AN
ESSENTIAL
ELEMENT
tq
MUSICAL
PROFICIEN
Bill Dobbins
Music is unique in its ability to
project the vitality of life itself
through images that cannot be ex-
pressed in words. Verbal language
excels in the literal and figurative
description of technical processes
and physical properties. The lan-
The author is associate professor of jazz
studies and contemporary media at Eastman
School of Music in Rochester,New York.
36 mej/jan '80
OF
guage of music excels in the direct
communication of moods, emo-
tions, physical sensations, and states
of consciousness.
To achieve true clarity of ex-
pression, however, a highly pro-
ficient command of language is nec-
essary. The capacities for creative
self-expression and spontaneous
conversational interaction indicate a
person's proficiency in the use of a
verbal language. The most exactly
equivalent music skill is that of im-
provisation: the spontaneous ex-
pression of musical images that di-
rectly reflect the immediate ideas,
emotions, and sensations of the
improviser.
The conventional process of de-
veloping proficiency in the use of a
verbal language might be broken
ihto four general stages. In the
most primitive stage, the learner
begins to distinguish isolated words
and phrases from nonsense sylla-
bles. In the second stage a basic vo-
cabulary is acquired through rote
imitation and, if possible, reading.
In the third stage vocabulary is ex-
panded and applied to spontaneous
conversation. In the fourth stage the
language becomes fully integrated
with the intuitive and subconscious
processes of thought, feeling, and
physical movement. Only the most
diligent and highly motivated stu-
dents reach this level of proficiency
in languages learned after early
childhood.
These four stages are inter-
dependent and do not necessarily
follow this precise order. For ex-
ample, persons who move to a
foreign country often learn to con-
verse before developing an exten-
sive reading vocabulary. Further-
more, each stage irt this learning
process may be subdivided ac-
cording to the size of the vocabu-
lary involved and the precision with
which it is used. The practice of
conversational usage, for example,
usually begins with a relatively lim-
ited vocabulary. In any case, full
proficiency in the use of a verbal
language must include the ability to
command a considerable vocabu-
lary with equal facility at the read-
ing, conversational, and intuitive
levels.
The development of proficiency
in a music "language" involves the
same general process. Exposure to
a particulartype of music over a
long period of time results in the
recognition of common melodic
and rhythmic prototypes that char-
acterize the style. Formal study usu-
ally begins with simple rote imita-
tion of the teacher and mastery of
elementary principles of notation
and music reading. Unfortunately,
music education too often ends
when this second stage has reached
an advanced level of development,
where the student can read, memo-
rize, or otherwise re-create music
of considerable technical difficulty.
Reading music is merely what the
term implies, whether it involves
playing from a score or from mem-
ory. It is an important and neces-
sary stage of development, but it is
of little ultimate creative value if it
does not lead to a capacity for
spontaneous musical expression.
The ability to play a Beethoven so-
nata or an Art Tatum solo is, by it-
self, no more an indication of musi-
cal creativitythan is the ability to
read a Shakespeare play an in-
dication of the ability to use the
English language creatively. Even
interpreters of classical music
should be creative conversation-
alists, as well as readers, in the
"languages"of the compositions
they are interpreting. Otherwise,
how can one hope to faithfullyinter-
pret the works of early composers
who were known for their formi-
dable improvisational skills?
The process and discipline of im-
provisation provides the sole access
to the advanced stages of musical
development, in which musical con-
versation within a group and spon-
taneous expression of musical ideas
as a soloist become possible. Im-
provisation can be studied in rela-
tion to any music style. In fact, the
numerous stylistic varieties of im-
provisation existing within the
broad categories of jazz, Western
classical music, Indian music, Afri-
can music, and other musics from
throughout the world are analogous
to the various verbal languages and
dialects found in each particular
culture. While many contemporary
improvisers have mastered only
one music style, an increasing num-
ber are, in effect, music philologists,
having mastered the vocabularies of
several styles.
Principles of improvisation
The key to understanding the
process of improvisation lies in the
ability to experience a work of mu-
sic as a fluid, ongoing development
of sounds rather than as a static ob-
ject fixed by a notated score. Each
musical idea suggests its own po-
tential for variation and develop-
ment, which is realized through the
course of the work, depending on
the skill and sensitivity of the im-
proviser. Because the process of
improvisation directly reflects the
inner state of the impioviser as he
or she is playing, the same musical
idea may suggest different possi-
bilities of development in each per-
formance, since the improviser
himself is changing from one mo-
ment to the next. Just as a single
noun may be the subject of a nearly
infinite number of sentences con-
veying ideas that are sharply con-
trasting or even contradictory, so a
single thematic music motif may be
the subject of a nearly infinite num-
ber of compositions or improvisa-
tions reflecting a variety of moods
and styles. Consider, for example,
the numerous classical composi-
tions based on the famous B-A-C-H
motive, or the numerous jazz im-
provisations based on the tune
"Stella by Starlight."
Improvisation has been described
as instant composition. The tradi-
tional composer customarily revises
his or her work many times over a
period of weeks, months, or years
before permanently fixing its form
in a completed score. The impro-
viser develops a different version of
a given work in every single per-
formance. Each version is simulta-
neously a finished work and a
single stage of a work in progress.
Since improvisers commonly retain
certain works in their repertories
for many years, continuous improvi-
sation often results in several ver-
sions of a single work that achieve
a degree of musical perfection on a
par with the best written composi-
tions. Miles Davis' numerous re-
cordings of Sonny Rollins' tune
"Oleo" clearly illustrate this point.
The basic principles of tension/
relaxation or expectation/fulfillment
are central to thematic development
in many art forms. In music, the lis-
tener's attention is captivated
through the creation of expecta-
tions that subtly lead from one
point in the music to the next. In
the most successful improvisations
the feeling of complete relaxation
or fulfillment is effectively delayed
until the end. Consistent control of
this type of development requires
strong powers of attention and con-
centration. If too much unrelated
material is inadvertently introduced,
clear musical expectations cannot
be created. If the initial thematic
ideas are not developed in a truly
compelling manner, the attention of
the listener is likely to wander.
A brief comparison of practices
in various Western musics can pro-
vide some helpful clarification of
which elements of musical improvi-
sation are subject to change and
mej/jan '80 37
which remain constant. The most
common practice found in Ba-
roque, Classical, jazz, and Western
traditional folk styles is spontaneous
ornamentation and embellishment
of melodies that are otherwise fixed
or precomposed. In most folk mu-
sic this kind of improvisation oc-
curs naturally and does not result
from any formal training or study. It
is worth noting, however, that the
remarkable intuitive sensitivity that
sets apart the most evocative folk
musicians from their less impres-
sive fellows is exactly the same
quality that distinguishes ex-
ceptional classical and jazz artists
from their mediocre colleagues.
Both the Baroque and jazz con-
cepts of improvised melodic orna-
mentation involve a specific knowl-
edge of appropriate ornamental
figures and style of delivery or exe-
cution, although the actual effect is
often quite similar to the spontane-
ous colorations heard in a spirited
folk performance. Baroque, Classi-
cal, and jazz musics also share the
practice of fully developed, sponta-
neous rhythmic and melodic re-
workings of precomposed material.
In a Baroque passacaglia and cha-
conne, the improviser follows a
preset chord progression or ground
bass line in much the same way as
a jazz musician often follows the
chord progressions of a specific
tune. The true Classical cadenza is
developed spontaneously from har-
monic and melodic material heard
earlier in a given movement of a
concerto; the manner of its devel-
opment, however, is much less
strict than in Baroque music and
more similar to unaccompanied
jazz solo cadenzas.
Some contemporary jazz soloists,
such as KeithJarrett, improvise en-
tire selections with no precom-
posed material whatsoever, so that
the themes as well as their develop-
ment are realized at the moment of
performance. The Classical fantasia
or fantasywas remarkably similar in
concept. In fact, many musicians
and theorists of the eighteenth cen-
tury went so far as to contend that
if such a work were written down it
could no longer be called a true
fantasia.In our own time a definite
similarity exists between the free-
form improvisations of avant-garde
jazz artists such as Cecil Taylor, Paul
Bley, and Anthony Braxton and the
variations that occur in perform-
38 mej/jan '80
ances of graphically notated works
by avant-gardeclassical composers.
Mastering basic elements
Although the music styles and vo-
cabularies of various historical peri-
ods and cultures may be vastly dif-
ferent, certain basic characteristics
of music improvisation seem strik-
ingly universal. To develop a capac-
ity for improvisation in an advanced
music style such as jazz, a musician
must come to a clear understanding
of the relationships between the
basic elements of melody, rhythm,
and harmony. Although an exten-
sive study of the creative use of
these elements is well beyond the
scope of this article, some general
comments may help to suggest
their potential function in improvi-
sation.
Melody has been defined as sim-
ply a succession of tones. All too of-
ten, unfortunately, it is treated as no
more than that. An overly academic
approach to the understanding of
melody entirely misses the emo-
tional and intuitive aspects that en-
able a musician to "play melodi-
cally." In an actual performance,
melody can convey an almost vocal
transmission of tones and shapes
through an instrument. A thorough
understanding of tone production,
phrasing, articulation, and dynamics
is, therefore, essential if the melod-
ic content of musical sound is to
make a vivid impression.
The most convincing melodies
seem to follow certain basic sche-
matic designs. The most general of
these patterns involves a gradual
stepwise movement, ascending or
descending, through relatively long
melodic sections. This stepwise
movement is often disguised
through decorative use of melodic
embellishments, arpeggios, octave
displacement, and chromaticism.
Heinrich Schenker made an exhaus-
tive study of this aspect of melody
in European classical music. More
specific melodic designs include
call and response, groups of either
similar or parallel phrases, simple
ternary forms, and phrase repeti-
tion. These forms are often devel-
oped further through phrase exten-
sion, fragmentation, and various
types of sequential patterns. It is
important to note that the most
commuhicative melodies are usual-
ly developed from short motivic
fragments of extreme clarity and
simplicity. Complex and overwritten
melodies are less likely to make a
lasting impression on the listener.
The principal function of rhythm
is that of framing the melodic con-
tent and its accompaniment in fig-
ures that are appropriate to the
tempo, mood, and general style of
the music. The music traditions of
Africa,India, South America, and
North America each possess distinct
rhythmic styles and vocabularies
that help intensify their highly indi-
vidual tonal and melodic character-
istics.
Rhythmis probably the most
communicative element in music.
Many listeners can identify a famil-
iar tune just from hearing its
rhythm played on an indefinitely
pitched instrument such as a snare
drum. Rhythm,then, has great po-
tential for an improviser in terms of
clarifying the development of me-
lodic ideas. Rhythmic figures also
can be developed independently
through simple techniques such as
call and response, repetition, exten-
sion, and fragmentation, as well as
augmentation and diminution of
note values within a given figure.
Harmony is the most developed
element in Western music. Most tra-
ditional musics outside of Europe
and North America are not based
on any system of vertical harmony,
although these musics tend to be
highly advanced in terms of melod-
ic and rhythmic development. Con-
vincing harmonic progressions are
usually composed of several inter-
dependent melodic lines that, to-
gether, suggest harmonic move-
ment in relation to an implied tonal
center or key. Harmony can be
used effectively to increase the col-
or and density of the melodic and
rhythmic content when this com-
plexity seems appropriate. Further-
more, the tendencies of resolution
inherent in common harmonic pro-
gressions can be used to great ad-
vantage in heightening melodic and
rhythmic tensions or expectations.
Because harmony is the most signif-
icant Western contribution to world
music, any Westerner aspiring to
become a musician in any meaning-
ful sense of the word should begin
by thoroughly mastering the prin-
ciples of functional harmony from
the eighteenth century to the pres-
ent day.
A skilled improviser in any tradi-
tion, then, must be able to deal

A skilled improviser in
any tradition must be
able to deal with the
relevant elements of
melody, rhythm, and
harmony in a sponta-
neous and expressive
manner. These music ele-
ments must be thoroughly
understood and assimi-
lated technically, aurally,
and kinetically, as well
as theoretically.
with the relevant elements of melo-
dy, rhythm, and harmony in a spon-
taneous and expressive manner.
These music elements must be
thoroughly understood and assimi-
lated technically, aurally, and kinet-
ically, as well as theoretically. More-
over, the skillful yet imaginative
control of these elements is of far
greater importance than mere tech-
nical virtuosity. Ear training, either
formal or contextual, is a vital aid
in developing this ability. During
actual improvisation no time exists
for mental analysis, and no score
can be consulted. An improviser
must be able to accurately hear the
melodic, harmonic, and rhythmic
tendencies in the music he or she
is making at any given moment in
order to intuit, with equal accuracy,
where the music logically can go
from there. In addition, a musi-
cian's kinetic knowledge of his or
her instrument must be developed
to the point where it can accurately
and dependably transmit musical
meaning to a listener. The highest
ideal is the ability to achieve the
greatest clarity of expression
through the most concise use of
musical material. Without such an
aim, improvisation becomes either
an empty technical display or an
uncontrolled emotional catharsis.
A historical overview
Improvisation has played a prom-
inent role throughout the history of
world musics. Until quite recently
we have tended to ignore the fact
that European classical music from
1600 to the present comprises only
a small fraction of the world's mu-
sic. Furthermore, our general ne-
glect of improvisation as a creative
discipline stands in direct contrast
to the rest of the world, where im-
provisation has thrived in virtually
every cultural region.
The traditional folk music of
most cultures survives and evolves
through an aural (and oral) tradi-
tion, being passed on by careful
rote imitation from one generation
to the next. The classical music of
many Eastern cultures has been de-
veloped through a synthesis of au-
ral and written traditions. In the
West, however, aural tradition has
essentially died out in relation to
classical music. This great loss has
been the result of what can only be
described as our obsession with
written notation, a clear symptom
of our imprudent vulnerability to
the power of all visual media from
the printing press to the television
screen. The inestimable value of an
aural tradition is clearly illustrated
by the simple fact that Hindustanis
and Japanese can still authentically
recreate classical music that origi-
nated hundreds of years ago, while
Western musicologists already are
arguing about the correct inter-
pretation of music written at the be-
ginning of this century. Indeed, the
severe limitations inherent in any
system of notation should be obvi-
ous to anyone who has attempted
to make a precisely notated tran-
scription of an improvised solo.
Folk songs in cultures relying on
an aural tradition rarely are per-
formed twice in exactly the same
way. New verses and subtle varia-
tions of refrains commonly are de-
veloped from the natural feeling of
the moment, and accompanying en-
sembles often :re thrown together
with whatever indigenous instru-
ments happen to be available at the
time. Improvisation in folk music
thus usually has little direct effect
on the original thematic content of
a song, but quite a substantial effect
on its delivery in terms of vocal and
instrumental inflections and embel-
lishments that are the result of a
simple momentary inspiration
rather than technical or theoretical
study. These interpretive elements
account for the fact that many
subtle but clearly audible dif-
ferences in rhythm and melodic or-
namentation can be heard in nu-
merous performances of the same
song as performed by different indi-
viduals from the same geographic
region.
The simple, repetitive nature of
much folk music therefore allows
both for the strengthening of social
and cultural identification through
group singing and for cultivation of
a modest but significant degree of
individuality.The great beauty of
folk music lies in the fact that, apart
from ritual activities, it serves abso-
lutely no purpose beyond the basic
human need for self-expression.
Improvisation of a more complex
character than the spontaneous vari-
ation found in simple folk traditions
begap in the West with the ancient
Greeks, who practiced it as an artis-
tic discipline and as a form of self-
amusement. Special feast days were
occasions for the improvisation of
both music and poetry. Unfortu-
nately, little specific technical
knowledge of this ancient tradition
has survived.
The introduction of improvised
elaborations within precomposed
music became a significant part of
the European tradition with the
evolution of melismatic Gregorian
chant, continued to develop
through the late medieval practice
of improvised harmonizations (dis-
cantus supra librum), and reached
its zenith during the Baroque and
early Classical era of the seven-
teenth and eighteenth centuries.
Many music historians regard this
period as the peak of theoretical
consolidation and general music lit-
eracy in Western history to date.
Music thrived in every church,
court, and social institution, and im-
provisation was an integral part of
musical activity.
It would take a lifetime just to re-
copy the complete works of J. S.
Bach. Only his ability to spontane-
ously improvise fully developed
fugues, inventions, passacaglias, and
chaconnes can account for such an
extraordinaryoutput. It is no mere
mej/jan '80 39
 own sake. A rediscovery of the
power of music to reach people
physically, emotionally, and spiritu-
ally, as well as intellectually, could
lead to a major cultural renewal in
Improvisation, like verbal language skills, should be contemporary Western civilization.
A revival of the practices and ideals
introduced in the earliest stages of education to of improvisation could play a cen-
become a natural and fully functioning part of a tral role in such a renaissance.
person's creative skills. It should be taught through an
approach that integrates ear training, sight-reading, Jazz
instrumental and vocal technique, and theory into a There can be little argument that
unified and complete understanding of music as a jazz represents the most highly de-
language. veloped form of music improvisa-
tion currently practiced in the West-
ern hemisphere. It is also the only
coincidence that musical pro- cadenza a performer freely devel- Western art form of our century
ficiency in the Baroque period in- oped thematic material from the that has evolved legitimately from
cluded the ability to improvise written sections of a movement. It folk traditions. There are at least
three- and four-part counterpoint was not uncommon for audiences four basic concepts integral to the
on any given subject. Bach'sMusi- to burst into applause at the end of evolution of jazz in America that
cal Offering was, in fact, the result a particularlyimpressive cadenza, amply justify this high valuation.
of a fugal improvisation on a theme even before the orchestra had fin- The first and most important con-
given to him by Frederick the ished its concluding statement. cept is that of instrumental sound
Great. It is more than likely that the as an expressive extension of the
The interpretation of Baroque freewheeling nature of the cadenza musician's personality. The actual
works customarily involved the contributed to the gradual decline notes in jazz are often of far less
spontaneous use of florid embel- of improvisation in European classi- significance than the manner in
lishments, particularly in slow cal music. The excesses of self-in- which they are played. In addition
movements. Most performances of dulgent and insensitive improvisers to the usual development of the-
Baroque music today represent on- may have compelled Beethoven to matic material, a jazz musician at-
ly the bare skeletal outline that was begin writing out his cadenzas, tempts to directly express human
intended to be filled in by the mu- starting with the Piano Concerto experience through sound in an in-
sicians during actual performance. No. 3 in C Minor. The standard- tuitive manner beyond the scope of
This practice is clearly documented ization of the written cadenza sig- verbal language. The usual com-
in Bach's two versions of the "Sara- naled the virtual death of improvi- ments from listeners following a
bande" from the third English Suite sation in European classical music particularlymoving improvisation-
in G minor. In the second version and hastened the schizoid division such as "He was really saying some-
he wrote out characteristic embel- of composer and performer into thing" or "He was really telling the
lishments and ornamentation to separate roles. truth"-are more revealing, per-
suggest possibilities for further vari- Since the beginning of the 1960s haps, than we may suspect. An elu-
ation. This second version was nev- a renewed interest in improvisation sive "something," an unspeakable
er meant, however, to be taken as has been evident among contempo- "truth,"is momentarily captured in
the only valid ornamentation. rary classical composers. Its present the greatest jazz performances. This
Keyboard parts in Baroque cham- use is, unfortunately, relatively un- phenomenon completely transcends
ber music were meant to be spon- disciplined, usually involving free the particulartune being played as
taneously realized from figured atonality, interpretation of graphic well as the style in which it might
bass notation, and the accom- notation, and arbitrarymanipulation be categorized.
paniments rarely were written out of electronic gadgets that modulate The concept of music as an ex-
in their entirety. Today, however, sound in various ways. The very tension of a person's being relates
the most creative aspects of Ba- reappearance of improvisation, to the jazz musician's unification of
roque music have been eliminated however, seems indicative of an un- all creative musical activities into a
through strict adherence to various derlying desire to restore sponta- whole, integrated approach. Virtual-
"complete" editions that have been neity and creative interaction to ly every jazz musician is an inter-
prepared by well-meaning musi- Western music. The recent reinves- preter, improviser, composer, and
cologists. Thus, the greater part of a tigations by classical composers of arranger. It was precisely the fact
contemporary Baroque interpreter's lyrical melody, conventional that most of the members of Duke
creative work has been removed. rhythms, and tonal harmony also Ellington's orchestra were skilled
During the Classical period, im- seem to point toward such a direc- improvisers and composers in their
provisation was approached in a tion. Composers such as George own right that enabled them to in-
freer manner, though its use was, Crumb have shown the potential terpret Ellington's music with such
for the most part, limited to the value in preserving the strongest authority and conviction.
spontaneous invention of cadenzas elements from all existing music The second important concept
in solo concertos, one of the princi- traditions, free from the avant-garde that has been indispensable to the
pal forms of the period. During a preoccupation with novelty for its evolution of jazz is its reliance on

40 mej/jan '80
aural transmission of musical infor-
mation. Imagine the absurdity of at-
tempting to learn the style of Louis
Armstrong from a printed page. Jazz
musicians always have learned the
most expressive elements of their
skills through meticulous imitation
of established masters of the tradi-
tion. Each generation simultaneous-
ly studies the previous generation
and teaches what it has learned to
the subsequent generation.
The third important characteristic
of the jazz tradition is its tendency
toward inclusion and assimilation
rather than exclusion and elitism.
The flexibility and adaptabilityof
jazz has been unequalled in West-
ern music history. Since its initial
development by black Americans,
jazz has readily assimilated ele-
ments from such diverse traditions
as European impressionism; Indian,
LatinAmerican, and African musics;
and numerous American com-
mercial styles. Yet in every new hy-
brid form the unmistakable ex-
pressive qualities rooted in the folk
origins of the earliest jazz and blues
are immediately recognized by au-
diences throughout the world. No
other form of Western music has
proved to be so resilient. It is pos-
sible to play a wider range of styles
under the guise of being a jazz mu-
sician than within the confines of
any other contemporary musical
category.
The fourth basic concept embod-
ied in the jazz tradition is that of
rhythm as a physical rather than an
abstractelement. Twentieth-century
classical composers have tended to
treat rhythm as an extremely cere-
bral element, sometimes controlled
by arbitrarilychosen mathematical
or serial procedures and sometimes
left entirely to chance. Most com-
mercial or pop styles treat rhythm
as a totally mechanical element that
seldom varies in either pattern or
tempo from one work to the next.
In the best jazz, however, rhythm is
an accurate reflection of the human
physical experience: loosely flowing
and regularly pulsating at the same
time. Jazz frequently superimposes
a wide variety of meters over an
underlying 4 meter. In this respect
jazz has developed the most highly
inventive use of common meter in
recent Western music.
Jazz also has developed the use
of chromatic harmony to the point
where it encompasses an expressive
and coloristic range beyond that of
most twentieth-century classical mu-
sic. Pianist-composers from Duke
Ellington and Art Tatum to Bill
Evans and Keith Jarrett have applied
the vertical sounds of impression-
ism, neo-Classicism, polytonality,
and free atonality to functional har-
monic movement. The resultant
harmonic vocabulary and freedom
have remained virtually unknown to
most classically trained contempo-
rary composers. It is strange, in-
deed, that many American musi-
cians show great enthusiasm for
various exotic Asian musics while,
far too often, they are inexcusably
ignorant of a rich music heritage
from their own country that contin-
ues to evolve within their own life-
times.
Educational potential
In sum, improvisation is a com-
mon thread running through the
musics of the world. For jazz musi-
cians it remains a natural and nec-
essary element of their craft. For
music educators it holds an
enormous potential that has been
largely untapped. Improvisation,
like verbal language skills, should
be introduced in the earliest stages
of education to become a natural
and fully functioning part of a per-
son's creative skills. It should be
taught through an approach that in-
tegrates ear training, sight-reading,
instrumental and vocal technique,
and theory into a unified and com-
plete understanding of music as a
language.
When students are given their
first five-tone scales to practice, they
should be encouraged to make
their own melodies from those five
tones. When the first tunes are as-
signed, students should be encour-
aged to spontaneously vary and em-
bellish the melodies and rhythms as
soon as they have mastered the
original versions. Methods should
be developed that motivate students
toward expressing themselves
through the music they play rather
than competing with each other in
mechanical precision. The study of
harmony should be included in in-
strumental or vocal lessons as soon
as it begins to play a significant role
in the assigned works. Ear training
and theory should be included as
often as possible in every aspect of
music activity and at every grade
level. A work of music can have no
real meaning for young players un-
less they hear what they are playing
and have some understanding of
why it sounds the way it does.
In general music classrooms, jazz
should be studied and discussed
with at least the same emphasis and
enthusiasm as classical music.
Teachers should encourage pride in
the jazz tradition as America's major
contribution to world musics. Amer-
icans should feel the same admir-
ation and respect for Duke Elling-
ton that educated Europeans feel
for Bach and Beethoven. The
jazz ensemble should be recog-
nized at all levels of music educa-
tion as the single truly indigenous
American orchestra. It seems ironic
that ensembles that perform pri-
marily nineteenth-century European
music generally receive the most at-
tention in terms of budgets, re-
hearsal time, and administrative
support, while ensembles that per-
form contemporary American jazz
often must find time to rehearse af-
ter school and raise most of their
own money.
The most crucial question, in the
final analysis, to which an honest
answer must be found is simply
this: What are our real motivations
in musically educating our chil-
dren? Do we wish to educate them
so that they can dutifully perform
for our own edification and enter-
tainment in the concert hall or on
the football field? Or do we wish to
educate them so that they can en-
rich themselves through musical
self-expression and communication?
If we choose the latter, then im-
provisation is an essential tool for
initiating the process of discovering
and developing the music within
oneself. Nothing is more important
for the future of music than the rec-
ognition, cultivation, and love of
that process. For it is certain that
if there is no real music inside us,
the sounds that we make will re-
main no more than cheap, empty
imitation.
Selected readings
Ferand, Ernest T. Improvisation in
Nine Centuries of WesternMusic.
Cologne, Germany:Arno Volk Ver-
lag, 1961.
Wollner, Gertrude Price. Improvisa-
tion in Music. New York: Double-
day & Company, Inc., 1963. A
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