Ancient Indian Sine Tables

Pradosh K Roy
Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Ltd. , Calcutta 700088 India
roypkin@yahoo.com

The origin of Trigonometry , according to the historians of Mathematics , is in the chord table of
Hipparchus [ca.190-120BC] , who introduced the Babylonian Sexagesimal Number System and
arithmetic in his table. The famous Babylonian Plimpton 322 [ca 1900-1600BC] and the
Egyptian Rhynd Papyrus, indicate that the respective civilizations had a crude knowledge of
practical trigonometry some 2000 years before the Greeks [3]. The lost tables of Hipparchus ,
almost surely consisted of lengths of chords in a standard circle for all angles from 0° to 180° in
7½° increments [1]. He might also have known may of the formulæ including the identities
Sin²α+Cos²α =1, Sin(α±β) = (SinαCosβ± CosαSinβ); Sin²θ/2=(1-Cosθ) [2]. However , the first
major work which has been inherited intact is the ‘Syntaxis Mathematica’ by Caludius
Ptolemaeus [Ptolemy] [ca.85-165AD] from the city of Alexandria , intellectual capital of the
Hellenistic world. The ‘Syntaxis’ , a summary of mathematical astronomy as it was known in
that time , contain few of the author’s own discoveries , rather it was a compilation of the state of
knowledge based on the achievements of his predecessors , mainly Hipparchus [3] . The
‘Syntaxis Mathematica’ later became known as ‘Almagest’ , an Arabic word meaning the greatest
[Al-Magiste] , because it was competing with a lesser work written by Aristarchus [ca.310-
230BC] and was seen as superior [2]. In 1175 the Arabic version was translated into Latin , and
from then on it would dominate the scientific and philosophical thinking of Europe well into the
16th Century.

Ptolemy produced a table of chords in chapters 10 and 11 of the first book of the Almagest ,
which is essentially a table of Sines i.e. d=2rSinθ/2. Neither Hipparchus nor Ptolemy used a circle
of radius unity. Hipparchus apparently used r=3438 , so that the measure of the circumference
would be approximately equal to the number of minutes in 360°. Ptolemy takes the diameter of
the circle as 120 units , ‘apparently for simplifying the calculations in Sexagesimal system’.
Ptolemy’s table gives the chord length between 0° and 180° , in ½° increment , to an accuracy of
two sexagesimal places ,i.e. 1/3600 [4] or to an accuracy of five/six decimal places as shown in
Table I . Ptolemy carried his work further by dividing the interval between successive chords into
thirtieths. This effectively allows for the calculation of any chord in one second interval [4]. It
may be emphasized that the Ptolemaic table is based on Euclidean Geometry and the
Aristarchus’[ca. 310-230 BC] inequality.

Arc θ° Crdθ[Sexagesimal] Crdθ /120 Sinθ

[Syntaxis Mathematica] [Decimal Equivalent] [Actual Values]

4 08; 22, 15 0.06975694 0.06975647

7 14; 37, 27 0.12186805 0.12186934
8 16; 42, 03 0.13917361 0.13917310
10 20; 50, 16 0.17364814 0.17364817
11 22; 53, 49 0.19080787 0.19080899
32 63; 35, 25 0.52991898 0.52991926
61 106; 55, 15 0.89100694 0.89100652

Table I. Ptolemy’s Chord Table [4]

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It is generally presumed that the Ancient Indian contribution in this context , is limited to
‘tabulating half chord as a function of twice the angle’ , in the most authentic document tracing
the development of Trigonometry culminating in the Fourier Series [3] . This may be due to ‘
tendency …… to attribute Indian mathematical ideas to the Greeks and also because of the
sometimes exaggerated claims by Indian historians about Indian accomplishments’ , according to
Victor J Katz in the introduction of the recently published book ‘The Mathematics of Egypt ,
Mesopotamia, China , India and Islam [Princeton University Press,2007]’.This necessitates a
systematic analysis of the Indian scriptures.

The oldest Indian treatise on mathematics and astronomy Surya Siddhānta , contains the half
chord [ardhajyā] table [5][6] . The age of the Surya Siddhānta is still being debated , according to
some latest opinions it could not be later than 700 BC. Thus the hypothesis of Hellenistic
influence on Indian Half-Chord Table becomes doubtful. Identity of the defining circle is the
only similarity between the Hipparchus chord table [1] and the Surya Siddhānta half-chord table
, though it is now evident that Hipparchus chord table was influenced by the Babylonians.

The couplets of Surya Siddhānta [Chapter II , verses 15-33] , provides the Sine table in multiples
of 3¾° and for the intermediate angles by linear interpolation , using the Decimal System and
Integer Arithmetic[4][5] . Moreover , the Versine [Utkramajyā] function , ‘not to be found in
either Hipparchus or Ptolemy means that Cosθ= Sin(90° - θ) has been recognized and used’ [8].
The 19th and 20th Century translators and commentators [5][6] have geometrically validated the
Surya Siddhānta algorithm for the Sine Table. In the absence of the fractional part , the table is
an excellent mnemonic.

It could also be observed that the well known theorem viz. Sinθ/θ = 1 , in the limit θ tends to
zero (implicit in Surya Siddhānta half-chord table) is only valid in the decimal number system .
Thus ‘Half-Chord of the Eighth Part of 30°=225[Chapter II Verse 15] [5][6] has an implicit
significance (Radian system of the measurement of an arc) in the development of Indian Sine
Table.

Whether Āryabhata[b.476AD] of Kusuma Pura [Pataliputra] , himself constructed the table in

Āryabhatīya [7] or whether he took it from Surya Siddhānta , which was extant in his time , will
remain a matter of speculation [8]. The same table was reproduced in the work of Brahmagupta
[628AD].

The Indian quest for an accurate and precise Sine Table seems to have culminated with the
Siddhānta Śiromani [5] by Bhāskarāchārya II [b.1114 -1190AD ] in 1150AD. It is a matter
of speculation , whether Bhāskarāchārya II was aware of the Ptolemaic Chord Table.

Bhāskarāchārya II [1150AD] in the Appendix of Siddhānta Śiromani [5] provides canons for
the construction of the Sine Table , with exactness by mathematical precision [5] , in his own
words. Trigonometric identities which are explicitly mentioned in the canons include : (i) √ (1
- Sin²θ) = Cosθ (ii) Sin30°=1/2 (iii) Sin45°=1/√2 (iv) Sin(90° - θ)=Cosθ (v) Sin18°= (√5 -
1)/4 (vi) Sin36°=(√5 – [√5])/8 (vii) Sin(45° + θ/2)=√(1+Sinθ)/2 (viii) Sin(45° - θ/2)=√(1-
Sinθ)/2 and (ix) Sin60°=√3/2. The value of Sin1°=60 [i.e.60/3438=0.017452006] , which
differs from the exact value 0.017452406 , in the seventh place of decimal , has been explicitly
mentioned in the appendix. Thus , Bhāskarāchārya II might also had recognized the identity
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: Sinθ/θ = 1 , in the limit θ tends to zero in the Sexagesimal Radian System of the
measurement of an arc.

Obviously ,these rules suffice for finding only the Sines of arcs differing by 3° from each other
and not the Sine of the intermediate arcs , Bhāskarāchārya II proceeds to detail the mode of
finding the Sine of every degree of the quadrant viz. the Pratibhāgajyakā Rule from 1° to
90° , assuming that Sin1°= 60. The defining circle for the Sine Table of Bhāskarāchārya II is
identical [viz. radius=3438] to the defining circle in Surya Siddhānta and in Āryabhatīya .
A simulation of the Pratibhāgajyakā Rule [5] , when periodically corrected with reference to the
above mentioned precise values for Sin18°, Sin30°; Sin36°; Sin45°; Sin60° and Sin75° only , is
correct to fourth/fifth places of decimal as shown in the following table . In this context it is
worth mentioning that Pratibhāgajyakā Rule [5] is yet to logically established.

SIMULATION OF THE SINE TABLE ACCORDING TO Pratibhāgajyakā Rule OF

BHASKARA II IN 1° INCREMENT.

Arcθ° Simulated Values Sinθ[Actual values] Error

28 0.469463109970 0.469471573830 0.0000084639
29 0.484800249338 0.484809607267 0.0000093579
30 0.500000000000 0.500000000000 0.0000000000
31 0.515037059784 0.515038073063 0.0000010133
32 0.529917240143 0.529919266701 0.0000020266
33 0.544635951519 0.544639050961 0.0000030994
34 0.559188783169 0.559192895889 0.0000041127
35 0.573571264744 0.573576450348 0.0000051856
36 0.587785243988 0.587785243988 0.0000000000

Table II. Sine Table Simulated with Pratibhāgajyakā Rule of Bhāskarāchārya II

In the context of instantaneous motion of the planets , Bhāskarāchārya II was led to formulate
the startling example of a differential , δ(Sinα) = Cosα. δα [8]. The simulated Sine table with
δα=1", starting from the initial correct value of Sin18° produces correct values with errors of
the order of 10-7 /10-8 in the vicinity of the correct value as shown in Table III. We could readily
assume that in the vicinity of the exact values the differential formula was used by
Bhāskarāchārya II for precision. It is a pity that the differential calculus which got such a
beginning , five hundred years before Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz and Issac Newton ; was not
further developed in India [8], was it due to a snow blindness or due to the instability engulfing
India in the 12th Century ?

SIMULATION OF THE SINE TABLE ACCORDING TO THE DIFFERENTIAL RULE OF

BHASKARA II IN 1° INCREMENT.
Arcθ° Simulated Value Sinθ Error
18 0.3090170027 0.3090170027 0.0000000000
19 0.3255681765 0.3255681632 0.0000000133
20 0.3420201797 0.3420201525 0.0000000273
21 0.3583680009 0.3583679591 0.0000000419
22 0.3746066604 0.3746066033 0.0000000570
23 0.3907312115 0.3907311388 0.0000000728
24 0.4067367427 0.4067366537 0.0000000890
25 0.4226183785 0.4226182727 0.0000001058
26 0.4383712812 0.4383711581 0.0000001230
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Table III. Sine Table Simulated with the Differential Rule of Bhāskarāchārya II

For the sake of completeness , we compare the Ptolemaic Chord Table [4] with the Siddhānta Śiromani
Tables to dispel the wrong notion that the Indian Sine Table lacks accuracy [2].

Arc Crdθ[Sexagisimal] Crdθ /120 Sinθ[Actual Values] Sidhanta Siromani Sidhanta Siromani
θ° [Syntaxis Mathematica] [Decimal Equivalent] [Differential Rule] [Pratibhāgajyakā Rule]
[4]
4 08 22 15 0.06975694 0.06975647 0.06975608 0.06975474
7 14 37 27 0.12186805 0.12186934 0.12186897 0.12186608
8 16 42 03 0.13917361 0.13917310 0.13917273 0.13916929
10 20 50 16 0.17364814 0.17364817 0.17364782 0.17364320
11 22 53 49 0.19080787 0.19080899 0.19080865 0.19080341
32 63 35 25 0.52991898 0.52991926 0.52991931 0.52991724
63 106 55 15 0.89100694 0.89100652 0.89100662 0.89100257

Table IV. Comparative Sine Tables of Ptolemy and Bhāskarāchārya II

In the absence of any conclusive evidence of the Greek influence on Ancient Indian Sine Tables ,
we may assume that the development of the Indian Sine Table , followed an independent route
culminating with Bhāskarāchārya II. Whereas the Ptolemaic table is based on Euclidean
Theorems and Corollaries , the Indian efforts from the days of Surya Siddhānta relies more on
the trigonometric identities. Early evidences validating the intuitive dating of the
Siddhānta Era as 7th Century BC [6 ] are recently being published[9]. It is to be further
seen whether Bhāskarāchārya II canons could be used for truly demanding DSP tasks.

For simulating the Sine Tables of Bhāskarāchārya II , the g77 compiler in RedHat® EL 2.
4.21 -4 Operating System configured on PIV 1.8GHz with 512K L2 Cache has been used.

Selected References.

1. Toomer,G.J.,The Chord Table of Hipparchus and the Early History of Greek

Trigonometry, Centaurus, 1974,Vol.18,p.6-28.
2. Tara Adamek,Penkalski,K.,Valentine,G., The History of Trigonomatry,2005, http://www.math.rutgers.edu/~mjraman
3. Maor, Eli,Trigonometric Delights , Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1998, p. 20-40. http://press.princeton.edu
4. Elert, Glenn,Ptolemy’s Table of Chords : Trigonometry in the 2nd Century,1992,
http://hypertextbooks.com/eworld/chords.shtml
5. Bāpu Deva Śāstri , Lancelot Wilkinson,Translation of the Surya Siddhanta and Siddhanta Siromani, Baptist Mission
Press, Calcutta , 1861,p. 15-17 ,135-137;263-268 http://www.wilbourhall.org
6. Swami Vijñānānanda , Sūrya Siddhānta [ Bengali Translation and Commentary], 1909 , Reprinted, 2006,Sanskrit
Book Depot, Calcutta 700006 ,p.44-51,p.327.[A monumental work available only in Bengali Language]
7. Clark,Walter Eugene, 1930,The Aryabhatia of Aryabhata, An Ancient Indian Work On Mathematics and Astronomy,
University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, p.28-29. http://www.wilbourhall.org
8. Srinivasa Iyenger , C.N.,1957, The History of Ancient Indian Mathematics, World Press , Calcutta , p.46-56,91-93,
http://www.mathematik.com
9. Kak,Subhas, Babylonian and Indian Astronomy :Early Connections , 2003,p.1-37;
http://arxiv:physics/0301078v2[physics.hist-ph]

©2008 Pradosh K Roy