Mech 4450 Mechanical Control Systems

Section 1: Introduction to Control Systems

Most mechanical systems have some form of electronic control included. In this first class well look at the
basic components and terminology used in control systems and the classifications of control systems used
in industry.
By the end of this class you should be able to:
1. Describe the basic components of a control system.
2. Define common control system terminology.
3. Classify control systems as manual (open loop) or automatic (closed loop).
4. Classify control systems and signals as analogue, digital or binary.
5. List the advantages and disadvantages of common control media.

Introduction
A control system is a device or set of devices to manage, command, direct or regulate the behaviour
of other devices or systems. (Wikipedia)
A control system modifies the flow energy (or mass in HVAC) because of some measured change.
Text book definition: a collection of components working together under the direction of some
machine intelligence.

At its fundamental level it consists of:

A Process: The term for whatever it happens to be that we want to control. Generally we control
just a single controlled variable in the process and in some cases there is more than one controlled
variable and/or controller for the process.
Set Point(s): External indication of the desired result.
Sensor(s): Devices that allow the controller to obtain information about the process. They measure
the control point of the process.
Controller: A device that processes information obtained from sensor(s) and the set point and uses
this information to modify the behaviour of actuator(s).
Actuator(s): Devices that allow the controller to manipulate the process.

The load is the external influence on the process which attempts to move the controlled variable(s) away
from the desired setpoint(s). Loads on the process are often described as disturbances. In an HVAC
example the load is the difference between the heat lost through the walls and windows of a room and the
heat gain through solar energy, human occupancy and machines (process equipment or computers,
printers and photocopiers).

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There are many examples of control systems that we interact with on a daily basis including car cruise
control, toilet tank filling systems, oven temperature controls, building heating and cooling, building air
circulation and many others.

The term control system is sometimes used to refer to a number of control loops that, together,
monitor process variables and ensure and maintain safe, proper operation of the process. A control loop
modifies a single controlled variable in the process while a control system maintains all the required
variables in the process.

Other related control system terms include:

Load External influence that tends to move controlled variable away from set point.

Controlled medium The fluid that absorbs heat/mass from the controller to transfer to the process.

Control point The actual value of the controlled variable at any given point in time.

Error The difference between the set point and the control point.
Note: The error can be positive or negative.

Control Signal Control signals are used to pass information between different devices in the
control system. They can use electrical energy, fluid energy or mechanical energy.

Control Strategy The intelligence implemented in the controller. We will spend at least two
weeks discussing control strategies for closed loop controllers.

Control Systems: Manual vs. Automatic (Open Loop vs. Closed Loop)

A manual, or open loop, control system takes a set point and adjusts an actuator based on the set point.
There is no comparison between the set point and the final value of the process variable. This means that,
if a disturbance is caused anywhere in the control chain, the process variable will not match the set point.

In manual control, as the term suggests, a person manually closes the loop and acts as the sensor and
comparator for the system. Examples of manual control include the volume switch on a radio, the light
switches in this room and faucet in a bathroom.

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A closed loop or automatic control system, in contrast, includes feedback to enable the controller to
correct for disturbances in the system. In this case the set point is compared to the process variable and
the controller changes the actuator output based on the error between the process variable and the set
point.

Examples of closed loop control systems include the ball float valve in a toilet cistern, room thermostat,
and automobile cruise control.

Manual control systems require a person to apply the regulating force to the control.
Automatic control systems do not need human intervention to maintain a process.
Some of the advantages of automatic control systems are:
By removing the human element from a process, the equipment operates more efficiently and with a
higher degree of safety than it would under manual control. Automatic systems do not take coffee breaks,
read books, or get bored watching the process. An operator need not be present if an emergency occurs.
Automatic controls can initiate a safety control sequence that will safely shut down the apparatus to
provide for the protection of people and equipment.
Control Systems: Modulating (Digital or Analogue) and Two-Position (Binary)
Automatic and manual control systems are further categorized as being either modulating or two-position
systems.
Two-position (binary) control devices can only be commanded to one of two possible positions, 0% or
100%. There are no intermediate positions available. These locations are commonly labeled on/off,
open/closed, or 0%/100%. The heavy solid line in the figure shows the response of the binary control
device. It is positioned either 100% open or closed. It cannot be commanded to any position within the
center portion of its operating range. The vertical dotted line indicates the device quickly changes position
without stopping at an intermediate position.

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Modulating control systems position their control device at any point within its operating range as shown
by the dashed line in the figure. The dashed line represents the position of a valve over a period of time
when the process is undergoing a change. It shows that the valve can be opened to any position between
of 0% to 100% of full flow. The valve will stay at a given position for as long as the process load remains
constant.
Modulating control systems are used wherever it is necessary to maintain a process variable at a desired
value while undergoing load changes. The ability to position the device at any value allows the control
system to more efficiently balance the load.

Modulating control can be further broken down into either digital or analogue control:

Analogue control the output can take on ANY value between 0 % and 100 %. In theory, if the
output is at, say, 74.444 %, the system can adjust the output to 74.4441 %. The number of decimal
places is theoretically infinite and there is always another potential position. An example of a purely
analogue control system is a sluice gate with a float. The float position can be anywhere between 0
% and 100 %.

Digital control (computerized) with digital control systems the output is represented by a binary
number. As with a three digit decimal number having only 1000 possible values, a digital number has
only 2n possible values (n is the number of bits). A/D and D/A converters are used to allow a digital
system to interact with the process. A robot arm controlled by a computer uses digital control.

Two-position control system designs are used most often to prevent processes from exceeding a
predetermined operating limit. The limit can be selected to maintain a minimum or maximum process
value.
Switches, relays, contactors, and motor starters are common two-position devices used to cycle HVAC
equipment on and off. Circuit breakers are two-position safety devices that are used to prevent excessive
current flow from being drawn by an electrical device. Two position control devices used in commercial
control systems are more commonly referred to as binary or digital devices.

When classifying a controller as binary, analogue or digital we generally use the control signals in the
system as a guide to how to classify the system. In situations where multiple types occur, the most
common type is generally used. For example, PLCs can process both digital and binary information. Since
they usually have binary inputs and outputs they are classified as On/Off or binary controllers.

Example: Classifying Control Signals

Identify the most appropriate signal type for measuring the following:
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Number of computers at BCIT

The intensity of a light source

Amount of data received by a cell phone

Mass of water in a glass

If the power is on in a building

The status of a fire alarm system

Separation of Power and Control

One important aspect of all control systems is the fact that power and control are handled separately.
Examples:

Our brains use electrochemical energy to transmit and process information while our muscles use
purely chemical energy to produce mechanical forces.
In a car the engine uses gasoline to produce mechanical forces while the control system uses
electronics to modify the engines output.
In many home heating systems the energy is provided by natural gas and the control is provided
electronically.
The oven in your house uses electronics to control the electrical current in the heating element.

Control Systems: Control Agent

There are basically three types of energy that a controller can use to process information.

Fluid Power Valves (often actuated by fluids) and tubing are used to control the flow of fluid and
therefore the operation of the machine.
Mechanical Linkages, as well as gears, etc. are used to control the operation.
Electrical (Electrons) Can be broken into three categories:

- Electrical Relays
- Electrical Hard Wired Circuits
- Programmable Controllers

Note: These are not, by any means, exclusive and combinations are the norm rather than the exception.

The following table shows a comparison of different control media and some of their operating
characteristics.

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Criteria Hard-wired Electronic (programmable) Pneumatic Mechanical

electrical

Sensitivity to Sensitive to Extremely sensitive to Not sensitive to Not sensitive to

Environment dust, humidity temperature, dust, humidity dust or temperature or
temperature humidity

Switching Time ~ 10 20 ms << 1 ms ~ 5 20 ms Depends on

mechanics

Signal Speed Very High Very High (speed of light) 5 to 40 m/s Depends on
(speed of light) mechanics

Signal Travel Practically Practically unlimited Limited by signal Limited by

Distance unlimited speed mechanics

Space Requirement Low Very low Low Medium

Signal Processing Digital Digital and Analogue Analogue Analogue

Classification of Control Systems: Power Drive Media

Criteria Electrical Pneumatic Hydraulic

Force Low (solenoids) Medium ~4kN Very high

Torque Medium, Full torque at full speed Low Very high at low speeds

Linear Motion Complex and expensive Simple (Cylinders) Simple (Cylinders)

(Solenoids)

Rotary Motion Most efficient up to ~ 2000rpm Least efficient ~25% to Good efficiency, up to
40% up to 5000rpm 5000rpm

Control of Complex and expensive Simple: pressure Simple: pressure control

Force/Torque control valves valves

Speed control Complex and expensive Simple: Flow control Simple: Flow control
valves valves

Energy storage Complex and expensive (battery) Simple: compressed air Limited and expensive:
tank hydraulic accumulator

Energy transmission Simple: long distance Pipes: up to 1000m Pipes: up to 100m

Sensitivity to No dust allowed, partly tolerant Tolerant of dust and No dust no High
Environment to high temperatures high temperatures temperatures

Overloading Do not overload Overload safe Overload safe

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