EV 301 Engineering Hydrology

Chapter 2: Precipitation

Dr. Ali Sobhanmanesh

Precipitation
Chapter Outline

Forms of precipitation

Types of precipitation

Rainfall measurement: Point & Areal

Siting rain gauge

Laboratory Experiment 1
 Precipitation
formation of droplets in clouds (moisture emanating from clouds) that
falls on ground as rainfall, sleet, snow hail, fog,.. Which depends on
temperature.
Precipitation data are of utmost importance to hydrologists as they
form the basis of all hydrological studies.
The main input of water for the Hydrology System
Variation of rainfall distribution over time and space creates extreme
problems like droughts and floods.
Therefore, study of precipitation, requires great attention.
 DIFFERENT FORMS OF PRECIPITATION

Drizzle: It consists of water drops less than 0.5 mm in diameter and

intensity less than 1 mm/h
Rain: It consists of water drops of 0.5 mm and above
Cloudburst: It is rainfall, which is exceptionally of very high intensity
Hail: It is precipitation in the form of balls or lumps of ice with diameter
from 0.5 mm up to 5.0 cm
Snow: It is precipitation in the form of ice crystals or thin flakes of ice
resulting directly from water vapour.
Sleet: It is a mixture of ice and rain
 DIFFERENT FORMS OF PRECIPITATION
Dew: It forms on the ground directly by condensation during the night
when the surface has been cooled due to outgoing radiation.
Glaze: It is the ice coating when drizzle or rain freezes as it comes in
contact with cold objects at the ground.
Fog: It is a low-level cloud that touches the ground
Smog: It is a mixture of smoke and fog
Precipitation of high intensity occurring over a substantial time
covering a large area is normally termed as a storm.
Precipitation
Forms of precipitation

Rain (Drizzle, Downpour, freezing

rain)

Snow

Sleet

Hail
Process of Precipitation

Growth of
Condensation
droplets

Accumulation
of moisture
Air cooling
of sufficient
quantity
Precipitation
Types of Precipitation

Convective

Precipitatio
Cyclonic
n

Orographic
 Types of precipitation:

1) Convective

On a hot day, the ground surface is heated unequally and so is the air near the
ground surface (usually areas with large expand of surfaces e.g. urban areas, over
the sea)
Through the principles of convection, warm air rises as colder air (which is
heavier) falls.
This cause air that is heated more to rise in atmosphere, to cool and then to
condense resulting into precipitation.
Convective precipitation normally covers a small area for a short duration but has
a high intensity.
Precipitation
Types of precipitation: (1) Convective

Moist air condenses at low

temperature
Heated air into clouds
expands and
absorb moisture

Heated air near

surface

Ground/Surface
 Types of precipitation
2) Orographic
Orographic refers to the process of air being uplifted as it is blocked
by an obstructing slope, usually hills or mountains.
In orographic precipitation, moist air from the sea gets uplifted as
wind blows up the mountain (windward side).
As the air rises, it cools, expands and turns into clouds via
condensation. This results in heavy precipitation on the windward
side and the precipitation on the leeward side reduces substantially.
Types of precipitation: (2) Orographic

Descend of drier air

on leeward side
Condensation
low precipitation
followed by heavy
precipitation on the
windward side

Moist air
being uplifted
Seaside mountain

Sea
Cyclonic
Very often, low pressure belts are developed as a result of thermal
variations in some regions, and hence air from the surrounding area
flows towards these low-pressure belts.
The air rushing from the surroundings changes into a whirling mass
because of the rotatory motion of the earth.
The movement of such whirling air results in cyclone formation.
The whirling air mass carries water vapour with it. The central portion of
the cyclone acts as a chimney through which the air gets lifted, expanded
and cooled, and condensed causing precipitation.
May result into a drizzle or into heavy precipitation covering a large area.
Types of precipitation
3) Cyclonic/Frontal
(a) Warm front
Due to uneven heating by the Sun, some regions of air have lower
pressure than the others.
When air of different pressure converges (due to radiation and
Earths movement), it produces cyclonic precipitation.
Where warm air is forced into an area of cool air, it is called warm
front. The resulting precipitation is usually smaller in
intensity/quantity, but covers a much larger area.
Types of precipitation: (3) Cyclonic/Frontal

(a) Warm front

The cooled, moist air condenses
and precipitates, usually in small
intensity but long duration

Warm air rises over the cool

air, and its temperature drops
as it rises

Cool air
Warm
air
Types of precipitation
Cyclonic/Frontal

(b) Cold front

The 2nd type of cyclonic precipitation is the cold front, where cool air
is the aggressor.
As it pushes onto warmer air, the warm air is forced to rise abruptly.
Doing so, the resulting precipitation is usually heavier in intensity, and
cover a smaller area compared to warm front. A more intense
precipitation may take the form of a severe rainstorm or a tornado.
Types of precipitation: (3) Cyclonic/Frontal

(b) Cold front

Lifted air condenses
and precipitates

Warm air forced

to rise abruptly

Cool air moves forward

Cool air Warm, moist air

 Rain drop size and velocity

Rain drops may be considered as falling bodies that subject

to gravitational, buoyancy and air resistance effects.
Rain drop velocity at equilibrium (terminal velocity) is related
to the square of rain drop diameter.
Larger drops fall faster and are able to collect more water
during the fall. However, if a drop is too large (about 6~7 mm
in diameter), it tends to break into smaller droplets.
where w and a are the density of
water and air (assumed as 1000 kg/m3
and 1.2 kg/m3 at sea level).

Cd is drag coefficient (Table 1).

 Example 2.1

a) What is the terminal velocity for a light rain with a drop size of 0.6
mm at sea level (Cd=1.07, a =1.2 kg/m3, w =1000 kg/m3)?
b) If the air density drops by 50% at 5 km in the sky, will the same rain
drop falls faster or slower? Calculate its velocity at this height
(assume little change with g, w and Cd).
c) If a weather radar beam detects such a rain drop at 5km from the
ground at sea level, calculate the approximate travel time for it to
hit the ground (use the average of the two velocities and assume
no updraft/downdraft with the air).
a) For a rain drop of 0.6mm in diameter, its terminal velocity is

b) A higher altitude, the air is thinner, hence less buoyancy and

resistance.

C)