1

5.9 MINIMUM VELOCITY: STALL AND HIGH LIFT DEVICES

As the airplane slows down may encounter stall before reaching the minimum velocity
We need to ensure that we could safely reach the minimum velocity in steady level flight

Lift does not become zero beyond stall but the lift-to-drag ratio diminishes
 2

5.9. 1 Calculation of Stalling Velocity: Role of (CL)max

The lift may increase after stall (even after first max) but the drag becomes too large
 3

1 2 W 1 [5.66]
L W V2 S C L V
2 S CL

Then

Vstall [5.67]

Vstall depends on altitude ( ), wing loading ( W / S ), and CL max

Since Vstall decreases with CL max high-lift-devices, such as flaps, slats etc. can

be used to increase CL max for takeoff and landing

 4

5.9.2 Nature of Stall-Flow Separation

5
 6

5.9.3 High-Lift Devices

If the natural value of CL max for an airplane is not high enough for safe takeoff and
landing it can be increased with the high-lift devices shown bellow
7
8
9
 10

For the basic airfoil: L ' q cCl (5.68)

For an extended flap: L '* q (c c)Cl (5.69)

Dividing by q c Cl * (5.70)

dCl *
Differentiating wrt : (5.71)
d

This explains the higher slope for the Fowler flap

11
 12

Example 5.12

Calculate the min velocity for the Golfstream IV at sea level for (a) the thrust

curves and (b) the min stall speed; Fowler flaps, =27.40

(a) From eq.

T / S 76.84 lb / ft 2 ,T /W 0.3795 , C
D ,0 0.015, K 0.08, 0.002377slug / ft3

Vmin=

(b) From eq.

From table 5.3:

Vstall=
 13

5.10 RATE OF CLIMB

 14

Consider steady (unaccelerated) climb along a straight path then

dV / dt 0in Eq. (4.5), V2 / r1 0 in Eq.(4.6), and V cos /r2 =0 in Eq. (4.7) , since
2

both r1 and r2 , and the equation of motion become

T cos D W sin 0 [5.73]
L T sin W cos 0
[5.74]

Assuming that the equations of motion simplify

T D W sin 0 [5.75]
L W cos 0
[5.76]

The equilibrium of forces expressed by Eqs. [5.75] and [5.76] corresponds to the

diagram of page 13 where the airplane velocity V was decomposed to a vertical

component VV (rate of climb) and a horizontal component VH

 15

The rate of climb is denoted by R / C

R/C [5.77]

Multiplying Eq. [5.75] by V / W obtain

TV DV [5.78]
V sin R / C
W

However TV is the power , and DV is the power to

overcome drag and we define

TV DV [5.79]

excess power [5.80]

and R/C
W
 16

Best climb performance is achieved for weight, thrust and drag

For steady climbing flight lift is less than weight

L [5.81]

because part of the airplane weight is supported by the thrust and less lift is

needed for steady flight.

For steady climbing flight

L [5.82]
CL
q S

then D q S CD q S CD,0 KCL2 [5.83]

 17

substituting CL from Eq. [5.82] obtain

W cos
2

D q S CD ,0 K
q S
W cos
2

or D q SCD ,0 K [5.84]
q S
Combining Eqs. [5.78] and [5.85] obtain

T 1
W
1
[5.84]
V sin V V 2 CD ,0
W 2 S

where the two important parameters thrust-to-weight ratio T / W and

wing loading W / S appear

There is no closed form solution for Eq. [5.84] and can be solved numerically
 18

5.10.2 Graphical Approach

19
20
 21

5.10.3 Analytical Approach

Assuming that cos 1 Eq. [5.86] simplifies as

T 1 W
1
W 2K [5.86]
V sin R / C V V CD ,0
2
2
W 2
S S

V

Given V we can find the corresponding R / C and the climb angle is

sin [5.87]

or from Eq. [5.86] simply by dividing by V obtain

1
T 1 W W 2K [5.88]
sin V 2 CD ,0
W 2 S S V 2
 22

Eq. [5.86] is related to Eq. [5.78] and it can be written as

T D [5.89]
V sin V
W
And the rate of climb increases with thrust and reduction of drag and weight

Maximum climb angle

From Eq. [5.78] or [5.89] obtain

T D [5.90]
sin
W W
but from Eq. [5.76]

W [5.91]
T
sin [5.92]
W
 23

Assuming again that cos 1 obtain

T 1 [5.93]
sin
W L/D
Considering a jet-propelled airplane (thrust constant with velocity) maximum

climb angle max is achieved at

T 1 [5.94]
jet propelled airplane sin max
W L / D max

Replace (L/D)max from Eq. [5.30]

T [5.95]
sin max
W
 24

The flight velocity corresponding to the maximum climb angle max can be

found as follows

1 [5.96]
L W cos V 2 S CL
2

For maximum L/D the lift is CL (see Eq. [5.29]) then

1 [5.97]
W cos max Vmax 2 S CD,0 / K
2
and V max
for jet propelled airplane is

1/2 [5.98]
2 K W
Vmax cos max
CD ,0 S

Rate of climb at the maximum climb angle R / C max

[5.99]
 25

Considering a propeller-driven airplane

From Eq. [5.48]

pr P [5.48]
TA
V

The power available PA is assumed constant with velocity and the climb

angle for propeller driven airplane is obtained from Eq. [5.88] for TA pr P / V

pr P
1 W
1
W 2K [5.100]
sin V 2 CD ,0
VW 2 S S V 2

Differentiate with V Eq. [5.100] and set the derivative equal to zero ( V V )
max

d sin pr P W
1
W 2K [5.101]
2 V D ,0
C 2 0
dV V W S S 0.5V 3
 26

For climb with max , V V max

and

pr ( P / W )(W / S ) 4(W / S )2 K [5.102]

Vmax 4
V 0
CD,0 max
CD,0
2

4
In Eq. [5.102] the magnitude of the last two terms are much larger than V max

Vmax [5.103]
 27

Maximum Rate of Climb

Consider jet-propelled airplane where the rate of climb is given by Eq. [5.86]

Differentiate with V Eq. [5.86] and set the derivative equal to zero ( V V( R/C ) )
max

1
d (R / C) T 3 W W 2K [5.104]
V 2 CD ,0 0
dV W 2 S S V 2

Divide by 3 (W / S ) CD,0 / 2
1

2(T / W )(W / S ) 4(W / S ) 2 K [5.105]

V
2
V 0
3CD ,0 3 2CD,0V 2

From Eq. [5.30] [ L / D]max

2(T / W )(W / S ) 2 (W / S )2 [5.106]

V
4
V 0
3 C D , 0 3 2 (CD ,0 )2 L / D
2
max
 28

Set Q (W / S ) / (3CD,0 ) then

3Q 2 [5.109]
V 2 2 T
2 Q V
2
0
L / D
2
W
max

This is a quadratic equation for x V 2 with solution

T [5.111]
V 2
Q 1 1
3

L / D max (T / W )

W 2 2

The minus sign corresponds to negative value of V 2 and it is discarded the

positive root gives V( R / C ) max

1/2 [5.112]
(T / W )(W / S )
1 1
3

V( R / C )max
3CD ,0 L / D max (T / W )
2 2

 29

The maximum rate of climb for V( R / C ) max

is found from Eq. [5.86]

3
Set Z 1 1 [5.113]
L / D max (T / W )2
2

1/2

(T / W )(W / S )

Then V( R / C )max Z [5.114]
3CD ,0

1/2
(T / W )(W / S ) Z T Z T K CD ,0 [5.115]
R / C max
W 6 W 6
3 C
D ,0 (T / W ) Z
K CD,0 3T / W
but ( L / D)max then 6
(T / W ) Z

2(T / W )2 ( L / D)ma
2 then
xZ

Z
1/2 [5.116]
(W / S ) Z T
3/2
3
R / C max 1
3CD ,0 W 6 (T / W ) L / D max Z
2 2
 30

Consider a propeller-driven airplane where the power available PA is constant

maximum excess power [5.117]

R / C max
W

Then from Eq. [5.41] the flight velocity for maximum rate of climb for a

propeller-driven airplane is
 31

1 [5.118]
2 W K 2
V R / C
max
S 3CD ,0

From Eqs. [5.86] and [5.118] and taking into account that TV

for propeller-driven airplane

1
pr P
2 W
1
W 2K [5.119]
R/C V V CD ,0 2
W 2 S S
V

substitute V with V R /C max

from Eq. [5.118] then

pr P 1 W
1
2 W K W 2K
R / C max V R / C
2 S D ,0 S
C
W max
3CD ,0 S 2 W K


S 3C D ,0

which simplifies to
 32

pr P K [5.119]
R / C max V R / C 3KCD ,0
W 3C
max
D ,0

but since

K 1
3K 3CD ,0 3 KCD ,0
3CD ,0 3
1 4 KCD ,0 1/ 3 3 1 1.155
3
3 2 2 L / D max L / D max

pr P 1.115 [5.121]
R / C max V R / C
W max
L / D max
Use Eq. [5.118] for V R /C max
to obtain

1
2 W
pr P K 2
1.115
R / C max
W S 3CD ,0 L / D max
[5.122]
 33

Example 5.13

For the Golfstream IV find max, (R/C)max and the corresponding velocities at sea

level: 0.02377104 slug / ft3

W 73,000 lb , S 950 ft , CD,0 0.015, K 0.08, (TA)max 27,700 lb

2

(a) Graphical solution

R/C =

PR calculated in example 5.7

Graphically: max = Vmax=

(R/C)max V(R/C)max =
34
35
36
 37

(b) Analytical solution

T/W =

W/S =

(L/D)max = (example 5.4)

From eq. sinmax =

max=

from eq.

Vmax =

From eq.

(R/C)max =
 38

From eq.

V(R/C)max=

Note 1: at take-off choose (CL)max/cos =2.1 (lower than landing)

Thus, stall speed is

Assume Vtake-off =1.2 Vstall =

At this speed the rate of climb is:

Note 2: Thrust varies with altitude for turbofans, gives lower values
 39

5.10.4 Gliding (Unpowered) Flight

 40

L [5.123]
D [5.124]

The equilibrium glide angle is

sin 1 [5.125]
tan
cos L/ D

The glide angle is small for high L/D and the smallest glide angle is at (L/D)max

1 [5.126]
tan min
L / D max
41
 42

The equilibrium glide angle does not depend on altitude wing loading etc. and

is determined only from the lift to drag ratio.

In order, however, to achieve a specific L/D the airplane must fly at specific

velocity V which is called equilibrium glide velocity and depends on altitude

and wing loading

1 2cos W [5.127]
L V2 S CL V
2 CL S

The equilibrium glide velocity however depends on and

For an aircraft both CL and L/D vary with the angle of attack

If L/D is held constant during gliding then CL remains constant

The equilibrium glide velocity as altitude reduces along the glide path
43
 44

For L/D = 15 from [Eq. 5.126] obtain = . Then cos and from Eq. [5.30]

L 1 [5.30]

D max 4 KCD ,0

The velocity for which L/D becomes maximum was given by Eq. [5.34]

Eq. [5.34] was found for L=W (consistent with the assumption cos )

1/2 [5.34]
2 W K
V L / D
S CD ,0
max

Thus for glide with min given by Eq. [5.126] the equilibrium velocity along the

glide path is found from Eq. [5.34]

 45

Example 5.14

For the Golfstream IV at 30,000ft assume a total loss of thrust. Calculate the

min and the maximum range and the corresponding equilibrium speed at

30,000ft ( 8.9068104 slug / ft3 ) and sea level ( 0.002377 slug / ft3 )

From eq.

min

From

At 30,000ft from eq.

At sea level,
 46

Rate of descent (sink rate) = Vv = [5.128]

Positive downward

Multiplying 5.124 by V and using eq. [5.128] we have

DV WV sin WVv Vv [5.129]

Assuming cos=1 in eq. [5.129] DV is the PR for steady level flight plotted

below (with positive Vv down).

Vvmin at VPRmin. Thus from eqs [5.41] and 5.57]

C L3/2 / C D
is maximum
1/ 2
2 W K
V (min sink rate)
S 3CD ,0
 47

Analytical solution. From eq. [5.123]

1
W cos L V2 SCL
2

V [5.130]

Substituting [5.130] into [5.128]

2cos W
Vv V sin sin
CL S
[5.131]

Dividing eq. [5.124] by eq. [5.123]

D C
sin cos D cos
L CL [5.132]
 48

Substituting [5.132] to [5.131]

2cos3 W
Vv
(CL3 / CD2 ) S
[5.133]

Assuming cos=1

2 W
Vv
(CL3 / CD2 ) S
[5.134]

This shows that (Vv)min occurs at

Sink rate with decreasing altitude

Wing loading influence:

49
50
 51

Example 5.15

For the unpowered Golfstream IV at 30,000ft calculate the sink rate at min and

the minimum sink rate.

From the previous example min = 3.964, with speed = 631.2ft/s

Vv (V )min sin min

From example 5.4

Thus from eq.

Note: glider pilots fly at minimum VV through upward-lifting thermals

 52

5.11 SERVICE AND ABSOLUTE CEILINGS

Absolute Ceiling is defined as the altitude for which R / C max 0

Service Ceiling is defined the altitude where R / C max 100 ft / min and it is a

more useful measure because it represents the upper limit for steady level flight.
 53

The service and absolute ceiling can be found as follows

1. Calculate R / C max for different altitude analytically or graphically

2. Plot the results as shown in figure above

3. Extrapolate to the curve to find R / C max 100 ft/min (p1, service ceiling)

4. Extrapolate to the curve to find R / C max 0 (p2 absolute ceiling)

For jet propelled airplane use Eq. [5.116] to calculate R / C max

For propeller-driven airplane use Eq. [5.122] to calculate R / C max

 54

Example 5.16

For the Golfstream IV plot (R/C)max and V(R/C)max as a function of altitude

Eq. is used to find (R/C)max at different altitudes

Eq. is used to find V(R/C)max at the same altitudes

 55

Thus absolute ceiling = 70,000ft

Note 1: Drag divergence effects kick in at ~ 35,000 ft
Note 2: For TA varying with velocity absolute ceiling = 43,760ft
 56

5.12 TIME TO CLIMB

The rate of climb is the vertical component of the airplane velocity dh / dt

dh [5.135]
or dt
dt
where R / C is a function of altitude. Then the time required to climb from
altitude h1 to another altitude h 2 is
dh h2 [5.136]
t
h1 R / C

The performance characteristics is time to climb considered for h1 0

h2 dh [5.137]
t
0 R/C
Once the R / C max is used the minimum time to climb is achieved
h2 dh [5.138]
tmin
0
R / C max
 57

Graphical Approach
Consider a plot of R / C versus altitude
1

The time to climb to altitude h 2 is the shaded area under the curve
 58

Example 5.17

Calculate time to climb to 30,000ft for the Golfstream IV

Integrate numerically (trapezoid rule) using 15 intervals of 2,000ft

Time to climb =
 59

5.12.2 Analytical Approach

The time to climb was given by Eq. [5.136]

The minimum time to climb was given by Eq. [5.138]

The relation of altitude to R / C is often nearly linear

1

An approximate relation can be assumed

R / C max [5.140]

Substituting to Eq. [5.138] obtain

h2 dh 1 [5.141]
tmin ln(a bh 2 ) ln a
0 a bh b
 60

Example 5.18

Use the analytical approach to find the minimum time to climb at 30,000 ft for

the Golfstream IV

From the table of example 5.16: a=

Use values at 20,000 ft and 50,000 ft to find slope b

Then from eq. [5.140]

And from eq. [5.141])

 61

5.13 RANGE

Range, R, is the traveled by an airplane on one load of fuel

Consider the following weights

W0 gross weight including everything; full fuel load, payload, crew, structure

Wf weight of fuel this is instantaneous value and changes with

fuel consumption during flight

W1 weight of the airplane when the fuel tanks are empty

At any instant during flight the airplane weight W is

W W1 W f [5.142]
W decreases during flight because Wf decreases
 62

The time rate of change of the weight is

dW dW f [5.143]
Wf
dt dt
Where W f is a negative number

The range is connected to the specific fuel consumption defined in Chapter 3

Propeller-driven airplane

Wf [5.144]
c
P
jet-propelled airplane

Wf [5.145]
ct
T
cV [3.43]
ct
pr
 63

Consider steady level flight and denote the horizontal distance covered over the

ground as s . Assuming stationary atmosphere (no wind) the velocity is

V or ds [5.146]
From Eq. [5.145] obtain

dW f / dt dW f [5.147]
ct or dt
T ctT
Substituting in Eq. [5.146]

V [5.148]
ds dW f
ctT
but dW f dW

V V W dW [5.149]
ds dW
ctT ct T W
 64

For steady level flight L and D therefore

V L dW [5.150]
ds
ct D W
The limits of integration for s are s= (where the fuel tanks are full and W=W0)

and s= (where the fuel tanks are empty and W=W1)

R W1 V L dW
R ds
0 W0 ct D W
W0 V L dW
R [5.151]
W1 ct D W
This equation for range holds for both jet-propelled & propeller-driven airplanes

If L / D, V , ct , and W are known during the flight Eq. [5.151] can be integrated

numerically to calculate the range.

 65

Assuming that L / D, V , and ct remain constant during flight

V L W1 dW
ct D W0 W
R

V L W0
R ln [5.152]
ct D W1
This is the Breguet range equation

It appears from Eq. [5.152] that the range is maximized when we fly at high V

and maximum L / D .

However L / D, and V are depended ( L / D changes with the angle of attack,

which in turn changes V )

The range is maximized when the product L / D V is maximized

 66

5.13.2 Range for propeller-Driven Airplanes

For propeller-driven airplanes it is more convenient to express range in terms of

specific fuel consumption c instead of ct

V L W0 pr L W
R ln V ln 0
ct D W1 cV D W1
pr L W
R ln 0 [5.153]
c D W1
Maximum range for propeller-driven aircraft is obtained when

1. Fly at maximum

2. Have the maximum propeller efficiency

3. Have lowest possible specific fuel consumption

4. Have high ratio W0 / W1 (carry a lot of fuel)

 67

L / D max is obtained when flying at the velocity where zero-lift drag equals drag

due to lift (see Eq. [5.28])

CD,0 KCL2 [5.28]

With corresponding velocity

1/2 [5.34]
W CD ,0
V( L / D )max
2 S K

And maximum lift-to drag ratio

L CL 1 [5.30]

D max CD max 4CD ,0 K
 68

5.13.3 Range for jet propelled Airplanes

For jet-propelled aircraft the range is maximized when the product L / D V is

maximized (see eq. [5.152] using ct). For steady level flight

1 2W
L W V S CL V
2

2 S CL [5.154]
L C 2W CL1/2 2W
V L
D CD S CL CD S
And the product L / D V is maximized when we fly at maximum value

Substituting Eq. [5.154] to Eq. [5.151] obtain

W0 1 CL1/2 2W dW [5.155]
R
W1 ct CD S W
 69

Assuming that ct , , and C L / C D are constant obtain

1/2

1 CL1/2 2 W0 dW
R
ct CD S
W1 W 1/2

R
1 CL1/2
ct CD
2
S W 0 W1 [5.156]

Maximum range for a jet-propeller aircraft is obtained when

1. Fly at maximum

2. Fly at high altitude where is small

3. Have lowest possible thrust specific fuel consumption

4. Carry a lot of fuel

 70

For jet-propelled airplane CL / CD max is achieved when the zero-lift to drag is 3

1/2

times the drag due to lift

CD,0 3KCL2 [5.43]

1/4 [5.44]
C 3 1
1/2

The value of CL1/2 / CD

L
is
3 K C3
CD 4
max
max D ,0

The velocity then is

1/2
2 W 3K [5.45]
V C1/2 / C
L D max
S CD ,0
 71

Example 5.19

Find max range for the Golfstream IV at 30,000ft and the corresponding speed.

Wf=29,500lb, at 30,000ft ct= 0.69 lb of fuel consumed /(pound of thrust x hours

From example 5.4:

At 30,000 ft: 8.9068104 slug / ft3

W1=W0-Wf=

Ct=

From eq.

R=
 72

5.13.4 Other Considerations

The assumption that ct , , and C L / C D as well as V remain constant throughout

1/2

the flight implies that:

1
W decreases during the flight but since L W V2 S CL the altitude must
2

increase as the flight is progressed and fuels is consumed in the right manner so

that CL remains constant as W decreases

 73

Air traffic control regulations do not allow however the aircraft to constantly

increase altitude during flight. Therefore at constant velocity aircraft generally

flies away from its maximum value of L / D or C L1/2 / C D

Maximum range can be reached when the number of pounds of fuel consumed

per mile is minimized. However since the flight velocity at this condition could

be too small B. Carson reasoned that a more appropriate condition for both

speed and economy is flight in which the number of pounds of fuel consumed

per unit of velocity is minimized

Then from Eq. [5.144] obtain

 74

dW f [5.158]
Wf cP
dt
dW f cPdt

but V and P

cPds cTV ds [5.159]

dW f cTds
V V
Then Carsons figure of merit becomes
| dW f | T [5.160]
cds
V V
 75

And it is minimized under the constraints (L= , D= ) when T / V is a

minimum
T D D L CD W [5.161]

V V L V CL V
1
but
L W 2
S CL and
V
2
2W [5.162]
V
SCL
Substitute in Eq. [5.161]
T CD SC CD SCW [5.163]
W L 1/2
V CL 2W CL 2
1/2
Minimum occurs for CL / CD max

1.32V L / D
, Carson'sspeed 1.32V L / Dmax
V C 1/2 / C
and since L D max
max
 76

5.14 ENDURANCE

Endurance is the amount of time the that an airplane can stay in the air one load of fuel

dW f

dt
dt [5.164]
For steady level flight L=W, D=T therefore

dW f L 1 dW f [5.165]
dt
ctT D ct W

Integrating from t= where W=W0 to t= where W=W1 obtain

W1 L 1 dW f W 0 L 1 dW f [5.166]
E
W0 D ct W W1 D c
t W
 77

If L / D, ct , and W are known during the flight Eq. [5.166] can be integrated

numerically to calculate the exact value for the endurance

Assuming that L / D, and ct are constant during the flight Eq. [5.166] yields

L 1 W0 dW f
E
D ct
W1 W
[5.167]
1 L W0
E ln
ct D W1
 78

5.14.1 Endurance for propeller-Driven Airplanes

For propeller-driven aircraft ct and from Eq. [5.166] we obtain

W0 CL pr dW f
E
W1 CD cV W
W0 pr SCL CL dW f

W1 c 2W CD W
W0 pr S CL 3/2 dW f [5.168]

W1 c 2 CD W 3/2

3/2
Assuming that ct , V , and CL / CD remain constant during the flight:

pr CL3/2 [5.169]
2 S W1 W0
1/2 1/2
E
c CD
 79

Maximum endurance for propeller-driven aircraft is obtained when

1. Fly at maximum
2. Have the highest propeller efficiency
3. Fly at sea level where has the largest value
4. Have lowest possible specific fuel consumption
5. Carry a lot of fuel
It was shown that CL / CD max
3/2
= and attained when
1 [5.36]
CD ,0 KCL2
3
At a speed

2 W
1/2 [5.41]
K
V C3/2 / C
L D max
S 3CD ,0
 80

5.14.2 Endurance for Jet-Propelled Airplanes

1 L W0 [5.167]
E ln
ct D W1

Maximum endurance for a jet-propeller aircraft is obtained when

1. Fly at maximum
2. Have lowest possible thrust specific fuel consumption
3. Carry a lot of fuel
 81

Example 5.20

Find maximum endurance for Golfstream IV

From the data of example 5.19: Wf=29,500lb, ct=1.917x10-4

From example 5.4 (L/D)max=

From eq.
 82

5.15 RANCE AND ENDURANCE

5.15.1 Endurance
The smaller the number of pounds of fuel consumed per hour the longer is the
endurance
Propeller-driven airplane
The specific fuel consumption for propeller-driven airplane is based on power
often expressed in inconsistent units as
lb of fuel consumed [5.170]
SFC
(shaft bhp)(h)
Where the horsepower available is HPA pr (shaft bhp)
For level steady flight
lb of fuel consumed [5.170]
(SFC) HPR
hour
 83

Jet-propelled airplane
The specific fuel consumption for a jet-propelled airplane is based on thrust
often expressed in inconsistent units as

lb of fuel consumed [5.172]

TSFC
(thrust)(h)
For level steady flight
lb of fuel consumed [5.173]
=TR (TSFC)
hour
84
 85

5.15.2 Range

The smaller the number of pounds of fuel consumed per mile the longer is the
range
Propeller-driven airplane

The pounds of fuel consumed per mile of propeller-driven airplane

lb of fuel consumed SFC HPR [5.174]

mile prV

Where the horsepower required is and

HPR [5.170]
TR
V

Point 3 in the figure (minimum TR)

 86

Jet-propelled airplane

The pounds of fuel consumed per mile for jet-propelled airplane

lb of fuel consumed TSFC TR [5.175]

mile V

Minimum of pounds consumed/mile corresponds to point 4 in the figure

WS
1/2
TR 1 1 2W CD
V SCD SCD
V 2 2 VCL 2 CL1/2
[5.176]

Point 4 in the figure, when

Carlsons speed for propeller airplane is also point 4

 87

5.15.3 Summary

Point 1: Max endurance for propeller aircraft

Point 2= Point 3: Max range for propeller aircraft
Max endurance for jets
Point 4: Max range for jets
Carson speed for propellers

Speeds: V1=0.76 V2=0.76 V3

V4=1.32 V2
 88

5.15.4 The Effect of the Wind

 89

Vg ds [5.177]

For Jets: this equation combined with Eq. [5.152] yields

Vg L W0 [5.178]
R ln
ct D W1

For propellers: The power available is and ct

pr Vg L W0 [5.179]
R ln
c V D W1
Solutions for both cases can be found (not shown)

For both jets and propellers: V with head wind

with tail wind
 90

Graphical approach
lb of fuel consumed SFC HPR [5.180]

mile prVg
lb of fuel consumed TSFC TR [5.181]

mile Vg

Both propellers and jets :

For headwind/tailwind shift origin of horizontal axis, find min slope (of PR
curve for propellers and TR curve for jets) from shifted origin
Point 1: no wind
Point 2: headwind
Point 3: tailwind
91
92
93
 94

SUMMARY
For steady level flight
T D [5.3]
L W [5.4]
Drag polar
CD CD,0 K C L2
[5.5]
The required thrust TR is
W
TR
L/D [5.7]
The required Power

2W 3CD2 1
PR 2/3
S CL CL / CD
3 [5.56]
 95

Vmax (check for drag divergence) and Vmin (check for stall) are determined by
the intersection of TR and TA curves or PR and PA
1/2
(T / W )(W / S ) (W / S ) T / W 2 4C K
V
R R D ,0

CD ,0
[5.18]

Max L/D occurs when CD,0 KCL2

[5.28]
The value of max L/D depends on CD,0 and K

L CL 1

D max CD max 4CD ,0 K [5.30]

The corresponding velocity is (depends on altitude and W/S)

1/2
2 W K
V( L / D )max
S CD ,0 [5.34]

Min TR occurs when L/D is max

 96

CL3/2 / CD
Max occurs when
1
CD ,0 KCL2
3 [5.36]
CL3/2 / CD
The value of depends on CD,0 and K
3/4
C 1 3
3/2

1/3
L

CD max 4 C D ,0 K [5.38]

The corresponding velocity is (depends on altitude and W/S)

1/2
2 W K
V C3/2 / C
L D max
S 3CD ,0 [5.41]

3/2
Min PR occurs when CL / CD is max
 97

Max C 1/2
L / CD occurs when

CD,0 3KCL2 [5.43]

The value of C 1/2
L / CD depends CD,0 and K
1/4
C1/2 3 1

L

C 4 3 K C 3
[5.44]
D max D ,0
The corresponding velocity is (depends on altitude and W/S)
1/2
2 W 3K
V C1/2 / C
L D max
S CD ,0 [5.45]

Min TR / V occurs when C 1/2

L / CD is max
The velocities are related as follows:
V C3/2 / C :VCL / CD : V C1/2 / C 0.76 :1:1.32
L D max
max L D max
 98

The stall speed at a given altitude depends on (CL)max and wing loading W/S is:

2 W 1
Vstall
S CL max
[5.67]
Values of (CL)max can be increased by high-lift devices.
The rate of climb (R/C) is given by
TV DV excess power
V sin R / C [5.78]
W W
R/C at a given altitude depends on W/S, T/W
The glide angle is determined by
1
tan [5.125]
L/D
Absolute ceiling is the altitude where (R/C)max=0
Service ceiling is the altitude where (R/C)max=100 ft/min
 99

The maximum range is

pr L W
R ln 0
Propellers: c D W1 [5.153]

Jets:
R
1 CL1/2
ct CD
2
S W 0 W1 [5.156]

The maximum endurance is

pr CL3/2
Propellers:
E 2 S
1W 1/2
W0
1/2
[5.169]
c D
C

1 L W0
E ln
Jets: ct D W1 [5.171]

Note: max endurance for propellers happens at max CL3/2 / CD

max range for propellers & max endurance for jets at max L/D
max range for jets (and Carsons speed for propellers) at max CL1/2 / CD