Solar eclipse

Not to be confused with Lunar eclipse. forthcoming solar eclipses.

As seen from the Earth, a solar eclipse is a type of eclipse

that occurs when the Moon passes between the Sun and 1 Types
Earth, and the Moon fully or partially blocks ("occults")
the Sun. This can happen only at new moon when the Sun
and the Moon are in conjunction as seen from Earth in an
alignment referred to as syzygy. In a total eclipse, the
disk of the Sun is fully obscured by the Moon. In partial
and annular eclipses, only part of the Sun is obscured.
If the Moon were in a perfectly circular orbit, a little
closer to the Earth, and in the same orbital plane, there
would be total solar eclipses every month. However, the
Moons orbit is inclined (tilted) at more than 5 degrees
to the Earths orbit around the Sun (see ecliptic), so its
shadow at new moon usually misses Earth. Earths orbit
is called the ecliptic plane as the Moons orbit must cross
this plane in order for an eclipse (both solar as well as
lunar) to occur. In addition, the Moons actual orbit is
elliptical, often taking it far enough away from Earth that
its apparent size is not large enough to block the Sun to-
tally. The orbital planes cross each other at a line of nodes
resulting in at least two, and up to ve, solar eclipses oc-
curring each year; no more than two of which can be to-
tal eclipses.[1][2] However, total solar eclipses are rare at Partial and annular phases of solar eclipse on May 20, 2012
any particular location because totality exists only along
a narrow path on the Earths surface traced by the Moons
shadow or umbra.
An eclipse is a natural phenomenon. Nevertheless, in
some ancient and modern cultures, solar eclipses have
Human visual acuity
been attributed to supernatural causes or regarded as bad (20/20 vision): about 1' or 60"
omens. A total solar eclipse can be frightening to peo- International Space Station:
max. about 1' or 60"
ple who are unaware of its astronomical explanation, as (depends on orientation)
the Sun seems to disappear during the day and the sky Venus: 9.7" - 66.0"
darkens in a matter of minutes. Jupiter: 29.8" - 50.1"
Mars: 3.5" - 25.1"
Since looking directly at the Sun can lead to permanent Saturn:14.5" - 20.1"
eye damage or blindness, special eye protection or indi- Mercury:4.5" - 13.0"
rect viewing techniques are used when viewing a solar Uranus: 3.3" - 4.1"
eclipse. It is technically safe to view only the total phase Neptune:2.2" - 2.4"
of a total solar eclipse with the unaided eye and with-
out protection; however, this is a dangerous practice, as
most people are not trained to recognize the phases of
an eclipse, which can span over two hours while the total Sun: min. 31.6' Moon: min. 29.43'
Sun: max. 32.7' Moon: max. 33.5'
phase can only last up to 7.5 minutes for any one location.
People referred to as eclipse chasers or umbraphiles will Comparison of minimum and maximum apparent sizes of the Sun
travel to remote locations to observe or witness predicted and Moon (and planets). An annular eclipse can occur when the
central solar eclipses.[3][4] Sun has a larger apparent size than the Moon, whereas a total
For the date of the next eclipse see the section Recent and eclipse can occur when the Moon has a larger apparent size.

1
2 1 TYPES

Earth appear to be approximately the same size: about 0.5

Partial solar eclipse during annular solar eclipse of May 20,
2012
There are four types of solar eclipses:
A total eclipse occurs when the dark silhouette of
the Moon completely obscures the intensely bright
light of the Sun, allowing the much fainter solar
corona to be visible. During any one eclipse, totality
occurs at best only in a narrow track on the surface
of Earth.[5]
An annular eclipse occurs when the Sun and Moon
are exactly in line with the Earth, but the appar-
ent size of the Moon is smaller than that of the
Sun. Hence the Sun appears as a very bright ring, or
annulus, surrounding the dark disk of the Moon.[6]
degree of arc in angular measure.[6]
A separate category of solar eclipses is that of the Sun
being occluded by a body other than the Earths moon, as
can be observed at points in space away from the Earths
surface. Two examples are when the crew of Apollo 12
observed the Earth eclipse the Sun in 1969 and when the
Cassini probe observed Saturn eclipsing the Sun in 2006.
The Moons orbit around the Earth is an ellipse, as is the
Earths orbit around the Sun. The apparent sizes of the
Sun and Moon therefore vary.[8] The magnitude of an
eclipse is the ratio of the apparent size of the Moon to
the apparent size of the Sun during an eclipse. An eclipse
that occurs when the Moon is near its closest distance to
Earth (i.e., near its perigee) can be a total eclipse because
the Moon will appear to be large enough to completely
cover the Suns bright disk or photosphere; a total eclipse
has a magnitude greater than 1. Conversely, an eclipse
that occurs when the Moon is near its farthest distance
from Earth (i.e., near its apogee) can only be an annu-
lar eclipse because the Moon will appear to be slightly
smaller than the Sun; the magnitude of an annular eclipse
is less than 1. Slightly more solar eclipses are annular
than total because, on average, the Moon lies too far from
Earth to cover the Sun completely. A hybrid eclipse oc-
curs when the magnitude of an eclipse changes during the
event from less to greater than one, so the eclipse appears
to be total at some locations on Earth and annular at other
locations.[9]

A hybrid eclipse (also called annular/total Because the Earths orbit around the Sun is also ellip-
eclipse) shifts between a total and annular eclipse. tical, the Earths distance from the Sun similarly varies
At certain points on the surface of Earth, it appears throughout the year. This aects the apparent size of the
as a total eclipse, whereas at other points it appears Sun in the same way, but not as much as does the Moons
as annular. Hybrid eclipses are comparatively varying distance from Earth.[6] When Earth approaches
rare.[6] its farthest distance from the Sun in July, a total eclipse is
somewhat more likely, whereas conditions favour an an-
A partial eclipse occurs when the Sun and Moon nular eclipse when Earth approaches its closest distance
are not exactly in line with the Earth and the Moon to the Sun in January.[10]
only partially obscures the Sun. This phenomenon
can usually be seen from a large part of the Earth
outside of the track of an annular or total eclipse. 1.1 Terminology for central eclipse
However, some eclipses can only be seen as a par-
tial eclipse, because the umbra passes above the Central eclipse is often used as[11] a generic term for a to-
Earths polar regions and never intersects the Earths tal, annular, or hybrid eclipse. This is, however, not
surface.[6] Partial eclipses are virtually unnoticeable completely correct: the denition of a central eclipse is
in terms of the suns brightness, as it takes well over an eclipse during which the central line of the umbra
90% coverage to notice any darkening at all. Even at touches the Earths surface. It is possible, though ex-
99%, it would be no darker than civil twilight.[7] Of tremely rare, that part of the umbra intersects with the
course, partial eclipses (and partial stages of other Earth (thus creating an annular or total eclipse), but not
eclipses) can be observed if one is viewing the sun its central line. [11]This is then called a non-central total or
through a darkening lter (which should anyhow be annular eclipse. The last non-central solar eclipse was
used for safety). on April 29, 2014. This was an annular eclipse. The next
non-central total solar eclipse will be on April 9, 2043.[12]
[13]
The Suns distance from Earth is about 400 times the The phases observed during a total eclipse are called:
Moons distance, and the Suns diameter is about 400
times the Moons diameter. Because these ratios are ap- First contactwhen the Moons limb (edge) is ex-
proximately the same, the Sun and the Moon as seen from actly tangential to the Suns limb.
2.1 Geometry 3

Orbit of the Moon

Sun
Orbit of the Earth
not to scale
Penumbra
Umbra

Penumbra Umbra
(partial eclipse) (total eclipse)

1st 2nd Totality Moon 3rd 4th

contact contact contact contact Sun

mag.>1
mag.=1 time Geometry of a total solar eclipse (not to scale)
mag.<1
Antumbra (annular eclipse)
new moon occurs close to one of the points (known as
Each icon shows the view from the centre of its black spot, rep- nodes) where the Moons orbit crosses the ecliptic.[15]
resenting the moon (not to scale)
As noted above, the Moons orbit is also elliptical. The
Moons distance from the Earth can vary by about 6%
Second contactstarting with Bailys Beads (caused from its average value. Therefore, the Moons apparent
by light shining through valleys on the Moons sur- size varies with its distance from the Earth, and it is this
face) and the diamond ring eect. Almost the entire eect that leads to the dierence between total and annu-
disk is covered. lar eclipses. The distance of the Earth from the Sun also
varies during the year, but this is a smaller eect. On av-
Totalitythe Moon obscures the entire disk of the erage, the Moon appears to be slightly smaller than the
Sun and only the solar corona is visible. Sun as seen from the Earth, so the majority (about 60%)
of central eclipses are annular. It is only when the Moon
Third contactwhen the rst bright light becomes is closer to the Earth than average (near its perigee) that
visible and the Moons shadow is moving away from a total eclipse occurs.[16][17]
the observer. Again a diamond ring may be ob-
served. The Moon orbits the Earth in approximately 27.3 days,
relative to a xed frame of reference. This is known as
Fourth contactwhen the trailing edge of the Moon the sidereal month. However, during one sidereal month,
ceases to overlap with the solar disk and the eclipse Earth has revolved part way around the Sun, making the
ends. average time between one new moon and the next longer
than the sidereal month: it is approximately 29.5 days.
This is known as the synodic month and corresponds to
2 Predictions what is commonly called the lunar month.[15]
The Moon crosses from south to north of the ecliptic
at its ascending node, and vice versa at its descending
2.1 Geometry
node.[15] However, the nodes of the Moons orbit are
The diagrams to the right show the alignment of the Sun, gradually moving in a retrograde motion, due to the ac-
Moon, and Earth during a solar eclipse. The dark gray tion of the Suns gravity on the Moons motion, and they
region between the Moon and Earth is the umbra, where make a complete circuit every 18.6 years. This regres-
the Sun is completely obscured by the Moon. The small sion means that the time between each passage of the
area where the umbra touches Earths surface is where a Moon through the ascending node is slightly shorter than
total eclipse can be seen. The larger light gray area is the sidereal month. This period is called the nodical or
the penumbra, in which a partial eclipse can be seen. An draconic month.[19]
observer in the antumbra, the area of shadow beyond the Finally, the Moons perigee is moving forwards or pre-
umbra, will see an annular eclipse.[14] cessing in its orbit and makes a complete circuit in 8.85
The Moons orbit around the Earth is inclined at an angle years. The time between one perigee and the next is
of just over 5 degrees to the plane of the Earths orbit slightly longer than[20] the sidereal month and known as the
around the Sun (the ecliptic). Because of this, at the time anomalistic month.
of a new moon, the Moon will usually pass to the north The Moons orbit intersects with the ecliptic at the two
or south of the Sun. A solar eclipse can occur only when nodes that are 180 degrees apart. Therefore, the new
4 3 OCCURRENCE AND CYCLES

moon occurs close to the nodes at two periods of the year 4. The vector of the eclipse path at the midpoint of the
approximately six months (173.3 days) apart, known as eclipse aligning with the vector of the earths rota-
eclipse seasons, and there will always be at least one solar tion (i.e. not diagonal but due east).
eclipse during these periods. Sometimes the new moon
occurs close enough to a node during two consecutive 5. The midpoint of the eclipse being near the subsolar
months to eclipse the Sun on both occasions in two par- point (the part of the earth closest to the sun).
tial eclipses. This means that, in any given year, there will
always be at least two solar eclipses, and there can be as The longest eclipse that has been calculated thus far is the
many as ve.[21] eclipse of July 16, 2186 (with a maximum duration of 7
Eclipses can occur only when the Sun is within about 15 minutes 4 seconds over northern Guyana).
to 18 degrees of a node, (10 to 12 degrees for central
eclipses). This is referred to as an eclipse limit. In the
time it takes for the Moon to return to a node (draconic
month), the apparent position of the Sun has moved about
3 Occurrence and cycles
[1]
29 degrees, relative to the nodes. Since the eclipse limit
creates a window of opportunity of up to 36 degrees Main article: Eclipse cycle
(24 degrees for central eclipses), it is possible for par- Total solar eclipses are rare events. Although they oc-
tial eclipses (or rarely a partial and a central eclipse) to
occur in consecutive months.[22][23]

2.2 Path

During a central eclipse, the Moons umbra (or antumbra,

in the case of an annular eclipse) moves rapidly from west
to east across the Earth. The Earth is also rotating from
west to east, at about 28 km/min at the Equator, but as the
Moon is moving in the same direction as the Earths spin
at about 61 km/min, the umbra almost always appears to
move in a roughly west-east direction across a map of the
Earth at the speed of the Moons orbital velocity minus
the Earths rotational velocity.[24]
Total Solar Eclipse Paths: 10012000, showing that total so-
The width of the track of a central eclipse varies ac-
lar eclipses occur everywhere on Earth. This image was merged
cording to the relative apparent diameters of the Sun and
from 50 separate images from NASA.[29]
Moon. In the most favourable circumstances, when a to-
tal eclipse occurs very close to perigee, the track can be
cur somewhere on Earth every 18 months on average,[30]
up to 267 km (166 mi) wide and the duration of totality
it is estimated that they recur at any given place only
may be over 7 minutes.[25] Outside of the central track,
once every 360 to 410 years, on average.[31] The total
a partial eclipse is seen over a much larger area of the
eclipse lasts for only a maximum of a few minutes at
Earth. Typically, the umbra is 100160 km wide, while
any location, because the Moons umbra moves eastward
the penumbral diameter is in excess of 6400 km.[26]
at over 1700 km/h.[32] Totality currently can never last
more than 7 min 32 s. This value changes over the mil-
lennia and is currently decreasing. By the 8th millennium,
2.3 Duration the longest theoretically possible total eclipse will be less
than 7 min 2 s.[27] The last time an eclipse longer than 7
The following factors determine the duration of a total minutes occurred was June 30, 1973 (7 min 3 sec). Ob-
solar eclipse (in order of decreasing importance):[27][28] servers aboard a Concorde supersonic aircraft were able
to stretch totality for this eclipse to about 74 minutes by
1. The moon being almost exactly at perigee (making ying along the path of the Moons umbra.[33] The next
its angular diameter as large as possible). total eclipse exceeding seven minutes in duration will not
occur until June 25, 2150. The longest total solar eclipse
2. The earth being very near aphelion (furthest away during the 11,000 year period from 3000 BC to at least
from the sun in its elliptical orbit, making its angular 8000 AD will occur on July 16, 2186, when totality will
diameter nearly as small as possible). last 7 min 29 s.[27][34] For comparison, the longest total
eclipse of the 20th century at 7 min 8 s occurred on June
3. The midpoint of the eclipse being very close to the 20, 1955, and there are no total solar eclipses over 7 min
earths equator, where the orbital velocity is greatest. in duration in the 21st century.[35]
 5

If the date and time of any solar eclipse are known, it

is possible to predict other eclipses using eclipse cycles.
The saros is probably the best known and one of the most
accurate. A saros lasts 6,585.3 days (a little over 18
years), which means that, after this period, a practically
identical eclipse will occur. The most notable dierence
will be a westward shift of about 120 in longitude (due to
the 0.3 days) and a little in latitude (north-south for odd-
numbered cycles, the reverse for even-numbered ones).
A saros series always starts with a partial eclipse near one
of Earths polar regions, then shifts over the globe through
a series of annular or total eclipses, and ends with a partial
eclipse at the opposite polar region. A saros series lasts
1226 to 1550 years and 69 to 87 eclipses, with about 40
to 60 of them being central.[36]

3.1 Frequency per year

Between two and ve solar eclipses occur every year, with
at least one per eclipse season. Since the Gregorian calen-
dar was instituted in 1582, years that have had ve solar
eclipses were 1693, 1758, 1805, 1823, 1870, and 1935.
The next occurrence will be 2206.[37] On average, there
are about 240 solar eclipses each century.[38] Astronomers Studying an Eclipse painted by Antoine Caron in
1571

3.2 Final totality

dated precisely, from which other dates and ancient cal-
endars may be deduced. A solar eclipse of June 15, 763
Total solar eclipses are seen on Earth because of a fortu-
BC mentioned in an Assyrian text is important for the
itous combination of circumstances. Even on Earth, the
Chronology of the Ancient Orient.[41] There have been
diversity of eclipses familiar to people today is a tempo-
other claims to date earlier eclipses. The King Zhong
rary (on a geological time scale) phenomenon. Hundreds
Kang supposedly beheaded two astronomers, Hsi and Ho,
of millions of years in the past, the Moon was closer to
who failed to predict an eclipse 4,000 years ago.[42] Per-
the Earth and therefore apparently larger, so every so-
haps the earliest still-unproven claim is that of archae-
lar eclipse was total and there were no annular eclipses.
ologist Bruce Masse, who putatively links an eclipse that
Over a billion years in the future, the Moon will be too far
occurred on May 10, 2807 BC with a possible meteor im-
away to fully occlude the Sun, and no total eclipses will
pact in the Indian Ocean on the basis of several ancient
occur.[39]
ood myths that mention a total solar eclipse.[43]
Due to tidal acceleration, the orbit of the Moon around
Eclipses have been interpreted as omens, or portents.[44]
the Earth becomes about 2.2 cm more distant each year.
The ancient Greek historian Herodotus wrote that Thales
It is estimated that, in slightly less than 1.4 billion years,
of Miletus predicted an eclipse that occurred during a bat-
the distance from the Earth to the Moon will have in-
tle between the Medes and the Lydians. Both sides put
creased by 30,400 km. During that period, the apparent
down their weapons and declared peace as a result of the
angular diameter of the Moon will decrease in size, mean-
eclipse.[45] The exact eclipse involved remains uncertain,
ing that it will no longer be able to completely cover the
although the issue has been studied by hundreds of an-
Suns disk as seen from the Earth. This will be true even
cient and modern authorities. One likely candidate took
when the Moon is at perigee, and the Earth at aphelion.
place on May 28, 585 BC, probably near the Halys river in
Moreover, the Sun is increasing in diameter by about 5%
Asia Minor.[46] An eclipse recorded by Herodotus before
per billion years.[40] Therefore, the last total solar eclipse
Xerxes departed for his expedition against Greece,[47]
on Earth will occur about six hundred million years from
which is traditionally dated to 480 BC, was matched by
now.[39]
John Russell Hind to an annular eclipse of the Sun at
Sardis on February 17, 478 BC.[48] Alternatively, a par-
tial eclipse was visible from Persia on October 2, 480
4 Historical eclipses BC.[49] Herodotus also reports a solar eclipse at Sparta
during the Second Persian invasion of Greece.[50] The
Historical eclipses are a very valuable resource for his- date of the eclipse (August 1, 477 BC) does not match
torians, in that they allow a few historical events to be exactly the conventional dates for the invasion accepted
6 5 VIEWING

by historians.[51] planation of these phenomena than the chicken

Chinese records of eclipses begin at around 720 BC. [52] has of the scientic explanation of an eclipse.
The 4th century BC astronomer Shi Shen described the For him it was enough to know that the solar
prediction of eclipses by using the relative positions of the radiance was stolen, in the one case as in the
Moon and Sun.[53] The radiating inuence theory (i.e., other, and to suspect that the same demon was
the Moons light was reection from the Sun) was existent to blame for both robberies.[57]
in Chinese thought from about the sixth century BC (in
the Zhi Ran of Zhi Ni Zi),[54] though it was opposed by
the 1st century AD philosopher Wang Chong, who made 5 Viewing
clear in his writing that this theory was nothing new.[53]
Ancient Greeks, such as Parmenides and Aristotle, also
Looking directly at the photosphere of the Sun (the bright
supported the theory of the Moon shining because of re-
[54] disk of the Sun itself), even for just a few seconds, can
ected light.
cause permanent damage to the retina of the eye, because
Attempts have been made to establish the exact date of of the intense visible and invisible radiation that the pho-
Good Friday by assuming that the darkness described at tosphere emits. This damage can result in impairment of
Jesuss crucixion was a solar eclipse. This research has vision, up to and including blindness. The retina has no
not yielded conclusive results,[55][56] and Good Friday is sensitivity to pain, and the eects of retinal damage may
recorded as being at Passover, which is held at the time not appear for hours, so there is no warning that injury is
of a full moon. Further, the darkness lasted from the occurring.[58][59]
sixth hour to the ninth, or three hours, which is much,
Under normal conditions, the Sun is so bright that it is dif-
much longer than the eight-minute upper limit for any
cult to stare at it directly. However, during an eclipse,
solar eclipses totality. In the Western hemisphere, there
with so much of the Sun covered, it is easier and more
are few reliable records of eclipses before 800 AD, until
tempting to stare at it. Looking at the Sun during an
the advent of Arab and monastic observations in the early
[52] eclipse is as dangerous as looking at it outside an eclipse,
medieval period. The rst recorded observation of the
[49][52] except during the brief period of totality, when the Suns
corona was made in Constantinople in 968 AD.
disk is completely covered (totality occurs only during a
The rst known telescopic observation of a total solar total eclipse and only very briey; it does not occur dur-
eclipse was made in France in 1706.[52] Nine years later, ing a partial or annular eclipse). Viewing the Suns disk
English astronomer Edmund Halley accurately predicted through any kind of optical aid (binoculars, a telescope,
and observed the solar eclipse of May 3, 1715.[49][52] By or even an optical camera viewnder) is extremely haz-
the mid-19th century, scientic understanding of the Sun ardous and can cause irreversible eye damage within a
was improving through observations of the Suns corona fraction of a second.[60][61]
during solar eclipses. The corona was identied as part
of the Suns atmosphere in 1842, and the rst photograph
(or daguerreotype) of a total eclipse was taken of the 5.1 Partial and annular eclipses
solar eclipse of July 28, 1851.[49] Spectroscope observa-
tions were made of the solar eclipse of August 18, 1868,
which helped to determine the chemical composition of
the Sun.[49]
John Fiske summed up myths about the solar eclipse like
this in his 1872 book Myth and Myth-Makers,

the myth of Hercules and Cacus, the funda-

mental idea is the victory of the solar god over
the robber who steals the light. Now whether
the robber carries o the light in the evening
when Indra has gone to sleep, or boldly rears
his black form against the sky during the day-
time, causing darkness to spread over the earth,
would make little dierence to the framers of
the myth. To a chicken a solar eclipse is the
same thing as nightfall, and he goes to roost Eclipse glasses
accordingly. Why, then, should the primitive
thinker have made a distinction between the Viewing the Sun during partial and annular eclipses (and
darkening of the sky caused by black clouds during total eclipses outside the brief period of totality)
and that caused by the rotation of the earth? requires special eye protection, or indirect viewing meth-
He had no more conception of the scientic ex- ods if eye damage is to be avoided. The Suns disk can
5.3 Photography 7

Pinhole projection method of observing partial solar eclipse. In-

sert (upper left): partially eclipsed Sun photographed with a white
solar lter. Main image: projections of the partially eclipsed Sun
(bottom right)

be viewed using appropriate ltration to block the harm-

ful part of the Suns radiation. Sunglasses do not make Bailys beads
viewing the Sun safe. Only properly designed and certi-
ed solar lters should be used for direct viewing of the
Suns disk.[62] Especially, self-made lters using common caused by the sunlight still being able to reach the Earth
objects such as a oppy disk removed from its case, a through lunar valleys. Totality then begins with the
Compact Disc, a black colour slide lm, smoked glass, diamond ring eect, the last bright ash of sunlight.[68]
etc. must be avoided.[63][64] It is safe to observe the total phase of a solar eclipse di-
The safest way to view the Suns disk is by indirect rectly only when the Suns photosphere is completely cov-
projection.[65] This can be done by projecting an image ered by the Moon, and not before or after totality.[65] Dur-
of the disk onto a white piece of paper or card using a ing this period, the Sun is too dim to be seen through
pair of binoculars (with one of the lenses covered), a tele- lters. The Suns faint corona will be visible, and the
scope, or another piece of cardboard with a small hole in chromosphere, solar prominences, and possibly even a
it (about 1 mm diameter), often called a pinhole camera. solar are may be seen. At the end of totality, the same
The projected image of the Sun can then be safely viewed; eects will occur in reverse order, and on the opposite
this technique can be used to observe sunspots, as well side of the Moon.[68]
as eclipses. Care must be taken, however, to ensure that
no one looks through the projector (telescope, pinhole,
etc.) directly.[66] Viewing the Suns disk on a video dis- 5.3 Photography
play screen (provided by a video camera or digital cam-
era) is safe, although the camera itself may be damaged Photographing an eclipse is possible with fairly common
by direct exposure to the Sun. The optical viewnders camera equipment. In order for the disk of the Sun/Moon
provided with some video and digital cameras are not to be easily visible, a fairly high magnication long focus
safe. Securely mounting #14 welders glass in front of lens is needed (at least 200 mm for a 35 mm camera),
the lens and viewnder protects the equipment and makes and for the disk to ll most of the frame, a longer lens is
viewing possible.[64] Professional workmanship is essen- needed (over 500 mm). As with viewing the Sun directly,
tial because of the dire consequences any gaps or detach- looking at it through the viewnder of a camera can pro-
ing mountings will have. In the partial eclipse path, one duce damage to the retina, so care is recommended.[69]
will not be able to see the corona or nearly complete dark-
ening of the sky, however, depending on how much of the
Suns disk is obscured, some darkening may be notice- 6 Other observations
able. If three-quarters or more of the sun is obscured,
then an eect can be observed by which the daylight ap-
A total solar eclipse provides a rare opportunity to ob-
pears to be dim, as if the sky were overcast, yet objects
serve the corona (the outer layer of the Suns atmosphere).
still cast sharp shadows.[67]
Normally this is not visible because the photosphere is
much brighter than the corona. According to the point
reached in the solar cycle, the corona may appear small
5.2 Totality
and symmetric, or large and fuzzy. It is very hard to pre-
[70]
When the shrinking visible part of the photosphere be- dict this in advance.
comes very small, Bailys beads will occur. These are Phenomena associated with eclipses include shadow
8 6 OTHER OBSERVATIONS

The observation with the Sun between the stars was only
possible during totality since the stars are then visible.
Though Eddingtons observations were near the experi-
mental limits of accuracy at the time, work in the later
half of the 20th century conrmed his results.[73][74]

6.2 Gravity anomalies

There is a long history of observations of gravity-related
phenomena during solar eclipses, especially around total-
The progression of a solar eclipse on August 1, 2008 in ity. In 1954, and again in 1959, Maurice Allais reported
Novosibirsk, Russia. All times UTC (local time was UTC+7). observations of strange and unexplained movement dur-
The time span between shots is three minutes. ing solar eclipses.[75] This phenomenon is now called the
Allais eect. Similarly, in 1970, Saxl and Allen observed
the sudden change in motion of a torsion pendulum; this
bands (also known as ying shadows), which are simi-
phenomenon is called the Saxl eect.[76]
lar to shadows on the bottom of a swimming pool. They
only occur just prior to and after totality, when a narrow A recent published observation during the 1997 solar
solar crescent acts as an anisotropic light source.[71] eclipse by Wang et al. suggested a possible gravitational
shielding eect,[77] which generated debate. Later in
2002, Yang and Wang published detailed data analy-
6.1 1919 observations sis, which suggested that the phenomenon still remains
unexplained.[78]
See also: Tests of general relativity Deection of light
by the Sun
The observation of a total solar eclipse of May 29, 1919, 6.3 Eclipses and transits

In principle, the simultaneous occurrence of a Solar

eclipse and a transit of a planet is possible. But these
events are extremely rare because of their short durations.
The next anticipated simultaneous occurrence of a Solar
eclipse and a transit of Mercury will be on July 5, 6757,
and a Solar eclipse and a transit of Venus is expected on
April 5, 15232.[79]
More common, but still infrequent, is a conjunction of
a planet (especially, but not only, Mercury or Venus) at
the time of a total solar eclipse, in which event the planet
will be visible very near the eclipsed Sun, when without
the eclipse it would have been lost in the Suns glare. At
one time, some scientists hypothesized that there may be
a planet (often given the name Vulcan) even closer to the
Sun than Mercury; the only way to conrm its existence
would have been to observe it in transit or during a total
solar eclipse. No such planet was ever found, and general
relativity has since explained the observations that led as-
tronomers to suggest that Vulcan might exist.[80]

6.4 Earthshine
During a total solar eclipse, the Moons shadow covers
Eddingtons original photograph of the 1919 eclipse, which pro-
only a small fraction of the Earth. The Earth continues
vided evidence for Einstein's theory of general relativity.
to receive at least 92 percent of the amount of sunlight
helped to conrm Einstein's theory of general relativ- it receives without an eclipse more if the penumbra of
ity. By comparing the apparent distance between stars the Moons shadow partly misses the Earth. Seen from
in the constellation Taurus, with and without the Sun be- the Moon, the Earth during a total solar eclipse is mostly
tween them, Arthur Eddington stated that the theoretical brilliantly illuminated, with only a small dark patch show-
predictions about gravitational lenses were conrmed.[72] ing the Moons shadow. The brilliantly-lit Earth reects a
6.6 Impact 9

lot of light to the Moon. If the corona of the eclipsed Sun
were not present, the Moon, illuminated by earthlight,
would be easily visible from Earth. This would be essen-
tially the same as the earthshine which can frequently be
seen when the Moons phase is a narrow crescent. In real-
ity, the corona, though much less brilliant than the Suns
photosphere, is much brighter than the Moon illuminated
by earthlight. Therefore, by contrast, the Moon during
a total solar eclipse appears to be black, with the corona
surrounding it.
6.5 Articial satellites
observed a total solar eclipse from space in 1966.[82] The
partial phase of the 1999 total eclipse was visible from
Mir.[83]
During the ApolloSoyuz Test Project conducted in July
1975, the Apollo spacecraft was positioned to create an
articial solar eclipse giving the Soyuz crew an opportu-
nity to photograph the solar corona.
6.6 Impact
The solar eclipse of March 20, 2015, was the rst occur-
rence of an eclipse estimated to potentially have a sig-
nicant impact on the power system, with the electric-
ity sector taking measures to mitigate any impact. The
continental Europe and Great Britain synchronous areas
were estimated to have about 90 Gigawatts of solar power
and it was estimated that production would temporar-
ily decrease by up to 34 GW compared to a clear sky
day.[84][85] The temperature may decrease by 3 C, and
wind power potentially decreases as winds are reduced
by 0.7 m/s.[86]

7 Recent and forthcoming solar

eclipses
From space, the Moons shadow during a solar eclipse appears
as a dark spot moving across the Earth.
Main article: List of solar eclipses in the 21st century
Further information: Lists of solar eclipses
Eclipses only occur in the eclipse season, when the Sun

The Moons shadow over Turkey and Cyprus, seen from the ISS
during a 2006 total solar eclipse.

Articial satellites can also pass in front of the Sun as

Eclipse path for total and hybrid eclipses from 2001 to 2020.
seen from the Earth, but none is large enough to cause an
eclipse. At the altitude of the International Space Station,
is close to either the ascending or descending node of
for example, an object would need to be about 3.35 km the Moon. Each eclipse is separated by one, ve or six
(2.08 mi) across to blot the Sun out entirely. These tran-
lunations (synodic months), and the midpoint of each sea-
sits are dicult to watch because the zone of visibility is
son is separated by 173.3 days, which is the mean time
very small. The satellite passes over the face of the Sunfor the Sun to travel from one node to the next. The
in about a second, typically. As with a transit of a planet,
period is a little less than half a calendar year because
it will not get dark.[81] the lunar nodes slowly regress. Because 223 synodic
Observations of eclipses from spacecraft or articial months is roughly equal to 239 anomalistic months and
satellites orbiting above the Earths atmosphere are not 242 draconic months, eclipses with similar geometry re-
subject to weather conditions. The crew of Gemini 12 cur 223 synodic months (about 6,585.3 days) apart. This
10
period (18 years 11.3 days) is a saros. Because 223 syn-
odic months is not identical to 239 anomalistic months or
242 draconic months, saros cycles do not endlessly repeat.
Each cycle begins with the Moons shadow crossing the
earth near the north or south pole, and subsequent events
progress toward the other pole until the Moons shadow
misses the earth and the series ends.[22] Saros cycles are
numbered; currently, cycles 117 to 156 are active.
8 See also
Besselian elements
Black Sun (mythology)
Solar eclipses in ction
Solar eclipses on other planets
Solar eclipses on the Moon
Transit of Deimos from Mars
Transit of Phobos from Mars
9 Notes
[1] Littmann, Mark; Espenak, Fred; Willcox, Ken (2008).
Totality: Eclipses of the Sun. Oxford University Press. pp.
1819. ISBN 0-19-953209-5.
[2] Five solar eclipses occurred in 1935.NASA (September
6, 2009). Five Millennium Catalog of Solar Eclipses.
NASA Eclipse Web Site. Fred Espenak, Project and Web-
site Manager. Retrieved January 26, 2010.
[3] Koukkos, Christina (May 14, 2009). Eclipse Chasing,
in Pursuit of Total Awe. New York Times. Retrieved
January 15, 2012.
[4] Pasacho, Jay M. (July 10, 2010). Why I Never Miss a
Solar Eclipse. New York Times. Retrieved January 15,
2012.
[5] Harrington, pp. 78
[6] Harrington, pp. 911
[7] Transit of Venus, Sun-Earth Day 2012. nasa.gov. Re-
trieved February 7, 2016.
[8] Solar Eclipses. University of Tennessee. Retrieved Jan-
uary 15, 2012.
[9] Espenak, Fred (September 26, 2009). Solar Eclipses for
Beginners. Retrieved January 15, 2012.
[10] Steel, p. 351
[11] Espenak, Fred (January 6, 2009). Central Solar Eclipses:
19912050. Greenbelt, MD: NASA Goddard Space
Flight Center. Retrieved January 15, 2012.
9 NOTES
[12] Verbelen, Felix (November 2003). Solar Eclipses on
Earth, 1001 BC to AD 2500. Retrieved January 15,
2012.
[13] Harrington, pp. 1314; Steel, pp. 266279
[14] Mobberley, pp. 3038
[15] Harrington, pp. 45
[16] Hipschman, Ron. Why Eclipses Happen. Explorato-
rium. Retrieved January 14, 2012.
[17] Brewer, Bryan (January 14, 1998). What Causes an
Eclipse?". Earth View. Retrieved January 14, 2012.
[18] NASA - Eclipse 99 - Frequently Asked Questions
There is a mistake in the How long will we continue to be
able to see total eclipses of the Sun? answer, "...the Suns
angular diameter varies from 32.7 minutes of arc when
the Earth is at its farthest point in its orbit (aphelion), and
31.6 arc minutes when it is at its closest (perihelion). It
should appear smaller when farther, so the values should
be swapped.
[19] Steel, pp. 319321
[20] Steel, pp. 317319
[21] Harrington, pp. 57
[22] Espenak, Fred (August 28, 2009). Periodicity of Solar
Eclipses. Greenbelt, MD: NASA Goddard Space Flight
Center. Retrieved January 15, 2012.
[23] Espenak, Fred; Meeus, Jean (January 26, 2007). Five
Millennium Catalog of Solar Eclipses: 1999 to +3000.
Greenbelt, MD: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.
Retrieved January 15, 2012.
[24] Mobberley, pp. 3337
[25] How do eclipses such as the one on Wednesday 14
November 2012 occur?". Sydney Observatory. Retrieved
20 March 2015.
[26] Steel, pp. 5253
[27] Meeus, J. (December 2003). The maximum possi-
ble duration of a total solar eclipse. Journal of the
British Astronomical Association. 113 (6): 343348.
Bibcode:2003JBAA..113..343M. Retrieved 22 Decem-
ber 2013.
[28] M. Littman, et al.
[29] Espenak, Fred (March 24, 2008). World Atlas of So-
lar Eclipse Paths. NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.
Retrieved January 15, 2012.
[30] Steel, p. 4
[31] For 360 years, see Harrington, p. 9; for 410 years, see
Steel, p. 31
[32] Mobberley, pp. 3336; Steel, p. 258
[33] Eclipse Flight of Concorde 001. nature.com.

[34] Stephenson, F. Richard (1997). Historical Eclipses and
Earths Rotation. Cambridge University Press. p. 54.
doi:10.1017/CBO9780511525186. ISBN 0-521-46194-
4.
[35] Mobberley, p. 10
[36] Espenak, Fred (August 28, 2009). Eclipses and the
Saros. NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. Retrieved
January 15, 2012.
[37] Pogo, Alexander (1935). Calendar years with ve so-
lar eclipses. Popular Astronomy. Vol. 43. p. 412.
Bibcode:1935PA.....43..412P.
[38] What are solar eclipses and how often do they occur?".
timeanddate.com. Retrieved 2014-11-23.
[39] Walker, John (July 10, 2004). Moon near Perigee, Earth
near Aphelion. Fourmilab. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
[40] Ribas, Ignasi (February 2010). The Sun and stars
as the primary energy input in planetary atmo-
spheres. Solar and Stellar Variability: Impact on
Earth and Planets, IAU Symposium. Proceedings of
the International Astronomical Union. 264. 318.
arXiv:0911.4872 . Bibcode:2010IAUS..264....3R.
doi:10.1017/S1743921309992298.
[41] van Gent, Robert Harry. Astronomical Chronology.
University of Utrecht. Retrieved January 15, 2012.
[42] Harrington, p. 2
[43] Blakeslee, Sandra (November 14, 2006). Ancient Crash,
Epic Wave. New York Times. Retrieved November 14,
2006.
[44] Steel, p. 1
[45] Steel, pp. 8485
[46] Le Conte, David (December 6, 1998). Eclipse Quota-
tions. MrEclipse.com. Retrieved January 8, 2011.
[47] Herodotus. Book VII. p. 37.
[48] Chambers, G. F. (1889). A Handbook of Descriptive and
Practical Astronomy. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 323.
[49] Espenak, Fred. Solar Eclipses of Historical Interest.
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. Retrieved Decem-
ber 28, 2011.
[50] Herodotus. Book IX. p. 10.
[51] Schaefer, Bradley E. (May 1994). Solar Eclipses That
Changed the World. Sky & Telescope. Vol. 87 no. 5. pp.
3639. Bibcode:1994S&T....87...36S.
[52] Stephenson, F. Richard (1982). Historical Eclipses.
Scientic American. Vol. 247 no. 4. pp. 154163.
Bibcode:1982SciAm.247..154S.
[53] Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in
China: Volume 3. Taipei: Caves Books. pp. 411413.
OCLC 48999277.
[54] Needham, p. 227.
11
[55] Humphreys, C. J.; Waddington, W. G. (1983). Dat-
ing the Crucixion. Nature. 306 (5945): 743746.
Bibcode:1983Natur.306..743H. doi:10.1038/306743a0.
[56] Kidger, Mark (1999). The Star of Bethlehem: An As-
tronomers View. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University
Press. pp. 6872. ISBN 0-691-05823-7.
[57] John Fiske, Myth and Mythmakers
[58] Espenak, Fred (July 11, 2005). Eye Safety During So-
lar Eclipses. NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. Re-
trieved January 15, 2012.
[59] Dobson, Roger (August 21, 1999). UK hospitals assess
eye damage after solar eclipse. British Medical Journal.
319: 469. doi:10.1136/bmj.319.7208.469.
[60] MacRobert, Alan M. How to Watch a Partial Solar
Eclipse Safely. Sky & Telescope. Retrieved August 4,
2007.
[61] Chou, B. Ralph (July 11, 2005). Eye safety during so-
lar eclipses. NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. Re-
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[62] Littmann, Mark; Willcox, Ken; Espenak, Fred (1999).
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[63] Chou, B. Ralph (January 20, 2008). Eclipse Filters.
MrEclipse.com. Retrieved January 4, 2012.
[64] Eclipse Viewing Safety. Perkins Observatory. Re-
trieved January 15, 2012.
[65] Harrington, p. 25
[66] Harrington, p. 26
[67] Harrington, p. 40
[68] Littmann, Mark; Willcox, Ken; Espenak, Fred (1999).
The Experience of Totality. MrEclipse.com. Retrieved
January 15, 2012.
[69] Kramer, Bill. Photographing a Total Solar Eclipse.
Eclipse-chasers.com. Archived from the original on Jan-
uary 29, 2009. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
[70] The science of eclipses. ESA. September 28, 2004. Re-
trieved August 4, 2007.
[71] Dravins, Dainis. Flying Shadows. Lund Observatory.
Retrieved January 15, 2012.
[72] Dyson, F.W.; Eddington, A.S.; Davidson, C.R. (1920).
A Determination of the Deection of Light by the Suns
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[73] Relativity and the 1919 eclipse. ESA. September 13,
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[74] Steel, pp. 114120
[75] Allais, Maurice (1959). Should the Laws of Gravitation
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12 11 EXTERNAL LINKS

[76] Saxl, Erwin J.; Allen, Mildred (1971). 1970 solar
eclipse as 'seen' by a torsion pendulum. Physical Re-
view D. 3 (4): 823825. Bibcode:1971PhRvD...3..823S.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.3.823.
[77] Wang, Qian-shen; Yang, Xin-she; Wu, Chuan-zhen; Guo,
Hong-gang; Liu, Hong-chen; Hua, Chang-chai (2000).
Precise measurement of gravity variations during a to-
tal solar eclipse. Physical Review D. 62 (4): 041101(R).
arXiv:1003.4947 . Bibcode:2000PhRvD..62d1101W.
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[78] Yang, X. S.; Wang, Q. S. (2002). Gravity
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[79] Meeus, J.; Vitagliano, A. (2004). Simultaneous tran-
sits (PDF). J. Br. Astron. Assoc. 114 (3): 132135.
Bibcode:2004JBAA..114..132M. Archived from the orig-
inal (PDF) on July 10, 2007.
[80] Grego, Peter (2008). Venus and Mercury, and How to
Observe Them. Springer. p. 3. ISBN 978-0387742854.
[81] ISS-Venustransit (in German). astronomie.info.
[82] JSC Digital Image Collection. NASA Johnson Space
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[83] Nemiro, R.; Bonnell, J., eds. (August 30, 1999).
Looking Back on an Eclipsed Earth. Astronomy Picture
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[84] "Solar Eclipse 2015 - Impact Analysis" pp3+6+7+13 .
European Network of Transmission System Operators for
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[85] Curve of potential power loss
[86] S. L. Gray , R. G. Harrison. "Diagnosing eclipse-
induced wind changes" Proceedings of the Royal Society.
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Archive
11 External links
NASA Eclipse Web Site
Eclipsewise, Fred Espenaks new eclipse site
Detailed eclipse explanations and predictions, Her-
mit Eclipse
Eclipse Photography, Prof. Miroslav Druckmller
Animated maps of August 21, 2017 solar eclipses,
Larry Koehn
Five Millennium (1999 to +3000) Canon of Solar
Eclipses Database, Xavier M. Jubier
Animated explanation of the mechanics of a solar
eclipse, University of South Wales
Eclipse Image Gallery, The World at Night
Ring of Fire Eclipse: 2012, Photos
"Sun, Eclipses of the". Colliers New Encyclopedia.
1921.
Centered and aligned video recording of Total Solar
Eclipse 20th March 2015 on YouTube
Solar eclipse photographs taken from the Lick Ob-
servatory from the Lick Observatory Records Dig-
ital Archive, UC Santa Cruz Librarys Digital Col-
lections
Video with Total Solar Eclipse March 09 2016
(From the Beginning to the Total Phase) on
YouTube
Total Solar Eclipse Shadow on Earth March 09 2016
CIMSSSatelite
Wikiversity has a solar eclipse lab that students can do on
any sunny day.

10 References
Harrington, Philip S. (1997). Eclipse! The What,
Where, When, Why and How Guide to Watching So-
lar and Lunar Eclipses. New York: John Wiley and
Sons. ISBN 0-471-12795-7.

Mobberley, Martin (2007). Total Solar Eclipses and

How to Observe Them. Astronomers Observing
Guides. New York: Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-
69827-4.

Steel, Duncan (1999). Eclipse: The celestial phe-

nomenon which has changed the course of history.
London: Headline. ISBN 0-7472-7385-5.
 13

12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

12.1 Text
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dark, Tarquin, Andre Engels, Danny, JeLuF, PierreAbbat, William Avery, SimonP, Imran, Bth, Montrealais, Lir, Nealmcb, Michael Hardy,
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Schneelocke, Tom Peters, Adam Bishop, Vanished user 5zariu3jisj0j4irj, CecilBlade, Dcoetzee, Przepla, Andrevan, PeterGrecian, Tpbrad-
bury, Morwen, Philopp, Shizhao, Pakaran, Jerzy, Johnleemk, Michael Glass, Denelson83, Donarreiskoer, Robbot, Zandperl, Altenmann,
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Ronhjones, TutterMouse, Wikimichael22, Leszek Jaczuk, NjardarBot, CarsracBot, Sussmanbern, Glane23, Favonian, Kyle1278, Ma-
rine2323, LinkFA-Bot, Brainmachine, Numbo3-bot, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Krano, WikiDreamer Bot, Jarble, Nicolas Love, LuK3, Luckas-
bot, Modbear, Yobot, Worldbruce, Andreasmperu, Donfbreed, Intothewoods29, Tromba206, Cafe.1601, Pleasantfartsa, Da Vinci Nan-
jing, Floquenbeam, Jim1138, IRP, Galoubet, Piano non troppo, AdjustShift, Kingpin13, Crecy99, Materialscientist, The High Fin Sperm
Whale, Citation bot, Bob Burkhardt, Loodotuyfa, Xqbot, Sionus, Naenae1996, Jmundo, Topilsky, Tyrol5, - ), GrouchoBot, JanDeFi-
etser, Sinclaircorbett, Snjhawar, Dirrival, Btafreshi, Prunesqualer, RibotBOT, Amaury, Astroeclipse, Kurauchi, Natural Cut, Iluvharley,
Jes8p, Shadowjams, Samwb123, FrescoBot, Surv1v4l1st, Lateral mu, Jackweltch8, Vigilicious, Recognizance, Cannolis, Citation bot 1,
SL93, Groug, Pinethicket, Tom.Reding, Michitaro, A8UDI, Hoo man, Dana60Cummins, Evilmaster23, Cyrus40540057, Hylonomus5,
Necrojesta, Shenuna, , Mriisnotct, IVAN3MAN, Zbayz, Urbanclearway, FoxBot, TobeBot, Mercy11, AHeneen, Lotje,
Callanecc, Cakeiswinn, Vrenator, Gilester123, Bluest, Dusty777, Jhenderson777, JV Smithy, Brian the Editor, HarrisonZ, Earthandmoon,
Alljustdream, RjwilmsiBot, Noommos, Coolbeens, DASHBot, TGCP, EmausBot, Narxym, Immunize, MrRandomPerson, Gossip boy nel,
Courteney1234, RA0808, Dragco, NotAnonymous0, WilliamAKramer, ZxxZxxZ, Slightsmile, Bright352ga, Dcirovic, AvicBot, ZroBot,
John Cline, PBS-AWB, Brcp, Mikimouse123, Cutepie6606, General Rommel, Jlo7000, Emmic10, 11614soup, Augurar, DOwenWilliams,
L Kensington, Alborzagros, Kranix, Donner60, Pun, Orange Suede Sofa, Chris857, Clementina, NTox, , Zutroy1,
14 12 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

AnddoX, Thephatphilmz, ClueBot NG, Derfel73, Bear PIG man 2, Jon21488, Shakenbake1295, Booyeah69, Go Phightins!, Widr, Lfahne-
stock, Ajk114, Helpful Pixie Bot, MsFionnuala, Bibcode Bot, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, EuroAgurbash, Guy vandegrift, Hemptoe,
Paras743, Altar, Shadow4ce, CitationCleanerBot, Glevum, Maropapa, Aztlshamb, Aolxhangover, Colinmartin74, Tanimichan, Stut38hd,
Achowat, Chip123456, Blockyt, Nitrobutane, BattyBot, SimmeD, Scott Delaney, Hiparick, Bouressac, ChrisGualtieri, Dexbot, Supern-
inja11, Flora.bloom, KillingRoy, Joshua046, Advlokanath, Shaune23, Piccangel, Cc131988, Webclient101, CuriousMind01, Lugia2453,
AldezD, Graphium, V9theKID, Butholehead, WiHkibew, Hillbillyholiday, Reatlas, Rfassbind, NeoHacker 333, Donfbreed2, BAMF1215,
Rimms96, Duckboy2019, AmaryllisGardener, Eyesnore, USER345, Zlelik2000, Ganeshwatve, Monkbot, N-C16, Tdadamemd a1145,
Tetra quark, KasparBot, Dorx90, Brraor, Bradenbear424, Pokeuser212121, Tomwiki2016, Heididoerr061 and Anonymous: 801

12.2 Images
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jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist:
File:1919_eclipse_negative.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/1919_eclipse_negative.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: F. W. Dyson, A. S. Eddington, and C. Davidson, A Determination of the Deection of Light by the Suns
Gravitational Field, from Observations Made at the Total Eclipse of May 29, 1919 Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of
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12.3 Content license 15

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