SPE-171102-MS

Charge Pump for Gassy Application Venezuela Faja Del Orinoco

Manuel Arredondo and Octavio Moreno, Petropiar; Javier Delgado, Tim Soltys, Jason Svitich, Lonnie Dunn,
John Bettenson, Evan Noble, and Juan Carlos Gonzalez, Weatherford

Copyright 2014, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE Heavy and Extra Heavy Oil Conference - Latin America held in Medellin, Colombia, 24 26 September 2014.

This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents
of the paper have not been reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material does not necessarily reflect
any position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its officers, or members. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper without the written
consent of the Society of Petroleum Engineers is prohibited. Permission to reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may
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Abstract
One of the major impacts on progressing cavity (PC) pumps is the amount of free gas that enters the pump
intake. PC pumps can handle increased amounts of free gas but under certain conditions this can have
detrimental consequences on pump life, decreasing pump performance and pump production capacity.
The higher the gas rates through the pump the higher the internal temperature. This temperature increase
accelerates elastomer degeneration and fluid penetration into the elastomer to the bonding agent. Having
a high volume of gas entering the pump decreases the amount of fluid slippage which does not allow for
an even pressure distribution throughout the entire length of the pump. This uneven pressure distribution
increases the workload to the discharge of the pump causes a premature failure. In order to overcome these
issues charge pumps technology was tested.
The study was completed in the Orinoco Belt, Petropiar field. This is an unconsolidated sandstone
formation with high fluid flow rate wells, 430 bbls/d at an average of 11 API. Reservoirs change through
their productive life varied the operational conditions in the Orinoco Faja wells. Historically intake
pressures were higher than 500 psi, GORs average 25 scf/stb resulting in free gas levels lower than 50%.
Recently, data shows intake pressure lower than 250 psi, GORS higher than 1000 scf/stb resulting on free
gas levels over 90%.
This is the first charge pump installed in Petropiar field. The strategy for this project was to start
identifying well candidates where charge pumps can improve the PC pumps performance through gas
separation and reduction of gas volume fraction (GVF) at pump intake. It also considered a well facilitys
conditions in order to get more variables and the most accurate information for this trial evaluation. The
overwhelming results after installing the charge pump allowed the expansion of this technology to
different wells with similar conditions regardless of well fluid production rate, sand, or water cuts. This
is all part of a combined effort for finding reliable and cost effective solutions for challenging applications.

Introduction
Venezuelan Petropiar Joint venture operates as part of the Ayacucho division in the Orinoco Belt, the
worlds largest known hydrocarbon deposit. The company produced 175,000 b/d of extra-heavy crude
during 2012 with production slated to reach a peak of 181,000 b/d.
2 SPE-171102-MS

Progressing cavity (PC) pump is the most accept-

ably used system for medium and heavy oil appli-
cations. Through the reservoir life and development
some conditions will change. As the reservoir is
produced and the bottom hole pressure is reduced to
maintain production rates, higher GORs lower
pump intake pressures and higher free gas percent-
ages cause significant operational challenges.
All pumps will be affected negatively by the
presence of gas; it restricts the ability of the system
to handle liquid because of the volume occupied by
the gas. PC pump run times in Venezuelas Orinoco
Belt operations have progressively declined over the
last several years to the point where it is impairing Figure 1Test bench arrangement in plant for PCP temperature and
the ability to meet production targets. A review of pressure evaluation on different values of gas volume fraction (GVF).
the operational conditions has shown that in wells
with the most severe problems, the conditions have
changed significantly. Bottom hole pressures are
lower and gas oil ratios higher, resulting in higher
pump free gas percentages and associated declines
in pump volumetric efficiency causing pumps to be
operated at higher speeds to compensate for the
drop in rates. Charge pump systems can reduce the
flow of free gas into the primary PC pump, improv-
ing liquid flow rates and pump life.
PC Pump Pressure and Temperature Figure 2Effect of free gas rate on PCP pressure distribution.
Distribution Testing
Plan Test consists of a group of thermocouples,
installed from the discharge to intake, measuring pressure (five points) and temperature (seven points).
Models 80 800 68A1 (HN-309) and 200-750 68A1 (HN-309) operated at 70% of rated lift. Models 130
and 190, long pitch high volume, will be included in the next test stage.
Tests were run at 100, 200, and 300 RPM and 400 RPM to simulate upper operational end. Free gas
rates of 0, 25, 50, 75, and 90% were tested running on standard Venezuela sizing (0 to 30% at 300
RPM/55C with water).
Short term tests continuously record data until internal elastomer temperatures stabilize or reach
~150C (~302F), avoiding permanent damage during short term tests.
Laboratory testing results confirmed that pumps often have an uneven internal pressure distribution
with highest loads in the discharge (up to 200%).
During the testing, uneven distribution of pressures and temperatures was evident as GVF increased.
Uneven pressure and temperature distribution can occur as a result of high fluid viscosity, tighter fitting
rotors, higher speeds, and free gas resulting in higher internal stator temperatures in the discharge stages.
Temperature increases escalate interference, reducing slippage and capacity to compress gas. The rotor fit
increases the ability to compress gas but also further concentrates the pressure loading at the discharge.
As shown in Fig. 2, the higher the gas concentration, the higher the differential pressure supported by the
last cavities of the pump causing more internal stress forces in the final cavities.
SPE-171102-MS 3

Figure 4 Effect of gas on PCP pressure distribution shown for Model

200, 300 RPM, standard fit rotor.
Figure 3Effect of gas on PCP pressure distribution shown for Model
80, 300 RPM, standard fit rotor.

PC Pump Handling High GVF

Mixture
Free gas rates result in higher concentrated pressure
loadings at the final stages. An abnormal pressure
profile causes overheating at the final pump dis-
charge. Thermal expansion increases interference,
intensifying torque and local stresses. The elastomer
and bonding system in the discharge cavities are
under more stress and severe conditions than middle
and intake sections.
As shown in Fig. 3 and 4, pump models with
larger displacement show higher differential pres-
sure than shorter models, exceeding the cavity de-
sign limit. Larger pump displacement models will
generate higher torque, requiring more energy than
smaller displacement models. Figure 5Effect of pressure and temperature distribution on elastomer.
For this reason, the same operational conditions
(high free gas rates) are more critical for larger
displacement pump models than smaller pump models.
As larger pump model displacement frictional energy increases, more power and temperature are
transferred to fluid in form of work, the rest of the power goes in to elastomer. When volumetric efficiency
decreases, more heat power coming from frictional energy is transmitted to the elastomer. Low volumetric
efficiency has lower mass flow rate generating poor heat dissipation. The power and torque in a higher
displacement pump will be more affected by higher gas rate (lower pump volumetric efficiency and
lubrication).
As we can see in Fig. 5 and 6, comparing pump Model 80 versus 200, temperatures in the last cavities
can be 80% higher in Model 200. The elastomer and bonding system in Model 200 will be affected by
extreme stress and heat generation inside the pump, which dramatically reduces its run life.
For both models, the high gas rates generate critical conditions, degrading the elastomer and bond
system, with continued exposure eventually leading the failure.
4 SPE-171102-MS

Requirements to Improve Critical

Conditions
Major critical conditions are extremely high tem-
peratures and pressure at pump discharge. Improv-
ing the power and heat distribution within the pump
is one way to reduce the impact of these critical
conditions. This energy can be minimized by:
Increasing volumetric efficiency and reduc-
ing free gas at pump intake.
Reducing pump speeds
Avoiding high displacement pumps looking
for more production (increasing volumetric
efficiency).
Minimizing pump friction with high pres-
sure elastomers and loose rotor fits.
Figure 6 Effect of pressure and temperature distribution on elastomer,
Additionally, improving heat and energy distri- shown for Model 200, 300 RPM, standard rotor fit.
bution over a longer length of the pump will im-
prove pump performance. This involves reducing
the pressure concentrations at the pump discharge.
Most of the points described above can be
achieved through improving gas separation at pump
intake.
Some ways to improve gas separation at pump
intake are gas separators, landing the pump below
the perforations, positioning the pump at the low
side of the casing hole (avoid no-turn tools that
centralize pump intake, in cases where it is possi-
ble), and using smaller diameter tail joints.
Fig.7 shows the gas recirculation effect at the
intake of the production pump.
Different gas separation devices have been de- Figure 7Charge PCP system schematic.
signed helping the system avoid the negative effects
of the gas. Systems like poor boy anchor designs
are based on gravity separation effects between liq-
uid and gas, but gravity separation is less effective
in heavy oil applications and viscous oil. In past
years, PCP systems have shown good results han-
dling large fractions of solids and gas. Significant
benefits can be achieved by using charge pump
systems featuring perforated pup joints with high
Figure 8 Charge PCP system schematic.
circulation in high GVF applications even when
little work is done by the charge pump. These ob-
servations provided motivation to revise the performance analysis of the charge PCP systems in order to
develop a more rigorous and reliable methodology for design and selection.
SPE-171102-MS 5

Figure 10 Effect of fluid viscosity on gas separation efficiency.

Figure 9 Effect of number and size of holes on gas separation
efficiency.

Charge Pump Standard Principle

Charge pumps are used to increase the primary pumps liquid volumetric efficiency and improve pump
longevity. Charge pump systems are comprised of two pumps separated by a perforated pup joint section.
As shown in Fig. 8 the pump located at the bottom of the configuration is a low lift, high volume pump;
the primary or production pump located above the pup joint section has higher lift and lower displacement
capacity.
The displacement relation between charge and production pumps is called charge ratio. For example,
a Model 120 (charge pump) installed in combination with a Model 52 (primary or production pump) will
result in a charge ratio of 2.3:1 The purpose of this configuration is to try to ensure that the intake of the
production pump is fully charged with fluid.
In the presence of free gas, the difference in pump displacements may allow the primary pump to
transport more liquid. Only certain pump model combinations will work together and this is primarily
driven by installation restrictions.
The length of the pup joint typically varies between 8 to 60 feet and is often perforated with different
hole sizes and quantities to allow gas and excess liquid to escape to the annulus.
The charge pump shouldnt represent a torque incremental because it only works against a very short
column of fluid (low differential pressure). The low energy transferred and the operating temperature in
the charge pump section even at low efficiency will not have a drastic impact on run life. For that reason
the charge pump working at low efficiency (less than the regular PCP previously installed in the same
well) should have a satisfactory run life.

Charge Pump Performance Variables

During a charge pump operation there are certain variables which impact free gas separation efficiency.
How effective gas separation will be, depends on the following parameters:
Pup joint hole size and perforated area
Oil viscosity
Charge ratio
Speed
Pump landing angle deviation
Annular gas bubble rise velocity
Each variable has a particular impact on charge pump performance, and the combination of all of them
will determine the final results. That is why we might handle different possible case scenarios in order to
predict the free gas separation efficiency. Most of these variables have been simulated in lab tests in order
to estimate their impact on the gas separation. Combining size and number of holes, the gas separation
6 SPE-171102-MS

Figure 11Test performed at 4 charge ratio; 80 seating angle, pup

joint configuration 26x7/16-in., oil 3,050 cp.
Figure 12Charge ratio theory impact on gas separation.

performance was analyzed from the results shown in Fig. 9. Tests were performed at 150RPM, 1.5:1
charge ratio, 80 seating angle, and 2,570 Cp fluid average viscosity.
There is a big impact (almost twice) on gas separation efficiency comparing hole size from 1/8- to
3/8-in. diameter, even if the total open area is the same for less than 30% of free gas. There is also a
considerable improvement in separation by increasing hole size from 6/16- to 7/16-in., and by increasing
the total open area. The impact of hole size or area will not make much difference on gas separation
efficiency for free gas fractions lower than 30%. For critical gas volume fraction (over 50%) the hole size
provides tremendous change performance difference (25% improvement) on gas separation efficiency.

Oil Viscosity
The bubble point of heavy oil is lower than for light and medium oil, so the gas takes longer to be liberated
from the heavy and viscous fluid. During Lab tests when free gas was injected separation efficiency was
not impacted by oil viscosity. Fig. 10 shows an experimental test performed at 300RPM, 1.5:1 charge
ratio, and 80 seating angle.
As we can see in Fig.10, the pup joint configuration has more impact on separation efficiency than does
oil viscosity.

Pump Speed
In Fig. 11 the trend suggests that an increase in the pump speed reduces the separation efficiency. Pump
speed is directly proportional to the fluid speed inside the pup joint. As the liquid flow velocity increases,
it would carry more gas pockets towards the production pump. This occurs when liquid flow velocity
exceeds the minimum required for natural separation, which consequently increase separation time.
As in the pup joint open area analysis, as the gas volume fraction increases, the impact of the speed
on the separation efficiency increases.

Charge Ratio Effect

As Fig. 12 shows, the higher the charge ratio the higher the gas separation can be achieved.
In a recirculation phase, no gas compression is assumed. The best case scenario for primary pump
efficiency would be 100% liquid flow into the primary pump. Given that the charge pump is in
recirculation mode, there should be no differential pressure on it, which means the charge pump should
be operating at 100% efficiency. From Fig. 12, a charge ratio of 2 should give a best case efficiency of
100% based on 50% free gas. A charge ratio of 1.5 should give a best case efficiency of 100% at 33%
free gas (plotted as 88%). A charge ratio of 3.0 should give a best case efficiency of 100% at 67% free
gas (plotted as 68%). The formula is: Best Case Efficiency Charge Ratio * (1 Pump Intake Free Gas
Percentage). This formula can produce efficiencies above 100%, which is not possible, so it has to be
SPE-171102-MS 7

bounded by 100% on the top of the graph. This

principle is based on ideal conditions; variables like
viscosity, angle deviation, and downhole pressure
will contribute in final gas separation performance.
Pump Landing Deviation Angle
The impact of the pump seating angle has not been
tested in thelaboratory, but operational experience
indicates that separation improves as the deviation
angle increases. In terms of natural gas separation
there are two factors in the effectiveness of horizon-
tal separator. First, high deviation helps draw gas
out of the separator which is good, but horizontal
orientation allows gas to remain in the annulus
around the separator which can cause gas to back up
into the separator. Second, a low deviation angle is
less effective in allowing gas to exit the separator,
but it enables expelled gas to freely move away
from the separator. Therefore, the most efficient
orientation might be neither vertical nor horizontal,
but probably near horizontal but with enough devi-
ation to encourage expelled gas to migrate away
from the separator. All of this is theoretical until it
can be tested. Figure 13Charge pump downhole assembly.

Annular Gas Bubble Rise Velocity

The annular recirculation flow rate also has a large impact in terms of agitation to help break out the gas
but also in gas bubble rise velocity where if the rate is too high it could draw free gas back down into the
pump intake. This is almost impossible to model; however, we do know there will be a sweet spot which
generates the best gas separation. In a deviated well an ideal configuration is where tubing is located in
the lower section of the casing; it contributes to natural gas separation. Having a smaller OD intake leaves
a larger flow area in the annular section which can be beneficial for free gas gravity separation within the
annular section.
PCP Petropiar Field Application Background
In the 1990s pump volumetric efficiencies averaged 70%, only less than 5% of wells had efficiencies
below 40%, and a few isolated cases less than 20%. The average pump speed was 150 RPM with limited
cases above 300 RPM; run times typically were a minimum of two years but some were up to five years.
Over time sustained pump volumetric efficiencies of less than 40% and in some cases less than 20%
confirmed free gas flow through pump. Pump speeds had been increased to compensate for low
volumetric efficiency; short run time failures were occurring characterized by stators with hardening,
cracking, and debonding at the discharge section.
Failure Hypothesis
Changes in critical operating conditions (pump intake free gas levels, pump speed) resulted in high
pressure loading on the discharge of the pump combined with low volumetric pump efficiencies due to
free gas resulted in internal temperature build-up. Over time elevated internal temperatures degraded the
elastomer and bond system. High loading combined with degraded elastomer and bond resulted in
8 SPE-171102-MS

progressive failures from pump discharge to intake. Based on all failure analyses reviewed in the past
years, explosive decompression (ED) is now a minor phenomenon. Although ED is present it was not a
major contributing factor in the failures and did not contribute to the type of damage observed particularly
in terms of the heat and chunking. During the past two years we still have the progressive top to bottom
deboning but now it is occurring much more quickly.

Candidate Selection (Criteria)

Looking for the most accurate and complete data, the study focused on candidates with gas and oil
production rate records, casing measure facilities, historic and frequent data records, at least 4 to 5 years,
belonging to LOWIS or another real-time monitor system. Accurate data collection was key and important
to compare historic data performance against the period after charge pump installation. In order to
complete this requirement no newly drilled wells were included in the project.
Considering the high intervention cost in Petropiar field, wells with recent intervention (less than six
months) were also discarded when run time over a year was expected, unless a steep production drop was
recorded.
As an additional consideration, casing gas measurement facilities were also considered in order to
compare gas casing rate before and after the trial. Because of the big population of wells in the field,
candidates with differing critical operating conditions were found.
A matrix of candidates with historic data, no recent interventions, and casing gas facilities were ranked
by filtering the following parameters:
High GOR, (1100cf/bbl)
Low pump volumetric efficiency ( 20%)
Low pump intake pressure (PIP), 400psi
Wells with PIP above the average werent considered because the study was focused on optimized
candidates, where the operational parameters were already adjusted in order to operate in the most
efficient way. These numbers are not a referenced for every charge pump trial for gassy applications. The
same criteria can be used applying average conditions depending on the field study case. The second stage
of charge pump field trial included well candidates based on the high pump failure frequency.

Downhole Schematic Design and Methodology

Before charge pump installation, different casing gas rate tests were recorded in order to compare the gas
separation performance of the system.
The charge pump Model 80 1600 / 120 200 design includes 25 ft rod and a 10 ft long perforated pup
joint section (7/16 72 holes) plus a 15 ft long raw pump joint tube.
With the aim of getting the most accurate information available, for the gas separation analysis, the
assembly design included three reading points. The original downhole assembly included the points (A,
B, C shown in Fig. 13) located at charge pump intake(C), production pump intake(B) welded on the stator,
and production pump discharge (A), all of them for temperature and pressure. The purpose of this
configuration was to compare the conditions at discharge pump in primary intake.
On April 2013, pump Model 110-1600 seat depth 3254MD/2832TVD, (landing deviation angle 68),
was pulled out. The charge pump model 80 1600 / 120 200 was run and seat at 3744MD/2970 TVD,
(landing deviation angle 77). The downhole assembly as shown in Fig. 13 was set 130 ft (TVD) deeper
and 9 more deviated than previous configuration.
Unfortunately the cable connected to the downhole gauge in section B collapsed, so no data was
recorded at the primary pump intake. Points A and C were successful taken.
Having different modifications for pump landing depth and seating angle position, also considering the
final combined contribution of the charge pump performance variables explained above, different
SPE-171102-MS 9

Table 1Case Simulation Scenarios Expected for Charge PCP Trial

Figure 14 Well performance before and after charge pump

installation.
scenarios were simulated depending on gas separa-
tion efficiency resulting from the charge pump sys-
tem. Below in Table 1 different cases were simu-
lated before PCP charge installation. Case number 3
(highlighted) was the one estimated in the trial
scope, estimating same production rate reducing
40% speed with shorter pump model. Improving the
gas separation from 32 to 75% and multiphase vol-
umetric efficiency to 30 to 35%, where initial scope
also focused on internal power and friction torque
reduction using a shorter model and also improves
heat dissipation with higher efficiency.
Having a system with less heat (power genera-
tion) and better lubrication would result in lower
pump stress.
Figure 15Discharge and intake pressure performance.
Field Application Results
After one year, recording more than twenty produc-
tion rate tests, bottom hole and surface daily data,
the chart on Fig. 14 compares the historical performance on well C6P07 between previous PCP and the
charge PCP system performance.
Pump volumetric multiphase efficiency increased from 15 to 80%. Gas casing rate, was 185 Mcf/d
because of the gas separation effect, showed a dramatic improvement, producing 550 Mcf/d, validating
the gas separation effect on the system. This result can also be the result of eliminating the no turn-tool,
seating the pump deeper (additional 135 ft TVD), and gaining 9 on seating deep angle deviation. Fig. 15
shows the speed reduction from 250 to 79 RPM.
Seating the pump 135 ft (TVD) deeper, the effect of more liquid fluid replacing gas into the hydrostatic
tubing column and also higher liquid fluid rate pumped, impacted the differential pressure increment from
650 to 1600 psi.
Despite lowered speed, shorter pump model, and deeper pump seating depth where more submergence
would be expected; Fig. 16 shows PIP drops 100 psi because of pump displacement improvement (higher
efficiency). Currently the well is operated at minimum speed in order to keep PIP standards in the field.
10 SPE-171102-MS

Fig. 17 shows the free gas separation change,

from 40 to 90%, was a key factor on the result of
free gas at pump intake from 80 to 20%.
Despite the increment on pump differential pres-
sure in the charge pump system the rod torque
loading only showed a slight variation (5%) because
of the shorter pump displacement capacity. There
was a 45% increase on oil production rate after six
months of the installation. Eleven months after
charge pump system installation, oil production ac-
cumulated was 22% more than the last year from the Figure 16 Comparison on average performance one year before and
previous PCP. after trial between charge and conventional pump.

The system power consumption showed a signif-

icant reduction from 38 to 17.5HP/day.
Pump loading increased from 31 to 52%, and
torque increased from 700 to 831 ft*lbs (differential
pressure). Speed and gas reduction into the pump
imply lower detrimental effects on the pumps, but
charge pump 80 to 1600 /120 to 200 run life cannot
be measured yet because it is still operating. For
next field trial stage we expect to compare run time
performance against candidates with higher fre-
quency failure rates and lower run time averages in
order to get immediate results to compare.
The outstanding results achieved after the instal-
lation exceed the expectations analyzed in the initial
trial scope presented in Table 1.
Figure 17Comparison on average performance one year before and
Conclusions and Recommendations after trial between charge and conventional pump.

Charge pump systems in gassy applications can

improve gas separation in 100% of regular PCP
applications.
For gassy applications, the best strategy for selecting a well candidate to improve gas separation with
a charge pump system consists of determining the field average conditions and ranking candidates by low
volumetric efficiency, high GOR (when pump is seated above perforation), and low PIP. After matching
the previous criteria, analyze each case depending on the field operational priorities.
Charge pumps can be configured to perform gas compression or separation. Free gas separation
calculated in this trial was over 90%, where the lower pump landing and higher angle have some
contribution to this performance. Based on modeling it was not possible to get 90% efficiency based on
charge pump ratio alone.
Power consumption is proportional to the total rate of gas-liquid mixture, reducing dramatically
thermodynamic and overall system efficiency. The improvement on gas separation and pump volumetric
efficiency have a significant impact in energy cost reduction (almost 50%) from $33.98/day to $16.5/day
(standard International HP price rate).
The benefit on 50% less power consumption impacts not only daily well cost, it also resulted in better
performance of field and community power grid making the area economic growth more efficient.
SPE-171102-MS 11

The increase of accumulated production after the first year with the charge pump system resulted in an
additional 20 Mbls compared to the previous year; it is equivalent to over $900k net profits for the Faja
oil market.
The contribution of the tubing non-centralization (avoiding no-turn tool) and higher deviation angle on
the outstanding results have not been measured.
Low gas separation efficiency forced users to procure larger pumps to operate at higher speeds,
inducing localized extreme stress and heat generation inside the pump, reducing dramatically its run life.
Charge pump systems can meet production targets using shorter pumps and lower speeds.
For next trial stage, a higher charge ratio can be tested in order to compare gas separation efficiency
under similar well conditions.
It is important to check charge pump rotor/primary stator combination in order to validate a proper
match.
Low volumetric efficiency on GVF applications is not caused by slippage, so increased rotor/stator fit
will not improve pump volumetric efficiency. Indeed lower fit will contribute to free gas flow through the
pump; however, it can be compensated for by adding stages to the pump.
Because of availability, in this trial 7/16 in. hole diameters instead of 5/8 in. were used. Evaluation of
the use of bigger holes and area effect on gas separation can be tested.

References
1. Weatherford, Technical Bulletin Charge Pump System Design and Operation, TB-P123, V 1.8,
Edmonton, AB, Canada, 2013.
2. Weatherford, Technical Bulletin Charge Pump Rotor Installation, TB-P117, V 1.3, Edmonton,
AB, Canada, 2013.
3. Robles J., Perez M., Bettenson, J., Noble, E., 2010, Design and application of charge PCP
systems in high GVF heavy oil horizontal Wells, 2010 SPE PCP Conference, Edmonton, AB,
Canada.
4. Noble, E., Dunn, L., 2004 Investigation of Pressure Distribution in PC Pumps, 2006 PCP
Advance Technology Workshop, Houston, TX, USA.