Unit 1

Fundamental concepts: Principles of Elasticity: stresses-principal, maximum shear and Vonmises

stresses, Equilibrium equations, strain displacement relationships in matrix form Constitutive
relationships for plane stress, plane strain , Axi-symmetric and 3D. Boundary conditions. 06 Hrs
Potential energy and equilibrium,Rayleigh-Ritz method and Galerkin method-applied to simple problems
on axially loaded members,cantilever,simply supported beams,with point loads and distributed loads.
Gauss elimination method and Gaussian quadrature-1pt,2pt and 3 pt formula. 08 Hrs
Introduction to FEM, basic concept, historical background, general applicability, engineering
applications, general description ,comparison with other methods of analysis, commercial packages-
preprocessor, solver and post processor . 3 Hrs

1.Explain the significance of Equilibrium equations. Derive the force equilibrium conditions for
2D state of stress. Write equilibrium equations for 3D.
2.Write down (do not derive) the equations of equilibrium in differential form in terms of stresses
and body forces for a three dimensional element volume with the help of a neat sketch
3.Explain principal stress, maximum stress and Von Mises stress and bring out the importance of
these in the stress analysis.
4.The stress components at a point in a body are given by x=3xy2z+2x ,y=5xyz+2y
,z=3xy2z+2x ,xy=0, yz=xz=3xy 2 z+2xy. Determine whether these components of stress
satisfy the equilibrium equations or not at the point (1,-1,2).If not then determine the suitable
body force vector required at this point so that these stress components are in equilibrium.
5.Write strain displacement relations for 2D and for 3D in Cartesian coordinates .
6.Strain in a rod of length L fixed at one end and subjected to axial loading is given by
x=1+2x .Find the tip displacement .
2

7.The displacement field for a body is given by u=(x2+y2)i+(3+z)j+(x2+2y)k.Find the rectangular

strain components at (3,1,-2)
8. Explain plane stress and plane strain problems. Give examples and write stiffness and
compliance matrices
9. Identify the idealization of 2D problem shown. State the conditions and write stiffness matrices.

10. The state of strain at a point is given by x=0.0015, y=-0.0025, z = yz= xz = 0, xy=
-0.004.Determine the stress tensor at the point . E =208 Gpa. and =0.28.
11. Determine the strain tensor for the stress tensor at a point given by
210 140 00
[] = 140 -240 00 where E=208 GPa and =0.3
00 00 00
12. Explain Axi-symmetric problems. Give examples and write stiffness and compliance matrices.
13. Explain with examples of bar and beam ,essential and Non essential boundary conditions
 14. Explain boundary value problems and Initial value problems with example.
15. Write admissible functions for
i. Axial bar fixed at one end ii. Axial bar fixed at both ends
iii.Cantilever beam , iv Simply supported beam(Polynomial and trigonometric)
iv. Beam fixed at both ends
v. Propped cantilever beam
16. Using matrix notation, develop an expression for the total potential energy functional for a 3D
elastic solid subjected to body forces, surface forces and point loads.
17. State principle of Minimum Potential Energy.
18. Obtain displacements of the nodes in the spring system problems below using PMPE

19. Explain Rayleigh-Ritz method applied to continuum. What are its disadvantages
20. Obtain expression for displacement for uniform bar fixed at one end and loaded by a point
load at free end in tension using Rayleigh Ritz method .
21. Obtain expression for displacement for uniform bar fixed at one end and loaded by a point
load at free end in compression using Rayleigh Ritz method .
22. Obtain expression for displacement for uniform bar under uniformly distributed axial load
of intensity q=C .where C is a constant using Rayleigh Ritz method .Use second order
polynomial
23. Use Rayleigh Ritz method to find displacement of any point of the rod shown.Also
determine the displacement of the midpoint.
24. Use Rayleigh Ritz method to find displacement of any point of the rod shown above when
the bottom is not fixed. Also determine the displacement of the free end .
25. Demonstrate the importance of convergence using first order and second order polynomial
in Rayleigh Ritz method to obtain expressions for displacement and stress for uniform bar fixed
at one end x=0 and subjected to linearly varying distributed axial load of intensity q = Cx, where
C is a constant.

26. Obtain an expression for deflection in a Simply supported beam with UDL (p) by
Rayleigh Ritz method.Use two term trigonometric series for admissible function. 10
27. Obtain an expression for deflection in a Simply supported beam with central load P by
Rayleigh Ritz method.Use two term trigonometric series for admissible function.
14
28. Determine the deflection of cantilever beam of length l and loaded with a end load P at
the free end by Rayleigh Ritz method. Use trigonometric admissible function 10
29. Determine the deflection of cantilever beam of length l and loaded with a UDL p by
Rayleigh Ritz method

30. Compare the finite element method with the continuum method, clearly bringing out
the differences, advantages and disadvantages .08
31. Explain the continuum method of analysis bringing out the disadvantages in
comparison of Finite element method. 08
32. Explain Plane stress ,Plane strain and axisymetric problems with examples.write
stiffness matrix for the same
33. Explain steps involved in linear static finite element analysis.
34. Explain preprocessor,solver/processor and post processor applied to commercial finite
element package.

24 Use Galerkin method to obtain an approximate solution of the differential equation given
below with the boundary conditions y(0)=0, y(10) = 0.Use trial function y=a1x(10-x)

d2y
100 0; (0 x 100)
dx 2

1.Explain Galerkin method applied to continuum 06

2. Explain steps involved in Galerkin method .10
3. Obtain solution to simply supported beam subjected to concentrated moments Mo at each end
using Galerkin method.Use approximate function for transverse displacemenv(x)=Asin(x/L).
4. Determine the deflection of cantilever beam of length l and loaded with a vertical load P at
the free end using Galerkin method.
5. Give the principle involved in deriving Gauss quadrature formula for a simple function
F( r )=1 +2r+3r2+4r3, F( r) integrated between 1 to +1 06
6. Explain 1pt and 2 pt. Gaussian quadrature method
7. Evaluate the integral I = (1 2 )(4 2 )dd using two point formula.
11
1 1
8. Evaluate I = (3e x x 2
( x 2)
1
)dx using one point and two point Gauss Quadrature.

9. Using Gaussian Quadrature formula, evaluate the following

1 dx
(
1
(1 2r 3r 2 4r 3 )dr 2 3 )dd
2
i. 11. iii.
1 1 x 11

10. Using Gaussian Quadrature formula, evaluate the problems when integration limits are
not -1 to +1 like

3
(1 2r 3r 2 4r 3 )dr
0

11. List important historical events in the development of FEM

12. Compare the finite element method with the continuum method, clearly bringing out the
differences, advantages and disadvantages .08
13. Explain the continuum method of analysis bringing out the disadvantages in comparison of
Finite element method. 08
14. Compare features of finite element method with finite difference method. 08
15. Illustrate the basic idea underlying FEM with an example of determining area of a circle
using triangular elements
16. Classify the Finite element model based on Variational Principles
17. Explain with examples of bar and beam Essential and Non essential boundary conditions
18. Write admissible functions for
ii. Axial bar fixed at one end
iii. Axial bar fixed at both ends
iv. Cantilever beam
v. Simply supported beam(Polynomial and trigonometric)
vi. Beam fixed at both ends
vii. Propped cantilever beam

19. Explain steps involved/algorithm in Gauss elimination method

20. Numericals on Gauss elimination method
21.Solve the following system of equations by Gaussian elimination method
x+y+z=9
x - 2y + 3z =8
2x + y- z = 3

1. Theory of Elasticity

1.1 INTRODUCTION:

Theory of elasticity deals with the stress and displacements in elastic solids generated by
external forces. Theory of elasticity is concerned with evaluation of 15 Unknowns: 6
Stresses,6 Strain and 3 displacements and for this one needs to understand the relevant 15
equations i.e Equilibrium equations (3),Strain-displacement equations (6) and
Constitutive equations (6)

Value of Elasticity Theory (SADD)

Develops Exact Analytical Solutions For Problems of Limited Complexity
Provides Framework for Understanding Limitations of Strength of Materials Models
Establishes Framework for Developing Linear Finite Element Modeling
Generates Solutions for Benchmark Comparisons with FEA Solutions
In elementary mechanics of materials (the first undergraduate course in solid mechanics)
as well as in an introductory Theory of elasticity course, five fundamental assumptions
are normally made about the characteristics of the materials for which the analysis is
valid.
These assumptions require the material to be,

1.2 Assumptions
Continuum: The body is continuous, so displacements, Strains and stresses, can be
expressed by continuous functions in space.
Homogeneous: The body is homogeneous, i.e., the elastic properties are the same
throughout the body. Elastic constants will be independent of the location in the body.
 Isotropic: The body is isotropic so that the elastic properties are the same in all
directions. Thus the elastic constants will be independent of the orientation of coordinate
axes.
The two independent elastic constants are
E Youngs modulus E
G
G Shear modulus 2(1 )

Linear Elastic: The body is perfectly elastic

Obeys Hook's law of elasticity i.e linear relations between stress components and strain
components.
= E. ,E Youngs modulus = G., G Shear modulus
F(
) F ()

Elastic(Non linear) Linear Elastic

D(
D(
)

The displacements and strains are small:

The displacements components of all points of the body during deformation are very
small compared with its original dimensions
The equations of Elasticity are considerably simplified.
Also be called small deformation theory, small displacement theory, or small
displacement-gradient theory.

1.3 Types of Forces

fx
1.BodyForce
f 3x1 fy fz T Body Forces
Acts on the volume(mass) of the body.
Dimension is Force/Volume ,
Examples :gravitational force ,Inertia
forces (in motion), Magnetic force.
Component of in X, Y, Z directions are
Cantilever Beam Under Self-Weight Loading
 2. Surface force T3 x 1
Surface force(often termed surface Traction) : Acts on the surface of the body.
Dimension is force/Area, e.x., N/m2
Example:Contact forces ,Aerodynamic
pressures,friction hydrostatic pressure. T
T T T
Component of T in X, Y, Z directions are T x z

3 x1
y

Forces: 3. Point load

P
i 3x1

Point load (often termed Concentrated Load ) : Idealised as acting at a point on the body.
Dimension is force, e.x., N.
T
Component of P in X, Y, Z directions are Pi 3 x1 Px Py Pz

1.4 Stress at a point

F
Stress at a point: definition R lim
A0 A

Fn
Normal stress (normal component) nn lim
A0 A

Fs
Shear stress (parallel component) lim 2 R 2 nn 2
A0 A
1.5 Positive Stress system

Stress is a second order tensor.

It needs two subscript
The first subscript indicates the plane on which it acts by its normal and
the second subscript its direction

xx Directio
n
Plane(normal)

xy xy 12 x-plane, y-direction

Stress acting on an element cube

xx xy xz

ij

yx yy yz

zx zy zz

In contracted notation, Stress Is written in the form of a vector as

6 X 1 xx yy zz xy yx zx T
Development of stress concept
Sl.No Diagrams Components Definition
1.Force Force components

Push or Pull

2.Traction Force per unit area

On a surface of
specified
orientation.
(Force intensity)
3.Surface Equilibrium SurfaceStress A pair of equal and
Stress components opposite traction
on a surface of
specified
orientation

4. Stress at Stress Surface stresses on

point components planes of all
orientations
through a point.

Stresses vs. tractions

A Similarities between stresses and tractions
1 Same dimensions (force per unit area)
2 The normal stress acting on a plane matches the normal traction
B Differences between stresses and tractions
1 Stresses are tensor quantities and tractions are vectors.
2 The stress state is defined at a point using a fixed reference frame, whereas a
traction is defined on a plane with a reference frame that floats with the plane.
 1.6 Equilibrium equations
The state of stress varies from point to point in a loaded member in general.
This variation is governed by the condition that each and every differential element
considered should satisfy the conditions of equilibrium
Force equilibrium: Fx 0, Fy 0 Fz 0

Moment equilibrium: M x 0, M y 0 M z 0

1.6.1 : 2 D equilibrium equations

Consider a 2D element of size dx,dy from a loaded 2D structure.

The element is shown under positive stress system
Let the body forces(expresses in terms of force /volume be
T

f 2 x1 f x f y

Equilibrium Equations 2D
y
y dy
y yx
yx dy x yx
y F x 0
x

y
fx 0
xy
fy xy dx Fy 0 xxy yy f y 0
x
x x M 0 xy yx
fx x dx z

xy x

yx

y
 1.6.2 Equilibrium Equations 3D
Consider A Three dimensional Body Occupying Volume V ,having surface S
Constrained on some region (Displacement B.C) and with Traction B.C
And subjected to Body forces

Consider Equilibrium Of Element Volume

Equilibrium equations
Consider the equilibrium of an element volume to obtain the 3 force equilibrium
equations of elasticity
yx zx
Fx 0, x fx 0
x y z
xy y zy
Fy 0, fy 0
x y z
yz z
FZ 0, xz fz 0
x y z
Moment Equilibriu m
M x 0 , yz zy , M y 0, xz zx , M z 0 , xy yx
Stress tensor is symmetric
 1.7 Displacement:

Pattern of Deformation

1.Rigid Body Motion

Zero Strains
Two-Dimensional Example

Rigid body Rotation Rigid body Translation

Displacement vector
Displacement of a material point P
inside a body, before and after the
deformation

Initial position of the material

points of the body is described by the
 coordinates x, y, z of the generic point P

Its displacement is defined by vector PP with components u,v,w in the reference

directions x, y, z, respectively.

The position of the point after the deformation is therefore given by the coordinates x + u,
y + v, z + w.
If the material is continuous before and after the deformation, the functions u(x, y, x),
v(x, y, z), w(x, y, z) are continuous functions of the position coordinates of the body
before the deformation, x, y, z.

Let Intial position be

P (x, y,z) and displaced position be , P' (x', y',z',).
Displacement vector PP' is denoted by u.
The displacement vector u has components Ux=u, Uy=v
and Uz=w along the x, y and z axes respectively, and can
be expressed as, u iu jv kw

2. Deformation

1.
1

1
Biaxial stretch 1.
 Infinitesimal Strain (Small Strains)
1.The Engineering Normal Strain
Expressed as the change in length L per unit of the original length Lo of the line element
or fibers.
If Lo is the original length and L is the final length ,then
L Lo L

Lo Lo
Measures of strain are often expressed in parts per million or microstrains.

2. Shear Strain ()
Shear strain measures changes in angles in terms of radians with respect to two specific
directions initially perpendicular to each other.

1.8 Strain Displacement Relation: 2D

 Consider deformation of a the two-dimensional rectangular element with original
dimensions dx by dy represented by ABCD.
After deformation, the element takes a rhombus form as ABCD
A1B11C11D11 shown in the dotted outline corresponds to rigid body displacement .
Reference point A is taken at location (x,y), and the displacement components of this
point are thus u(x,y) and v(x,y).
u v
The corresponding displacements of point B are u dx and v dx
x x
u v
The corresponding displacements of point D are u dy and v dy
y y

Longitudinal Strain x
A1B1 AB
x , A1B1 AB (1 x ) dx(1 x )
AB
u
Horizontal projection of A1 B1 dx dx
x
v
Vertical projection = B11 B1 dx
x
A B dx(1 )
1 1 2
x
2

u v
2 2

dx dx dx
x x
u u v
2 2

(1 2 x ) 1 2
2

x x x
x
 Assuming small deformations and strains and neglecting product of Smaller
quantities
u
x
x

Similarly Longitudinal strain in Y direction

A1D1 AD v
y y
AD y

Shear Strain
Shear strain measures changes in angles in terms of radians with respect to two specific
directions initially perpendicular to each other.
xy B11 A1 B1 D11 A1 D1
1 2
v u
dx dx
x y
xy
dx
v u
xy
x y
u v v u
x , y xy
x y x y

Extending the logic to 3D

u v w
x , y , z
x y z
v u w v
xy , yz
x y y z
w u
xz
x z

1.9 Generalised Hookes Law

The relationships between the stress and strain components are termed Constitutive
equations.
The Constitutive equations is based on Experimental observations and established
principles.
 Hookes Law
Robert Hooke (1635-1703) :Established tension is proportional to the stretch
Hookes law established the notion of (linear) elasticity, but not yet in a way that was
expressible in terms of stress and strain.

For Linear Elastic material ,Stress is proportional to Strain and vica-versa

is or E , E is the constant of Proportionality
is or G , G is the constant of Proportionality
The relation between the normal stress and the longitudinal strain in the same
direction is called the longitudinal modulus of elasticity or Youngs modulus E of the
material.
The relation between the Shear stress and the Shear strain is called the Shear modulus of
elasticity or Modulus of Rigidity G of the material.

Generalised Hookes Law

For Linear Elastic material Each of the six Stress components may be expressed as a
linear function of the six strain components and Vica versa.i.e 6 x1 C 6 x6 6 x1
x C11 C12 C13 C14 C15 C16 x x S11 S12 S13 S14 S15 S16 x
C C22 C23 C24 C25 C26 y y S 21 S 22 S 23 S 24 S 25 S 26 y
y 21
z C31 C32 C33 C34 C35 C36 z z S31 S32 S33 S34 S35 S36 z

xy C41 C42 C43 C44 C45 C46 xy xy S 41 S 42 S 43 S 44 S 45 S 46 xy
yz C51 C52 C53 C54 C55 C56 yz yz S51 S52 S53 S54 S55 S56 yz

xz C61 C62 C63 C64 C65 C66 xz xz S61 S62 S 63 S64 S65 S66 xz

Hooke's Law in Compliance Form

Similarly 6 x1 S 6 x 6 6 x1

Note that the stiffness matrix is traditionally represented by the symbol C OR D, while S
is reserved for the compliance matrix!
The generalized Hookes law is an assumption, which is reasonably accurate for many
material subjected to small strain, for a given temperature, time.
The 36 coefficients C11 to C66 are called elastic coefficients

Hooke's Law in Stiffness Form

For Isotropic material the number of independent elastic constants reduces
two 2.i.e Young's modulus E and the Poisson's ratio v.
D
 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0

1 0 0 0
1 2
D C E
0 0 0 0 0
(1 )(1 2 ) 2
1 2
0 0 0 0 0
2
1 2
0 0 0 0 0
2

Hooke's Law in Compliance Form S

1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0

1 0 0 0
S 1 Note : G , G
E
E0 0 0 21 0 0 21
0 0 0 0 21 0

0 0 0 0 0 21

1.10 : 2 D Problems
By virtue of Geometry, Loading and Material Property ,certain class of problems can be
reduced in dimension from 3D to 2 D and sometimes 1 D without much loss of accuracy.
This saves considerable memory space and computational time.
Two vs Three Dimensional Problems(Sadd)

2D elastic problems
PLANE STRESS
PLANE STRAIN
The basic theories of plane strain and plane stress represent the fundamental plane
problem in elasticity.
 Plane Stress Problems
Consider a 2 D member
whose in plane dimensions(x,y)
are very large compared to
Out of plane dimension(z)
The domain is bounded two stress free planes z
= h,

Since the plate is thin in the z-direction, there can be little variation in the stress
components through the thickness.
Thus they will be approximately zero throughout the entire domain. z xz yz 0
Under these assumptions, the stress field can be taken as
x x ( x, y), y y ( x, y), xy xy ( x, y)
z xz yz 0, Also, xz yz 0, z 0

Plane Stress :Examples

1.Thin Plate with Hole 2.Thin cantilever plate

xy y
xy
x

Rotating disc/Flywheel
Plane Stress D
 x
1 0 x

y
E
1
0 y z y
1
x

1 1
2

xy 0 0 xy
2

[D] matrix for the plane stress case is

1 0
E
D3 x3 1 0
1 2 1
0 0
2

Plane Strain Problems

Consider a 2 D member whose in plane dimensions(x,y) are very small compared to out
of plane dimension(z)

If the body forces and tractions on lateral boundaries are independent of the z-coordinate
and have no z-component, then the deformation field can be taken in the reduced form
u u ( x, y ) , v v ( x, y ) , w 0
z xz yz 0

Under these assumptions, the stress field can be taken as

x x ( x, y), y y ( x, y), xy xy ( x, y)
z xz yz 0, xz yz 0, Also, z 0

Plane Strain :Examples

1.Wall of a Dam
2.Strip footing
3. Rotating Shaft/
cylinder
4. Long cylindrical pressure vessel subjected to internal/external pressure and constrained
at the ends

Plane Strain D

x
E

1
0 x

z x y
y 1 0 y
1 1 2 0 1 2
xy xy
2
0

[D] Matrix for the plane strain case is

1 0
D3 x3
E
1 0
1 1 2 1 2
0 0
2

Sl.No Plane Stress Plane Strain

Dimensions In plane dimensions are Out of plane dimensions are very

very large compared to out large compared to in plane
of plane dimensions dimensions
Stress Out of Plane Stresses are
zero z xz yz 0
z x y
xz yz 0

Strain xz yz 0 Out of Plane Strains are Zero

z xz yz 0
z y
1
x

Axisymmetric Analysis
 Problems involving three- dimensional axisymmetric solids or solids of revolution,
subjected to axisymmetric loading, reduce to simple two dimensional problems. Because
of total symmetry about the Y axis, as seen in the fig. all deformations and stresses are
independent of the rotational angle . Thus the problem needs to be looked at as a two
dimensional problem in XY, define on the revolving area. Examples: Pressurized
cylinders, cooling towers and revolving bodies like Disk type Flywheel, Shafts.

Because of symmetry about the z axis, the stresses are independent of the coordinate.
Therefore, all derivatives with respect to vanish, and the displacement component v
 (tangent to the direction), the shear strains r and z and the shear stresses r and z
are all zero.

Boundary conditions
1. Displacement boundary conditions: Displacements are specified on portion Su of the

boundary.The components of displacement ui u, v, w are prescribed on some part of the
S
boundary , u ,i.e.
u u

vv
w w ui ui
on
Su
, or on
Su
S
where u , v , w are the known function of x, y, z on u .
Example: beam
u v w 0
u 0

v 0
w 0
for x=0

2. Traction (force) boundary conditions: Tractions are specified on portion ST of the

boundary
t S
The components of surface traction n are assigned on another part of the boundary ,
t ij n j
Since cauchy's formula: i , hence
 ij n j ti
on S
t x xxl xy m xz n X
or
t y xy l yy m zy n Y
on S
t z xz l yz m zz n Z

where X , Y , Z are components of the given traction on the boundary.

Example:
h
y
On the top surface ( 2 ), l 0, m 1, n 0, X Y Z 0
xy 0

yy 0
0
yz
b
z
On the front surface ( 2 ), l 0, m 0, n 1, X Y Z 0
xz 0

yz 0
0
zz

On the surface of x l , l 1, m 0, n 0 , X p, Y 0, Z 0
xx p

xy 0
0
xz
Remarks:
1.The displacement boundary condition and traction boundary condition are mutually exclusive.
Either displacement or traction is specified on the boundary. They can not specified
simultaneously.
2.On some part of the boundary of different direction, displacement boundary conditions in some
directions are given whereas the traction boundary conditions in remaining directions are
specified.
2.1 Boundary Value Problems
The objective of most analyses is to determine functions, called dependent variable.
They are governed by a set of Differential equation posed in a domain and satisfy some
boundary conditions on the boundary
Governing differential equations plus boundary conditions are set to state a problem in
Strong Form.
Whatever functions that define these field variables have to be differentiable up to the
order of the partial differential equations that exist in the strong form of the system
equations.
Obtaining the exact solution for a strong form of the system equation is usually very
difficult for practical engineering problems.
A weak form of the system equations is usually created using one of the following widely
used methods:
Energy principles (see, e.g. Reddy, 1984)
Weighted residual methods (see, e.g. Ziekiewicz and Taylor, 2000)
A integral expression such as Functional that implicitly contains the differential equations
is called the weak form.
The energy principle can be categorized as a special form of the variational principle
which is particularly suited for problems of the mechanics of solids and structures.
The Strong form states conditions that must be met at every material Point, wheras the
weak form states the condition in an average sense
Both are valid statements of the problem.
In Functional approach, the Functional is extremised.
This satisfies 1.Differential equation and
2. Certain boundary conditions called Natural/Nonessential B.C
A functional, such as Potential energy contains integrals that span the entire domain.

A: Area of Cross section , U(x) : Axial displacement,E: Youngs

2.1a BAR :
Modulus, AE : Axial Rigidity

du du
( x ) E ( x ) E , x
dx dx
du
Internal Axial force p A EA
dx
q : Distribute d force
P : Prescribed external load
Primary Variable: Quantities which has to be Continuous in the domain . Secondary variables
need not be Continuous

For Bar problem, The primary variable is displacement u which has to be continuous.
Otherwise, there will be opening or overlap. The secondary variable is strain i.e du/dx.It can be
discontinuous. In the stepped bar shown, stress is discontinuous at change of cross section and
hence strain also.

2.2 Boundary conditions

Boundary conditions can be classified into two types based on Variational approach

1. Essential boundary conditions:

2. Natural boundary conditions

Essential boundary conditions are associated with Primary Variable and Natural/Non-essential
boundary conditions are associated with Secondary Variable.

2.2a :Boundary conditions :Bar

Thus for Bar, essential boundary are associated with u and natural boundary
conditions are associated with du/dx.

In the fig. shown Essential B.C is u=0 @x=0(Prescribed displacement)
 Non essential B.C is du/dx=P/(AE) @x=L (prescribed force/derivative of
displacement

2.2b: Boundary conditions :Beam

Beams are slender members used for supporting transverse loading Loads could be concentrated
loads, distributed loads and moments.I: Moment of Inertia about N.A. , v : Transverse
displacement,E: Youngs Modulus, EI : Flexural Rigidity

v : Transverse Displaceme nt
dv
: Slope or rotation about z axis
dx
d2v d2v M
Bending moment M EI
dx 2 dx 2 EI
dM d3v d3v V
Shear Force V EI
dx dx 3 dx 3 EI

Governing Differenti al equation

d4v
q( x ) 0 0 x L,
dx 4
q is the rate of loading
 The primary variables( which has to be Continuous) are Transverse displacement v and
rotation dv/dx and The secondary Variables (Which can be discontinuous) are

d 2v d 2v M
Bending moment M EI 2
2

dx dx EI
3 3
dM d v d v V
Shear Force V EI
dx dx 3 dx 3 EI
Thus for Beam,

Essential boundary are associated with v and slope dv/dx

Natural boundary conditions are associated with

d2v M d2v
as Bending moment M EI 2
dx 2 EI dx
d3v V dM d3v
3
as Shear Force V EI 3
dx EI dx dx

For the Cantilever shown In the figure Essential boundary are At X=0, v=0 and Slope
dv/dx=0
d2v M
Natural boundary conditions are at x=L
2
0
dx EI
d3v P

dx 3 EI
 In Solid/Structural mechanics,

Essential B.C are also known as Geometric B.C(Essential to be satisfied)

Non Essential B.C are known as Force/dynamic B.C.(Automatically

satisfied in Functional approach)

Essential B.C are also known Dirichlet B.C

Non Essential B.C are known as Neumann B.C

BAR Beam

d du d4v
Differential equation EA ( x ) q( x ) 0 q( x ) 0
dx dx dx 4
Order of D.E 2m=2 2m=4,m=2

2m m=1

Primary variable Axial Displacement u Transverse Displacement v

&
Order m-1
Slope/rotation
dv/dx

Secondary Variable Strain du/dx

m to 2m-1 Or Stress E. du/dx

Essential /Geometric Associated with u

B.C m-1 =0

Order m-1or less

Natural/Force/ Dynamic . Associated with d2v M d3v V
2
, 3
Order m to 2m-1 du/dx dx EI dx EI
order 2 and 3
m=1

Functional :Potential Energy

Examples PE of a BAR, Beam & PE of a body under 3D state of Stress

Functional :Potential Energy

Functional is an integral expression that implicitly contains the Governing differential
equation for a particular problem.
For structures problem Potential Energy is a functional.
Potential Energy has two components
1.U,Strain energy due to internal forces/Stresses
2. ,Work potential due to applied loads

2.3a Potential energy of a single spring

SEP , U
0 F
F

k 2
as Stiffness k
F
2 2 2
Work Potential F
Potential Energy U
k 2
F
2
2.3b Potential Energy of an Elastic Body
Consider a linear elastic three dimensional body occupying
volume v, with body forces and having surface s subjected to
traction
SEP U

Consider a small element of Volume dV. Let the state of stress be

6 X 1 xx yy zz xy yx zx T
and the correspond ing strain be
6 X 1 xx yy zz xy yx zx T
Strain energy in the element of volume dV (Area under stress Strain diagram).dV

dU
1
xx xx yy yy zz zz xy xy yz yz zx zx dV
2
1
1Tx 6 6 x1 dV
2
1
SEP U 1 x 6 6 x1 dV
T
Total (1A)
V2

Work Potential due to B.F

Let body force vector acting on elemental volume dv be
f 3 X 1 f x f
y
f
z
T
and the correspond ing displaceme ntvector beu3 X 1 u v wT

Work potential d f .u f .v f .w dw uT f 3 x1 dv
x
BF y z 1x 3
Total Work potential due to BF
uT f 3 x1 dv (1B )
BF 1x 3
V
Work Potential due to Traction
Let Traction force vector acting on elemental surface ds be T 3 X 1 T x Ty Tz T
beu3 X 1 u v w
T
and the correspond ing displaceme ntvector

Work potential d T T x .u T y .v Tz .w ds u1 x 3 T 3 x1 ds
T

Total Work potential due to Traction

T u1 x 3 T 3 x1 ds
T
(1C )
Work Potential due to Point Loads
S

Let Point load force vector acting at a point be

Pi 3 X 1 Px Py Pz T
beui 3 X 1 u w
T
and the correspond ing displaceme ntvector v

Work potential d PL Pix .ui Piy .v i Piz .w i ui 1 x 3 Pi 3 x1
T

Total Work potential due to Po int loads at i locations

PL ui 1 x 3 Pi 3 x1
T
(1D )
i
Total Potential energy

U BF T PL
1
1 x 6 6 x1 dV u1 x 3 f 3 x1 dv u1 x 3 T 3 x1 ds ui 1 x 3 Pi 3 x1
T T T T

V2 i
V S

2.3c: POTENTIAL Energy Of A Bar

= (, , , " )

= ( )

2.3d: PE FOR A BEAM



= (, , , " )

= ( ) @= ( )
@=

2.4 Admissible configuration/Displacement

A configuration which satisfies the internal compatibity and Essential Boundary
conditions.
Polynomial or Trigonometric functions can be used to represent Admissible functions
Polynomial are
Inherently continuous
Easy to integrate or differentiate
Accuracy can be increased by increasing its order

2.4a Admissible Configuration :Cantilever Beam

Non Admissible : Cantilever Beam

2.5 Principle of Minimum Potential Energy(PMPE)

For Conservative system ,off all the kinematically admissible displacement fields,those
corresponding to equilibrium extremize the total potential energy.

If the extremum is minimum,the equilibrium state is stable

Three states of Equilibrium

Stable Unstable Neutral

( min ) ( max ) Same

2.6 PMPE :Discrete System

1. Single spring
 F k 2 F
SEP , U as Stiffness k
2 2
Work Potential F
Potential Energy U
k 2
F
2
d
2.PMPE: Spring
From in series
PMPE 0
d
K F 0
K F : Equilibriu m equation

k 112 k 2 22 k 3 23
SEP , U
2 2 2
1 Q1 0, 2 Q 2 Q1 , 3 Q 3 Q 2
Work potential
F2 Q 2 F3Q 3
Potential Energy U

k 1Q12 k 2 Q 2 Q1 2 k 3 Q 3 Q 2 2

2 2 2
F2Q 2 F3Q 3

From PMPE 0, i 1,2,3
Q i
Equilibriu m equations


Q
3. PMPE

F
 In the matrix form

Subsituting the values , In the matrix form

Solving

2.9 Rayleigh-Ritz method

2.9.a :Rayleigh-Ritz method:

Variational approach attributed to Lord Rayleigh (1842-1919) & Walter Ritz (1878-1909)
Rayleigh-Ritz method is a classical Variational method for finding approximate solution
to a given problem.
The need to solve differential equations can be avoided by applying Rayleigh-Ritz
method to a Functional.
 Rayleigh-Ritz method solution is rarely exact but becomes more accurate as more d.o.f is
used
The method involves an approximate solution assumed for the displacement fields and
for expressing the total potential energy

= 0 (, , ) + (, , )
=1

= 0 (, , ) + (, , )
=1

= 0 (, , ) + (, , )
=1
The displacements must by kinematically admissible, that is they must satisfy essential
boundary conditions and internal compatibility.
Where, , , (for i=1,2n) are known as independent functions or trial
functions defined over entire domain
Usually taken as either as polynomials or trigonometric series.
Coefficients , , are unknown Rayleigh-Ritz parameters to be determined
The total potential energy is expressed in terms of Rayleigh-Ritz parameters.
= (1, 2 , . . , 1 , 2 , . , 1 , 2 , . )
Using RR principle, is extremised with respect to RR parameters.
This results in linear algebraic equations, solving which RR parameters can be obtained.
Thus solution can be obtained

2.9b: STEPS in RR Method

1. Formulate the PE functional for the given problem.
2. Identify the Essential Boundary conditions and Obtain Admissible function which should
satisfy
the Essential/Geometric boundary conditions and internal compatibility.
. Usually taken as either as polynomials or trigonometric series consisting of Ritz parameters or
Generalized coordinates
3. Express the total potential energy in terms of Rayleigh-Ritz parameters.
4. Minimize the PE functional with respect to n Ritz parameters so as to obtain n equations with
n unknown

= 0 = 1, 2 .

5. Solve these equations to obtain n
6. Substitute these in Admissible function to obtain the field variable i.e displacement.
Obtain derived quantities like strain and stresses.

1
, =
2


= = , = =

1 2
, = ( )
2
0
WP due to distributed load =

=
0

WP due to Traction load = . Perimeter

=
0

WP due to point load , =

2.9c: Rayleigh-Ritz method: BAR Problem

1. Bar fixed at one end and Loaded by point load P atFree end.

A:Area of C/S, E: Youngs ModulusEBC is u=0 at x=o

Assume Trial function in polynomial form

(Minimum first order as there is one EBC)

Step1. Admissible function

Trial function = 0 + 1 (1)

: = 0, = 0 0 + 1 (0) 0 = 0

= 1 (2), Admissible function

Step2.Potential Energy

1 2
2 0 ( ) @=1

Substituting (2)
1
2 0 (1 )2 1

1
2 1 2 1

Step3.By RR Method = , = ()

Step4 .Solving for Ritz Parameter = ()

Step5: Displacement field, (4) in (2)

= (5)

Step6. Stress = = = ()

Problem 2..Bar fixed at one end and Loaded by linearly varying distributed load q=Cx.

A:Area of C/S, E: Youngs ModulusEBC is u=0 at x=o

Assume Trial function in polynomial form

(Minimum first order as there is one EBC)

Step1. Admissible function

Trial function = 0 + 1 (1)

: = 0, = 0 0 + 1 (0) 0 = 0

= 1 (2), Admissible function

Step2.Potential Energy

1 2
= 2 0 ( ) 0 Substituting (2)

1 2
= 2 0 ( ) 0 =

1
= 2 (1 )2 0 1 2

1 1 3
= 1 2
2 3
Step3.By RR Method

3
= 0, 1 = 0 (3)
1 3
2
Step4 .Solving for Ritz Parameter1 = 3 (4)

Step5: Displacement field, (4) in (2)

2
= (5)
3
2
Step6. Stress = = = (6)
3

Problem 3. Same problem by

2nd order polynomial
Step1. Admissible function

Trial function = 0 + 1 + 2 (1)

: = 0, = 0 0 = 0 + 1 (0) + 2 02 0 = 0

= 1 + 2 2 (2), Admissible function

Step2.Potential Energy

1 2
= ( )
2
0 0

From (2), = + ( ) = + and =

1
= (1 + 22 )2 (1 + 2 2 )
2
0 0

= (1 2 + 41 2 + 42 2 2 ) (1 2 + 2 3 )
2
0 0

4 3 2 4
=
2
0 [12 + 21 2 2 + 3 22 3 ] [1 3
+
4
] (3)

Step3.By RR Method

= 0, [21 + 22 2 ] 3 = 0 (3)
1 2 3

8
= 0, [21 2 + 2 2 ] 4 = 0 (3)
2 2 3 3
2 4 2
3 1 + 2 = 3 (3) 3 1 + 3 2 = 4 (3)

Step4 .Solving for Ritz Parameters,3c & 3d

72
Solving, 1 = 12 , 2 = 4 (4)

Step5:Displacement field, (4) in (2)

72
(4) (2), = 4 2 (5) Displacement field: Quadratic
12

Step6 Stress
 72 2
= = = (6) Stress:Linear
12 2

Convergence

Particular First Order Second Order

Admissible = 1 = 1 + 2 2
Function(u)
Displacement(u) 2 72 2
=
3 12 4
Stress(x) 2 72
=
3 12 2
(Constant) (Linear)

Convergence:Observations

Fig.shows Exact and Approximate Solutions

As order of Polynomial increases, Accuracy increases.
Approximate displacements are more accurate compared to Stresses.
Error in satisfying D.E and NBC
Using Cubic polynomial and satisfying Natural B.C

= { } =0
@=0

2
Yield Exact solutions1 = 2 , 2 = 0, 3 = 6

Problem 4.
 Step1:Admissible Function
Based on the Rayleigh-Ritz
method, let us assume axial displacement at any point as = 0 + 1 + 2 2 (1)
Where a0, a1 and a2 are Rayleigh-Ritz constants, which are to be determined.
The assumed displacement = 0 + 1 + 2 2 should satisfy the following essential
conditions At x=0 and L, u=0
u=0 at x=0,0 = 0
: = 2, = 0 0 = 1 (2) + 2 (2)2 1 = 22
Admissible function is
= 2 ( 2 2)(2), Admissible function
Step 2 P.E
2
1
= ( ) @=1
2
0

From (2), = 2 ( 2 2) ( ) = 22 ( ) and @= = 2 2

2
= 3 2 2 2 2 (3)
3
Step3.By RR Method
4
= 0, 3 2 + 2 = 0 (3)
2 3

Step4. Solving (3)

3
2 = 4 (4)

Step5:Displacement field, (4) in (2)

 3 3
= 4 ( 2 2) Or = 4 (2 ) (5)

3
At mid Point, x=L,@= = 4
3
Step6:Stress = = = 2 ( ) (6)

At mid Point, x=L, = 0

If A=P=E=L=1,at midpoint ,u= 0.75

Comparison

From RR Method

= ( )Quadratic

= = ( ) Linear

2.9d: Rayleigh-Ritz method: Beam

Beams are slender members used for supporting transverse loading

Loads could be concentrated loads, distributed loads and moments
I: Moment of Inertia about N.A.,v : Transverse displacement,E: Youngs Modulus, EI :
Flexural Rigidity

Beam Equations
 v : Transverse Displacement
dv
: Slope or rotation about z axis
dx
d 2v d 2v M
Bending moment M EI 2 2
dx dx EI
3 3
dM d v d v V
Shear Force V EI 3 3
dx dx dx EI
4
dV d v d 4v
Rate of Loading q EI 4 EI 4 q 0
dx dx dx
Governing Differenti al equation
d 4v
q( x) 0 0 x L,
dx 4
q (or p ) is the rate of loading

For Beam problem,

The primary variables( which has to be Continuous) are Transverse displacement v and
rotation dv/dx .
The secondary Variables (Which can be discontinuous) are

d 2v d 2v M
Bending moment M EI 2
2
dx dx EI
3 3
dM d v d v V
Shear Force V EI 3 3
dx dx dx EI

Boundary conditions :Beam

Thus for Beam,

Essential boundary are associated with v and slope dv/dx
Natural boundary conditions are associated with

d 2v M d 2v
as Bending moment M EI
dx 2 EI dx 2
d 3v V dM d 3v
as Shear Force V EI
dx 3 EI dx dx 3

For the Cantilever shown In the figure

Essential boundary are

At X=0, v=0 and Slope dv/dx=0
Natural boundary conditions are at x=L

d 2v M
2
0
dx EI
d 3v P
3

dx EI

2.9 e :RR Method:

Problem1.Cantilever Subjected to UDL (q), End Point

Load P and End Moment Mo

E: Youngs Modulus
L: Length of Beam

Step 1: Admissible function: Polynomial

: = 0, = 0 & =0

Select Second order Polynomial. The Minimum requirement is that essential B.C has to
be satisfied for function to be admissible
= 0 + 1 ()+2 2

= 0 + 1 ()+2 2 (1) Trial function

: = 0, = 0 0 = 00 + 1 (0)+2 02 0 = 0

: = 0, = 1 +22 1 = 0

Substituting in (1a)

= 2 2 (1)Admissible Function
2
2
Step 2:Potential Energy = ( ) -0 @=
2 0 2

() (2a)
@=

2
2 2
= 2 2 , = 22 , = 22, ( 2 ) = 422
2

In 2a, = 2
0 422 0 ()2 2
 ()2 2 22


= 422 2 2
2
0 0

+2 2 22

2 3
= 22 + 2 + 2 2 2 2 (2)
3

Step 3:Minimising with respect to Ritz Parameter

=0
2

2 3
= 22 + 2 + 2 2 2 2
3

3
42 + + 2 2 = 0 (3)
3

Step 4:Solving for Ritz Parameter

1 2
3, 2 = 4 [ + 2 ] (4)
3

Step 5:Final Solution for field variable v

1 2
s (4) (1), = 4 [ + 2 ] 2
3

4 3 2 2
= [12 + 4 ] 2 (4a)
2

At x=L
4 3 2
= [ + ] (4)
12 4 2

4 3 2
: = [8 + 3 ] (4)
2

Problem 2:Simply supported Beam with UDL(po) ,

Youngs modulus, moment of inertia

L- Length of Beam.
Use Two Term Trigonometric function as
Admissible Function
 3
= 1 sin + 2 sin

Step1:Admissible Function
3
Assume = 1 sin + 2 sin (1)

Satisfies the Essential boundary conditions

At = 0, = 0; b) = , = 0
2
2 sin

2
2 Cos
= 0 = 2

Also NBC are satisfied

Step2 :Potential Energy

2
2
= 0 ( 2 ) 0 0 (2)
2
3
= 1 + 2

3 3
= 1 ( ) cos + 2 ( ) cos

2 2 3 2 3
= [1 ( ) sin + 2 ( ) sin ]
2

2
2 4 3 4 3
( 2 ) = 1 2 ( ) sin2 + 2 2 ( ) sin2 ( )

4 3
+181 2 ( ) sin . sin

In (2)

4 3 4 3
= 2
0 [1 2 ( ) sin2
+ 2 2 ( ) sin2 (
)]

4 3
+ 0 181 2 ( ) sin . sin
2

3
0 0 (1 sin + 2 sin ) (3a)

Considering each term

 2
1 1
0 sin2 = 0 2 (1 cos 2
) = 2 [ sin
2 ] =2
0
3 1 2 4
0 sin
.
= 2 0 (cos
cos
)

2 4
= [sin sin ] = 0
2 4

1

0 sin = cos

| = [cos cos 0]
0

2
=

3 1
3 2
sin = cos | = [cos 3 cos 0] =
3 3
0 0

4 3 4

1 2 ( ) 2 + 2 2 81 ( ) 2
Substituting in 3a = 2 [ ]
4
+181 2 ( ) 0

2 2
0 [1 + 2 ]
3

4
=( ) ( ) [1 2 + 812 2 ]
2 2 3

2 2
0 [1 + ] (2)
3
Step 3:Minimising with respect to RitzParameter

= 0; =0
1 2

4 2
= ( ) ( 3 ) (21 ) 0 = 0
1 2

4 20
3
1 = 0 (3)
2
 4 2 1
= ( ) ( 3 ) [0 + 1622 ] 0 (0 + ) = 0
2 4 3

81 4 20
2 = 0 (3)
23 3
Step 4 :Solving for RR parameters (from 3a and 3b)
40 4 4 4
1 = and 2 = 2430 5 (4)
5

STEP 5:Final solution :Substituting the values into Eq.(1), we get displacement at any
point is given by
4 4 4 4 3
v= [ 50 ] + (2430 5 )

40 4 40 4 3
= [ 5 ] +( 5
) (5)
243

Maximum deflection will be at = /2

40 4 1 0 4
Thus, = [1 + ] = 76.82
5 243

0 0 5 4 4
From SOM = 384 = 76.8

Problem 3:Simply supported Beam with central point

load (P)

Youngs modulus,
moment of inertia
L- Length of Beam.

Use Two Term Trigonometric function as Admissible Function

3
= 1 sin + 2 sin

Step1:Admissible Function
3
Assume = 1 sin + 2 sin (1)

Satisfies the Essential boundary conditions

 At = 0, = 0; b) = , =
0
2
2 sin

2
2 Cos
= 0 = 2

Also NBC are satisfied

Step2 :Potential Energy

2
2
= 0 ( 2 ) @=/2 (2a)
2
3
= 1 + 2

3 3
= 1 ( ) cos + 2 ( ) cos

2 2 3 2 3
= [1 ( ) sin + 2 ( ) sin ]
2

2
2 4 3 4 3
( 2 ) = 1 2 ( ) sin2 + 2 2 ( ) sin2 ( )

4 3
+181 2 ( ) sin . sin

In (2a)

4 3 4 3
= 2
0 [1 2 ( ) sin2
+ 2 2 ( ) sin2 (
)]

4 3
+ 0 181 2 ( ) sin . sin
2

-P(1 2) (2b)
3
Since @=/2 = 1 sin 2 + 2 sin 2

=(1 2)

Considering each term

2
1 1
0 sin2 = 0 2 (1 cos 2
) = 2 [ sin
2 ] =2
0
 3 1 2 4
0 sin

= 2 0 (cos
cos
)

2 4
= [sin sin ] = 0
2 4

1

0 sin = cos

| = [cos cos 0]
0

2
=

3 1
3 2
sin = cos | = [cos 3 cos 0] =
3 3
0 0

4 3 4

1 2 ( ) 2 + 2 2 81 ( ) 2
Substituting in 2b = 2 [ ]
4
+181 2 ( ) 0

[1 2 ]

4
=( ) ( ) [1 2 + 812 2 ]
2 2 3

[1 2 ] (2)

Step 3:Minimising with respect to Ritz Parameter

By RR Principle = 0; =0
1 2

21 4
= [ + 0] (1 0) = 0
1 2 23

4
1 = 0 (3a)
23

81 4
= [0 + 22 + 0] (0 1) = 0
1 2 23

81 4
2 + =0 (3b)
23

Step 4 :Solving for RR parameters (from 3a and 3b)

 23 23
1 = 4 and 2 = 814 (4)

STEP 5:Final solution :Substituting the values into Eq.(1), we get displacement at any
point is given by
23 23 3
v= [4 ] 814

23 23 3
v= [4 ] 814 (5)

= @=/2 = (1 2 )

2 3 2 3 3
= + =
4 81 4 48.18
3
From SOM = 48

The maximum deflection practically coincides with the exact value from SOM

2
= 2 ,from (5) ,At center = 4.44

Problem 4 :SS beam with UDL and Central point load

3
1. = 1 sin + 2 sin

2
2
2. = 0 ( 2 )
2

0 0

4 2 2)
20 2
= (1 + 81 2 (1 + ) (1 2 )
43 3

3. = 0 =0
1 2

4 20
1 =0
23
81 4 20
2 + =0
23 3
23 20 23 20
4.1 = 4 (
+ ) 2 = 814 ( 3
)
 Thus the maximum deflection at the centre of the beam is,
= 1 2
3 0 4
= 48.11 + 76.82

The maximum deflection practically coincides with the exact value of

3 0 4
+ 76.8 from SOM
48

Problem 5:Fixed Beam With Central Load

Step1:Admissible Function
(4 essential B.C)

= 0 + 1 + 2 2 + 3 3 + 4 4 (1a)

Where 0 , 1 , 3 and 4 are the generalized

coordinates are to be determined from the Essential boundary condition. i.e.,

= 0, and = 0; at = 0; = 0 0 = 0

Also, = 1 + 22 + 33 2 + 44 3 (1b) At = 0; =

0 1 = 0

Also = 0, and = 0; at = ;

From Eq.(1a) for = ; = 0

0 = 0 + 1 + 2 2 + 3 3 + 4 4

But 0 = 0 and 1 = 0 2 = (3 + 4 2 )

And for = , = 0 Eq.(1b) becomes

0 = 1 + 22 + 33 2 + 44 3
Substituting the values of 1 and 2 , we have
0 = 0 + 2(3 4 2 ) + 33 2 + 44 3
0 = 22 3 23 4 + 33 2 + 44 3
 3 = 24

2 = 4 2

Thus substituting the values of 0 , 1 , 2 and 3 into Eq.(2), we have

= 4 2 2 4 2 3 + 4 4

= 4 ( 4 2 3 + 2 2 ) (1)

Step2 :Potential Energy

2
2
= 0 ( 2 ) (2a)
2

= 4 ( 4 2 3 + 2 2 )

Also = 4 (4 3 6 2 + 22 )

2
= 4 (12 2 12 + 22 )
2

4 4
And is maximum at = 2 , = 16

Subsituting in 2a
4 4
= 2
0 [4 (12 2 12 + 22 )]2 ( 16
)

=
5 3 4 2 3 4
42 [144 + 44 + 1442 288 483 + 482 3 ] ( 16 ) 4
2 5 3 4 2

1920 4
= 42 (3456 + 480 + 5760 8640 2880 + ) 5 ( 16 ) 4
2 120

485 4
=( ) 42 ( 16 ) 4 (2)
120

Step 3: Minimizing with respect to Ritz Parameter

i) Minimizing the PE functional

Conditioning for minimization is =0
2

485 4
= 4 ( 16 ) = 0 (3)
2 60

Step 4: Solving for RR parameters

 4 60 5
(3) 4 = 485 = (64) (4)
16

STEP 5:Final solution :Substituting (4) into Eq.(1), we get displacement at any point
given by
5 5 3
= (64) ( 4 + 2 2 2 3 ) = @=/2 = (1024)

3
The exact value is (192)

2.10 : Rayleigh-Ritz method

Functional form of D.E should be available

Admissible function satisfying EBC and internal compatibility should be found
Applicable with simple geometry.
Automatically satisfies NBC.
Extended to FEM as Piecewise RR Method

2.11 : Governing Equation and Boundary conditions

Many Engineering Phenomena can be expressed by 1. Governing Equation and

2. Boundary conditions
Governing Equation
Solid Mechanics (Differential Equation)
Fluid Mechanics () + = 0
Heat Transfer
Electrostatics Boundary Conditions
Electromagnetism () + = 0
One variable: Ordinary differential equation (ODE)
Multiple independent variables: Partial differential equation (PDE)

Governing Differential Equations

1. BAR
Governing Equation
2
2 + 0 = 0 (1)

Boundary conditions
= , = 0 (2)

= (3)
@=

2. Beam
Differential equation
of equilibrium for
the beam
4
(1)
4
Boundary condition
Cantilever

@ = 0; = 0and =0

2 3
@ = ; 2 = 0 and 3 = 0
Boundary condition
SSB

HEAT CONDUCTION IN A FIN

Differential equationgoverning the response of the fin

d dT
Ak Q 0; 0 x L
dx dx

Boundary conditions (examples)

T 0 at x 0 Dirichlet Boundary Condition
dT
k h at x L Neuman Boundary Condition
dx
A(x) = cross section at x
Q(x) = heat input per unit length per unit time [J/sm]
k(x) = thermal conductivity [J/oCms]
T(x) = temperature of the fin at x
x

FLUID FLOW THROUGH A POROUS MEDIUM (e.g., flow of water through a dam)

Differential equation governing the Fluid Flow

d d
k Q 0; 0 x L
dx dx

A(x) = cross section at x

Q(x) = fluid input per unit volume per unit time
k(x) = permeability constant
j(x) = fluid head

Boundary conditions (examples)

0 at x 0 Known Head
d
k h at x L Known Velocity
dx

Examples of Second Order Equations

 1. All the cases considered lead to very similar differential equations and boundary
conditions.
2. In 1D it is easy to analytically solve these equations
3. Not so in 2 and 3D especially when the geometry of the domain is complex: need to solve
approximately
4. Let us learn how to solve these equations in 1D.
5. The approximation techniques easily translate to 2 and 3D, no matter how complex the
geometry

A systematic technique of solving the differential equations

Differential equations (strong) formulation

Variational (weak) formulation

Approximate the weak form using finite elements

2.12 :WEIGTED RESIDUAL TECHNIQUE

 Ordinary Differential Equation (second order or fourth order) can be solved using the
weighted residual method, in particular using Galerkin method
Exact solution : Boundary value problem: differential equation + boundary conditions
In general, it is difficult to find the exact solution when the domain and/or boundary
conditions are complicated

Governing DE [(), ] = 0 < < (1)

Approximate solution () = =1 ()(2)
Where ,() is the approximate solution expressed as the product of unknown
constant parameter to be determined and () trial function.
It satisfies the essential BC () = () = 0.
The approximate solution may not satisfy the DE exactly
This approximate solution or assumed solution, on substitution into Eq.(1), yields a
quantity different from zero known as residual error(simply called residual).
Residual () = [(), ] 0 (3)

Want to minimize the residual by multiplying with a weight () and Integrate over the
Domain
The method of weighted residuals requires that the unknown parameters 1 to be
evaluated such that

() () = 0 = 1,2, . (4)
Where, () represents arbitrary weighting function

Depending on choice of () ,The important Methods are

Collocation method: The residual is forced to be zero at specific locations.
Least square error method: ()= ()

2 () = 0
Galerkin method : The weight function is chosen from the same family of functions as
the trial functions
Petrov-Galerkin method

In Galerkin weighted residual method, the weighting functions are chosen to be same as
the trial function, i.e
() = () = 1,2, . (5)

Thus, unknown parameters are determined by () () = () () =
0 = 1,2, . (6)
This results in algebraic equation from which unknown parameters can be Obtained

2.13 :GENERAL STEPS: GALERKIN WEIGHTED RESIDUAL METHOD

 1. Formulate the differential equation of equilibrium for the given problem.
2. Assume a trial function for the given problem, which should satisfy the boundary
conditions.
3. Substitute the Trial function into differential equation of equilibrium and calculate
residual ().
4.Using the Galerkins formula, minimize the residual by multiplying with a weight
() and Integrate over the Domain

() () = () () = 0
Where , () are the weighting functions and () is the interpolation functions.
5. This results in algebraic equation from which unknown parameters can be Obtained
6. Determine the field variable and derived quantities

2.14 : BAR PROBLEMS

Problem 1

1. Determine the displacement in a bar subjected to a concentrated load P acting at free end
using Galerkin method. No Body force 0
Step 1: The governing differential equation of a bar subjected to a concentrated load P acting at
2 2
free end is given by 2 + 0 = 0i. e 2 = 0 (1)

Step 2 : Trial function :Corresponding boundary conditions are

()
at = 0; (0) = 0 and = ; = (2a)
Assuming approximation solution in polynomials as () = 0 + 1 + 2 2
(2b)
From first boundary condition , 0 = 0
Differentiating equation (2b) and applying second boundary condition (1 +

22 ) =P 1 = 22 (2c)

Substituting the value for 0 and 1 into equation (2b), we get () = +

( 2 2)2 (2d)
Step 3:Residue
2
Substituting equation (2d) into equation (1),The residual is given by = 2
 2
= 2 + [ + ( 2 2)2 ]
= 22 (3)

Step 4.
Above equation has a unknown 2 therefore, only one weight function is required to find
2 .
Based on the Galerkin method, we obtain the value of weight function as
2 = 2 2 (4a )

For minimum residual 0 2 = 0 (4b)

Substituting value for 2 and into Equation 4b we get

0 ( 2 2)[22 ] = 0
3
[ 3 ] 22 = 0
3
Step 5 :Simplification of above equation, yields 2 = 0

Step 6 : Substituting value of 2 into equation (2d), we get () = (6)
The displacement at load point, B can be obtained by putting = in equation (6), we

get () = = (7) (SOM)

Problem 2

Using Galerkin method, to find the expression for displacement of bar that subjected to
distributed axial load 0 per unit length as shown in fig.

Step 1: The governing differential equation of a bar

subjected to distributed axial load 0 is given by
2
2 + 0 = 0 (1)
Step 2 : Trial function :Corresponding boundary conditions are

at = 0; (0) = 0 and = ; = 0 (2a)
Assuming approximation solution in polynomials as () = 0 + 1 + 2 2
(2b)
 From first boundary condition ,
() = 0 + 1 + 2 2
0 = 0 since u=0 at x=0
Differentiating equation (2b)

= 1 + 2 2

and applying second boundary condition

+ 22 ) =0
(1
1 = 22 (2c)

Substituting the value for 0 and 1 into equation (2b), we get () = ( 2 2)2
(2d)
Step 3:Residue
2
Substituting equation (2d) into equation (1),The residual is given by = 2 + 0
2
= (2 2)2 , = 22
2
= 2(22 ) + 0 (3)

Step 4.
Above equation has a unknown 2 therefore, only one weight function is required to find
2 .
Based on the Galerkin method, we obtain the value of weight function as
2 = 2 2 (4a )

For minimum residual 0 2 = 0 (4b)

Substituting value for 2 and into Equation 4b we get

2
( 2)(22 + 0 ) = 0
0

3 2
( 3 2 ) (22 + 0 ) = 0 (4c)
2 0
Step 5 :Simplification of above equation, yields
0
2 = 2 (5)

Step 6 : Substituting value of 2 into equation (2d), we get 0
= 2 (2 2 ) (6)

0
() = = 2 2 (7)

2.15: GALERKIN WEIGHTED RESIDUAL METHOD:BEAM

Beam
 Beams are slender members used for supporting transverse loading
Loads could be concentrated loads, distributed loads and moments

I: Moment of Inertia about N.A.

v : Transverse displacement
E: Youngs Modulus, EI : Flexural Rigidity

Beam Equations

4
0 =0 Differential equation
4
v :

:

2 2
= 2 2 =

3 3
= = 3 3 =

For Beam problem,

The primary variables( which has to be Continuous) are Transverse displacement v and
rotation v/ x .
The secondary Variables (Which can be discontinuous) are
2v 2v M
Bending moment M EI 2 2
x x EI
dM v v
3 3
V
Shear Force V EI 3 3
dx x x EI

Boundary conditions :Beam

Thus for Beam, Boundary conditions can be associated with
 Transverse displacement v
Slope v/ x
2
Bending Moments =
2
3
Shear Force =
3

Examples

Differential equation
of equilibrium for
the beam
4
=0 (1)
4
Boundary condition
Cantilever

@ = 0; = 0and =0

2 3
@ = ; 2 = 0 and 3 = 0

Boundary condition
SSB

For the Cantilever shown In the figure

Boundary conditions are
At X=0, v=0 and
Slope v/ x=0
v
2
M
0
x 2
EI
At x=L 3
v P

x 3
EI

2.16: Problems :Beams

1. Find the expression for the displacement of a cantilever beam subjected to UDL 0 acting
along its length using the Galerkin method.
Step 1: The governing differential equation of a Beam subjected to UDL 0 acting along its
length is given by
4
0 = 0 (1)
4
Step 2 : Trial function :Corresponding boundary conditions are

At = 0, = 0; and = 0; (2a)
2 3
At = , = 0; d) at = , =0 (2b)
2 3
Assuming approximation solution as polynomial = 0 + 1 + 2 2 + 3 3 + 4 4 (2c)
Using first in (2a) i.e., at = 0; = 0
From Eq.(2c) we get 0 = 0 (2d)

Using second in (2a) i.e., at = 0; =0


From (2c) = 1 + 22 + 33 2 + 44 3
1 = 0 (2e)
2
Using first in (2b) i.e., = ; 2 = 0
2
= 22 + 63 + 124 2 (2f)
2
0 = 22 + 63 + 124 2 (2g)
3
Using first in (2b) i.e., = , =0
3
3
From (2f ) 3 = 63 + 244
0 = 63 + 244 3 = 44 (2h)
Substituting value of 3 into Eq.(2g), we get
22 + 6(44 ) + 124 2 = 0
2 = 6 2 4 (2i)
0 = 1 = 0; 2 = 6 2 4 ; 3 = 44
Substituting these values into Eq.(2c)
 = 0 + 1 + 2 2 + 3 3 + 4 4
= 0 + 0 + (6 2 4 ) 2 + (44 ) 3 + 94 4
Thus, displacement function,
= 4 ( 4 4 3 + 6 2 2 ) (2)

Step 3:Residue :Substituting equation (2) into equation (1),The residual is given by =
4
4 0
But = ( 4 4 3 + 62 2 )4

= (4 3 12 2 + 122 )4

2
= (12 3 24 + 122 )4
2
3 4
(24 24)4 , = 244
3 4
= 244 0 (3)

Step 4.
Above equation has a unknown 4 therefore, only one weight function is required to find.
Based on the Galerkin method, we obtain the value of weight function as (coefficient of
4 in (2))
4 = ( 4 4 3 + 62 2 ) (4a )

For minimum residual 0 4 = 0 (4b)

Substituting value for 4 and into Equation 4b we get 0 ( 4 4 3 +
62 2 )(244 0 ) = 0

5 4 3
(244 0 ) ( 4. . + 62 ) =0
5 4 3 0
5 5 5
(244 0 ) ( + 2 ) = 0
5
5 +55
(244 0 ) ( )=0 (4)
5
0
Step 5 :Simplification of above equation, yields 4 = 24 (5)

Step 6 : Substituting value of 4 into equation (2), we get 0
= 24 ( 4 4 3 +
62 2 ) (6)
The displacement at tip, can be obtained by putting
0 4
= in equation (6), we get () = = 8

Problem 2. Find the expression for the displacement of a cantilever beam subjected to tip load P
using the Galerkin method.
Step 1: The governing differential equation of a Beam subjected to tip load P is given by (0 =0)
4 4
0 = 0, =0 (1)
4 4

Step 2 : Trial function :Corresponding boundary conditions are

At = 0, = 0; and = 0; (2a)
2 3
At = , = 0; d) at = , = (2b)
2 3
Assuming approximation solution as polynomial = 0 + 1 + 2 2 + 3 3 +
4 4 (2c)
Using first in (2a) i.e., at = 0; = 0
From Eq.(2c) we get 0 = 0 (2d)

Using second in (2a) i.e., at = 0; =0


From (2c) = 1 + 22 + 33 2 + 44 3
1 = 0 (2e)
2
Using first in (2b) i.e., = ; 2 = 0
2
= 22 + 63 + 124 2 (2f)
2
2
0 = 22 + 63 + 124 (2g)

3
Using first in (2b) i.e., = , =
3
3
From (2f ) 3 = 63 + 124

63 + 244 = , 3 = 6 44 (2h)
Substituting value of 3 into Eq.(2g), we get

3 = 3 (6 44 ) 62 4

= 2 + 22 4 62 4 2 = 2 + 62 4 (2i)

0 = 1 = 0; 2 = 2 + 62 4 ;

3 = 6 44
Substituting these values into Eq.(2c)
= 0 + 1 + 2 2 + 3 3 + 4 4

= 0 + 0 + (2 + 62 4 ) 2 (6 + 4 4 ) 3 + 4 4
Thus, displacement function,
3
= 2 ( 2 ) + 4 ( 4 4 3 + 2 2 ) (2)
3

Step 3:Residue :Substituting equation (2) into equation (1),The residual is given by =
4
4
3
= 2 ( 2 ) + 4 ( 4 4 3 + 62 2 )
3
4
= 244 from equation (4)
4
= 244 (3)

Step 4.
Above equation has a unknown 4 therefore, only one weight function is required to find.
Based on the Galerkin method, we obtain the value of weight function as (coefficient of
4 in (2))
3
= ( 2 ) +)4 ( 4 4 3 + 62 2 )
2 3
4 = ( 4 4 3 + 62 2 ) (4a )

For minimum residual 0 4 = 0 (4b)

Substituting value for 4 and into Equation 4b we get 0 ( 4 4 3 +
62 2 )(244 ) = 0
4 = 0 = 0 (4)
Step 5 : 4 = 0 (5)

3
Step 6 : Substituting value of 4 into equation (2), we get v= 2 ( 2 )
3
(6)
The displacement at tip, can be obtained by putting
3
= in equation (6), we get () = = 3

3. Determine the expression for displacement of a simply supported beam subjected to a

uniform distributed load 0 over entire length using Galerkin method.
Step 1: The governing differential equation of a simply supported beam subjected to a uniform
distributed load 0 over entire length
4
0 = 0 (1)
4

Step 2 : Trial function :Corresponding boundary conditions are

2
At = 0, = 0; and 2 = = 0; (2a)
2
At = , = 0; and 2 = = 0 (2b)

Assuming approximation solution in trigonometric series as () = 1 +

3
3 +

Let us take one term of series, that is,

= 1 (2c)

2 2
= 1 sin , = 1 ( 4 ) cos = [1 ( ) sin ]
2
Satisfies all the boundary conditions.
2
At = 0 & , = 0; and 2 = = 0;

= 1 (2)

Step 3:Residue :Substituting equation (2) into equation (1),The residual is given by =
4
0
4

= 1 sin , = 1 (4 ) cos

2 2 3 3
= [1 ( ) sin ], 3 = [1 ( ) cos ]
2
4 4
= [1 ( ) sin ]
4
4
= 1 ( ) sin 0 (3)

Step 4.
 Above equation has a unknown 1 therefore, only one weight function is required to find.
Based on the Galerkin method, we obtain the value of weight function as (coefficient of
1 in (2))

= 1 , 1 = 1 = sin (4a )

For minimum residual 0 1 = 0 (4b)

4
Substituting value for 1 and into Equation 4b we get0 sin [1 ( ) sin

0 ] = 0
4
1 ( ) 0 sin2 0 0 sin = 0

2
1 1
0 sin2 = 0 2 (1 cos 2
) = 2 [ sin
2 ] =2
0
1
2
0 sin = cos

| = [cos cos 0] =

0
4 2
1 ( ) (2) 0 . =0 (4)

Step 5 Simplification of above equation, yields

4 0 4
1 = 5 (5)

4 0 4
Step 6 : Substituting value of 1 into equation (2), we get () = 5 ( )

(6)
Maximum displacement occurs at x=L/2
4 0 4 0 4 0 4
@/2 = = 5 = 76.5 (From SOM = 76.8 )

4. Fixed Beam with Central load

Can be worked
Out considering
Symmetry as
Shown
Same as Problem 2.
2.17: CONCLUSIONS
The Galerkin weighted residual method is the most commonly used of the weighted
residual methods.
Trial function must have non-zero derivatives up to the order appearing in the Governing
Differential Equations
Trial function used in Galerkin Method is of Higher order compared to Rayleigh-Ritz
method

If a variation formulation of a certain problem is possible, the same results can be

obtained by the Galerkin weighted residual method.
The Galerkin weighted residual method can be used when no variational formulation is
available.

1.1 NUMERICAL METHODS IN CONTINUUM MECHANICS

Most often the mathematical models result in algebraic, differential or integral equations or
combinations thereof. Seldom these equations can be solved in closed form (Exact form), and
hence numerical methods are used to obtain solutions

Without numerical techniques, it would be almost impossible to solve practical engineering

problems analytically with a reasonable degree of accuracy. Most numerical techniques in
continuum mechanics are based on the principle that it is possible to derive some equations and
relationships that describe accurately the behaviors of a small differential part of the body. By
dividing the entire body into a large number of these smaller parts and using further
relationship to link up or assemble these parts together, it is possible to obtain a reasonably
accurate prediction of the values of variables such as stress and displacements in the body. As
the size of these small parts are made smaller, the numerical solution becomes more accurate, but
the cost of computation time may become prohibitive. There is no substitute for experience in the
application of numerical techniques to practical engineering problems because the answer of the
question How small should these component parts be for optimum accuracy? is never clean.

Numerical method in
Continuum mechanics

Finite Boundary Finite

elements (FE) element (BE) difference (FD)

methods methods method

 Domain Boundary (surface) Internal
Elements elements cells

The Finite Difference (FD) Approach

In this method the derivatives in the governing partial differential equations are written in terms
of difference equations. There fore ,for a two dimensional domain ,a grid of cell is placed inside
the domain and the differencing approximation applied to each interior point.This results in a
system of linear algebraic equations, which yields a unique solution, provided the boundary
conditions of the actual problem are satisfied.

The Boundary Element (BE) Approach

As the name implies, in this approach the governing differential equations are transformed into
integral identities which are applicable over the surface or boundary. These integrals are
numerically integrated over the boundary, which is divided into small boundary segments
(boundary elements). As in the other numerical approaches, provided that the boundary
conditions are satisfied, a system of linear algebraic equations emerged for which a unique
solution can be obtained.

The Finite Element (FE) Approach

In this approach, the entire solution domain is divided into small finite segments (hence the name
finites elements). Over each element, the behavior is described by the differential governing
equations. all these small elements are assembled together and the requirements of continuity
and equilibrium are satisfied between neighboring elements. Provided that the boundary
conditions of the actual problem are satisfied, a unique solution can be obtained to the
overall system of linear algebraic equations (with a Sparsely populated solution matrix).

Finite Element Method is one of the numerical methods of solving differential

equations. The FEM originated in the area of structural mechanics, and has been extended to
other areas of solid mechanics and later to other fields such as heat transfer, fluid dynamics and
electromagnetic devices. In fact FEM has been recognized as a powerful tool for solving partial
differential equations and integral-differential equations. And in the near future it may become
the numerical method of choice in many engineering and applied science areas. One of the
reasons for Fem.'s popularity is that the method results in computer programs versatile in nature
that can be used to solve many practical problems with least amount of training. Obviously there
is a danger in using computer programs without proper understanding of the theory behind them,
and that is one of the reactions to have a thorough understanding of tile theory behind the Finite
Element Method.

1.2 Why is FEA needed?

To reduce the amount of prototype testing

Computer simulation allows multiple what-if scenarios to be tested quickly and effectively.

To simulate designs that are not suitable for prototype testing

Example: Surgical implants, such as an artificial knee

The bottom line: Cost savings,Time savings reduce time to market!

Create more reliable, better-quality designs

FEM TO DESIGNERS:

Easily Applied to complex, irregular shaped objects composed of several different materials
and having complex boundary conditions.
Applied to steady state time dependent, Eigen Value problems.
Applicable to linear and non-linear problems.
Number of general-purpose Fem packages are available.
FEM can be coupled to CAD programs to facilitate Solid modeling and mesh generations.
Many Fem software packages feature GUI interfaces, automeshers and sophisticated post
processors and graphics to speed the analysis and makes Pre and post processing more user
friendly.
FEM TO DESIGN ORGANISATION:

Reduced Testing and Redesign costs thereby shortening of product development cycle.
Identify issues in designs before tooling is committed.
Refine components before dependencies to other components prohibit change.
Optimize performance before prototyping.
Discovers design problems before litigations.
Allows more time for designers to use engineering judgment and less time for further thinking.

1.3 ADVANTAGES OF FEM:

 Can readily handle complex geometry
Can handle complex analysis types
Vibration,Transients,Nonlinear,Heat Transfer,Fluids
Can handle complex loading
Node-Based loading (Point Loads)
Element-based loading (Pressure, thermal, inertial forces)
Time or frequency dependent loading
Can handle complex restraints
Indeterminate structures can be analyzed
Can handle bodies comprised of non homogeneous materials
Every element in the model could be assigned a different set of material properties
Can handle bodies comprised of non isotropic materials
Orthotropic ,Anisotropic
Special material effects are handled
Temperature dependent properties,Plasticity,Creep,Swelling
Special geometric effects can be modeled
Large displacements,Large Rotations

1.4 DISADVANTAGES OF FEM:

A specific numerical result is obtained for a specific problem. A general closed form
solution, which would permit one to examine system response to changes in various parameters.
The FEM is applied to an approximation of the mathematical model of a system (The source
of so called inherited errors.)
Experience and judgment are needed in order to construct a good finite element model.
Numerical Problems
Computers only carry a finite number of significant digits.
Round off and error accumulation
Can help the situation by not attaching stiff (small) elements to flexible (large)
elements
Susceptible to user introduced modeling errors
Poor choice of element types
Distorted elements
Geometry not adequately modeled
Certain effects not automatically included
Buckling,Large deflections and rotations,Material nonlinearties

1,5 LIMITATIONS OF FEM:

High Speed computers and larger memory requirements.

Obtaining material properties other than isotropic is very difficult.
Incapable of handling incompressible fluids.
Proper interpretation of results is more important as large output data is available.
Larger unwanted data.
 Selection of proper mesh size is difficult.
Limited development in the fields of contact, fracture mechanics etc.

FEM ERRORS:

FEM errors takes place at 3 stages of solution:

Error during conversion of mathematical model to solid model

Descritization error
Solution error
1.3 Merits of FEM

1. The systematic generality of Finite Element Procedure makes it a powerful and versatile tool
for a wide range of problems. Thus, flexible, general-purpose computer programs can be
developed and can be applied to various problems with little or no modification.
2. FEM can be easily interpreted in physical terms. As well it has a strong mathematical base.
Hence, FEM can be easily applied to any problem with a proper knowledge of the physical
system under consideration, and can be solved to a great accuracy by the application of
proper mathematical tool.
3. Non-homogeneous continuum can also be dealt with, by merely assigning different
properties to different elements. It is even possible to vary the properties within an element
according to the approximating polynomial applied. Handling of non-homogeneous
continuum is most difficult in any other numerical technique other than FEM.
4. FEM accommodates complex geometry with ease and it is capable of handling non linear and
time dependent systems also.
5. In FEM, since the boundary conditions are introduced in the assembled equations, it requires
only to specify the geometric boundary conditions without regarding its effects on interior
elements.
6. since boundary conditions do not enter into the individual finite elements equations, the field
variable models need not be changed, when the boundary conditions change.
7. FEM considers the multidimensional continuity of the body. Hence it does not require
separate interpolation process to extend the approximate solution to every point within the
continuum. It does not also require the trial solution which must all apply to the entire
multidimensional continuum. This is an added merit of FEM when compared to other
numerical methods.

1.4 Demerits of FEM

1. FEM has developed to a very high solution technique. However, the solution
 obtained from FEM can be realistic if and only if the material parameters which describe the
phenomena are precisely known. Since the characteristic matrix is derived based on the
governing equation of the system is required to be known in advance.
Hence, FEM can not provide reliable solutions, unless governing equations (or constitutive
laws) of the system under consideration are completely developed.
2. The major drawback of FEM is the sensitivity of solution on the geometry of the elements
such as type, size, number, shape and orientation of elements used. For known type of
problems, above parameters can be optimized using several trial runs. However,new type of
problems are to be treated carefully.
3. The computer programs of FEM require relatively a large computer memory and time. But
this drawback of FEM is being remedied with new developments in computer technology.
Now a days a desk top computer is capable of handling a complicated FEM code efficiently.
4. FEM programs yield a large amount of numerical data as a results. Sometimes it very
difficult to separate out the required data from the pile of numbers. These numbers become
useless, unless they are properly examined for the correctness. It is always advisable to check
the final result at a few locations of the body/region using approximate governing equations.
Alternatively, the results may be expressed in graphical mode. So that the variation of
required parameter (such as displacement, strain, temperature) etc., across the body/region
can be visualized.

1.5 Steps In FEM- Linear Static Structural Analysis

Step1 Discretisation of the Structure

The first step in the finite Element method is to divide the structure or solution region into
subdivisions or elements. Hence the structure is to be modeled with suitable finite elements. The
number, type, size and arrangement of the elements are to be decided. These elements can be 1-
D, 2-D,3-D or axis symmetric .
Step 2 Selection of a proper interpolation or displacement model
Since the displacement solution of a complex structure under any specified load conditions
cannot be predicted exactly, we assume some sutiable solution within an element to approximate
the unkown solution. The assumed solution must be simple from a computational points of view,
but it should satisfy certain convergence requirements.In general ,the solution or the interpolation
model is taken in the form of a polynomial.
( Define the behaviours of the variables in each elements by a suitable shape function.
Choose the displacemant at each nodal point as the unknown variable and use the shape
functions to describe how the geometry and variables changes over each elements (e.g. linear
or quadratically ). The higher the order of the shape function, the more nodel point are
assigned to each element. Accuracy of the solutions can be improved either by using
large number of simple elements (H-convergence) or increasing the order of the shape
functions (P convergence).)
Step 3 Element strains and stresses
From the displacements, derive the strains and stresses within each element by using the strain-
displacement relationship and Hooke law (constitutive equations). Compatibility equations are
automatically satisfied within each elements because the displacements are chosen as the
unknown variables.
Step 4 Derivation of element stiffness matrices and load

From the assumed displacement model, the stiffness matrix [ K e ] and the load vector F e , of
element e are to be derived by using equilibrium conditions or a suitable variational principle

Step 5 Assemblages of element equations to obtain the overall equilibrium equations

Since the structure is composed of several finite elements, the individual element stiffness
matrices and load vectors are to assembled in a suitable manner and the overall equilibrium
equation can be formulated as

K Q F

Where K is called the assembled stiffness matrix, Q is the vector of nodal displacement and
~ ~

F is the vector of nodal forces for the complete structure. Since the summation of stiffness is
~
carried out only on elements sharing a particular node, the overall stiffness matrix will be
sparsely populated The assembled stiffness matrix is singular.
The process of finding the appropriate location for the individual element matrix in the Global
matrix is called Direct Stiffness Method.
Step 6 Imposition of the Boundary conditions.
These can take the form of prescribed displacement, sliding against a rigid surface,
attached spring, prescribed forces/ stresses or pressures. More complex boundary conditions
occur in contact problems.The constraints can be single point constraint or multipoint
constraint.These constraint can be handled by Elimination or Penalty approach.
Step 7 Solution for the unknown nodal displacements
After the incorporationof the boundary conditions, the equilbrium equations can be expressed as

K Q F .

The modified stiffness matrix is non-singular.For linear problems, the vector Q can be solved
very easily using techniques such as Gauss Elimination method . But for nonlinear problems, the
solution has to be obtained in a sequence of steps, each step involving the modification of the

stiffness matrix [K] and /or the load vector F .
Step 8 Computation of element strains and stress

From the known nodal displacements Q , if required, the element strains and stresses can be
computed by using the neccesary equations of solid or structural mechanics. Also the reactions
can be computed.
The terminology used in the above steps has to be modified if we want to extend
the concept to other fields. For example, we have to use the term continuum or domain
in the place of structure, field variable in place of displacement, characteristic matrix in
place of stiffness matrix, and element resultants in place of element strains.

Derivation of the stiffness matrix and load vectors can be done by

1.Direct approach:

In this method, the variables are defined based on the direct physical reasoning. This method is
applicable only to simple type of elements. However, practice of this method gives a good
insight of physical concept of mathematical equations used in forming the characteristic matrix.
2. Variational approach
The conception of variational method has contributed significantaly to the convenience in
formulating the method The major merit of this method is that,it permits us to treat complicated
boundary coditions as natural or free boundary codition.however,this method has a major
drawback that every engineering application problem may not be possible to express in
variational form.

3.Weighted residual approach:

In this method, the governing differential equations are directly used to derive element matrices
and vectors. Hence this method does not require volitional statement of the given problem. This
method can be worked with different procedures such as Galerkin and least square method. The
method of weighed residual approach can be applied to almost all practical problems of science
and engineering.

6.1 Commercial FEA program consists of three basic modules:

1. Pre processor
2. Processor/Solver
3. Post processor.
PRE-PROCESSOR

1. Read control parameters

2. Read/Generate nodal coordinates and boundary conditions
3. Read/Generate elements connectivity and elements loads
4. Read material properties or constitutive matrices
5. Read nodal loads and loadings conditions

PROCESSOR/SOLVER
1. Computer parameters for memory/file managemant
2. Computer elements matrices and vectors
3. From global matrices and vectors
4. Enforce SPC, MPC boundary conditions.
5. Solve governing matrix equations and compute the unknown values of
primary variables.
6. Compute additional derived variables such as reaction forces, element
strains, stresses and heat flow etc.

POST PROCESSOR
1. Print/plot deformed mesh over undeformed mesh
2. Print/plot contours of displacements
3. Print/plot contours of stresses
4. Display locations of max./min. stress
5. Print/plot contours of failure index
6. Animate dynamic model behaviour.
7. Sort element stresses in order of magnitude.
8. Produce color-coded temperature plots.

In general, a finite element solution may be broken into the following three stages. This is a
general guideline that can be used for setting up any finite element analysis.
1. Preprocessing: defining the problem; the major steps in preprocessing are given below:
o Define keypoints/lines/areas/volumes (Or Building a solid model)
o Define element type and material/geometric properties
o Mesh lines/areas/volumes as required
The amount of detail required will depend on the dimensionality of the analysis (i.e.
1D, 2D, axi-symmetric, 3D).
2. Solution: assigning loads, constraints and solving; here we specify the loads (point or
pressure), constraints (translational and rotational) and finally solve the resulting set of
equations.
3. Postprocessing: further processing and viewing of the results; in this stage one may wish
to see:
o Lists of nodal displacements
o Element forces and moments
 o Deflection plots
o Stress contour diagrams

The objective of this chapter is outline a general analysis procedure to be used to solve a
simulation. Regardless of the physics of the problem, the same general procedure can be
followed.

4.1 Every analysis involves four main steps: Preliminary Decisions

Preliminary Decisions

Which analysis type?

What to model? Preprocessing
Which element type?

Preprocessing
Solution
Define Material

Create or import the model geometry

Mesh the geometry Postprocessing

Solution

Apply loads

Solve

Postprocessing

Review results

Check the validity of the solution

6.3 Which analysis type?

The analysis type usually belongs to one of the following disciplines:

Structural :Motion of solid bodies, pressure on solid bodies, or contact of solid

bodies
Thermal : Applied heat, high temperatures, or changes in temperature

Electromagnetic:Devices subjected to electric currents (AC or DC),

electromagnetic waves, and voltage or charge excitation

Fluid : Motion of gases/fluids, or contained gases/fluids

Coupled-Field :Combinations of any of the above

Nature of Finite Element Method

The analysis procedures employed in structural engineering can be divided into two categories.

a) Force method
b) Displacement method

In the Force method, the forces are unknowns. Examples of Force method are :

2. Strain energy method (castigiliano' s theorem)

3. Consistent deformation method
4. Matrix flexibility method
5. Claperyron's theorem of three moments

In the displacement method, displacements are unknowns.

Examples are:

1. Kani;s method
2. Slope-deflection method
3. Matrix stiffness method
4. Moment distribution method
5. Finite element method
6. Principle of total potential energy or virtual displacements.

Important Distinction between Force and Displacement Method

Force method employs separate procedures for analyzing determinate and indeterminate
structures where as the displacement method uses the same approach for determinate and
indeterminate structure.

Classification of Finite Element Models

VARIATIONAL PRINCIPLE FINITE ELEMENT MODEL

Principle of minimum potential energy Compatible (Displacement) model

Principle of minimum complimentary energy Equilibrium model

Hellinger-reisser mixed variational principle Mixed model

Modified potential energy principle Hybrid displacement model

Modified complimentary energy principle Hybrid stress model

Modified mixed variational principle Mixed model II

Hu-Washizu principle Displacement model

Comparison between Continuum and FEM

CONTINUUM FEM

Structure is considered as a single unit Structure is discritised into no. of elements

called finite elements.

Material properties can be easily handled

Difficult and some times almost impossible
to handle changing material property in the
domain
Complex geometries can be taken care
Complex geometries are difficult to be
considered.

Trial functions sweep the entire domain. It Shape functions are used to approximate
is difficult and some-times almost field variable over the element.
impossible to obtain trial function.

Applied for simple problems Can be applied to all varieties of problem.

 Approximate method and needs
convergence studies.
Solution can be exact with closed form
solution or can be approximate like
Rayleigh_Ritz method. Can be used as
check solutions as they are more accurate.

1.10 Commercial FEM PACKAGES:

ABAQUS(tm), ADAMS/FEA(tm), ADINA(tm), AFEMS(tm) ALGOR(tm),

ANSYS(R), AUTODYN(tm), C-MOLD(R) software CAMRAD II(R), CESAR-LCPC
COSMOS/Works, COSMOS/Design, NISA, IDEAS Simulation module, Pro-
MECHANICA, MSC NASTRAN, MSC MARC, LS DYNA,
HYPERWORKS/OPTISTRUCT, ADINA etc.