DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF AUTOMATIC BRAKE FAILURE

ALERT SYSTEM

ABSTRACT

The aim of this project is to DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF

EMERGENCY BRAKING SYSTEM using IR sensor. By means of this project we

can avoid the accident of the vehicle. It also saves the life of the driver and

passenger. The aim of this project is to design and develop a control system based

on electronically controlled automatic vehicle stopping by IR sensor.

INTRODUCTION

Brake

Disc brake on a motorcycle

A brake is a mechanical device which inhibits motion. The rest of this article is

dedicated to various types of vehicular brakes.

Most commonly brakes use friction to convert kinetic energy into heat, though

other methods of energy conversion may be employed. For exampleregenerative

braking converts much of the energy to electrical energy, which may be stored for

later use. Other methods convert kinetic energy intopotential energy in such stored

forms as pressurized air or pressurized oil. Eddy current brakes use magnetic fields
to convert kinetic energy into electric current in the brake disc, fin, or rail, which is

converted into heat. Still other braking methods even transform kinetic energy into

different forms, for example by transferring the energy to a rotating flywheel.

Brakes are generally applied to rotating axles or wheels, but may also take other

forms such as the surface of a moving fluid (flaps deployed into water or air).

Some vehicles use a combination of braking mechanisms, such as drag racing cars

with both wheel brakes and a parachute, or airplanes with both wheel brakes and

drag flaps raised into the air during landing.

Since kinetic energy increases quadratically with velocity ( ), an object

moving at 10 m/s has 100 times as much energy as one of the same mass moving at

1 m/s, and consequently the theoretical braking distance, when braking at the

traction limit, is 100 times as long. In practice, fast vehicles usually have

significant air drag, and energy lost to air drag rises quickly with speed.

Almost all wheeled vehicles have a brake of some sort. Even baggage

carts and shopping carts may have them for use on a moving ramp. Mostfixed-

wing aircraft are fitted with wheel brakes on the undercarriage. Some aircraft also

feature air brakes designed to reduce their speed in flight. Notable examples

include gliders and someWorld War II-era aircraft, primarily some fighter
aircraft and many dive bombers of the era. These allow the aircraft to maintain a

safe speed in a steep descent. The Saab B 17 dive bomber used the deployed

undercarriage as an air brake.

Friction brakes on automobiles store braking heat in the drum brake or disc

brake while braking then conduct it to the air gradually. When traveling downhill

some vehicles can use their engines to brake.

When the brake pedal of a modern vehicle with hydraulic brakes is pushed,

ultimately a piston pushes the brake pad against the brake disc which slows the

wheel down. On the brake drum it is similar as the cylinder pushes the brake

shoes against the drum which also slows the wheel down.

Types

Brakes may be broadly described as using friction, pumping, or electromagnetics.

One brake may use several principles: for example, a pump may pass fluid through

an orifice to create friction:

Frictional brakes are most common and can be divided broadly into "shoe"

or "pad" brakes, using an explicit wear surface, and hydrodynamic brakes, such

as parachutes, which use friction in a working fluid and do not explicitly wear.

Typically the term "friction brake" is used to mean pad/shoe brakes and
 excludes hydrodynamic brakes, even though hydrodynamic brakes use friction.

Friction (pad/shoe) brakes are often rotating devices with a stationary pad and a

rotating wear surface. Common configurations include shoes that contract to

rub on the outside of a rotating drum, such as a band brake; a rotating drum

with shoes that expand to rub the inside of a drum, commonly called a "drum

brake", although other drum configurations are possible; and pads that pinch a

rotating disc, commonly called a "disc brake". Other brake configurations are

used, but less often. For example, PCC trolley brakes include a flat shoe which

is clamped to the rail with an electromagnet; the Murphy brake pinches a

rotating drum, and the Ausco Lambert disc brake uses a hollow disc (two

parallel discs with a structural bridge) with shoes that sit between the disc

surfaces and expand laterally.

Pumping brakes are often used where a pump is already part of the

machinery. For example, an internal-combustion piston motor can have the fuel

supply stopped, and then internal pumping losses of the engine create some

braking. Some engines use a valve override called a Jake brake to greatly

increase pumping losses. Pumping brakes can dump energy as heat, or can be
 regenerative brakes that recharge a pressure reservoir called a hydraulic

accumulator.

Electromagnetic brakes are likewise often used where an electric motor is

already part of the machinery. For example, many hybrid gasoline/electric

vehicles use the electric motor as a generator to charge electric batteries and

also as a regenerative brake. Some diesel/electric railroad locomotives use the

electric motors to generate electricity which is then sent to a resistor bank and

dumped as heat. Some vehicles, such as some transit buses, do not already have

an electric motor but use a secondary "retarder" brake that is effectively a

generator with an internal short-circuit. Related types of such a brake are eddy

current brakes, and electro-mechanical brakes (which actually are magnetically

driven friction brakes, but nowadays are often just called electromagnetic

brakes as well).

Characteristics

Brakes are often described according to several characteristics including:

 Peak force The peak force is the maximum decelerating effect that can be

obtained. The peak force is often greater than the traction limit of the tires, in

which case the brake can cause a wheel skid.

Continuous power dissipation Brakes typically get hot in use, and fail

when the temperature gets too high. The greatest amount of power (energy per

unit time) that can be dissipated through the brake without failure is the

continuous power dissipation. Continuous power dissipation often depends on

e.g., the temperature and speed of ambient cooling air.

Fade As a brake heats, it may become less effective, called brake fade.

Some designs are inherently prone to fade, while other designs are relatively

immune. Further, use considerations, such as cooling, often have a big effect on

fade.

Smoothness A brake that is grabby, pulses, has chatter, or otherwise exerts

varying brake force may lead to skids. For example, railroad wheels have little

traction, and friction brakes without an anti-skid mechanism often lead to skids,

which increases maintenance costs and leads to a "thump thump" feeling for

riders inside.
 Power Brakes are often described as "powerful" when a small human

application force leads to a braking force that is higher than typical for other

brakes in the same class. This notion of "powerful" does not relate to

continuous power dissipation, and may be confusing in that a brake may be

"powerful" and brake strongly with a gentle brake application, yet have lower

(worse) peak force than a less "powerful" brake.

Pedal feel Brake pedal feel encompasses subjective perception of brake

power output as a function of pedal travel. Pedal travel is influenced by the

fluid displacement of the brake and other factors.

Drag Brakes have varied amount of drag in the off-brake condition

depending on design of the system to accommodate total system compliance

and deformation that exists under braking with ability to retract friction

material from the rubbing surface in the off-brake condition.

Durability Friction brakes have wear surfaces that must be renewed

periodically. Wear surfaces include the brake shoes or pads, and also the brake

disc or drum. There may be tradeoffs, for example a wear surface that generates

high peak force may also wear quickly.

 Weight Brakes are often "added weight" in that they serve no other

function. Further, brakes are often mounted on wheels, and unsprung

weight can significantly hurt traction in some circumstances. "Weight" may

mean the brake itself, or may include additional support structure.

Noise Brakes usually create some minor noise when applied, but often

create squeal or grinding noises that are quite loud.

Brake boost

Most modern vehicles use a vacuum assisted brake system that greatly increases

the force applied to the vehicle's brakes by its operator.[1] This additional force is

supplied by the manifold vacuum generated by air flow being obstructed by the

throttle on a running engine. This force is greatly reduced when the engine is

running at fully open throttle, as the difference between ambient air pressure and

manifold (absolute) air pressure is reduced, and therefore available vacuum is

diminished. However, brakes are rarely applied at full throttle; the driver takes the

right foot off the gas pedal and moves it to the brake pedal - unless left-foot

braking is used.

Because of low vacuum at high RPM, reports of unintended acceleration are often

accompanied by complaints of failed or weakened brakes, as the high-revving

engine, having an open throttle, is unable to provide enough vacuum to power the

brake booster. This problem is exacerbated in vehicles equipped with automatic

transmissions as the vehicle will automatically downshift upon application of the

brakes, thereby increasing the torque delivered to the driven-wheels in contact with

the road surface.

Noise

Although ideally a brake would convert all the kinetic energy into heat, in practice

a significant amount may be converted into acoustic energy instead, contributing

to noise pollution.

For road vehicles, the noise produced varies significantly

with tire construction, road surface, and the magnitude of the deceleration. Noise

can be caused by different things. These are signs that there may be issues with

brakes wearing out over time.

Inefficiency

A significant amount of energy is always lost while braking, even with

regenerative braking which is not perfectly efficient. Therefore a good metric

ofefficient energy use while driving is to note how much one is braking. If the
majority of deceleration is from unavoidable friction instead of braking, one is

squeezing out most of the service from the vehicle. Minimizing brake use is one of

the fuel economy-maximizing behaviors.

While energy is always lost during a brake event, a secondary factor that influences

efficiency is "off-brake drag", or drag that occurs when the brake is not

intentionally actuated. After a braking event, hydraulic pressure drops in the

system, allowing the brake caliper pistons to retract. However, this retraction must

accommodate all compliance in the system (under pressure) as well as thermal

distortion of components like the brake disc or the brake system will drag until the

contact with the disc, for example, knocks the pads and pistons back from the

rubbing surface. During this time, there can be significant brake drag. This brake

drag can lead to significant parasitic power loss, thus impact fuel economy and

vehicle performance.

Design and function

Compressed air brake systems are typically used on heavy trucks and buses. The

system consists of service brakes, parking brakes, a control pedal, air storage tank.

For the parking brake, there is a disc or drum brake arrangement which is designed

to be held in the 'applied' position by spring pressure. Air pressure must be

produced to release these "spring brake" parking brakes. For the service brakes (the

ones used while driving for slowing or stopping) to be applied, the brake pedal is

pushed, routing the air under pressure (approx 100120 psi or 690830 kPa) to the

brake chamber, causing the brake to reduce wheel rotation speed. Most types of

truck air brakes are drum units, though there is an increasing trend towards the use

of disc brakes in this application. The air compressor draws filtered air from the

atmosphere and forces it into high-pressure reservoirs at around 120 psi (830 kPa).

Most heavy vehicles have a gauge within the driver's view, indicating the

availability of air pressure for safe vehicle operation, often including warning tones

or lights. Setting of the parking/emergency brake releases the pressurized air

pressure in the lines between the compressed air storage tank and the brakes, thus

actuating the (spring brake) parking braking hardware. A sudden loss of air

pressure would result in full spring brake pressure immediately.

A compressed air brake system is divided into a supply system and a control

system. The supply system compresses, stores and supplies high-pressure air to the

control system as well as to additional air operated auxiliary truck systems

(gearbox shift control, clutch pedal air assistance servo, etc.).

Supply system
The air compressor is driven by the engine either by crankshaft pulley via a belt or

directly from the engine timing gears. It is lubricated and cooled by the engine

lubrication and cooling systems. Compressed air is first routed through a cooling

coil and into an air dryer which removes moisture and oil impurities and also may

include a pressure regulator, safety valve and a smaller purge reservoir. As an

alternative to the air dryer, the supply system can be equipped with an anti

freeze device and oil separator. The compressed air is then stored in

a reservoir (also called a wet tank) from which it is then distributed via a fou

BRAKE MECHANISM IN WHEELS

Almost all wheeled vehicles have a brake of some sort. Even baggage carts and

shopping carts may have them for use on a moving ramp. Most fixed-wing aircraft

are fitted with wheel brakes on the undercarriage. Some aircraft also feature air

brakes designed to reduce their speed in flight. Notable examples include gliders
and some World War II-era aircraft, primarily some fighter aircraft and many dive

bombers of the era. These allow the aircraft to maintain a safe speed in a steep

descent. The Saab B 17 dive bomber used the deployed undercarriage as an air

brake. , or airplanes with both wheel brakes and drag flaps raised into the air

during landing. Other methods convert kinetic energy into potential energy in such

stored forms as pressurized air or pressurized oil. Still other braking methods even

transform kinetic energy into different forms, for example by transferring the

energy to a rotating flywheel.

Brakes are generally applied to rotating axles or wheels, but may also take other

forms such as the surface of a moving fluid (flaps deployed into water or air).

Some vehicles use a combination of braking mechanisms, such as drag racing cars

with both wheel brakes and a parachute

A braking mechanism according to the present invention for braking the wheels of

a wheeled truck assembly includes a handle mounted to one beam which, when

braking force is applied, urges a rod toward the other beam. The rod operates a

lever mounted to the other beam which engages the actuation rod of the vehicle's

pneumatic braking system, thereby operating the linkage included in the pneumatic
system to separate the beams, bringing the brake pads into contact with the wheels

to brake the wheels.

REACTION FORCE TRANSMISSION MECHANISM FOR A PNEUMATIC

BRAKE BOOSTER

The present invention relates to a reaction force transmission mechanism for a

pneumatic brake booster including a largely incompressible reaction plate that is

interposed between an input member and an output member and encased at the

peripheral side and has lateral abutment surfaces for the input member and the

output member, wherein the abutment surface close to the input member can be

acted upon by a pressure member which is adapted to be fixed to a control housing

and, consequently, can be excepted from the transmission of the reaction force to a

vehicle driver. To improve its service life, the reaction plate includes a recess in the

area of the abutment of a valve piston extension, in which recess a substantially

incompressible, elastic insert is placed.

We are involved in the manufacturing of high quality pneumatic failsafe disc

brakes that finds application in steel mills, wind turbines, textile machinery and

and any industrial application that involves stopping or starting of machinery.

These are manufactured using superior quality material and are appreciated for

durability, reliability, high tensile strength and dimensional accuracy. Further, our

entire range of disc brakes can easily be customized as per the definite needs of our

clients.

RAILWAY AIR BRAKES

An air brake is a conveyance braking system actuated by compressed air. Modern

trains rely upon a fail-safe air brake system that is based upon a design patented by

George Westinghouse on March 5, 1872. The Westinghouse Air Brake Company

(WABCO) was subsequently organized to manufacture and sell Westinghouse's

invention. In various forms, it has been nearly universally adopted.

In the air brake's simplest form, called the straight air system, compressed air

pushes on a piston in a cylinder. The piston is connected through mechanical

linkage to brake shoes that can rub on the train wheels, using the resulting friction

to slow the train. The mechanical linkage can become quite elaborate, as it evenly

distributes force from one pressurized air cylinder to 8 or 12 wheels.

The pressurized air comes from an air compressor in the locomotive and is sent

from car to car by a train line made up of pipes beneath each car and hoses

between cars. The principal problem with the straight air braking system is that any

separation between hoses and pipes causes loss of air pressure and hence the loss

of the force applying the brakes. This deficiency could easily cause a runaway

train. Straight air brakes are still used on locomotives, although as a dual circuit

system, usually with each bogie (truck) having its own circuit.

RAILWAY AIR BRAKES

The job of a passenger train brakeman wasn't too difficult, as he was not exposed

to the weather and could conveniently move from car to car through the vestibules,

which is where the brake wheel was (and still is, in many cases) located. Also,

passenger trains were not as heavy or lengthy as their freight counterparts, which

eased the task of operating the brakes.

A brakeman's job on a freight train was far more difficult, as he was exposed to the

elements and was responsible for many more cars

ADVANTAGES

The advantages of the brakes include: brake can be used in dynamic applications;

field serviceable; easy flange connection according to IEC and NEMA standards;

low maintenance because very few parts are exposed to wear; compact design;

easily interchangeable because of independent brake module; cast-iron housing and

good thermal capacity for use in harsh environments; long life; and certified

according to the European Explosive Directive

Air brakes must have a safe level of pressure to disengage the parking brake, so if

your brake system is faulty you can't move the vehicle. An air brake system is a

little less complex than a typical ABS setup. An airbrake system *WITH* ABS is a

bit more complex. Air brakes are a proven technology that will apply more

pressure that hydraulic brakes and will stop a heavy vehicle far quicker with a

foolproof system. One leak in hydraulics and it's game over. Air brakes are almost

foolproof.

SPECIFICATIONS OF PNEUMATIC BRAKES

Specifications for pneumatic brakes include torque rating, speed, power, maximum

pressure, linear force, and linear speed. Spring-return brakes require power to

engage. Spring-actuated brakes require power to disengage. Non-contact brakes

use methods such as magnetic fields and eddy currents. Friction brakes generate

friction between contact surfaces. Wrap spring brakes transmit torque from the

input to the output through a wrapped spring that uncoils to disengage the brake.

Pneumatic brakes with teeth engage only during stops or at slow speeds. Oil shear

brakes achieve engagement through the viscous shear of transmission fluid

between the brake plates.

TYPES OF PNEUMATIC BRAKES

There are several basic types of pneumatic brakes. Band brakes, the simplest

pneumatic brake configuration, feature a metal band lined with heat and wear

resistant friction material. Drum brakes, which are commonly used on automobile

rear wheels, actuate when shoes press against a spinning surface called a drum.

Disc brakes consist of a caliper that squeezes brake pads against a rotor. Cone

brakes include a cone that is lined with heat and wear resistant material that presses
against a mating cup surface. Typically, pneumatic brakes are used in large

motorized vehicles such as buses because they provide reduced braking distances.

Selecting pneumatic brakes requires an analysis of measurements and mounting

configurations. Important measurements include diameter, the cross-sectional

width of the assembly; length, the dimension along the axis of rotation; and weight.

Shaft configurations can be in-line along the axis of the load, parallel but offset

from the axis, or perpendicular (right angle) to the axis

DISC PNEUMATIC BRAKES-A TYPE

The brake shoe carries the brake lining, which is riveted or glued to the shoe.

When the brake is applied, the shoe moves and presses the lining against the inside

of the drum. The friction between lining and drum provides the braking effort.

Energy is dissipated as heat.

Modern cars have disc brakes all round, or discs at the front and drums at the rear.

An advantage of discs is that they can dissipate heat more quickly than drums so

there is less risk of overheating.

The reason for retaining drums at the rear is that a drum is more effective than a

disc.

LIMITATIONS

Brakes are too sensitive: pedal linkage binding or defective hydroboost

causes this.

Excessive noise originating in the hydroboost unit is an indication of the

following problems: low power steering fluid, air in the power steering fluid,

a loose power steering belt, or a restriction in the hydraulic hoses.

Limited braking force can be applied.

SPECIAL FEATURES ADDED

Pneumatic brakes are available with a variety of special features. Some

devices use electrical or electronic signals to monitor parameters such as

position, speed, torque, lockup, or slip status. Others prevent play or

backlash during load engagement and prevent direction reversal during load
 disengagement. Adjustable torque, the torque at which the brake disengages

or can be manually adjusted, is used primarily for torque limiters.

Washdown-capable pneumatic brakes use housing materials that are rated

for washdown cleaning. Bidirectional pneumatic brakes can be set up to

rotate in either direction.

Brake

Control system

The control system is further divided into two service brake circuits: the parking

brake circuit and the trailer brake circuit. This dual brake circuit is further split into

front and rear wheel circuits which receive compressed air from their individual

reservoirs for added safety in case of an air leak. The service brakes are applied by

means of a brake pedal air valve which regulates both circuits. The parking brake

is the air operated spring brake type where its applied by spring force in the spring

brake cylinder and released by compressed air via hand control valve. The trailer

brake consists of a direct two line system: the supply line (marked red) and the

separate control or service line (marked blue). The supply line receives air from

theprime mover park brake air tank via a park brake relay valve and the control
line is regulated via the trailer brake relay valve. The operating signals for the relay

are provided by the prime mover brake pedal air valve, trailer service brake hand

control (subject to a country's relevant heavy vehicle legislation) and the prime

mover park brake hand control.

Advantages

Air brakes are used as an alternative to hydraulic brakes which are used on lighter

vehicles such as automobiles. Hydraulic brakes use a fluid (hydraulic fluid) to

transfer pressure from the brake pedal to the brake shoe to stop the vehicle. Air

brakes have several advantages for large multitrailer vehicles:

The supply of air is unlimited, so the brake system can never run out of its

operating fluid, as hydraulic brakes can. Minor leaks do not result in brake

failures.

Air line couplings are easier to attach and detach than hydraulic lines; there

is no danger of letting air into the hydraulic fluid. So air brake circuits of

trailers can be attached and removed easily by operators with no training.

Air not only serves as a fluid for transmission of force, but also stores

potential energy. So it can serve to control the force applied. Air brake systems
 include an air tank that stores sufficient energy to stop the vehicle if the

compressor fails.

Air brakes are effective even with considerable leakage, so an air brake

system can be designed with sufficient "fail-safe" capacity to stop the vehicle

safely even when leaking.

CONSTRUCTION

This project consists of following components

 1. WHEEL SYSTEM

2.IR SENSOR

3.BRAKE SYSTEM

1.wheel system

Rim
The rim is the "outer edge of a wheel, holding the tire." It makes up the outer

circular design of the wheel on which the inside edge of the tire is mounted on

vehicles such as automobiles. For example, on a bicycle wheel the rim is a large

hoop attached to the outer ends of the spokes of the wheel that holds the tire and

tube.

Hub

The hub is the center of the wheel, and typically houses a bearing, and is where the

spokes meet.

A hubless wheel (also known as a rim-rider or centerless wheel) is a type of wheel

with no center hub. More specifically, the hub is actually almost as big as the

wheel itself. The axle is hollow, following the wheel at very close tolerances.
Spokes

A spoke is one of some number of rods radiating from the center of a wheel

(the hub where the axle connects), connecting the hub with the round traction

surface. The term originally referred to portions of a log which had been split

lengthwise into four or six sections. The radial members of a wagon wheel were

made by carving a spoke (from a log) into their finished shape. A spokeshave is

a tool originally developed for this purpose. Eventually, the term spoke was more

commonly applied to the finished product of the wheelwright's work, than to the

materials he used.

Wire

The rims of wire wheels (or "wire spoked wheels") are connected to their hubs by

wire spokes. Although these wires are generally stiffer than a typical wire rope,

they function mechanically the same as tensioned flexible wires, keeping the rim

true while supporting applied loads.

Wire wheels are used on most bicycles and still used on many motorcycles. They

were invented by aeronautical engineer George Cayley and first used in bicycles

by James Starley. A process of assembling wire wheels is described

as wheelbuilding.

Tire

A tire (in American English and Canadian English) or tyre is a ring-shaped

covering that fits around a wheel rim to protect it and enable better vehicle

performance by providing a flexible cushion that absorbs shock while keeping the

wheel in close contact with the ground. The word itself may be derived from the

word "tie," which refers to the outer steel ring part of a wooden cart wheel that ties

the wood segments together (see Etymology below).

The fundamental materials of modern tires are synthetic rubber, natural rubber,

fabric and wire, along with other compound chemicals. They consist of a tread and
a body. The tread provides traction while the body ensures support. Before rubber

was invented, the first versions of tires were simply bands of metal that fitted

around wooden wheels to prevent wear and tear. Today, the vast majority of tires

are pneumatic inflatable structures, comprising a doughnut-shaped body of cords

and wires encased in rubber and generally filled with compressed air to form an

inflatable cushion. Pneumatic tires are used on many types of vehicles, such

as cars, bicycles, motorcycles, trucks, earthmovers, and aircraft.

IR SENSOR

SENSORS

A sensor is a transducer used to make a measurement of a physical variable.

Any sensor requires calibration in order to be useful as a measuring device.

Calibration is the procedure by which the relationship between the measured

variable and the converted output signal is established.

Care should be taken in the choice of sensory devices for particular tasks.

The operating characteristics of each device should be closely matched to the task

for which it is being utilized. Different sensors can be used in different ways to
sense same conditions and the same sensors can be used in different ways to sense

different conditions.

TYPES OF SENSOR:

Passive sensors detect the reflected or emitted electro-magnetic radiation

from natural sources, while active sensors detect reflected responses from objects

which are irradiated from artificially generated energy sources, such as radar. Each

is divided further in to non-scanning and scanning systems.

A sensor classified as a combination of passive, non-scanning and non-

imaging method is a type of profile recorder, for example a microwave

radiometer. A sensor classified as passive, non-scanning and imaging method, is a

camera, such as an aerial survey camera or a space camera, for example on board

the Russian COSMOS satellite.

Sensors classified as a combination of passive, scanning and imaging are

classified further into image plane scanning sensors, such as TV cameras and
solid state scanners, and object plane scanning sensors, such as multi-spectral

scanners (optical-mechanical scanner) and scanning microwave radiometers.

An example of an active, non-scanning and non-imaging sensor is a profile

recorder such as a laser spectrometer and laser altimeter. An active, scanning and

imaging sensor is radar, for example synthetic aperture radar (SAR), which can

produce high resolution, imagery, day or night, even under cloud cover.

The most popular sensors used in remote sensing are the camera, solid state

scanner, such as the CCD (charge coupled device) images, the multi-spectral

scanner and in the future the passive synthetic aperture radar.

Laser sensors have recently begun to be used more frequently for monitoring

air pollution by laser spectrometers and for measurement of distance by laser

altimeters.

CHARACTERISTICS OF OPTICAL SENSOR:

 Optical sensors are characterized specified by spectral, radiometric and

geometric performance

The spectral characteristics are spectral band and band width, the central

wavelength, response sensitivity at the edges of band, spectral sensitivity at outer

wavelengths and sensitivity of polarization.

Sensors using film are characterized by the sensitivity of film and the

transmittance of the filter, and nature of the lens. Scanner type sensors are specified

by the spectral characteristics of the detector and the spectral splitter. In addition,

chromatic aberration is an influential factor. The radiometric characteristics of

optical sensors are specified by the change of electro-magnetic radiation which

passes through an optical system. They are radiometry of the sensor, sensitivity in

noise equivalent power, dynamic range, signal to noise ratio (S/N ratio) and

other noises, including quantification noise.

The geometric characteristics are specified by those geometric factors such

as field of view (FOV), instantaneous field of news (IFOV), band to band

registration, MTF, geometric distortion and alignment of optical elements.

IFOV is defined as the angle contained by the minimum area that can be detected

by a scanner type sensor. For example in the case of an IFOV of 2.5 milli radians,

the detected area on the ground will be 2.5 meters x 2.5 meters, if the altitude of

sensor is 1,000 m above ground.

 In our project IR transmitter and IR receiver are used to detect the obstacle.

These sensors are fitted at the front side of the vehicle.

lIR TRANSMITTER:

The IR transmitting circuit is used in many projects. The IR transmitter

sends 40 kHz (frequency can be adjusted) carrier under 555 timer control. IR

carriers at around 40 kHz carrier frequencies are widely used in TV remote

controlling and ICs for receiving these signals are quite easily available.

IR RECEIVER:

The transmitted signal reflected by the obstacle and the IR receiver circuit

receives the signal and giving control signal to the control unit. The control unit

activates the extended breaking system, so that break was applied

NEED OF THE PROJECT

 .To protect the driver and passenger life

To protect the vehicle from accident

For safe driving

BLOCK DIAGRAM

FRAME

WHEEL Brake ALERT

mechanism

Control unit IR sensor

WORKING PRINCIPLE

In this project we are using to stop the vehicle by apply the Brake. Here we are

placing the IR sensor which is fixed in the body of the engine . Whenever an

obstacle comes in front of the vehicle, the corresponding signals are given to the

control unit and hence the brake system is activated by alarm system.
ADVANTAGES

Low cost automation project

Less power consumption

Operating principle is very easy

Installation is very easy

Simple in construction

Accident avoidance system

COST ESTIMATION
 UNIT COST
SNO MATERIAL QUANTITY
( Rs)

Solenoid
1. 1 500
valve setup

2. Alarm 1 2500

Wheel
3 1 1000
system

IR sensor

4 and control 1 3000

unit

Labour

charges,weld
5 - 2500
ing and

painting

6. Total 9500
DISADVANTAGE

Additional cost is required to install this in four wheelers

APPLICATION

It is applicable in ALL automobiles,

CONCLUSION

Thus the emergency stopping system project was successfully completed. In this

technology further the use of environmental technologies while delivering

comforts and driving pleasure. It is a very good substitute and replacement for a

conventional BRAKE SYSTEM.

REFERENCES

^ Hybridmotor cycles.com

^ WSJ.com

^ Motorauthority.com

^ Credit-suisse.com.

^ RailPower Technologies Corp. (2006-07-12). "GG Series: Hybrid Yard

Switcher" (PDF).

^ "RailPower To SupplyY TSI Terminal Systems Inc. with hybrid power plants

for rubber tyred gantry cranes" (PDF) (Press release). 2006-10-10.[dead link]

^ "Railpower to supply TSI Terminal Systems Inc. with hybrid power plants for

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