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Spelling reform

For spelling reform in English, see English language spellings systems, or else that non-phonemic etymolog-
spelling reform. ical spellings have been replaced with phonemic unety-
mological spellings as pronunciation changes. Predicting
A spelling reform is a deliberate, often ocially sanc- spelling is more dicult in languages in which pronun-
ciation has changed signicantly since the spelling was
tioned or mandated change to spelling rules of a language.
Proposals for such reform are also common and many xed, thus yielding a non-phonetic etymological spelling
system such as Irish or French. These spelling systems
languages have undergone such reforms. Recent high-
prole examples are the German orthography reform of are still 'phonemic' (rather than 'phonetic') since the pro-
1996 and the on-o Portuguese spelling reform of 1990, nunciation of a word can be systematically derived from
which is still being ratied by the dierent countries. the spelling, although the converse (i.e. spelling from
pronunciation) may not be possible. English is an ex-
There are a number of reasons driving such reforms: treme example of a defective orthography in which the
easing the task of children or immigrants becoming spelling cannot be systematically derived from pronunci-
literate, making the language more useful for interna- ation but also has the more unusual problem that pronun-
tional communication, making etymology clearer, or for ciation cannot be systematically derived from spelling.
aesthetic or political reasons.
Spelling reforms have been proposed for various lan-
Opposition to reforms is often based upon concern that guages over the years; these have ranged from mod-
old literature will become inaccessible, the presumed est attempts to eliminate particular irregularities (such
suppression of regional accents, or simple conservatism as SR1 or Initial Teaching Alphabet) through more far-
based on concern over unforeseen consequences. Re- reaching reforms (such as Cut Spelling) to attempts to
forms that concentrate on removing unnecessary dicul- introduce a full phonemic orthography, like the Shavian
ties ought to take account of such arguments. Reform alphabet or its revised version, Quikscript, the latest
eorts are further hampered by habit and, in many coun- DevaGreek alphabet,[1] the Latinization of Turkish or
tries, a lack of a central authority to set new spelling stan- hangul in Korea.
dards.
Superuity of graphemes (letters or characters) is often
Spelling reform may also be associated with wider discus- an issue in spelling reform, which prompts the Eco-
sion of what the ocial script should be, language plan- nomic Argumentsignicant cost savings in the pro-
ning and language reform. duction materials over timeas promulgated by George
Bernard Shaw.
The idea of phonemic spelling has also been criticized as
1 Arguments for reform it would hide morphological similarities between words
with dierent pronunciations, and thus obscure their
In languages written with alphabetic or syllabary scripts, meanings. It is also argued that when people read, they
one might expect there to be a close match of the script do not in reality try to work out the sequence of sounds
or spelling with the spoken sound. However, even if composing each word, but instead they recognize words
they match at one time and place for some speakers, over either as a whole, or as a sequence of small number of
time they often do not match well for the majority: one semantically signicant units (for example morphology
sound may be represented by various combinations of might be read as morph+ology, rather than as a sequence
letters and one letter or group of letters pronounced in of a larger number of phonemes). In a system of phonetic
various ways. In cases where spelling takes account of spelling, these semantic units become less distinct, as var-
grammatical features these too may become inconsistent. ious allomorphs can be pronounced dierently in dier-
People who use non-standard spelling often suer from ent contexts. For example, in English spelling, most past
adverse opinions, as a persons mastery of standard participles are spelled with an -ed on the end, even though
spelling is often equated to his or her level of formal ed- this can have several pronunciations (compare kissed and
ucation or intelligence. Spelling is easier in languages interrupted).
with more or less consistent spelling systems such as One of the diculties in introducing a spelling reform is
Finnish, Serbian, Italian and Spanish, owing to the fact how to reect dierent pronunciations, often linked to re-
that, either, pronunciation in these languages has changed gions or classes. If the reform attempts to be absolutely
relatively little since the initial establishment of their

1
2 2 BY LANGUAGE

phonemic in some model dialect, speakers of other di- and <ee>, /i/, respectively.) Diacritic marks have also
alects will nd conicts with their own usage. formed part of spelling reform proposals.
Critics have claimed that a consistent phonemically based
system would be impractical: for example, phoneme dis-
2 By language tribution diers between British English and American
English; furthermore, while English Received Pronunci-
2.1 English ation features about 20 vowels, some second language va-
rieties of English have 10 or even fewer. A phonemic
Main article: English language spelling reform system would therefore not be universal.
Furthermore, only a minority of the huge vocabulary of
English spelling contains many irregularities due to a the English language is used in everyday speech: the re-
number of factors. English generally preserved the orig- mainder is mainly used in technical, literary and other
inal spelling when borrowing words; and even more im- contexts where the written language is the primary means
portantly, English began to be widely written and printed of communication, and in many cases the majority of
during the Middle English period: the subsequent de- users of the language are unsure of the correct pronunci-
velopment of modern English included a Great Vowel ation. It would be counter-productive to alter the spelling
Shift and many other changes in phonology, yet the older of these words to t their pronunciation more closely.
spellings, which are no longer phonetic, have been re- A number of proposals have been made to reform English
tained. On the other hand, many words were refashioned spelling. Some were proposed by Noah Webster early in
to reect their Latin or Greek etymology. For example, the 19th century. He was in part concerned to distinguish
early Middle English wrote det/dette, with the b being American from British usage. Some of his suggestions
standardized in spelling in the 16th century, after its Latin resulted in the dierences between American and British
etymon debitum; similarly for quer/quere, which was re- spelling.
spelled as choir in the 17th century, modelled on Greek
chorus; in both cases, the pronunciation was not
changed.[2] 2.2 Chinese (romanization)
Main article: Romanization of Chinese

In the 1950s, the Language Reform Committee of the


Peoples Republic of China devised the Hanyu Pinyin or-
thography and promulgated it as the ocial romanization
system of mainland China. Since pinyin became the in-
ternational standard for Chinese romanization in 1982,
other romanizations (including the Wade-Giles system,
Gwoyeu Romatzyh developed by Yuen Ren Chao, and
Latinxua Sin Wenz) have become rarely used.
The Republic of China on Taiwan continued to use
Wade-Giles romanization until the turn of the 21st cen-
tury, when the Tongyong Pinyin romanization was intro-
duced. Tongyong Pinyin has been sporadically adopted
throughout the island, and criticized for inconsistency.
Hanyu Pinyin, the same system used in the mainland, was
formally adopted in 2009.

President Theodore Roosevelt was criticized for supporting the 2.3 Dutch
simplied spelling campaign of Andrew Carnegie in 1906
Main articles: History of Dutch orthography, Dutch
Modern English has anywhere from 14 to 22 vowel and Language Union, and White Booklet
diphthong phonemes, depending on dialect, and 26 or 27
consonant phonemes. A simple phoneme-letter represen-
tation of this language within the 26 letters of the English Dutch has undergone a series of major spelling reforms
alphabet is impossible. Most spelling reform proposals beginning in 1804 - with varying levels of ocial sanction
therefore include multi-letter graphemes, as does current and popular acceptance across the areas in which varieties
English spelling (for example the rst two phonemes of of the Dutch language are spoken.
sheep /ip/ are represented by the digraphs <sh>, //, The Dutch Language Union, founded in 1980 by the
2.6 Greek 3

Netherlands and Belgium, is now the source of ocial zines returned to the old rules. In March 2006, how-
reforms, and in 1995 issued the Green Booklet reform. ever, the most controversial changes of Rechtschreibre-
In 2005 the spelling changed again. form were reverted. This caused German media outlets
that had previously opposed the changes to switch to the
new rules.
2.4 French

Main article: Reforms of French orthography 2.6 Greek

In 1990, a substantial reform ordered by the French prime Main articles: Greek language question and Polytonic
minister changed the spelling of about 2000 words as orthography
well as some grammar rules. After much delay, the new
recommended orthography received ocial support in The classical, medieval, and early modern polytonic or-
France, Belgium, and Quebec in 2004, but it has not yet thography contained a number of archaisms inherited
been widely adopted. The 2012 version of Larousse in- from Ancient Greek, which have been dispensed with
corporates all of the changes. The 2009 version of Le or simplied in the modern monotonic orthography. See
Petit Robert incorporates most of the changes. There are also Katharevousa.
6000 words, which also includes words that were not orig-
inally included in the 1990 reform, for example, charrette
or charette, based on chariot. As of 16 March 2009, sev-
2.7 Indonesian
eral major Belgian publishing groups have begun to apply
the new spelling in their on-line publications.
Related article: Dierences between Malay and
Indonesian: Orthography

Indonesian underwent spelling reforms in 1947 and 1972,


after which its spelling was more consistent with the form
of the language spoken in Malaysia (i.e. Malay).
The rst of these changes (oe to u) occurred around the
time of independence in 1947; all of the others were a
part of an ocially mandated spelling reform in 1972.
Some of the old spellings, which were more closely de-
rived from the Dutch language, still survive in proper
Street name adapted to last German spelling reform names.

2.5 German 2.8 Japanese

Main articles: German orthography and German spelling Main article: Japanese script reform
reform of 1996
The original Japanese kana syllabaries were a purely pho-
German spelling was ocially reformed in 1901 and cer- netic representation used for writing the Japanese lan-
tain older spelling patterns were updated: for instance guage when they were invented around 800 AD as a sim-
some occurrences of th were changed to t, the use plication of Chinese-derived kanji characters. However,
of hyphens changed, and some instances of c were the syllabaries were not completely codied and alternate
changed to z. In 1944 another spelling reform was due letterforms, or hentaigana, existed for many sounds un-
to be introduced, but ultimately came to nothing because til standardization in 1900. In addition, due to linguistic
of World War II. drift the pronunciation of many Japanese words changed,
mostly in a systematic way, from the classical Japanese
Even though German spelling was already more con- language as spoken when the kana syllabaries were in-
sistent than English or French spelling, the German- vented. Despite this, words continued to be spelled in
speaking countries signed an agreement on spelling re- kana as they were in classical Japanese, reecting the clas-
forms in 1996; these were planned to be gradually intro- sic rather than the modern pronunciation, until a Cabinet
duced beginning in 1998 and fully in force by 2005. order in 1946 ocially adopted spelling reform, making
The so-called Rechtschreibreform was subject to dispute, the spelling of words purely phonetic (with only 3 sets
and polls consistently showed a majority against the new of exceptions) and dropping characters that represented
rules. In summer 2004, several newspapers and maga- sounds no longer used in the language.
4 2 BY LANGUAGE

2.9 Malay Portuguese spelling standard (used in all the Portuguese


speaking countries, except Brazil) closer to each other.
Related article: Dierences between Malay and
Indonesian: Orthography The objective of unifying the rules of writing was nally
achieved with a multi-lateral agreement in 1990, signed
Malay underwent spelling reforms in 1972, after which by every Portuguese-speaking country, but not ratied by
its spelling was more consistent with the form of the lan- Angola as of 2014. The implementation of the new rules
guage spoken in Indonesia (i.e. Indonesian). in Brazil and Portugal started only in 2009, with a transi-
tion period of six years. The agreement is in use by the
These changes were a part of an ocially mandated government and the teaching realms, as well as many of
spelling reform in 1972. Some of the old spellings, which the press and publishing houses of both countries, and by
were more closely derived from the English language, still state-related institutions. Because there are dierences
survive in proper names. between the Portuguese spoken in Portugal and the Por-
tuguese spoken in Brazil, the reform has led to the cre-
ation of new spellings that once were the same in both
2.10 Norwegian countries.
Related article: Norwegian language struggle None of the other Portuguese speaking countries who
have signed the Agreement have implemented it as of
Before Norway became independent in 1905, the 2014. In Portugal there is still some resistance to it and in
Norwegian language was written in Danish with minor 2013 the Portuguese Parliament has created a work group
characteristic regionalisms and idioms. After indepen- to analyse the situation and propose solutions.
dence, there were spelling reforms in 1907, 1917, 1938,
During the transition period, four dierent spellings
1941, 1981 and 2005, reecting the tug-of-war between
will co-exist: the ocial Portuguese spelling pre-reform
the spelling styles preferred by traditionalists and reform-
(used in all Portuguese speaking countries in Africa, Asia
ers, depending on social class, urbanization, ideology, ed-
and Oceania, as used in Portugal by the people), the of-
ucation and dialect. The 2005 reform re-introduced sev-
cial Brazilian spelling pre-reform (used in Brazil only),
eral traditional spellings that had been abolished by the
the Portuguese spelling after-reform (used by the Govern-
earlier spelling reforms. Little used spellings were also
ment and its institutions, some media and publishers in
excluded.
translated books), and the Brazilian spelling after-reform
(used by the Government, media and publishers in trans-
2.11 Polish lated books). The latter two systems are regulated by the
same Agreement, but dier somewhat because of dif-
The Polish alphabet has several letters whose character- ferent pronunciation of the same words in Portugal and
istic sounds are already represented elsewhere in the al- Brazil.
phabet, and which are used for historical and etymologi-
cal reasons. These include ch (represented as h), rz
(represented as "") and "" (represented as u). These 2.13 Russian
letters are used in many Polish words, and cause many
misspellings. These can be replaced without any loss in Main article: Reforms of Russian orthography
pronunciation. A similar reform has been done in Rus-
sian already. Over time, there have been a number of changes in
spelling. They mostly involved the elimination of the
(purely etymological) Greek letters that had been retained
2.12 Portuguese
in the Cyrillic script by reason of ecclesiastical tradition,
Main article: Spelling reforms of Portuguese and those rendered obsolete by changes in phonetics.
When Peter I introduced his civil script (
The medieval spelling of Portuguese was mostly phone- , gradanskij rift) in 1708, based on more
mic, but, from the Renaissance on, many authors who Western-looking letter shapes, spelling was simplied as
admired classical culture started to use an etymological well.
orthography. In the early 20th century, however, spelling The most recent major reform of Russian spelling was
reforms in Portugal and Brazil reverted the orthogra- carried out shortly after the Russian Revolution. The
phy to phonemic principles. Subsequent reforms (Brazil, Russian orthography was simplied by eliminating four
1943 and 1971; Portugal, 1945 and 1973) have aimed obsolete letters (, , , and ) and the archaic usage of
mainly at three objectives: to eliminate the few traces the letter (called yer, or hard sign) at the ends of words,
of redundant etymological spelling that remained, to re- which had originally represented a vowel with a sound
duce the number of words marked with diacritics and hy- similar to schwa, but had become silent by the Middle
phens, and to bring the Brazilian spelling standard and the Ages.
2.16 Other languages 5

2.14 South Slavic languages a congress at Zacatecas, and drew attention to the issue,
but no changes were made. The Academies, however,
See also: Dierences between standard Serbian, Croat- change several tidbits from time to time.
ian and Bosnian

2.16 Other languages


Within the South Slavic Languages, which form a dialect
continuum, Serbo-Croatian itself is a continuum com-
Armenian: See Spelling reform of the Armenian
prising modern standard Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian
language 19221924.
and Montenegrin. It went through a series of major
spelling reforms in the early to middle 19th century. Up Catalan: The spelling of the Catalan language was
until that time, two distinct writing traditions had evolved. standardized, mostly by Pompeu Fabra in the early
Western dialects had been written using the Latin alpha- 20th century.
bet, while eastern (Serbian) had been using an archaic
form of the Cyrillic script. Despite several attempts, Chinese: Simplied Chinese characters replaced
there was no universally agreed-upon spelling standard traditional characters in Mainland China, Malaysia
employing the Latin alphabet, and the Cyrillic version and Singapore, although traditional characters are
was considered outdated. still used in Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau.
A series of reforms have been undertaken to establish the
standards, in order to bring the writing system to parity Czech: The spelling of the Czech language was re-
with spoken language. The reform movement was spear- formed and regularised as early as the 15th cen-
headed by Croatian linguist Ljudevit Gaj for the Latin- tury through the publication of the manuscript
based writing system, and Serbian reformer Vuk Ste- Orthographia bohemica.
fanovi Karadi for the Cyrillic version.
Danish: In a 1948 reform, the Danish language
The reform eorts were coordinated in order to correlate abandoned the capitalization of common nouns
the two writing systems, culminating in the Vienna Lit- (originally a German-inspired rule) to align with the
erary Agreement in 1850. The system thus established other Scandinavian languages. At the same time,
has remained in service since. The Slovene language, not the digraph Aa/aa was abandoned in favor of the
a part of the Serbo-Croatian dialect continuum was also Swedish letter /. The double-a digraph is still
covered by the same reform movement. After the Second widely used in personal names and is optional in a
World War and the codication of the Macedonian liter- few placenames. In 1980, W was recognized as a
ary language, the same system has been extended, with distinct letter. Before that, it was considered a vari-
some modications to it as well. ation of V for purposes of collation.
All of these writing systems exhibit a high degree of cor-
Filipino: See Filipino orthography.
respondence between language sounds and letter charac-
ters, making them highly phonetic and very consistent. Galician: See Reintegrationism.
Another South Slavic language, Bulgarian underwent a
spelling reform in 1945, following the Russian model. Georgian language: In 19th century Georgian al-
phabet underwent removal of ve letters (, , , ,
).

2.15 Spanish Hebrew: The Hebrew language has two systems


of spelling with and without vowel marks, called
See also: Spanish orthography and Bello orthography Niqqud. Niqqud is used consistently only in books
for children, poetry, and some textbooks and reli-
gious literature. Most other texts are usually writ-
The Spanish Royal Academy reformed the orthographical
ten without vowel marks. The Academy of the He-
rules of Spanish from 1726 to 1815, resulting in most of
brew Language publishes rules for both vocalized
the conventions now used. There have been several initia-
and unvocalized spelling. The latest major revision
tives since then to reform further the spelling of Spanish:
to the rules of unvocalized spelling were published in
Andrs Bello succeeded in making his proposal ocial in
1996, although in practice they are not mandatory.
several South American countries, but they later returned
To date there is no standard spelling for unvocalized
to the RAE standard.
Hebrew, and many Hebrew speakers spell accord-
Another initiative, the Ortografa Fontica Rasional Is- ing to their own instinct and custom. See Hebrew
panoamericana, remained a curiosity. Juan Ramn spelling.
Jimnez proposed changing -ge- and -gi to -je- and ji, but
this is applied only in editions of his works or his wife's. Korean: The hangul alphabet replaced hanja
Gabriel Garca Mrquez raised the issue of reform during ideograms in the Korean language.
6 5 EXTERNAL LINKS

Latvian: Old versions of Latvian orthography were Istvn Fodor and Clause Hagge (eds): La Rforme
German-based, they were replaced by a more appro- des langues. Histoire et avenir. Language reform.
priate system at the beginning of the 20th century. History and future. Sprachreform. Geschichte und
The Latvian language discarded the digraph Uo in Zukunft. Buske, Hamburg 19831989
1914, the letter in 1946, and the letters and Ch
in 1957. Edite Estrela: A Questo Ortogrca: Reforma e
Acordos da Lngua Portuguesa. Editorial Notcias,
Swedish: The last major reform of Swedish orthog- Lisbon 1993
raphy occurred in 1906. It homogenized the spelling
of /v/ and changed the adverbial and neuter adjec-
tival ending -dt to -t or -tt depending on the length 5 External links
of the preceding vowel. The phrase hvarken af sil-
fver eller rdt guld was now spelled varken av silver The Nooalf Revolution Provides an English-based
eller rtt guld. Some people had called for an even international spelling system.
more radical reform that would also homogenise the
spellings of the /j/, // and // sounds, which to this The English Spelling Society
day remain highly diverse in Swedish.
A brief history of spelling reform in Norway
Turkish: The Turkish alphabet replaced the Language Reform on the Kitchen Table, by John
Ottoman Turkish script in the Turkish language. Maher, Professor of Linguistics at International
Christian University in Tokyo
Venetian: The Venetian language has never had an
ocial orthography, because it was considered a di- Revolutionary Scripts: The Politics of Writing Sys-
alect until recent times, and also now many don't tems, by Richard Oliver Collin, at Omniglot
consider it as a distinct language. Many others
languages of Italy are in the same situation. Anyway, The Standardization of Irish Spelling: an
there are some attempts to establish a standard or- Overview, by Muiris Laoire
thography for Venetian, like the Graa Veneta Uni-
Writing Systems Reforms and Revolutions
taria (shared Venetian spelling), a spelling created
by a committee convened by the region Veneto in American Literacy Council
1995.

Vietnamese: In the Vietnamese language, the


Vietnamese alphabet replaced the earlier Nom sys-
tem in the 1920s.

3 See also
False etymology

Language change

Language planning

Language policy

Language reform

Ocial script

Otto Basler

4 References
[1] Extended English Alphabet with Devanagari Orthography

[2] Oxford English Dictionary, 1st edition, ss.vv.


7

6 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses


6.1 Text
Spelling reform Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spelling_reform?oldid=734486095 Contributors: Kowloonese, SimonP, Shii,
AdamRetchless, Leandrod, Sannse, CesarB, Egil, Ihcoyc, Cadr, Samw, Jonik, Timwi, Ww, Savantpol, Wik, Furrykef, Morwen, Stormie,
Bcorr, Hajor, Murray Langton, Fredrik, Altenmann, Mathieugp, Modulatum, PedroPVZ, Hippietrail, Quincy, Saforrest, Ambarish, Guy
Peters, Bobierto, Pablo-ores, DocWatson42, Marnanel, Adam Sampson, Seabhcan, Meursault2004, Henry Flower, Gilgamesh~enwiki,
Nkocharh, Mboverload, Node ue, Macrakis, Matt Crypto, Pne, Andycjp, Gdm, MistToys, Lesgles, Blazotron, Anrion, Gauss, Sam Hoce-
var, B.d.mills, M1ss1ontomars2k4, Valmi, Poccil, Metron, Rich Farmbrough, Oska, Wikiacc, MeltBanana, Quiensabe, Kbh3rd, Kjoonlee,
Evice, Livajo, Kwamikagami, ThierryVignaud, Shanes, Art LaPella, Deathawk, R. S. Shaw, Serialized, Blotwell, Man vyi, Shorne, Martg76,
Anthony Appleyard, Neonumbers, Riana, Ynhockey, PeteVerdon, Thore, Nightstallion, TShilo12, Dejvid, Mwalco, Angr, Woohookitty,
Mindmatrix, Uncle G, Apokrif, Tabletop, Joke137, Graham87, LanguageMan, DePiep, Amire80, Cassowary, SchuminWeb, Duomillia,
Valentinian, Benlisquare, Bgwhite, Adrian Robson, Wavelength, Wester, Stan2525, JarrahTree, Kauner, Fabartus, Robert Will, Gaius
Cornelius, Nicke L, Wiki alf, Mike Halterman, Rjensen, Leenewton, AdiJapan, Dangph, Thnidu, Chriswaterguy, SmackBot, Bobet, Hero-
stratus, Big Adamsky, Setanta747 (locked), Jrockley, William Case Morris, RobertM525, Macdu, Squiddy, Chris the speller, Bluebot,
MK8, Snori, Jon513, Nbarth, CJGB, JR98664, Xdamr, JackLumber, MSchmahl, Capmo, BioTube, CJ Withers, Apcbg, Peyre, Etaonsh,
Joseph Solis in Australia, IvanLanin, RekishiEJ, Jalesh, Courcelles, Trelio, Switchercat, JohnCD, FilipeS, Cydebot, Christhebull, CiaranG,
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Tn4196, Benjiming, Burzuchius, Fumiko Take, Throughme, Seth.cc, Xytheroth and Anonymous: 140

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