bigger reservoirs usually have longer residence cutting ice
times o there is a higher amount of salinity because freshwater
Saltwater reservoir freezes, thus having the same amount of salt, but less
o valuable because saltwater is dense, giving us a means water
for transportation through boats that can float on saltwater Surface water reservoir
o salinity (saltiness of water) is maintained by the hydrologic o surface water is temporary
cycle o stream
evaporated water has higher salinity, but having
surface water moving through channel
this precipitate balances the salinity in the water
(passageway) towards sea level
o 4 oceans: Pacific, Arctic, Indian, Atlantic
tributaries
o has three layers
channels leading to the main river
surface layer (top-most)
river source
thermocline
main water source of river
deep water (bottom)
watershed
the deep water area has generally smaller fish
whole area with the stream
due to the high amount of pressure in the area
temperature also goes down as the water gets good area for water for human activity,
deeper, and does so most-rapidly at the thus was a big part in the dawn of
thermocline civilization
sunlight and density are reasons for this rapid interfluve
decrease land between tributaries
Freshwater reservoir rich vegetation
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flood prone common in urban areas where drainage is

o lake clogged
large inland of fresh/saltwater o groundwater
Lake Taal commonly used by wells and pumps
has sardinella tawilis, a sardine specie aquifier
that lives in freshwater rock layer that is permeable
Lake Titicaca (Peru and Bolivia porosity
highest navigable body of water atop space between rocks
Andes; rare aquatic giant frogs permeability
o wetland ability of liquid to pass through
large land area covered with water for a prolonged Threats to Water Resources
period, therefore having a distinct ecosystem o sedimentation
marsh accumulation of soil and sediments to streams
normal oxygen levels due to deforestation, surface mining, and
swamp "urbanization"
low oxygen level sediments sink to ocean floor and go to the corals
estuary and marine life
between saltwater and freshwater o acid mine drainage
o flood acidic discharge from groundwater which
natural event wherein a dry area is submerged potentially causes acid rain
under water o oil spill
fluvial/riverine leakage of petroleum, typically due to
when a stream's discharge is greater than recklessness
the channel's capacity, causing it to usually when a ship carrying oil hits a rocky area,
overflow and the oil spills after impact
flashflood e.g. Amazon Chernobyl Petroperu Incident,
intense high-velocity torrent of water with Tubbataha Reef
little to no notice o groundwater overexploitation
coastal flooding results to diminished river flow to natural habitats
water overwhelms in low-lying areas and subsidence
along the coasts due to severe weather o overfishing
conditions muro ami, dynamite fishing
pluvial/surface water flood mass killing
heavy rainfall creates a flood independent o coral bleaching
of an overflowing stream due to global warming
o pollution
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mechanical, biological, chemical DENR secretary Gina Lopez

Bishop Ramon Arguelles
Earth Now Agenda BUKAL-Batangas
Taiji Dolphin Slaughtering Lobo Resort Owners
o annual drive hunt in Taiji o some support the project
o 700-1800 dolphins killed violently local barangays which directly benefit from the
o reasons project
food the Aquino administration
entertainment o the media has covered this issue quite a bit
profit o the company has yet to have declaration of mining project
culture feasibility, a requirement needed to start
tradition need endorsement from an LGU
o stakeholders Marine Vessels Running Aground at Tubbataha Reef
Japanese government o Tubbataha Reef
Deputy Director (Hideki Moronuki) denied found in Sulu Sea
his awareness of the killings has a delicate ecosystem
Mercury findings in the whales were o damaged by grounding of USS Guardian and a Chinese
covered up by the government fishing vessel
Japanese media o nearly 4000 square meters of coral were damaged
hides the underground dealings involving Lumad Killings
whales o Lumads
Japanese citizens, themselves, continue members of indigenous tribes from Mindanao
to be unaware o Mindanao
International advocates and organizations rich in mineral resources
MRL - Egerton Gold Mining in Lobo foreign mining companies exploit these
o project which got mining and exploration permits from the schools were shut down by military due to conflict
DENR in 2006 in Lobo, Batangas hundreds of lumads killed and arrested
o make use of cyanide when mining military denied involvement and vowed to support
cyanide pits can overflow due to rain and El Nina investigation
cyanide leakage o Response
can damage the Verde Island Passage rallies and protests
has a diversity of species Save Our Schools network
protected by an executive order, but not noise barrages
national legislation Cagayan "Black Sand" Mining
o many do not support this project o Black Sand
locals Magnetite
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Gives density for its mixtures (concrete,iron) Environmental protection and resource
Filtration development
Coal mining Glenn Marine Subic Bay Toxic Waste Dumping
Destination: China o toxic waste was dumped in 2012 in Subic Bay by the MT
o Black Sand mining Glenn Guardian without a permit
Ongoing problem in Cagayan o this toxicity means water suffocation for marine life
Illegal Mining o Response
Large scale and small scale there was then a suspension of sewage disposal
o Effects and an act made to protect Subic Bay
Agricultural and environmental problems Hanford Nuclear Reservation
Degradation of marine ecosystem o part of the Manhattan Project, created by the U.S. to make
Coastal erosions nuclear weapons
o Response created plutonium for this purpose
DILG Memo Circular No. 44, s2014 had the first full-scale plutonium reactor
Foreshore mining is not allowed had some leakage of nuclear waste
Certain guidelines must be followed for o 67 out of 177 storage tanks leaked the waste
offshore mining o although decommissioned in 1971, the leakage is still
Appointment of Sec. Gina Lopez being cleaned up until today
Environmentally sensitive and o contaminated the Columbia River where radioactivity was
responsible mining released