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    Aircraft General Knowledge PDF

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    Aircraft General Knowledge (CHAPTER 1 - STRESS, FATIGUE AND AIRFRAME DESIGN ‘STRESS AND FATIGUE, Stress and System Failure ‘The S/N Curve . Fatigue Monitors, ‘Reducing Fatigue. Certification Requirements MATERIALS, ‘Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys. ‘Magnesium Alloys ‘Titanium Alioys. Monel Honeycomb Materials, Composites. ‘AuRCRAPT CoNPiGURATION. ‘The FUSELAGE ‘The Monocoque Fuselage ‘The Semi-Manocoque Fuselage ‘The Reinforced Shell Fuselage... sunnussnsnnnsnenrnnsncnnnrne 30 Pressurisation Loads. 1 ‘THe Wings. 12 (Wing Loads. snonsonsnnsunsnunresnnnnnnnnnnnnnneY4 "THE EPRNNAce 15 (CHAPTER 2- HYDRAULICS STATIC PRESSURE. 1 Pascal's Law 2 Force, Area and Pressure 2 ‘Tue Passive HYDRAULIC SYSTEM. : a COMPONENTS OF AN ACTIVE (POWERED) HYDRAULIC SYSTEM 7 . _ 8 9 0 9 umes: ACTUxTORS Linear Actuators Single Acting Actuators Double Acting Balanced Actuators ho Double Acting Unbalanced Actuators n Rotary Actuators (yim Mota). HYDRAULIC SEALS - nnn 12 ‘Leaks. 13 sezcror valves Is Rotary Selectore,..nsnnnnnnvnnnvnnen 14 Spool Valves 4 Hydraulic Lock 15 “THE OPEN CENTRED SYSTEAT -.ss-sssnsnvsnonnonsnonnennnnsnanrnnnnans 16 Vat. 16 Pressure and Thermal Relic Valve .-.sososnonnnonsensnenenonse 16 [Non Return Valves (NRVS) 18 Shuttle Vales. 19 ‘Hiwatt Camaral Cnawtedge eae SSC Restrictor Valves of Chokes,..nnnnsn ‘Throttling Valves Flow Control Valves Pressure Reducing Vaives Sequence Valves. = Hydraulic Fuses. Priority Valve or Pressure Maintaining Valve HYDRAULIC FLUIDS. ‘Vegetable Based Fluid Mineral Based Fluid... - Synthetic Base - Skydrl Health and Handling of Hydraulic Fiuids. Fluid Temperature : Filtration and Hydraulic Circuit Protection Fixe VOLUME OR Constat DISPLACEMENT PUMIS ‘Automatie Cut-Out Vale nnn : ACCUMULATORS: ‘Vawuanus VoLunt of Casta PRESSURE PUPS Blocking Valve sense oe Back Ur HYDRAULIC Powe “Hydraulic Power Transfer [Air Turbine Motors Cn AC Pumps. Ram Air Turbine Hand Pumps, PRESSURE GAUGES Direct Reading Gauges. Pressure Transmitters. RESERVOIRS... : PRESSURISED ResiRvoin. ‘Tie Light AIRCRAFT POWER PACK ssssovosnonnes LARGE AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS FIVDRAULIC CONTROLS AND INDICATORS (CHAPTER 2 - FLYING CONTROLS. Priwany FuaHT Conraots. Power Assisted Flight Controls. . Powered Flying Controls : “Artificial Feel Gear Change and Datum Shift The PCU vrs oe MECHANICAL CONTROL RUNS. ‘Manual Control eal and Tien Autopilot Control Safety Features. FLY-BY-WIRE SYSTEAS..-sovsvosnonvonononnonnes ‘Manual Control. Feel and Trim Autopilot Control =. : oo Safety Features SSBcONDARY FLIGHT ConTitaL SYSTENS so seni 20 21 22 23 2 25 25 25 26 26 28 30 ey ey 38 35 36 wUNYoduuabebsreee BSE ‘Aircraft General Knowledge Ligh Airratt 8 Flaps and 3 ‘Trim 9 Large Aira 9 laps and Sits 9 Load Limiting Devices io Alpha / Speed Locks. oa Speedrates and Spi i Trim a1 (CHAPTER 4- LANDING GEAR, WHEELS, TYRES AND BRAIOES 1 LANDING GEAR 1 Laawoine Gear ConicuisaTiON.. 3 Fix UNDRREARIRAGES. 3 RETRACTABLE LaNDINO Gra 3 Shock Absorption 4 ‘Oleo Pneumatic Shock Absorber Strut. 4 (eo Paetimatie Shock Absorber without Separator 5 leo Pneumatic Shock Absorber with Separator 3 “Torque Link (Scissor tink 7 Shimmy Damper. 7 [RETRACTION AND EXTENSION eee ee Bracing of Retractable Landing Gear : cca Undercarsiage Locks —— 8 ‘Up Locks and Down Locks eee Types of Lack 9 Hook oc 9 Landing Gear Poston indications. io Ground toss. a ‘Kr/Ground Logie 12 Gear Selector Fes Retraction and Extension Sequence a3 Landing Gear Operating Speeds. 14 Emergency Lowering 1% ) SreGRINe. 15 Large Aircraft Nose Wie! Steering 15 ‘Write Brakes 7 Introduction 1 Brake Wear 18 Mule Dise Brakes 18 ‘Automatic Brake Wear Adjuster 20 ant= Skid : 21 Maxaret Syste 22 Hlectronie Ant ~ Sid 22 “Touchdown and Boxince Protection 23 Faure Indications 23 Astomatie Braking 23 Rejected Take Of (R70) 25 Brake Temperatures, 26 Parking Brake 27 Emergency Braking Systems 27 ‘Stopping in the Shortest Possible Distance 28 B7S7NG ConrROLS AND INDICATORS o 28 ‘Centre Instrument Panel os 28 Centre Console 29 \Wueets AnD TYRES, 29 WHEE... eee) ‘Tres. 30 ‘Tyre Construction an Tube Tyres, Naa Tubeless Tyres - 33 ‘Tyre Markings, - 33 ‘Tread Patterns: os : 34 Marstrand Tyre and Chined Tyres - 38 ‘Tyre Wear wr 35 ‘Tyre Damage oo 86 ‘Tyre Pressures: 37 Auquaplaning olisdroplaning : 38 FUSTBLE PLUGS - = 39 (CHAPTER 5 - PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS ‘The Advantages of Pneumatic Systems, ‘The Disadvantages of Pneumatic Systems ‘Constr SUPPLY SYSTEMS. Gas Turbine Engine Bleed Air Supplies. Compressor Air Supplies, APPLICATIONS | = ‘Emergency Brakes = Fixed Fire Extinguisher Bottles Emergency Undercarriage Blow Dawn. (Carbon Dioxide. . Aati-leing and De-icing Systems. Hydraulle Systems, Ote0 Legs... = o oor Seals : Air Starters. - Air Turbine Motors. set Pipe Nozale Control ‘Thrust Reverser Contral (CocKPIT CONTROLS, INDICATIONS AND SYSTEM FAILURES. (CHAPTER 6 - AIR CONDITIONING AND PRESSURISATION.. “The Need for Temperature Control The Need for Pressure Regulation. curr Ainenarr Hearne SySTENS Ram Air Light Aircraft System Ram Air Combustion Heater. “Advantages Disadvantages ‘Turbo Charged Piston Engines. Dedicated Displacement Blowers LARGE AIRCRAFT TEMPERATURE CONTROL. {AIR COOUNG SYSTEMS, Bootstrap Systems. ‘Function and Operation, ‘Aireraft General Knowledge “The Bootstrap. Water Extractor sss Plenum. Brake Turbine Systems, Turbo Fan System sor. Vapour Cycle Cooling, ‘Temperature Control an the Ground Air Conditioning Ducts, ‘System Procection Cargo Compartments Recirculation Systems. PRESSURISATION SYSTIDS, Differential Presstire System Operation in Flight. ‘climb Crise Descent ‘The Pressure Hull and Syatem Components’ sarge Valves. ‘Outflow /Dis Safety Valves sn Inward Relief Vaives, ‘Canin PRESSURE CONTRO: SYSTEMS PNEUMATIC CONTROLLER light Deck Indications Blectranie Controllers Decompression swiss (CHAPTER 7 - FUEL SYSTEM! FUEL TANKS Light Aireraft Systems. Vapour Locking. Ventingncnien uel Feed.rsrsnnonnes Lane alnenair Svsrins ‘Low Pressure Fuel Pump ‘The Low Fuel Pressure Light [Non-Return or Check Valves, Suction or Bypass Valves Set PUMPS ee Engine Fuel Shutoit Valve Ruel Tank Pressurisation uel Tank Venting Vent Surge Tanks Crossfeed Valve Fuel Heating RUGHT DECK INDICATIONS FFUBL ConTENTS GAUGING. Resistive System... ‘The Capacitance System ‘Manual Measuring Systems Drip Stik Magnetic Stick “irerat General Knowledge FUEL RLow Gavan, 1s FUEL JETHISONING : 15 REFUELUNG ssonsonosnon 16 Fuel Sampling 7 Refuelling Precautions : = 18 usu Tes, : : is ‘Aviation Gasoline (AVGAS) fe Grades, CIEE uae MOGAS sno 19 Gas Turbine Fuel Specifications 20 Aviation Kerosene - 21 Extra Additives . : 21 Wide Cut Fuels 21 Grade Labels 22 (CHAPTER 8 - ICE AND RAIN PROTECTION. JAR OPS RequiResenrs 1 IW Fucir eine Conpmions at Types of Icing 2 frost or Hoar Frost 2 Runback Icing. ma Glaze or Clear ice 2 Rime lee 2 Mixed fein. 2 oe DETECTION weno 3 ‘Vibrating Rod Systems 3 Pressure Operated Detectors 4 Hot Rod systems 4 Serrated Rotor Systems 5 Ice Detection Lights 5 AIRFRAME ANT-ICING AND DE TCING. 6 De-leing Paste 6 ‘Thermal Systems 6 Pneumatic System 7 Fluid Systems 9 ENGINE ANTICING aw De- icine 10 Jet Bagine Intakes .usueneesnnnsn 10 ‘Turbo-Prop Intakes n PRoPeLLen ART ICING AND Di-1ING ee a) Blectrcal Propeller Devicing 2 Light Aircraft Cockpit Indications. 13 ‘Turbo-Prop Cockpit Indications “IIs Fluid De Ieing System for Propellers 1 Windscreen De-leing seen Windscreen De-Misting.- ron :usnniunnoussnannsnanen 15 Rain Repellent 15 prror ao Static Vir Heating : 16 (CHAPTER 9 - BASIC ELECTRICAL THEORY. Eupernical CRcurs. RESISTORS ‘Series and Parallel Circuits ‘Contents@ ——~=~*~*~*SN SSC anal Know POWER... MereRs: ‘Tie Buectic Pek (CHAPTER 10 - DIRECT CURRENT ELECTRICS. arenes: Primary Celis Secondary Celle Lead Acid Batteries Niekel Cadmium (NiCad) Batteries, Battery Checking. Charging. Battery Ratings & Connections «. Single Pole or Dipole ELECTRICITY aND MAGNETIN. ‘The Corkecrew Rule Solenoids, Dolls-Bye indicators Relays - Moros. Field Windings ‘ACTUATORS Rotary Actuators, Linear Actuators Generators, Parallel Wound Generators Series Wound Generators, Compound Wound Generator ‘The Carbon Pile Regulator. Vibrating Contact Regulator Parallel Operation and DC Load Sharing Generator and Busbar Protection Feeder Fault Reverse Current Protection. ) ‘Thermal Trips ‘Stage GENERATORS De Power DistrisunON.... CCIRCUFT AND COMPONENT PROTECTION Circuit Breakers ‘Bi-metallie Circuit Breakers Magnetic Cireuit Breakers, Fuses. Warning Lights Switches Statie Protection Screening, (CHAPTER 11 - ALTERNATING CURRENT ELECTRICITY «nn AC GeNERaTioN ‘Alternators ‘Three Phase Output Calculating the Frequency — @ ‘The Self Excited Brushless AC Generator. - 8 3 3 4 4 “Rrerat General Knowied Tene Contents? Advantages of AC Generators. ‘The Star Connection oon CAPACITANCE, INDUCTANGE, IMPEDANCE AND REACTANGE Capacitance and Capacitors. Inductors and Inductance. Capacitors and Inductors in a Circuit AC Power GeneRaToR POwen RATINGS, AAC FREQUENCY CONTROL requency Wild AC Generators. Constant Speed Drive Units. ‘The IDG ‘Variable Speed Constant Frequency (VSCF) Drive Paralleling AC Generators AUXILIARY SOURCES OF AC POWER. ‘Austiary Power Units (APUs). Hydraulic Drive Units. Ram Air Turbines (RATS) Inverters AC MOTORS : Synchronous Motors. Induction Motors Delta Connections, AC Devices. “Transformers Auto Transformers Rectifiers Zener Diodes. ‘Transistors. AC Power DistiinuTiON Split Busbar System Paralleled Systems... PROTECTION AND GENERATOR CONTROL ‘Generator Control Unit (GCU} Bus Tie Breakers and Transfer Busbars Load Shedding. : Summary. Coc INDICATIONS AND CONTROLS CuRcumT syns. : (CHAPTER 12 - RADIO THEORY. Oscxrarme CincurTs. Series Oscillators Tank Circuit, Crystal Controlled Oseiliators. [RESONANT CAVITIES PRODUCING A RADIO WAVE FREQUENCY AND WAVELENGTH ‘THe FREQUENCY SPECTRUM Contents 8 io 14 16 7 7 7 18 19 19 19 19 20 20 20, 20 21 22 24 25 25 26 27 20 30 32 32 34 35, 35 37 oy 37 38 40 ae ‘irerat General Knowledge (CHAPTER 13 ~ INTERNAL COMBUSTION PRINCIPLES. ‘Tie PROPERTIES AND BEHAVIOUR OF GASES. Boyle's Law. os Charles" Law ‘The Combined Gas Law Conservation of Energy Bernoulli's Equation, Gas Properties Macitasisnes FoR ileay Transre [NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION ‘Newton's lat Law. ‘Newton's 2nd Law. Newton's 3rd Law Deninmons. ‘Turust, Power, Epriciency (CHAPTER 14 - PISTON ENGINES .. “THB SPARK IoNION ENGINE Principle of Operation Funetion of the Major Components. ‘Tie THEORETICAL FOUR-STROKE CYCLE "The Induction Strole ‘The Compression Stroke Combustion ‘The Power Stroke ‘The Exhaust Stroke Work on the Air ‘Tu Practical Fous Stoke Creu Valve Timing. Ignition Timing [MULE CYLINDER ENGINES: Classification of Engines In-Line Engines, Radial Engines. ‘The V' Engine... Horizontally Opposed Engine nu. [MAJOR COMPONENTS OF & SPARK IGNtTION ENGINE ylinder and Cylinder Head ‘Spark Plugs... Pistons Connecting Rod ‘The Crankshat. ‘The Camshaft Crankease Valves and Valve Gear "The Valves Valve Gear [BNoINe POWER, ‘Calculating Power Power Indications “ircralt General Knowledge ee PISTON ENGINE EFFICIENCY Mechanical and Thermal Eificiency - ‘Compression Ratio. Volumetric Efficiency ‘The Effect of Volumetric Efficiency on Engine Power. Specific Fuel Consumption ENGINE LUBRICATION SYSTEMS ‘Acro Engine Oils. ‘Types of Lubrication System ‘The Dry Sump System wn. Dry Sump System Components oil Tanke Coarse Filter Magnetic Plugs (Chip Detectors). Pressure Relief Valve, Pressure Filter Air Cooled Oil Coating Oil Temperature Gauge... Oil Pressure Gauge ‘The Wet Sump System Comparison af Wet and Dry Sump Systems Checking the Oil Level Hydraulicing ENGINE COOLING S¥STEAIS Temperature Measurement Temperature Control. STARTING AND IGNITION S¥STEAS Ieition Principle of Magneto Operation Controling the Ignition System... Additional Advantage of Two Spark Plugs. Magneto Checks ‘The Need for Pressurised Magnetos ‘Ausiliary Spark Augmentation Impulse Magneto High Tension Booster Col. Low Tension Booster Coil spark Plugs PISTON ENGINE FUEL, ‘Characteristics of Aviation Gasoline (AVGAS) Detonation, Pre-ignition. Controlling Detonation ‘Octane Rating / Grade (Anti Knock) Additives Other Factors influencing Detonation ‘The Combustion Process and Mixture Ratios. [ENGiNe FUEL SUPPL, ‘The Basie Float Carburetior Principle of Operation Additional Fuel Metering Requirements, Contents 10 ‘Aircraft General Knawedge ‘The Pressure Balance ‘The Diffuser. Mixture Control. Slow Running Jet Power Enrichment ‘The Accelerator Pump ns... INDUCTION AND CARBURETTOR ICING Causes Symptoms Carburetior Intake Heating Fut buecrion, Indirect Fuel Injection... Direct Injection ENGIN PRIMING SYSTENS, {Tie ENGINE AIR INDUCTION SYST ‘Tak BGT Gauce Setting Power Cruise Setting Eeonomy Cruise : PISTON ENGINE POWER AND PERFORMANCE SSUPERCHARGING. ‘Tie Ivrea SurencHARGER Principle of Operation [Automatic Boost Contrl Rated Altitude and Full Tarotie Height Advantages and Disadvantages of an Internal Supercharger ‘Tir Turnocianeer ‘Adrantngs and Diavantages of The Turbocharger Controlling Turbocharger Output Critical Attitude Operation During Various Flight Phases, Dual Pressure Control Unit System. Intercooler. Engine Management [ENGINE INSTRUMENTS. ENGINE ConTROLS: ENGINE HANDING, Pre-start Inspection w.. Starting Procedure and Precautions [After-start Cheeks and Testing. Procedure for Changing Power Settings Shutdown Procedsre ENGINE RUNKING FAULTS. ‘THE DIESEL ENGINE... Design and Construction Diesel Fuel, Advantages and Disadvantages Principle of Operation Induction Compression. Power Exhaust Diesel Fuel injection Systems. ‘iverah General Knowledge cs ‘The Direct Fuel Injection System 95 ‘The Common Rail Injection System snc. ny Glow Plugs. 7 Power to Weight Ratio 98 Diesel Engine Cooling Systems... uiinnnn 98 (CHAPTER 18 - THE GAS TURBINE ENGINE. 1 Introduction, 1 Creating Jet Thrust 1 The Simple Gas Turbine Engine a rene, Temperatre and Velocity in he Working Cee 4 Factors Affecting Thrust : 5 ‘The Drive for Greater Engine Biicency 7 ‘Specific Fuel Consumption 7 ‘Thermal Efficiency 7 Propulsive Eificiency. 7 ‘Types of Gas Turbine Engines 9 ‘Single Spool Axial Flow Turbojet 9 ‘Twin Spool Bypass Turbojt. 9 ‘The Triple-Spoo! High Bypass Ratio Turbo Fan. i ‘Turbo-Propeller and Turbo Shalt Engines..n.c00sse ir ‘Couponesrs 13 "The Air Inlet 14 Subsonic Inict : 14 Supersonic Intakes 18 ‘Tue CowPessor 19 ‘THE CENTRIFUGAL ConPneson.. : a 20 ‘Tits AXIAL Flow COMPRESSOR. : : 22 Prineiple of Operation 22 Compressor Blade Twist... = 25, ‘Compressor Aerodynamics 26 ‘Variable Inlet Gude Vanes and Variable Stator Vanes. 27 Inter-stage Bleed, C7 Multiple-Spoo! Designs: 27 ‘Compressor Stall 27 ‘Compressor Surge octane 8 Stall and Surge in a Centrifugal Compressor 28 Avoiding Surge and Stall 20 ‘Axial Flow Compressor Construction sv.snnnsnnisnuninnnannenn 80 LP Compressor Blade Construction 31 ‘Centrifugal Versus Axial Flow Compressors. 32 ‘Axi-Centrifugal (AXi-CF) Compressors nansursnn 32 ‘The Comausrion Svsremt 33 Requirements for Combustion 34 Principle of Operation, 34 ‘CoMaUSTOR DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION. sssnsnsnnonesnsnsnnnnsnsnennn 36 ‘The Multiple Combustion Chamber System 36 ‘Tubo-Annular Combustion Chamber 37 ‘Annular Combustion Chamber. ..n.s-s0o = 38 Reverse Flow Annular Combustor 20 Fuel Spray Nozzles 59 Pressure sJet Injector. 7 7 a0 ‘Air Spray Injector. Fuel Vaporisers Ignition System. ‘Tue TuREINE. Principle of Operation ‘Types of Turbine. Impulse Blades Reaction Blades. Impulse-Reaction Blades. ‘Turbine Blade Design and Construction ‘Turbine Dise Creep ‘Mult-Spool Engine Designs Active Clearance Control Fatigue... ‘Tae EXHAUST SrSTEA Noise Suppression ‘The Danger from Jet Bilux ‘Thrust Reversers. Interlock Protection Limitations on Use Gperation “TeqenaTURE MEASUREMENT. ‘THE AUXIUARY GEARBOX THe On SysTION ‘The Main Components of the Oil System ‘Main Bearing Housings. - ‘Type of Gas Turbine Oil System Gas Turbine Engine Oils Oil System Monitoring... BBNGINE BLEED AIR SYSTENS. Internal Air Systems “Tie Bvoine PueL SverEM. “The High Pressure Fuel Purp. uel Control Unit (FCU} FADEC Fuel Oil Heat Exchanger ‘Types of Jet Fuel Fuel Waxing, [ENGIN STARTING “Types of Starter Motor Engine Start Malfunctions “Airborne Relight. “TRUST AUGMENTATION SySTENS Reheat. Gas TURBINE OPtiRATION AND MONITORING ‘Tarust Indications ‘Thrust Values Handling Considerations. Engine Speed. Engine Temperature Torque “Rircrat General Knowledge ——~ssuw Vibration. so soon 76 Engine Overheat Indication 16 [ELECTRONIC ENGINE DISPLAYS... CO 7 Conventional Engine Instrumentation 17 Electronic Engine Display ‘Engine Indicating Control and Alerting System (EICAS) 78 Electronic Centralised Aireralt Monitoring (ECAM). 79 “TW AUXILIARY POWER UNtT (APU) 81 (CHAPTER 16 - PROPELLERS 1 ‘THE CoMBINED AIRFLOW. 2 ‘TuRust AND TORQUE FORCES, 3 {THE TWISTED BLADE vo : 4 ‘Tuk Errecr oF Fonwanb Soi. i 5 ‘VARIABLE Prict PRoPaLLtRs, Ss ‘The Full Range of Pitch 7 Reverse Thrust. 7 ATM AND CT 8 ‘Windmilling io PROPELLER CONTROL SYSTEMS 10 ‘Double Acting PCM u ‘Single Acting PCM. 1 ‘Twin-Engine Airera. snanae V2 ‘Single-Engine Aircraft. 13 13 14 4 15 15 16 7 18 19 20 Centrifugal Latch (Low Pitch Stop) ‘The Constant Speed Unit ‘CSU Operation On Speed. (Over Speed Under Speed ‘Selecting Propeller RPM Feathering. ‘The Unfeathering System Automatic Feathering. ees Piuots' ConTROL LevEs. oo ed ‘The Two Lever System: 21 ‘The Single Lever System wiusnscswnnwe 22 'SYNCHROMISING AND SYNCHROPHASING. a 23 ‘Synchronising. 23 Synchrophasing. 23 ‘Torque Measurement cnt “Torque Measurement Using Oil Pressure. 24 Blectrical Torque Measurement, 25 PRoPeLLete CHECKS AFTER ENGINE START. 26 (CHAPTER 17 - LOGIC CIRCUITS & COMPUTERS. CCourtina Devices, [BITS AND Byres. (Oner Nuwner SysTENs Loaie Gares, erearareD circum. DicrtaL Computers, The CPU me ‘rcraft General Knowledge ‘The Memory. ‘The Input and Output Interfaces, ANALOGUE COMPUTERS. (CHAPTER 18 - FIRE & SMOKE DETECTION AND SUPPRESSION. AuToMAT SYSTEMS, ‘Swoke DETECTION, Ton Detection Systems Optical Systems... Fike Derection ‘Jet Engine Zones Pipes in Hot Zones, ‘Auniliary Power Unita Wheel Bays: Resistive Fire Detection. ‘Capacitance Fire Detection ‘Syatron Donner Fire Detection System Overheat Sensors, : ‘Thermocouples. Fine WARNS. Master Fire Warnings Delayed Fire Warnings Cargo Bay Fire Protection Engine Fire Extinguisher Operation [APU Fire Protection. le Hie Extinguishers Brake Fires.. ‘Jet Pipe Fires [Rig Flee EXTINGUISHERS WiTH SQUIBS. Squib z Squib Test Over Pressurisation CLASSIFICATION OF FIRES. (CHAPTER 19 - OXYGEN & BREATHING SYSTEMS.. ‘SAFETY PRECAUTIONS. Gaseous Oxvcen. (CREW OXYGEN DELIVERY SYSTENS light Aircraft Continuous Flow Systems Large Aireraft Diluter Demand Regulators ‘Components and Operation Normal Operation with 100% Selected Off Normal Operation with 100% Selected On Emergency Selection. Masi Test Fuitr CREW OvGEN MASKS Walx ROUND OxvGEN Sers PASSENGER OXYGEN DELIVERY SYSTENS ‘Controls and Indicators ‘Chemieal Oxygen Generators “Toilet Maske . Gaseous Passenger Onygen Systems inst Alb OXYGEN “Kirerat General Knowledge (CREW SMOKE PROTECTION (PBE) none 7 sane IO Flight Crew. : tn EO Cabin Crew. a ‘Contents 16 LL Chapter 1 - Stress, Fatigue and Airframe Design Stress and Fatigue he forces of li, weight, thrust and drag acing on an reralt create stresses in the aireraft structure. Sire Js formally defined as the force divided by the sectional area to which it is applied. Stresses can either bbe twisting or torsion stresses, tension, compression or shear. ‘These stresses can act individually or together. Sending a structure, for instance, creates tension on the outside and compression on the inside. e e couneseon » Figure 2.44 Stress and System Failure ‘at which the structure fils is called the ultimate stress, this is the fail point for a single application of a static Toad. In flight the structure is loaded and unloaded many times ft levels below the ultimate stress, This causes cumulative damage which in turn allows the structure to fall ccatastrophically at a stress level well below ultimate stress, This cumulative damage and weakening of the structure is Called metal faigue. Composite structures salvo sulle font fatigue damage, but react in a different way. In metal structures failures usually occur under tensile stress, {or example on the bottam surface of « wing that is being bent upwards. The failures usually start as cracks at the points of ‘maximum stress, such as rivet holes, machining marks, sharp comers and serew threads. Composites “soft fal” as the fibres break, and failure can usually be detected before a ‘catastrophic loss of strength occurs. ‘The SIN Curve ‘The relationship between repeated applications of stress and the gradual degradation of the safe stress level is given by the 5/N Curve, figure 2-1-2. This is a plot of the number of times land degrees of stress applied, and shows what percentage of the original ultimate stress will cause catastrophic failure for a ‘piven fatigue history. 72 ienus 5 Arorat General Knowiedos On this particular curve 100 applications of 80% of the ultimate stress will cause failure, but if the applied stress is reduced to 30% of the ultimate, then the structure will survive 10,000 applications. This now gives us a theoretical basis for calculating how long the aircraft will lst in service, but before we go on we have to decide how we want the failure to occur. Combat aircraft are designed to have a asfe lif. Fatigue calculations are made to assess at what point the structure will fail, and the aircraft is taken out of service belore this point ig reached. The aircraft is’ then ‘scrapped, or critical Components such os wing spars are replaced - if it is ‘economically justified Cv aitiners are designed to be damage tolerant. This is also called. fail safe. By incorporating erack-arrest features and parallel load paths the structure can be allowed to fallin some degree but continue in operation until a periodic inspection, reveals the failures and components can be replaced, ‘The designers now assess the stress and the S/N forecast for the aircraft taken from the forecast flight profiles, weights and loading - and design a structure that should be safe for the life of the aircraft, Notice the use of *should”. This is all theory up to now. ‘The next step ia to take an early prototype airframe and subject it to a full scale fatigue test (FSF) on a stace rig that Simulates Might loads through the entire forecast aireraft lie, lusing forecast fight profiles. Modifications are made at this Stage, and the aircraft cleared for service. There will usually be ‘4 second FSFT later in the production run, when fight loads hhave been more accurately established in practice. Fatigue Monitors Aircraft will carry @ fatigue monitor, for two reasons. One is to collect the data necessary to establish real in-service stress levels to use in any later PSFT or in new designs. Tae other is to check that the aircraft is not being subject to atress levele higher than those forecast, which would lead to a premature fatigue failure, ‘The simplest of these will record the number of times selected levels of postive or negative gare exceeded, but modern fatigue monitors record a wide range of data. This data is coupled with information from fuel, weapon and cargo load recores to give & full picture of how the fatigue life of the aireraf is being used up. It is common practice to classify fatigue He with a number called the fatigue index (Fl). The aircraft starts with an FI of ‘Riera General Wnowiedge Tones SSSCS zero, and when the FI reaches 100 the fatigue life has been ‘ised up, and failure is imminent. The higher the stress level applied and the more frequent the applications, the faster the Fl inereases, The aircraft Fis continuously calculated from the input from the fatigue monitor and the other fatigue data, Reducing Fatigue It should be clear from all this that an aircraft's fatigue life can te greally calcined if suene levels ure heyt low. Thy acme smooth flying, avoiding high g, avoiding turbulence and going easy on the power. Weight is critical factor. Increasing aircraft fllup weight by 1% can increase fatigue life consumption by 5%. Certification Requirements “The design requirements for aircraft are set out in JAR 25/CS25 For aireraft with a maximum take ‘off mass 5700kg or more © JAR 23/C823. Por light aircraft Very similar, if not identical, documents exist in other states. In the US, for instance, FAR25 mirrors C525 and FARIS matches C823, Materials ‘The ideal material for alreraft structures would have the following properties: low density hgh strength high stiffness {00d corrosion resistance 00d fatigue performance high operating temperature cate of fabrication low cost [No one material has all these properties. In the construction of fan aireraft-a variety of materials may be used to meet the requirements of a particular structure. Early aircraft used ‘wood with fabric covering for the main structure with metal fittings at critical points. In the 1920s and ‘30s steel and aluminium replaced the wooden frame but the fabric covering remained. Advances in metallurgy eventually led to aluminium alloys that were light yet had similar properties to steel. Engine “ireraft General Knowledge design advanced in parallel and, as more thrust became available, all-metal aireraft were eventually built. Aluminium and Alumi jum Alloys: Atuminium is less dense than steel, has good corrosion resistance but is relatively weak. Aluminium alloys are stronger but have worse corrosion resistance. Duratumin ie a common aluminium slloy in icerwl structures which was invented in Germany in the 1930's, It may contain, ‘bout 3% oF 49% copper, 4 to 1% manganese, 14% 10 116% ‘magnesium, and, in some formulations, a litte silicon. Duralumin alloys are relatively soft and workable in the normal state. They may be rolled, forged, extruded, or drawn into a variety of shapes and products. After heat treatment and ‘ageing, these alloys are comparable to soft steel ‘and hardness, Once manufactured duralumin is sen temperature and should not be heated above 120°C. This makes Durakimin unsuitable for welding and restricts ite use for aircraft operating above the speed of sound where surface temperatures ean rise above this level Although restricted by operating temperatures Duralumin has good thermal conductivity, and being metal also conducts electricity Duralumin has poor resistance to corrosion. To overcome this, a thin layer of pure aluminum or a corrosion-resistant ‘aluminum alloy is used to cover the Duralumin core. These Special laminated sheets are called alelad and it is inthis form ‘that duralumin is most used for aircraft construction, In summary, the advantages of Duralumin are: low density nigh strength high stifiness fatigue tolerant cease of fabrication {good thermal conductivity Tow cost the disacvantages are ‘+ poor corrosion resistance ‘+ low operating temperature ‘Magnesium Alloys Magnesium alloys are less dense than aluminium but have very low operating temperatures and a high susceptibility to ‘corrosion. Magnesium alloys should only be used where they can be easily inspected, ‘Titanium attoys: Titanium alloys are expensive and difficult to work but are extremely strong and will sustain operating temperatures up to 400°C. Titanium is used for engine fire-walls and other critical components such as helicopter rotor heads. Titanium can be ‘welded with electron beams, ‘Monel is an alloy of copper and nickel with small amounts of iron and manganese. Monel alloy’s high resistance "to corrosion, its low coefficient of expansion and its high strength rake it useful for certain applications like the exhaust system {or aircraft engines. Honeycomb Materials ‘The conventional method of fixing metal structures is riveting for bolting, In the 1940's epoxy adhesive metal-to-metal bonding came into use, and is still widely used in aircraft construction, A spin-off from this was the development of “honeycomb” materials, where a cellular ‘ill is bonded between two sheets of metal to give a light but stiff structure. Composites One of the latest materials is a composite of fibre re-inforced epoxy. The fibres can be glass or kevlar, for example, but the ‘most used are carbon fibres, which have the best tensile strength to weight ratio. The fibres can be laid in a random pattern, which gives a material with the same bending strength In any direction, or in one particular direction to give great bending strength along the fibre run but a much iower strength across the run. In this way the bending response of the material can be tailored exactly to the designers’ needs, a fact which becomes important when we deal with the wing bending response of swept wing aircraft. Aircraft Configuration ‘The structure of the conventional aeroplane can be broken down into three major sub-sections. The fuselage carries the crew, cargo and passengers, the wings provide lit and the fempennage (the fin and the tailplane) provide stabilisation Fuel is usually carried in the wing but is often carried fuselage tanks, particularly on large aircraft and, occasionally, even in the fn Figure 243 ‘As aircraft design has advanced, these distinctions have become blurred in the search for efficiency. Most passenger aircraft rely on the fuselage shape to provide some of the lit, stabilising surfaces have been combined into V tails, and fextreme designs such as the American B2 combine all the features into a flying wing. Where the functions of control surfaces are combined so are the names. Elevons are combination ailerons and elevators ‘tied to the outer wing, tailerons are the same things but fitted to the tail. Plaperons are a combination flap and aleron used ‘mostly on ight aircraft and fighters. ‘Rivera General Knowledge sous SSCS The Fuselage Early aircraft were built of a fabric covered wooden frame ‘Three or four long wooden struts called longerons ran. the length ‘of the fuselage. The longerons were ‘held apart by compression struts oF bracing struts forming individual ‘bays Which were in turn cross braced with tie-bars or wire. The frame ofa structure like this carries the entire structural load. the fabric skin is purely for aerodynamic efficiency. Figure 24-4 Later versions of the braced fuselage used steel rather than wood. The structure was bolted together in the early years rather than welded as welding reduced the strength of the Joint. As lighter and more easily welded steel became available {in the late 1930s welded structures became the north. ‘The Monocoque Fuselage A monocoque structure relies on the shape of the outer skin of the aircraft for strength. The ideal cross section ls circular and the shape is maintained by circular formers and longitudinal stringers. This stressed skin structure can only be bust from light, strong and easily worked materials. Barly aircraft used plywood, later aircraft either tse alloys of aluminium, ‘magnesium and titanium or composite materials {eee 5 Alrerat General Knowledge ‘The disadvantage of pure monocoque structures is that they. depend too heavily on their shape for strength. Any damage or ‘deformation weakens the structure and can eventuslly lead ¢0 failure. ‘The Semi-Monocoque Fuselage Including some of the features of the frame structure with some of the features of a pure monocoque structure gives a dlovign where the chin only taker part of the load and allowe fselages tobe other than eircular in cross section, Figure 245 ‘The semi-monocoque structure uses bulkheads and formers to support the load bearing skin and the longitudinal stringers fare more robust to take some of the tensile and cempression load. Frame structures like the cabins of light alreaft can be included in the design [As the skin carries more of the load in monocoque and semi- ‘monocoque structures it becomes necessary to move away from a simple uniform sheet skin, carly semi monocoque airerat like the Ju52 used corrugated skins for extra strength. In more modern aircraft large steas of skin are machined on the underside in complex patterns to carry the varying loads. For some very convoluted patterns chemical etching has replaced milling to form the internal skin profile “Rivera General Knowledge muss SSCS Figure 24.6 ‘The Reinforced Shell Fuselay ‘The final development of the semi-monocoque structures is called the reinforced shell. The basic structure is stzessed skin with skin shape being defined by frames, bulkheads and Stringers but now reinforced sith longerons, Where openings are made for windows and doors a frame is fitted arotind the hole which is bolted, riveted or welded tothe frame. anforee Sa Srvctre Figure 24.7 140” Ararat Gomera Knowiedge Where weak points such as window openings occur the structure around. them is strengthened with additional straps called doublers, Doublers can be either riveted or donded to the main structure, ‘Modern transport aircraft have pressurised cabins to allow passengers and crew to breathe normally at high altitudes ‘without hoving to wear breathing apparatus. The proso inside the cabin is maintained at a higher pressure than outside. Doors and windows are designed to open inwards, s0 ‘when the aircraft is pressurised they are forced into their ‘apertures forming gas-tight seals. igure 24-8 ‘The loads caused by pressurisation can be split in:o axial or longitudinal loads and hoop or radial stresses. ‘The pressurisation loads are applied once each fight and it makes litte difference whether the aircraft stays at heignt for one hhour or ten. Because of this, the number of press risations, called the pressuiriaation eycice, are recorded along with the ‘ight time. Pressurisation loads are one reason why it is rot always ‘straightforward to convert a long haul aireraft to short haul ‘operations = the aircraft may end up with a significantly shorter if. ‘Aircraft General Knowledge cuss SSCS The Wings ‘The wings of a modern aircraft are of a cantilever design, that Js to say they are self-supporting and do not require external bracing or wires, The structure is stressed skin with a rigid beam called a spar running the full length of the wing, many aircraft have two or three spars in the wing. The spar may be ‘designed to run the full length of the wing, fll span, or may be assembled in hall span sections and bolted together. Wing spars can be girders or box section. ‘The aerodynamic shape of the wing is maintained by ribs in the classic aerofail shape which run fore and aft and stringers ‘which run along the wing. Ribs correspond to the frames used to define the shape of a stressed skin fuselage, Cavities in the wing are designed to carry fuel, either in flexible tanks oF sealed into the structure itself, ‘ng Carervcton Figure 24.9 ‘The forces on the skin are transmitted by the ribs and stringers to the spars which ultimately take the load. Figure 2 1-9 shows a wing with three spars, ribs and stringers. The skin between the spars has been corrugated to increase its strength and would have another layer of thin metal over the top. The ‘spars and the stressed skin now form a box section called torsion box that is very rigid and resistant to twisting ‘A variation on the torsion box is the D spar construction where the front spar is attached to the stressed skin of the leading, 432 rrat Gonaral Knowledge edge to create a box section, Figure 2-1-10 shows a D spar Section with a honeycomb sandwich skin. Behind the front Spar the inner skin is machined to remove the requirement for Stringers and to reduce the requirement for’ rbs. Such structures allow fuel tanks to be built in to the wing, soar contruction Figure 24-10 Wing Loads ‘The main loads on a wing are bending loads, incorporating both tension and compression, both in fight and on the ground. In fight the weight of the aircraft is supported by the LR of the wings, on the ground by the landing gear. Although the normal loads tend to bend the wing upwards, on landing and in turbulence the wing flexes downwards so the spar has 1 take bending lowly in bolls directions The boa is at a ‘maximum at the wing root. Figure 24614 ‘The primary bending and shear loads are controlled by observing 'g’ and loading limits, in particular the Maximum Zero Fuel Mass (MZFM). This manufacturer's limit ignores the liect of fuel load in the wings. It ensures that the value of ‘maximum bending of the wing at the wing root is not exceeded fot the designed maximum load factor (g) of the aircraft, Although itis mainly concerned with the weight ofthe fuselage the MZPM is defined for convenience asthe maximum etuunwedble adserafl weight Uiepurding fuel, Miva sever ‘be exceeded in flight or on the ground. ‘The forces on the spar are affected by the amount of fuel in the wing. Some aircraft have special fuel management procedures which keep fuel in the outboard tanks to balance the lift and reduce the fatigue loads on the wing root. Wing loading may also be reduced by uprigging the ailerons, by causing them to produce less lift in their at rest’ positon, aa Riera oneral Knowledge é ‘Twisting or torsional loads caused by shifts in the centre of gravity and centre of pressure and by control surface deflection, fare also present as are shear loads on the centre section of the ‘main spar, particularly If half span spars are bolted to a centre ‘box section All dee loads can be extremely high ifthe wing or contol sees sufler from aerodynamic ter, an undemped Sreilaton eased by aerodynamic imbalance The rast ofthe fects the Ukelinoog of Butter, a ighter wing telng more Salepubie thigh fequency fuer. Buel may tnrelire: be feinined inthe outboard tanks nt only to reduce the stress on the apar but slo to reduce the oncet of ter. The 2oaton of the engines can slo reduce titer by proving « balancing ‘uss forward ofthe main wing this ende to move the fexural {ns closer tothe cente of pressure an reduce the imbalance Figure 24-12 The Empennage ‘The empennage serves two functions. It provides directional stability and control in yaw and longitudinal stebility and control in pitch. Traditionally the empennage is split into a vertical surface, the fin, with the rudder attached and a horizontal stabilizer or tailplane with the elevators attached, Directional stability is provided by the fin. Tallplane position is, affected by the stall characteristics of the aircraft and the esize to keep the tailplane away from the wing vortices at low “Rivera General Knowledge ues speeds. High tailplanes keep out of the vortex but increase the possibility of a deep stall. Vtails combine the functions of both surfaces, Figure 24-13 ‘The empennage is built in the same way and carries the same type of loads as the wing structure, Tenis) Alreraft General Knowledge ydrautic srystome are ured Inereaee forces ‘Tho shape of the Chapter 2 - Hydraulics ‘ydraulic systems use fluid in a pipe to transmit and. ‘multiply force or to transmit power. Ip aircrat, hydraulic systems are used a2 servos so the pilot can operate controls and systems remotely and at loads far beyond their bare physical capacity. These will include operation of the flying controls, raising and lowering the Undercarriage and operation of the whee! brakes. Except in the braking systems of light sircraft the hydraulic system will be powered system. A pump will provide the ‘operating power and the pilot’ funtion will be to control the system. A powered system is correctly called an active system, land those simple hydraulic systems without a pump are called passive systems, * In a modern transport aircraft hydraulic power is essential for safe efficent operation, so aircraft are fitted with multiple systems to provide system redundancy. Static Pressure Static pressure is a form of potential energy. Water in a reservoir on @ hill has potential energy because ofits height. BY: Figure 224, “rerat General Knewiedge save ‘The shape of the container does not matter; column of fluid will exert a static pressure at its base. This pressure will be the tame regardless of the shape of the container, providing the hheight of the top of the fluid remains the same. I the outlet at the bottom is opened, this energy can be released in a Muid flow, which has dynamic energy. The hydraulic power generated depends on the pressure and the volume of the fw. Hydraulic pressures in icraft systems range from low pressure st 1000 pounds per square inch, to very high pressure at 4500 pounds per square inch, The standard high pressure system operates at 3000 pounds per square inch, Pascal's Law Pascal's Law states that, in an enclosed container, the pressure is equal throughout the uid and acts in every \ | Figure 22-48, ‘The common design for an NRV is a ball valve held onto a seat by the force of a spring. Fluid pressure in one direction ‘unseats' the ball, allowing flow, when the pressure falls and flow stops the ball will reseat under spring pressure. Pressure in the opposite direction will eal the ball more firmly onto its seating, To guard against incorrect installation of an NRV, an ‘arrow is stamped oF moulded into it showing the direction of ow. only allow Hud ‘Shuttle Valves. ‘A shuttle valve is used to allow one service to be operated by two independent supplies at different times for Instance a hormal and an emergency supply, If the primary svpply fail, the secondary supply will push the shutUe across ‘automaticaly, both connecting the service to. the “most fppropriste pressure and isolating the primary port. Under ronal apertng cendons ‘bene main uy ashe shuts ows We ig and alons te emergency soy oaks oes. serves sn Suey Emory foe Sino ‘Shuttle Vabe Shuttle valves are fitted in the supply lines of critical services like primary fying controls or wheel brakes. A sticking shuttle valve can prevent a service operating from the =mergency supply. Restrictor Valves or Chokes Restrictors valves or chokes are used to reduce the fow of fui in order to reduce the speed of operation af a services that ‘would otherwise move too quickly. [A one way restrictor opens to allow full flow in one direction ‘but closes to reduce the flow in the return direction, To show the direction of fall low a bold arrow is stamped on the ease, with an arrow made of dots showing the restricted New. ‘Aircraft General Knowledge Issue 5 2 one way tmeve too quickly ‘One Way Restrict Vaio Figure 22:20 ‘Typical applications of one-way restrctors would be to slow the zate of gear extension to prevent it falling too fast with gravity (or to slow the rate of Nap retraction, ‘The two way restrictor slows the flow of fui in both directions, Figure 22.21 Throttling Valves ‘Throtling valves are @ more sophisticated form of restrictors. ‘They ensure that the fluid flow rate to and from a component, and therefore the speed of operation, is correct. As the supply flow rate increases the valve closes down’ throttling, or reducing, the output. a Pressure reducing supply pressure Flow Control Valves. Flow control valves are used upstream of hydraulic motors to censure an even flow rate to maintain constant speed. They react to fluid flow, increased flow closes the valve down. A damper slows the closing action and prevents damage Pressure reducing valves reduce the operating pressure supplied to sub-systems. Main system supply enters the Inlet port, flows down through the valve and into the sub system. wit [As the pressure rises the valve is forced up. against the spring, reducing the size of the inlet eum tuntil the combination of ow and inlet size produces the required sub system pressure, Any large increase in sub system. Low Pressure swe Gressure will completely close SuPer the inlet and open th: outlet to return, allowing the excess pressure to dissipate Prossure Reducing Valve Figure 2224 “iverat General Knowledge iosus'S SSCS ee Sequence Valv Sequence valves are used to ensure that one operation is ‘completed before another one starts for example ensuring that the landing gear doors open before the landing gear extends haem 1. Landing gure ace 000, 2 Doo er moves to pen poston 8 Presure bu at hyaae scuece a. Figure 22:25, Hydraulic sequence valves work by directing system uid into one service ensuring its complete operation before the fluid is able to enter the second service. In figure 2-2-25 the door Actuator operates frst then, when it reaches the end of stroke, the pressure builds up and moves the sequence valve Across allowing fluid into the gear down line. Mechanical Sequence valves also exet, igure 22-26, 2 hrgade penn iy tt Figure 22-26 Hydraulic tas are ‘tod upstream of ‘shut of tow if Modulator provide fine control of brake pressure in Hydraulic Fuses: Hydraulic fuses are fited upstream of components to shut off flow and prevent total loss of system Suid if there isa leak. “T— “The fuse is designed to sense flow rate, it increases above the normal rate the piston will move across to stor the flow ‘completely. The service will be inoperative but the "est of the system will function as normal Modal ‘This component is only used in the older hydro-mechanical fanti-skid systems (Maxaret). It is Rited between the brake Control valve and the single acting pistons of the brake unit land provides fine control of brake pressure in the maxarets ‘With the brakes off, the spring holds the piston across to the Jef. When the brakes are applied the piston moves to the right pushing the Muid into the brake’s cylinders, apotying the Drakes. ‘The swept volume of the modulator is equal to the brake cylinders’ swept volume, Figure 2228, “irera General Knowledge | | | If the Maxaret detects a skid it operates an anti-skid valve Which releases a small amount of fluid upstream of the ‘modulator. This results in @ pressure drop in the brake supply line. To equalise the pressure both sides of the modulator piston a small amount of uid passes through the orifice, ‘which in turn reduces the force applied to the brake. As the pressure is re-applied only a small amount of fluid passes back ‘through the orifice. This prevents the sub system using a large famount of fluid yet itis stil ale to control the force applied t0 the brakes. On releasing the brakes completely, the spring returns the piston to the original position, Priority Valve or Pressure Maintaining Valve “The priority of a hydraulic aystem is to supply pressure (low) to the primary flying controls and wheel brakes, The Priority Valve (PMV) “achieves this by closing and isolating non- essential services if the pressure drops below a set limit, any remaining pressure will hen go to these primary services. t Figure 2229 32a_______Tasan 5 Aroratt General Knowledge “the priority valve ‘skydrot 500K is 2 purple high ‘quai Maid used Hydraulic Fluids {At this point we should look at the requirements for the fluids In use. Hydraulic Nuids are subject to extremes of temperature land pressure and have to meet stringent specifications. Ideally fa hydraulic uid should have these properties: Low viscosity Resistance to foaming (Low emulsifying) High lubricity and corrosion resistance Resistance to heat (thermal stability) Chemical stability Low freezing point, high bo Non flammable point. ‘The three types of uid in common use are: + Vegetable Based + Mineral based + Synthetic Based Vegetable Based Fluld Vegetable based fuid is made from a mixture of casior oil and alcohol which males a fluid that is almost colourless, This uid must be used with pure rubber seals and hoses only. Its, only suitable for use in low pressure systems as it has a low Saturation vapour pressure, called gae pressure, so soils off at relatively low temperature and at low pressure ~ at altitude Because t containe alcohol itis Aammable at low temperature, ‘Mineral Based Fluid - DTD 585 ‘Mineral Based fluid is made from kerosene and is coloured red for identification, This fluid must be used with synthetic rubber seals and hoses only. It is suitable for use in high: Dreseure systems, Because it has a Kerosene base it is Mammable, but has high boiling and flash point temperatures, is chemically stable to a high temperature and has good resistance to foaming. ‘Synthetic Base - Skydrol Modern transport aircraft use synthetic based Maid. The base is phosphate ester and the fluid is generically known as Skydrol. I comes in three grades; the common grace is SOA, ‘which is coloured purple. These fluids are fire resistant and do ‘ot support combustion, These fluids must be used with butyl rubber, ethylene propylene or teflon seals and hoses. Skydrol ‘meets all the requirements foraireraft hydraulic flulds, ‘The different types of hydraulic fluid must not be used together fs the vegetable, mineral and phosphate based fluids will not ‘mix. Seals may also be damaged ifthe wrong fuid is used, I should be appreciated that the colours specified for the fluids are for when the fluid is new. In use the colour of the fluids darken and may eventually all appear the same colour. Very old hydraulic systems using leather seals work satisfactorily with all the fluids listed above Health and Handling of Hydraulic Fluids Hydraulic fuids used as recommended do not present any particular health hazards but are an irritant if they come in Contact to the skin and eyes. Fist aid treatment is to wash off with large volumes of water. Fluid Temperature During operation of the hydraulic system the Muid temperature Increases, To keep. the fluid at its correct operating temperature, hot fuid returning {0 the reservoir is. passed through a heat exchanger. This can be a ram air unit; however ‘is more normal to mount the heat exchanger in the fuel tanle lunder the unusable fuel. This cools the fluid and at the same time heats the fuel preventing waxing and freezing, ‘The system's uid temperature is displayed on the flight deck; overheat indicators are installed at the pumps. Over heated ‘uid will discolour by darkening and becoming more viscous. Filtration and Hydraulic Circuit Protection Hydraulic systems need to be kept free of any contamination. ‘The hydraulic uid is filtered to remove any debris greater than 25 microns that could cause damage to the system. As the pump is a likely source of contamination it is standard Procedure to ft a filter downstream of the pump, which is Feferred to a3 a full low micronie pressure filter (FF MPF]. Some a8 well as oF instead of the FFMPF, ‘The filter consists of a bowl, head and element. Fluid enters the head and flows into the bowl around the outside of the clement. As it passes through the element any particles of more than 25 microns are deposited on the fter, the fluid then. flows up and out through the head. As the debris builds up on. the element (known as clogging) differential pressure will 236 ‘Airerah General Knowledae {ted downstream occur across the element. This actuates a filter light on the flight deck, warning that the element is in the >rocess of becoming blocked, ‘he iter tight tn becoming Figure 2.2.20 [At a set level the differential will operate the bypass valve ‘pening direct rout, allowing unflered Mild to flew through the system at the samme rate as belore. On some fiters red ‘Aved ution cen button, wil show ‘when the bypass has activated, this it ‘Mveueate” refered toaster popping. Baretta should be noted that not al ters are of the fall ow ype, ‘operation ofthe indicator button warns of impending operation of the by-pass on some filters. ‘The security of the hydraulic system also includes shut off valves which will prevent hydraulic uid being delivered to and ut of the pumps, These shut off valves are opersted in the event of pump failure or engine fire. Also in the system are the pressure relief valves which have already been discussed, In summary the security of the hydraulic system comprises alters Pressure Relief Valves By-pass valves Fixed Volume or Constant Displacement Pumps ‘Fixed volume pumps are high-pressure engine driven pumps (EDP) and move @ constant volume of fluid into the system for ‘each revolution regardless of the system pressure. To regulate the system pressure and reduce wear on the pump an ‘automatic cut out valve (ACOV) and its associated accumulator Fixed volume pumps are sometimes referred to as constant displacement or axial piston. pumps and are driven by the fengine via the ancillary gearbox and the Constant Speed Unit fata fixed speed. The reciprocating action of the pistons is ‘achieved by angling the body of the pump. There are normally 7 or 9 pistons in the pump, each piston moves in its own ylinder in the rotating cylinder block. The output from the pump does not vary ‘uid is normally supplied to the pump Under @ slight pressure to avoid cavitation. It passes in and out through two Kidney shaped ports in the valve plate. The pistons move down their cylinders as they pass the inlet valve, drawing in fluid, and ‘move back up their cylinders to expel the Muid as they pass the outlet valve. This process ensures a constant output volume. ‘To cool and lubricate the moving parts in the pump a leakage of system fluid is allowed. ‘This fluid exits through the case ‘The output trom ‘the pump dows not sisplacoment pumps must be eed with an ACOV Cooling and lubrication ts by fui eakage ‘The poppet valve fn ating etree When the poppet valve opens the owe “The Wek in" {han the kick out {drain and returns to the reservoir via a case drain fter or the low-pressure filter. An overheat sensor is fitted at the pump ‘and the pump outlet pressure is monitored and displayed to the pilot Automatic Cut-Out Valve Fon sme Figure 22:32 ‘The automatic cut-out valve (ACOV) is used to regulate the pressure in the system between @ high setting and a low Setting when a constant volume pump is used to power the hydraulic aystem. When system pressure builds up tis felt on, the piston and the poppet valve. As the piston is larger than the poppet valve the force produced in the piston will avercome the combined forces of the spring and the poppet salve when the upper pressure is achieved. The opening of the poppet valve allows the fluid to flow to the reservoir. The resulting ‘drop in pressure causes the NRV to close, locking the pressure Jn the system and the poppet valve to open fully. This now provides an idling circuit for the pumps total output and the ACOV is sald to be kicked out: Operation of any service will cause a drop in te system pressure, when it falls to the value of the lower setting the Spring snaps the poppet valve closed and the pump output is directed back into the system, This is referred to as the "kick in’ pressure. If this form of pressure regulation fails then a FFRV will control the system at a higher setting. To prevent the ACOV cutting in, ‘Aircraft General Knowledge eS —SSSSSCS~*« ‘and out rapidly, which can be referred to as ACOV or hydraulic teak can cause hhammering, an accumulator Is always used in conjunction tyeraure with the ACOV. te Accumulators Accumulators ar fitted to: Store fluid under pressure (energy) Provide a limited supply of pressure in an emergency Dampen out pressure fluctuations Allow for thermal expansion Cater for small internal leaks Charging Valve Digpnragm @ cy © Accumulatore| Figure 22:33, Accumulators come in four styles (a) Acylindrical container without separator - an old system (&) —Reylindrical container with a separator or free floating piston (o)__ Aspherical container with a flexible diaphragm (@) Aspherical container with a bladder inside tan even. folder system and not illustrated. ‘Whatever the design, one side of the container is connected to the hydraulic system and the other is charged with nitrogen ae. With the hydraulic system de-pressurised, or slack, a pre~ charge of nitrogen is put into the gas chamber’ of ‘the 230 cs ‘ireraft General Knowledge ‘The charge pressure must be ‘qual othe ‘minimum system pressure reservoir ‘Too high or too ‘accumulator, This ens pressure must be equal to the minimum Working pressure of the system. As hydraulic uid is pumped Into the system raising pressure, the accumulator will charge ‘with Maid, compressing the gas until the Muid pressure and gus presaure are equal. Any demand on the system will sult in a Grop in the system pressure, so the gas expels the uid into the system and maintains the system at a slightly lower operating pressure - this ensures smooth operation of ‘components and services, Accumulators are fitted into hydraulic sub systems, like the Drake system, ‘The accumulator acts aw a limited. pressure reservoir in emergency and dampens pressure fluctuations. the EDP fails then the NRV upstream of the accumulator will close and the accumulator wil provide a limited number of reversals before exhausting ‘The gas in the accumulator, which Is compressible where the hydraulic fui is not, will dampen out pressure fluctuations in the system ‘The accumulator will cope with small internal leakages by maintaining the system pressure and will absorb any increase in fuid pressure created by an increase of fluid temperature downstream of a NRV. An accumulator must be used in conjunction with an ACOV. If the gas charge of an accumulator is incorrect, either too high for too lov, this will cause the ACOV to operate more frequently. This can lead to hydraulic hammering, which must bbe investigated as soon as possible. Another effect is arise in the fluid temperature ‘Most modern aircraft have a pressure gauge fitted in the gas charging line this gauge will show the pre-charge pressure ‘when the system is slack and the fluid’ pressure when the ‘system is operating. ‘The charge pressure of the accumulator must be equal t0 the ‘minimum system pressure ‘Aivera Gonoral Knowledge co Variable Volume or Constant Pressure Pumps Im systems using a variable volume pump the ACOV and its associated accumulator are not required, although system fsccumulators may be installed for other reasons, ‘The variable volume pump operates in a similar way to the Sued volume pump cxcept ite output ia not dependant on pump speed as the volume of the pistons can be altered. This means the pump self regulates and only supplies the fluid needed t0 maintain the constant working presstre within the system. The variable volume pump is driven by the engine via the ancillary gearbox. Unlike the fixed volume pump the drive and Cylinder block are directly inline. ‘A movable ‘swash plate’ controls the piston travel. Altering the swash plate's datum will alter the distance of the piston Pumping action. At maximum deflection or maximum stroke the pistons will move the most fluid, at neutral the pistons will rot pump any Mid as they do not move in of out. ‘This provides an idle condition for the pump. ‘The swash plate is connected 10 @ control piston or hanger iston. This has two forces acting on it, spring pressure 10 ‘2a leone 6 Alnosatt Soneral Rimlods required “Tae output volume: ‘The pump delivers “The blocking valve off londs the emp during ‘ongine start move towards maximum deflection or ‘on stroke’ and system pressure to move towards neutral or off stroke! ‘On start up ofthe engine the pump will be at maximum stroke, this will cause the pump to try and pressurise the whole ‘system on starter motor power. To offload the starter motor a Dlocking valve, described below, is used. ‘The pump is lubricated and cooled again by internal Duid leakage to the case drain. A overheat sensor is fitted at the pump and the pump outlet pressure is monitored and “splayed to the plo. Blocking Valve [A blocking valve is used to keep starting loads on the engine to f minimum by setting a variable output EDP to zero output. ‘The blocking valve is closed by a spring and opened by system pressure. ‘To offload the pump on start, the pilot selects "depressurise” fon the hydraulice panel, This energises the depressurising or blocking solenoid, moving the valve dawn sa the pump's output acts on both sides of the blocking valve and it remains shut. At the same time the output acts on the compensator which boosts the pressure to the control piston, moving the swash plate tothe neutral position and offloading the pump. ‘Aller the engine has reached idling RPM, the pilot selects “pressurise” which de-energises the solencid and allows the “Rircratt General Knowledge sus SSC depressurising valve to retur to its original postion, The fluid ‘under the blocking valve drains away so the blocking valve ‘opens and the pump goes to maximum deflection, Ian engine fire situation, actuation ofthe fire handle operates Pula the tro the de-pressurising solenoid and the uid supply valves are handle offends ‘operate to isolate the EDPs, Note that both valves use 28 volts ‘®# BP De. Back Up Hydraulic Power Hydraulic Power Transfer (On a modern transport aircraft with more than one hydraulic system, back up power to a system in the event of failure of the main pump can be obtained by use of hydraulic motor in one system to operate a hydraulic pump in another system. These linked units are referred to as power transfer units or PTUs. A PTUs are common flow of fluid enters the motor, which acts in reverse to a pump, 9m lage sirerat, pushing the pistons down and creating rotary motion. This in They transfer fur drives the pump. Fluid does not transfer from one aystem Power net Muld to the other, only power Figure 22.36 334s raft Goneral Knowledge Air Turbine Motors Pneumatic (air) aystems can be used to operate © back up hydraulic pump. Air is bled fom the compressors of a ens turbine engine and directed onto a Air Turbine Motor (ATMs), ‘which is then in turn drives @ hydraulic pump. These are used fas a backup source of hydraulic power on older aircraft, notably the L1011 TriStar and the B747, AG Pumps. Back up hydraulic pumps can algo be driven by electric ‘motors. ‘The output from these pumps is considerably less than would be obtained from the main Engine Driven Pumps, Ram Air Turbine Ill the normal sources of hydraulic power fail some aircraft, will be ited with a Reon Air Turbine (RAT) When the main system pressure falls below a pre-se: value the RAT is deployed into the air stream using pressure from its ‘own accumulator. The blades will windmill in the slipstream and drive a hydraulic pump, a speed sensor will control the pitch ofthe blades to prevent over speeding. Figure 22:37 “Rrcrat General Knowledge enue SSSC«O Some aircraft are fitted with hand operated pumps, These pumps are generally fitted to provide hydraulic operations on the ground during maintenance, they can also be used in emergency. Pressure Gauges Direct Reading Gauges Im older aircraft the system pressure is displayed using direct reading gauges. These have a curved “Bourdon” tube inside them, which is Billed with hydraulic fluid. Any increase in the system pressure will also increase the pressure in the tube, ‘causing it to try and straighten; this movement is translated Into a reading. To prevent a leakage from the gauge at high- pressure a pressure relay Js fitted. This isolates the aystem fluid from the gauge fuid. Tt is the outlet pressure from the pump that is sensed and displayed. Pressure Transmitters Modern aircraft make use of pressure transducers, which sense pressure and convert the signal into an electrical output. ‘The electrical signal is then transmitted to remote gauges in the ‘cockpit. ‘The overall system is called a pressure transmitter. As well as deriving a signal of pump output pressure the transmitters can also be used to actuate overpressure or low pressure warnings of pump output and operate warning lamps or annunciators. Reservoirs Reservoirs provide: + A reserve of system fluid that can eater for small external leakage An alr space to cater for jack ram displacement An airspace that allows for uid expansion ‘The normal supply of fuid to the EDP A limited emergency reserve of uid A positive head of pressurised fluid into the inlet of the EDP ‘A means to bleed air and dissolved gases from the fd ‘+ -Ameans of checking the system uid quantity 230 —~*~*”C rat Gomera Kowiedge reserve of uid ‘erated Flu tovots wit Inyrautte systems Spersteneoive reserve supply for fomergency use remover bubbles sar FX ‘one " se sent | on Somme Figure 22:38 Reservoirs are designed to provide storage for the system fui. A sight glass allows for the visual reading of the Quid level and ‘normally has an upper horizontal line marked max and a lower line marked min. These are accepted levels. for normal operation. In modern aircraft a quantity gauge or low level ‘warning is incorporated on the fight deck. The filer cap is Fitted with a finger screen filter to strain incoming fuid, Remember only the correct hydraulic uid can be used, mixing of uid is not allowed, The level of the fluid alters during fperation a8 Jacks are displaced and the fluid expands with temperature. “Fluid levels can only be checked with the system, at rest and the accumulators correctly charged. ‘The main system supply is taken via a stack or standpipe, The purpose of this is to ensure an emergency supply of hydraulic uid. Ifa leak occurs in the reservoir or in the retu-n line the reservoir will only empty to the top of the standpipe, allowing a reserve of fluid within the pipe for emergency use. ‘The emergency (hand pump) supply is taken from the bottom of the reservoir. To keep fluid at the mouth of the stack pipe fin and bafles are ited to prevent swirling due to turbulence. ‘The low pressure fluid returning to the reservoir lows over a de-aerator tray, which can be either a series of steps or a lat ‘way with amall holes through it. The de-aerator tray allows any sir bubbles and dissolved gas to leave the Muid ensuring that ‘only liquid collects around the mouth of the stack pipe. Reservoirs can be vented to atmosphere or pressurised. If they are vented to atmosphere there is a danger that the fuid in the ‘vera Genoral Knowledge a7 system could boil at high altitude leading to pump cavitation and even the possibilty of gas trapped in the lines and ‘actuators. For this reason pressurised reservoirs are now the Pressurised Reservoir Pressurised systems prevent fuid boiling at altitude and provide a positive pressure at the inlet to the EDPs to prevent ‘cavitation. In the pressurised reservoir bleed air is applied t0 reservoir is below the level of the pump or components. Ifthe air pressure is lost then there will be a rise in the reservoir ‘quantity. However, it is a design requirement that if this should happen then the EDP must be able to draw the fluid and supply more than 70% ofits normal pressure Other methods of achieving a postive pressure in the inlet of the high-pressure engine deiven pump are the use of: + Aboot strapped reservoir + Blectrie booster pumps ‘To prevent leakage and to isolate the system fram the reservair an isolation or on/off supply valve is ited. This is electrically Activated and operation of the fire handle will close the valve. The Light Aircraft Power Pack ‘A modern system for light aircraft with retractable tunderearringes is the self contained hydraulic power pack ‘This consists of a reservoir, a reversible DC electric motor and flow and pressure control valves. Figure 2-2-40 shows a typical power pack system. The salient points of its operation are: + The up or down movement is initiated by starting the pump motor in one direction or the other. + The uid is only filtered on the up selection, + Fluid pressure opens the gear up check valve on *up" selection. + The spring moves the shuttle back on up selection, ‘opening te down line to the reservoir + When the gear is up a pressure switeh removes the clectrical power and the gear up check valve closes, orming a hydraulic lock to keep the gear fully retracted, ‘+ Ifthe pressure drops in the up line, the pump ‘automaticaly restarts to restore the pressure. 230 ‘irerah General Knowledge teads to pure ‘cavitation Proseurisod systems prevent Drovide a positive pressure atthe ‘The Pump is only ‘on while an ‘raveing + higher pressure is required to raise the “undercarriage than lower it, 20 the up line has « higher relief valve setting than the down line, ‘© When the gear is up, a thermal rlie valve protects the up line and actuators from over pressurisation caused by thermal expansion. + On down selection the piston allows the fluid to return tw the pump and reservoir by moving across and ‘opening the gear up check valve ‘On down selection the pressure moves the skutte, closing off the reservoir. ‘© When the gear is down and locked mechanically, and requires no more pressure, the electrical supaly to the ‘pump is switched off ‘+ Restrictors slow the operation of the nose geer. © The drop valve or free-fall valve opens the up ine to the return so the gear can fall by gravity in case of power failure. ltt Mn Gaae Larios Hyrauiecywer | Hyrau Gna ° te Nose Ges earl Fart Sch erin Froo Fat Freel ca Vee Pra Resonate “Terma eich tom cea un Praia rack aie snate vate cL Deut "Up Figure 22:39 ‘The power pack system is protected against overpressure by the fact that the pump only runs on demand and is switched ‘Aircraft General Knowledge 238 off by pressure or limit switches when the gear is up or down, by the PRV= and finally by the TRV. Large Aircraft Systems Large aircraft place greater requirements on a hydraulic system, these are: ‘The need to operate multiple services at the same time Instant response Duplicated or triplicated primary systems Emergency back-up systems Priority tothe fying controls and wheel brakes Storage of limited reserve of pressure energy for cemergency use ‘© Greater output force, to overcame heavier operating loads ‘These requirements are achieved using closed centred systems Where the working pressure is available all the time and there is the instant response needed for the operation of the fying controls, ‘The system shown in figure 2-2-40 has three independent hydraulic systems, called the blue, green and yellow systems. ‘These names are not tniversal, other systems use names or letters like A, B and C to identify the systems, ‘There are two engines, Nol drives EDPS in the blue and green «system and Nod drives EDPs in the green and yellow system, ‘The green aystem has two EDPs and two electric pumps, It could be regarded as the ‘master’ system. ‘There are two PTUs. If presaure is lost in the blue or yellow systems they can be pressurised from the green system {through PTUs. ‘There are three priority valves isolating the landing gear and the high lift devices. The landing gear will have an emergency lowering system independent of hydraulic power, and high lit devices are not absolutely essential for'a safe emergency landing. “The tal whee! layout i simple but ‘ives poor forward vainty Chapter 4 - Landing Gear, Wheels, Tyres and Brakes Landing Gear Jhere are two designs of undercarriage layout, the trieyele and the tail wheel, also known as the tall

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