Led

UV-LED curing
technology
Presented by:
RadTech International
The Association for UV & EB Technology
Updated!
10 new articles
www.radtech.org
Revised February 2016

UV-LED Presented by RadTech
CONTENTS
4 11 48
UV-LEDs and Curing UV-LED Overview Part I Measuring the Output
Applications: Technology Operation and of Ultraviolet Light
and Market Developments Measurement Emitting Diodes
This paper provides a broad overview of In an effort to provide a better This article focuses on understanding
recent UV and visible-LED technology understanding of UV-LED technology, and measuring the output of UV-LEDs.
improvements and discusses market this article includes some key principles By Jim Raymont and
developments and the impact that and technical information regarding Abhinav Kashyap
these developments may have on the the science and engineering behind
54
development of UV-LED systems for UV-LEDs.
UV-curing applications. By Jennifer Heathcote
By Robert F. Karlicek, Jr.
The UV-LED Paradigm Shift
22 This paper suggests a number of
questions that are fundamental to
UV-LED Basics Part II measuring UV-LED performance.
Curing Systems The answers to these questions can
determine if current measurement
This article is the second installment
solutions will work, need to be modified
Published by RadTech North America in a three-part series designed to
or if a new class of UV-measurement
consolidate key principles and technical
RadTech is the non profit devices will best address the needs of
information regarding the science and
trade association for its users.
engineering behind UV-LEDs.
ultraviolet and electron beam By Paul Mills and Jim Raymont
By Jennifer Heathcote
curing technologies
Our Mission is to: 34 60

To promote the use and development
of UV & EB processing as an industrial UV-LED Overview Part III The State of UV-LED Curing:
technique offering energy savings,
Diode Evolution and An Investigation of
elimination of pollution, greater
productivity, higher yields and the Manufacturing Chemistry and Applications
opportunity for improved, new or This paper discusses the characteristics
This abridged article is the third
unique products. of UV-LED lamps; importance of
installment in a three-part series
properly formulating chemistries;
To serve as an international forum designed to consolidate key principles
and reliable source of education benefits to end-users; commercial
and technical information regarding
and information for individuals and applications of UV-LEDs; and future
the science and engineering behind
organizations involved in the use of expected developments.
UV-LEDs.
UV & EB processing or who supply By Ed Kiyoi
equipment, chemicals or other By Jennifer Heathcote
65
materials to such users.
To develop and disseminate 39

procedures and data on safe
equipment operation and materials UV-LED Curing Systems: Market Overview of
handling, testing and quality control. Not Created Equal UV-LED Applications: Not a
For more information about The authors discuss some of the One-Size-Fits-All Approach
RadTech please visit us at architectural and design trade-offs UV-LED technology is not a one-size-
www.radtech.org UV-LED lamp makers have at their fits-all substitute for conventional UV
disposal; noting that UV-LED isnt for arc and microwave curing. What works
RadTech every application and not all UV-LED for one application does not necessarily
7720 Wisconsin Ave work for another. Businesses must
lamp systems are created equal.
Suite 208
By Sara Jennings, Bonnie Larson invest time and resources to develop
Bethesda, MD 20814
and Chad Taggard specific UV-LED solutions for each
240-497-1242
market application.
www.radtech.org
UV-LED Presented by RadTech
CONTENTS
N EW ARTI C LES
71 101 119
Wood Coating with UV-LED Analyzing the Business RadTech Conference Paper
Curing: A Focus on Heat Case for UV-LED Curing A 100% Solids UV-LED
The characteristics and benefits of UV- Part III: Interpreting Curable Floor Coating
LED curing systems for wood coating
applications are discussed, including Results A 100% solids UV-LED curable
recent temperature test comparisons This article is the final installment in a field-applied floor coating has been
and reviews formulating strategies for three-part series designed to illustrate developed. The coating is suitable for
optimizing the performance of UV-LED the process of conducting a business different flooring applications. The floor
systems. case analysis on UV-curing systems. coating industry will immensely benefit
By Ed Kiyoi By Jennifer Heathcote from this technology.
By Elena Komarova, Dennis Sheirs,
77 108 Brandy Padilla, Donald Wall and

Mark Davis
UV-C Light Emitting Diodes Advancements in UV-LED
The author discusses the technology Curing Technology and 126
Solutions for Print
behind UV-LEDs and how advances in
the UV-C range can complement longer RadTech Conference Paper
wavelength curing applications. UV-LEDs are becoming the light
source for curing UV inks in Mitigation of Oxygen
By Craig Moe
many printing applications. With Inhibition in UV-LED, UVA
82 and Low Intensity UV Cure
advancements in UV-LED technology,
whether it is performance, cost or
availability of formulations. UV- There are known physical and chemical
Analyzing the Business Case LED curing solutions is becoming ways to reduce oxygen inhibition or
for UV-LED Curing Part I: commercially viable. improve surface cure. This paper will
discuss these methods, provide starting
Identifying Cash Flow By Pamela Lee
point formulations that use the chemical
113
Before proceeding with ROI, PB and solutions, and show the cured coating
LCCA calculations on the purchase, properties of these formulations.
integration and operation of a UV-LED By JoAnn Arceneaux, Ph.D.
curing system, it is important to first Comparing Traditional
identify the cash flows discussed in this UV Systems with UV-LED 135
Systems for UV Curing
paper and collect the respective data.
The data should reflect the actual values
specific to the facility and its geographic Enthusiasm and rapid development RadTech Conference Paper
location as well as the exact UV-curing are two characterizations of the entry
of UV-LED sources into UV-curing
Pushing the Limits of
systems being evaluated.
By Jennifer Heathcote applications. In many cases, UV-LEDs LED Curing and Looking
are replacing the traditional mercury- Forward to a Bright Future
90
based, medium-pressure lamps. We
It is now possible to produce offset
will explore some of the similarities
printing inks that can utilize the
and differences of these UV sources,
Analyzing the Business Case concentrating on measurement.
advancements in UV-LED lamp
for UV-LED Curing Part II:

technology. Not only is it possible
By R.W. Stowe to develop inks that can be used
Executing Calculations for packaging applications, it is also
This article is the second installment in possible to provide inks that can be
a three-part series designed to illustrate used as a primary food package. As
the process of conducting a business case the technology continues to grow, the
analysis on UV-curing systems. ability to utilize these curing processes
will become more commonplace.
By Thomas R. Mawby
www.radtech.org
UV-LEDs and Curing
Applications:
Technology and Market
Developments
T
By Robert F. Karlicek, Jr. he light-emitting diode (LED) lighting, white LEDs are becoming
industry is undergoing rapid bright enough to replace mercury
technological and market lamps and sodium vapor lamps in
changes driven by the development street lighting applications. There is
of efficient, white LEDs for liquid also progress in developing UV-LEDs
crystal displays (LCDs) and lighting. for curing applications, but progress
UV-LEDs are poised to benefit from is being made at a much slower
these developments (including pace. The LEDs that are used for
higher efficiency, higher output UV curing and lighting applications
power and lower cost), largely are technically similar, as are the
because UV and white LEDs are challenges of using them in either
technically similar. However, there UV curing or lighting applications.
are market-related challenges Regardless of whether LEDs emit in
the UV or are used for lighting, both
This article summarizes the technology and market markets are demanding the same
trends related to LEDs and their impact on the things from LED manufacturers:
More light (or UV) output
development of UV-LEDs for curing applications. Higher operating efficiency (more
electrical input converted to light)
slowing continued improvements in Lower cost for LEDs
UV-LED performance. This article LED system designs more suitable
provides a broad overview of recent for putting the right amount of light
UV and visible-LED technology (or radiation) where needed
improvements and discusses market
developments and the impact that These market demands are
these developments may have on the driving rapid technical changes
development of UV-LED systems for in LED designs; improvement in
UV-curing applications. performance; and reductions in cost.
Innovation at the system level is also
Introduction proceeding rapidly, as lighting fixture
LEDs are beginning to challenge designers and UV-system integrators
existing lamps used for lighting and wrestle with how best to implement
UV-curing applications. In general the visible or UV-LEDs that are
2016 RadTech International N.A. RadTech eBook 4

commercially available today. LEDs
are a disruptive technology promising
Figure 1
superior efficiency and reliability for
creating UV and visible radiation when
Approximate efficiency versus wavelength
compared to conventional UV and
for nitride LEDs
visible lamps. Because of this LED
potential, LED technology and even
the business structures and supply
chain models associated with LEDs
and the systems that use them are
evolving rapidly. This is especially
true for visible-LEDs and LED system
designers in the LCD display and
general lighting markets where the
revenue potential is huge and there is a
strong focus on replacing conventional
incandescent and mercury-based
lighting sources. These technical and
market developments (driven primarily LEDs can be made at any wavelength along the curve, and
by visible-LED manufacturers and the colored markers are positioned at commercially important
customers) present both opportunities wavelengths where relative size of the marker suggests market
and challenges for the development of size for LEDs at those wavelengths. If UV-LED efficiencies
improve to the levels of todays 450nm LEDs, they would be
UV-LED-based curing systems. This more than twice as efficient as mercury lamps and offer a wider
article summarizes the technology and range of UV wavelengths.
market trends related to LEDs and
their impact on the development of
UV-LEDs for curing applications.
the wavelength to move from blue into Regardless of wavelength, the
LED Technical Overview the UV. In principle, any wavelength design of an LED is extremely
LEDs are made from crystalline from 250 nm (UVC) to 570 nm complex, requiring the crystal growth
compound semiconductors resembling (greenish yellow) can be manufactured of many extremely thin (just a few
silicon (used for conventional by adjusting the semiconductor atoms thick) layers of various alloys
electronics). Unlike silicon used composition. of these nitride semiconductors
in computer and memory chips, With todays technology, the on a substrate. The design, purity
compound semiconductors can emit intensity of light (visible or UV) and crystalline quality of these
light when energized. LEDs are emitted by an LED depends strongly layers control not only the emission
monochromatic (single color) emitters on the wavelength (Figure 1). Blue wavelength but also the output
and the wavelength (color of the light) LEDs are the most efficient of all power and lifetime of the LED. The
from an LED depends on the chemical the nitride LEDs. The intensity LED and LED systems supply chain
composition of the semiconductor drops quickly as the wavelength gets from semiconductor to applications
material. For both UV curing and shorter, especially below 365 nm is shown in Figure 2. The substrate
lighting applications, the semiconductor where there are special technical and with the crystalline layers grown on
material is made from alloys of AlN, manufacturing challenges related to it is typically called an LED wafer
GaN and InN (aluminum nitride, growing high aluminum content nitride (Figure 2A). After it is grown, standard
gallium nitride and indium nitride, materials needed for UV emission. semiconductor processing technology
respectively). Increasing the indium As research continues on short- is used to convert the wafer into
concentration causes the LEDs to wavelength UV semiconductors, thousands of small LED chips
emit blue or green light. Reducing the these problems will be solved and (Figure 2B). These chips are tested
indium concentration and increasing much higher power UVC-LEDs will at the manufacturer for wavelength
the aluminum concentration causes become available. and brightness (and a host of other

Figure 2 Clearstone Technologies, Inc.). The
Feature
visible-LED analog to UV flood cure
LED arrays would include the LED-
Typical supply chain for UV-LED curing equipment based light bars now used on law
UV-LED system manufacturers typically integrate either bare enforcement vehicles, or LED street
chips (B) or packaged chips (C) to build a UV-LED system. lights that are now beginning to appear
in some areas. Applications for arrays
of single packaged LEDs (visible or UV
wavelength) are typically limited to
flood applications.
Moving beyond flood applications
requires much higher optical output
from individual LED chips or packages.
For that reason, there is an increasing
trend to put multiple LED chips
in a single package to increase the
concentration of optical output (W/cm2
of either UV or visible radiation).
This introduces some new challenges
for LEDs for thermal reasons. Unlike
relatively inefficient incandescent light
bulbs and high-power, mercury-arc
lamps which convert a high percentage
semiconductor properties), and sorted The earliest applications for single of their electrical input power to
into different performance bins. Due visible or UV-LEDs include flashlights infrared radiation (IR heat), LEDs emit
to the complexity of wafer and chip and fiber illuminators. (UV-LEDs are no IR radiation but still generate heat
fabrication processes, the light output beginning to appear from some system and must be cooled by conducting that
power (UV or visible wavelength) can integrators in spot-curing systems.) heat out of the package. Significant
vary by as much as a factor of two, To get higher irradiance (for UV research efforts are focused on the
even for chips coming from the same applications) or high illuminance development of advanced, high-power
wafer! Binned chips are then sold to a (irradiance corrected for eye sensitivity packages and thermal management
packager where the chip is placed in at visible wavelengths), many LED systems for visible-LEDs. These
a protective package with optics and packages are typically combined into system-level technical developments
solderable leads. System integrators a single fixture (such as in Figure will be useful for evolving high-power,
then purchase the packaged 2D for the UV flood illuminator from UV-LED curing system designs as well.
LEDs, adding electronics, thermal
management, optics and housings to
create a finished module.
Figure 3
From Packaged LED to Systems
A very large power UV-LED
(for UV Curing or Lighting)
Individual packaged LEDs are not The emitting area is 12 mm2 (rectangular
bright enough for many UV curing or chip in the center of the package) and is the
largest power LED on the market today.
lighting applications, but have made The large copper submount is required
some inroads in niche applications. for adequate thermal management.
The biggest challenge for system The package is also equipped with a
integrators is that while LEDs can be thermistor for thermal sensing.
very efficient, a single, packaged LED
doesnt really produce much optical
output (whether in the visible or UV).

Recently, there has also been an
Figure 4
Feature
interest in making very large power

LED chips (not arrays of smaller
chips) for high-power visible and UV
An experimental high-power, UV-LED system
applications. Most visible or UV-LEDs
range in size from 0.25 mm to 1.5 mm
(10 to 60 mils) on an edge, but larger
chips (up to many millimeters on an
edge) can be manufactured (such
as in Figure 3). Large, high-powered
LEDs like these are manufactured
using highly specialized fabrication
techniques. There are both advantages
and challenges in using very large,
high-power LED chips. Since the main
reason to use a very large LED chip
is to generate a very concentrated,
intense light source, these LEDs are
typically operated at very high input
current and high input electrical
power (over 50 W per single LED The operating concept is shown in (A) and a finished
chip!). These LEDs are ideal for fiber module in (B), actual operation in (C) and an intensity profile
measured 80 mm from the base of the unit in (D). Operation
illuminators since they can produce
is based on a proprietary LED and optical design intended
a very bright point source that is to emulate the power levels and emission patterns of high-
easily coupled to a fiber guide for power, mercury-arc lamp systems.
spot irradiation.
Using very large LED chips can also
be advantageous for projecting very
high irradiance using systems much
like those designed around high- dropped about 10 fold per decade In principle, shorter wavelength
power mercury lamps. Novel optical but recent demand for improved UV-LEDs could be as efficient as
and special thermal designs are being white LEDs has produced even visible-blue LEDs, but major technical
investigated using very large power faster brightness increases and cost breakthroughs will be required for
LED chips so that geometric optics reductions. Continued pressure on this to happen. Over the past few
(elliptical or parabolic reflectors) can improving light-emitting performance years, more research has focused
be used to re-image the intense surface and reducing cost are driving on the development of UVC-LEDs
irradiance from large LED chips to technology changes in all parts of the for germicidal applications, and the
produce uniform high irradiance LED manufacturing supply chain, market interest for UVC-LEDs in
patterns very similar to those obtained as shown in Table 1. Some of these germicidal applications is driving more
from conventional mercury lamp developments will prove useful for investment in the research needed
systems (Figure 4). UV-LEDs, especially the longer UVA to improve UVC-LED performance.
wavelengths in which the nitride Since the nitride materials used to
LED Technology Trends semiconductor compositions in the make LEDs are closely related, the
Since visible-LEDs were first LED wafer are the most similar to technology leading to improvements in
developed in the early 1960s, technical those of the blue LEDs which are used UVC-LED performance for germicidal
improvements have led to tremendous for display and lighting applications. applications will be directly applicable
increases in brightness and large The large drop in LED efficiency to making much better UV-LEDs
reductions in cost. On average, LED at wavelengths at and below 365 nm at UVB and UVA wavelengths as
brightness has increased about 10 (Figure 1) will require significant well. This is a normal part of the
fold per decade and LED price has advancement in LED-chip technology. evolution of new LEDs operating

at new wavelengths. As the
Table 1
Feature
nitride semiconductor material
qualities improve, UV-LEDs at any
wavelength needed for UV curing
Technology trends in various portions of the LED supply
will be available with efficiencies
chain driving increased LED light output power and
exceeding those of the mercury
price reduction
lamps used today. UV-LEDs stand to profit from LED performance and price improvements
largely directed at visible-LED applications.
LED Market Evolution and
UV-LEDs for Curing
The economies of scale needed
to make LED chips and packages
(visible or UV wavelength)
affordable require LED chip
manufacturers to make and sell
hundreds of millions of LED chips
per month, so LED developers
tend to focus on those markets
and applications that can absorb
high quantities of LED chips and
packages. The technical challenges
of making LEDs at high yield
drive manufacturers to focus on
making and selling only those
particular colors of LEDs needed
for high-volume applications. While it 508 nm for traffic signal green, and so white LEDs the best performing and
is possible to make an LED at almost on). The greatest present demand for lowest cost nitride-based LEDs available.
any wavelength, it is usually possible LEDs is for mobile display applications Because LEDs are primarily
to purchase LEDs only at particular with demand for LEDs for notebook used in consumer electronics with
wavelengths tied to high-volume computers and LCD TVs increasing the associated pricing sensitivity
applications (450 nm blue for white, rapidly. This focus has made blue for characteristic of those markets, the
preponderance of LED manufacturing
Figure 5 now takes place in Asia (Figure 5).
Almost all new investment for LED
LED production capacity by region* manufacturing, including R&D
investment for LED performance
Today, the largest LED improvement, is also in Asia. Because
capacity expansion market opportunities for visible-LEDs
investments are being are much larger than those for
made in China, Taiwan
UV-LEDs, there are many more suppliers
and Korea, largely being
driven by interest in LEDs of visible-LEDs than there are of UV-
for displays and lighting LEDs for curing applications. While
applications. most white LEDs are made from blue
LED chips, some white LEDs are also
made from near UV (~400 nm)-LEDs
and multiple wavelength converting
* Courtesy of Canacord Adams phosphors. It is possible to argue that
400 nm LEDs are available for UV-curing
applications because they were first
developed for lighting markets.

From an applications point of view, Reduced incentives to make R&D least 10 times more expensive than
Feature
both white-power LEDs for lighting investment for higher power their blue LED cousins.
(referred to as solid state lighting) and shorter wavelength UV-LED
The UV curing market itself
and UV power LEDs for curing materials, delaying the development
introduces another challenging wrinkle
applications face similar technical and of higher power UV-LEDs operating
for the development of UV-LEDs
market challenges. Some of these are below 390 nm (and especially below
and the curing systems using them
outlined in Table 2. While the history 365 nm).
most coatings and inks are developed
of UV curing with mercury lamps Reduced market incentives for and coating processes optimized
is considerably shorter than that manufacturers to develop and sell for the complex mix of narrow UV
of electrical lighting, both markets UV-LED chips. (Today, there are wavelengths produced by mercury
have evolved application designs
really only two to three suppliers of lamps (among them the 254 nm, 315
and product distribution structures
very high-performance UV-LED nm, 365 nm emission lines of atomic
geared toward a bulb/fixture model.
chips, compared to several dozen mercury). Coating formulations and
This is a model not well suited for
manufacturers of blue-LED processes will need to be developed
manufacturers of LED systems
chips for display and lighting specifically for the monochromatic
(lighting or UV curing).
applications.) nature of UV-LEDs if UV-LED curing
The adoption of these disruptive
Inflated pricing for UV-LED curing systems are to be more widely adopted.
LED-based technologies (in both
systems due to high LED chip and This work is already underway as
lighting and UV curing) will require
packaged LED pricing as limited formulators explore the use of new
new market structures. In the lighting
market, this is already happening with competition provides no incentive photoinitiators and processes
companies that formerly made only to reduce pricing. If one compares optimized for wavelengths other than
LED chips now vertically integrating to the prices of similarly designed blue those that come from mercury lamps.
become lighting companies (Cree, for and UV-LED devices on a price per The absence of very high irradiance
example, with many others following optical output power (or price per UV-LED systems; insignificant
suit). Similarly, most conventional photon) basis, UVA-LEDs are at irradiance at shorter wavelengths;
light fixture companies are working
to acquire or partner with LED
companies (Philips/LumiLEDs
Table 2
acquisition of Genlyte, one of the
Comparison of market forces and their impact on both
worlds largest lighting fixture
manufacturers). The size of the
visible and UV-LED developments
market opportunity for LEDs in Market trends and pressures for both lighting and UV curing are quite
displays and lighting is driving a lot similar, suggesting that UV-LED systems will profit from riding the
of creative business development, coattails of LED-based, solid-state lighting improvements.
and some of this activity will
impact the availability of UV-LEDs
for curing applications.
Similarly, many larger UV-
mercury lamp system suppliers are
actively developing curing systems
based on UV-LEDs, and a host
of small companies are currently
selling specialized UV-LED curing
systems for niche applications.
The smaller market opportunities
for UV-curing systems relative to
LCD displays and lighting markets
have several effects on the
development of semiconductors
used to manufacture UV-LEDs:

Endv_GENOMER_3364_3414_3497.qxp 27.03.2009 14:53 Seite 1
surface curing issues; and high line history of LED development strongly Corporation, Luminus Devices, Inc.
speeds will limit the deployment of suggests that UV-LEDs will continue to and Canaccord Adams are gratefully
UV-LED systems until new coating develop, offering higher irradiance and acknowledged. w
formulations designed to work new, shorter wavelengths. Combined
specifically with LEDs are available. with improved energy efficiency, cool Robert F. Karlicek, Jr. is president
of SolidUV, Inc., in Chelmsford, Mass.
operation and much longer lifetimes,
Summary the evolution of UV-LED curing
Visible and UV-LED technology has systems will track the development of
improved tremendously in recent years, LED lighting, following the technical
with improvements in the performance progress at the chip, package and
and value of white LEDs for lighting system level, as well as emulating the
applications now allowing LEDs to business models now being developed
challenge conventional lighting sources. in the lighting industry to replace the
Improvements in the performance of incumbent incandescent, fluorescent
UV-LEDs has been slower because and UV-curing bulbs used today.
the UV-curing market is much smaller
than the display and lighting markets Acknowledgments
requiring white LEDs, but even now The contributions of photographs
UV-LEDs are being considered for some and data from SemiLEDs Corporation,
specialized curing applications. The Clearstone Technologies, Inc., Nichia

UV-LED Overview Part I
Operation and Measurement
U
By Jennifer Heathcote ltraviolet-curing systems process and integration benefits that
that incorporate light- UV-LEDs have over conventional UV
emitting diodes (UV-LEDs) curing systems. The second topic
and applications utilizing UV-LED cautions against practical limitations,
technology have been highlighted at lack of established installations, limited
conferences, profiled at tradeshows availability of inks and coatings, and
and incorporated into both prototype uncertainties regarding the UV-LED
and production systems (albeit to development timeline. These latter
varying degrees of success) since communications have been more of an
the turn of the 21st century. Its hard effort not to oversell the capabilities
to believe that in some markets, of the technology and to counter the
particularly UV digital ink jet, we have potentially disruptive nature of LEDs
been studying, trialing, promoting toward electrode and microwave
and integrating UV-LED systems for UV-curing systems. Well, I think its
nearly a decade. With the most recent finally safe to say, Message received.
advancements in the technology, Most users involved in UV curing
we are now achieving comparable and related technologies now readily
accept the fact that UV-LEDs are the
This new, pro-LED climate is great for generating present and the future, while at the
activity in many diverse markets, but the challenge same time they realistically understand
that UV-LEDs may not yet fit all their
has now become one in which the majority of those curing needs today.
who are newly interested in UV-LEDs have insufficient This new, pro-LED climate is great
understanding of the underlying technology. for generating activity in many diverse

markets, but the challenge has now
production speeds and throughcures to become one in which the majority of
those found in setups using traditional those who are newly interested in
forms of electrode and microwave UV UV-LEDs have insufficient
curing. While UV-LEDs are still not understanding of the underlying
the right fit for many applications, technology. Those of us promoting
the momentum of technological UV-LEDs have successfully sold
advancement and implementation potential users on the concept but then
continues to increase at an astonishing left many of them unsure as to how
and exciting rate, thus making many and when to actually implement the
more applications a plausible reality. technology into their processes. They
Most UV-LED articles and dont always know what questions to ask
professional society presentations or fully grasp the information they are
delivered during the previous decade provided. Through no fault of their own,
of development have predominantly many users simply dont have a sufficient
revolved around two distinct topics. The foundation to compare available
first promotes the technology by touting UV-LED systems or understand how
the limitless number of environmental, to correlate product and performance

Figure 1
a positive terminal). One does not
happen without the other. A diode is a
common electrical device that is added
P-n junction to a circuit as a means of restricting the
flow of electricity. It can generically be
thought of as a switch or a valve. A key
property of a diode is that it conducts
electricity in only one direction. A p-n
junction (positive-negative junction)
is a specially engineered diode that
is made of many layers of semi-
conductive materials where each layer
is less than half a micron thick. The
concept is commonly illustrated with
the diagram in Figure 1.
information against traditional curing challenges associated with measuring
A p-n junction is engineered from a
lines. This means that suppliers must UV output from LED sources. The
single piece of semi-conductive crystal.
spend a good portion of our time two subsequent articles will focus on
Impurities are impregnated or doped
educating and refining expectations, integration of UV-LED chips into actual
into the semiconductor and the two
while at the same time continuing to curing systems, as well as the history
sides (p and n) undergo a manufacturing
learn alongside our ink, coating and of LED development and current diode
process that results in the p-side of the
dispensing partners. manufacturing methods. Each article
junction becoming a positively charged
In an effort to consolidate some key will conclude with a brief summary
electrode while the n-side becomes
principles and technical information consisting of a series of questions
a negatively charged electrode. The
regarding the science and engineering intended to guide the reader as he/she
two sides of the diode are referred to
behind UV-LEDs, I will attempt to compares UV-LEDs and benchmarks
as the anode (+) and the cathode (-)
present an elementary foundation them against conventional UV systems.
respectively. Current is able to flow from
through a series of three articles. The
the p-side of the diode to the n-side, but
first article is meant to cover LED The P-N Junction
it cannot flow in the reverse direction.
operation and measurement and will In electrical circuits, conventional
Electrons, however, only flow from the
include information on (1) the p-n current flows from a positive terminal
n-side to the p-side.
junction, which is the basic building to a negative terminal. In order for
The junction boundary where the
block of the LED; (2) the LED p-n current to flow in this direction,
p-side and the n-side meet is called the
junction; (3) characteristics of UV electrons must simultaneously flow
depletion zone. While both the p-side
output from LEDs as compared to through the same circuit in the reverse
and the n-side are relatively conductive,
conventional UV bulbs; and (4) the direction (i.e., from a negative to
the depletion zone is not. This means
Figure 2 that without altering the characteristics

of the depletion zone, current and
Forward bias electrons will not flow through the p-n

junction at all. If the depletion zone is
minimized in both size and effectiveness,
electrons will be able to penetrate
the boundary and move from n to p.
The result is that electricity is able to
flow from the positive terminal to the
negative terminal of a low-voltage supply
when the supply is connected directly to
the anode and cathode of the junction.
In Figure 2, a voltage supply is
added to the diagram. When the anode

Figure 3
flow from the positive terminal of the
voltage supply through the n-side,
across the depletion zone and through
Reverse bias with sufficient voltage supply the p-side to the negative terminal of
the supply. Zener or avalanche diodes
are based on this scenario.
The LED P-N Junction

A light-emitting diode is a p-n
junction which, depending on the
semiconductor structure, could
theoretically be designed to emit
monochromatic wavelengths
throughout the entire electromagnetic
spectrum. This is known as
Figure 4
electroluminescense and it occurs at
room temperatureas opposed to the
more familiar incandescence which
LED p-n junction (forward bias) is only produced when materials are
heated to temperatures above 750C
(heat glow). A physical example of an
actual LED p-n junction is illustrated
in Figure 4. Both the anode (+) and
cathode (-) connectionsas well as
the semiconductor, wire bond and
protective outer case or lensare
shown in the sketch. Today, LEDs that
emit infrared (870-980 nm), visible
(390-780 nm), and some ultraviolet
(365-405 nm), as shown in Figures
5 and 6, are used in a wide variety of
applications.
is connected to the positive terminal to fill the holes on the p-side. This is All of the concepts presented
of the voltage supply and the cathode called recombination. for the simple p-n junction apply to
is connected to the negative terminal, Switching the connections on the LED. When a voltage source is
a forward bias is created. Imagine that the voltage supply creates a reverse connected to the LED with a forward
the p-side of the junction is composed bias situation. In this case, the bias, current flows from the p-side to
of tiny, positively charged holes while negative terminal of a voltage supply the n-side (anode to cathode). As the
the n-side contains a lot of negatively is connected to the anode and the electrons cross the depletion zone
charged electrons. The effect of a positive terminal is connected to and fill a hole, they drop into a state
forward bias voltage is that the positive cathode. The resulting effect is that of lower energy. The excess energy
holes in the p-region and the negative the positive holes in the p-region and is released in the form of a photon
electrons in the n-region are pushed the negative electrons in the n-region that can transport electromagnetic
from opposite directions toward the move away from the depletion zone radiation of all wavelengths, including
depletion zone. This significantly as they are attracted to the opposing infrared (IR), visible and UV light.
reduces the width of the depletion charge on the voltage supply. This The selection of semiconductor and
zone, causing the electrons on the increases the width of the depletion doping materials determines the exact
n-side to respond to the attractive zone and inhibits the flow of electricity. wavelengths emitted from the diode
forces of the holes on the p-side. In certain cases where a high enough when the photon is released. Different
When a sufficient voltage is used, the voltage is applied, the p-n junction dopants possess varying band gap
electrons penetrate through the barrier can break down causing current to energies that, at an atomic level and

Figure 5
Electromagnetic spectrum
Figure 6
Examples of (a) UV (b) visible and (c) IR-LEDs
(a) (b) (c)
not something covered in this article, experiments could not be easily provide common examples of inorganic
determine the specific wavelength that controlled, and it was difficult to semiconductor materials as well as the
is emitted from an LED. understand exactly how the emission corresponding wavelength regions.
While the LED was first observed occurred or what was causing it. Early It is possible to follow the evolution
in 1907, it was only in the last 50 successes were achieved with longer of LEDs over the last 50 years by
years that LEDs emitting sustainable wavelength visible light and infrared. considering the introduction of
and useful wavelength(s) have truly It wasnt until 1992 that a UV-LED standard household goods into daily
evolved. Optimal combinations of with an efficiency of around 1% was life. Red LEDs were first used as status
semiconductor materials and dopants produced in a lab environment in and function indicators on mainframe
were intentionally and unintentionally Japan, and it wasnt until about 2002 computers, circuit boards and multiline
identified through experimentation that UV-LED curing systems with telephones in the mid 1960s. In the
and trial-and-error. The primary efficiencies in the single digits began 70s and 80s, TV remotes and garage
challenge has always been that these to enter the market. Tables 1 and 2 door openers (which both employ

Table 1
IR-LEDs) were introduced, as well as
red indicator LEDs on appliances and
electronics. Green LEDs were used to
Core semiconductor materials1 illuminate the dial pads on early
push-button telephones, and LEDs
Materials Wavelength
used for alphanumerical displays on
Silicon 190-1,100 digital calculators, watches and signs
Germanium 400-1,700 became common.
Indium gallium arsenide 800-2,600 By the beginning of the 1980s, liquid
Lead sulfide 1,000-3,500 crystal displays (LCDs) replaced LEDs
on watches and calculators; however,
LEDs continued to be used as back
lighting. In the late 90s, as engineers
gained greater understanding and
Table 2 control of the manufacturing materials,
more visible colors entered the
Engineered semiconductor combinations1 market and were subsequently used
in all types of electronics, as well as
Materials Wavelength for both decoration and function in
Aluminum gallium arsenide Red and Infrared automobiles, airplanes and buildings.
(AlGaAs) Extremely bright LED flashlights came
Aluminum gallium Green onto the market around the turn of the
phosphide (AlGaP) century, and IR-LEDs were introduced
Aluminum gallium indium Bright orange red, orange, for use in security cameras. They are
phosphide (AlGaInP) yellow, green now commonly used for video and
Aluminum gallium indium Ultraviolet - down to 210 nm audio controls as well as for local area
nitride (AlGaInN)
communication networks. Starting
Aluminum gallium nitrate Near to far ultraviolet, violet in 2004, arrays of red, white and
(AlGaN) green LEDs were designed for use as
Aluminum nitrate (AIN) Near to far ultraviolet automotive headlights and taillights
Boron Nitride Ultraviolet as well as traffic and pedestrian
Diamond (C) Ultraviolet crossing signals.
In the last 10 years, the technology
Gallium arsenide phosphide Red, orange and red, orange,
underlying white light LEDs has
(GaAsP) yellow
emerged and the overall cost of visible
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) Infrared
LEDs has been driven down to the
Gallium phosphide (GaP) Red, orange, yellow, green point that they are readily available
Gallium nitrate (GaN) Green, emerald green at any brick-and-mortar or online
Gallium nitrate (GaN) with Blue, white electronics store. Red indicator LEDs
AlGan quantum barrier can now be purchased for pennies
Indium gallium nitrate Bluish green, blue, near as opposed to the several hundred
(InGaN) ultraviolet dollar-per-unit price of the 60s.
Sapphire (Al2O3) as Blue Todays blue LEDs, which are a more
substrate recent development, still cost several
Silicon (Si) as substrate Blue (under development) dollars in comparison. Larger urban
areas have recently become populated
Silicon carbide (SiC) Blue
with electronic LED billboards that
Zinc selenide (ZnSe) Blue
can quickly change display as traffic
streams past. Despite all these
advances, further expansion of LED

Figure 7
broadband spectrums utilizing the
shorter wavelengths for surface
cure and the longer wavelengths
Spectral output of LED systems compared to for penetration and adhesion. Much
traditional UV system of that chemistry relies heavily on
photoinitiators tuned to 365 nm. As a
result, not all previously formulated
broadband UV ink chemistry will
work with monochromatic LEDs. In
many cases, the chemistry must be
reformulated to react and accomplish
the same or similar cure results
within the more restrictive but also
incredibly more intense band of LED
output. While this no doubt presents
challenges, it also yields the positive
aspect of eliminating the infrared and
UVC components. As a result, when
compared to conventional curing, there
is less heat transfer to the substrate
(no IR) and no harmful UVC rays or
resulting ozone to address. The UV
from current LEDs is all UVA with a
technology across both the visible UV-LED Output as Compared to slight visible component in the violet
and UV spectrum still presents many Arc and Microwave wavelength range.
challenges and will continue to do so While LED, mercury arc and Secondly, what is often surprising
into the foreseeable future. microwave systems all emit UV energy, to those new to UV-LED technology is
The specific design of an individual UV-LEDs have unique characteristics that longer wavelength UV-LEDs (385,
UV-LED chip or diode depends on the that make the spectral output 395 and 405 nm) actually emit more
desired wavelength, peak UV irradiance very different from that of more UV irradiance at their peak wavelength
and capabilities of the LED chip conventional systems. First of all, than conventional UV bulbs. This is
manufacturer. While the physical size of UV-LEDs emit a relatively also illustrated in Figure 7 which shows
the chip can vary by design or supplier, monochromatic band of UV that peak irradiance at 395 nm and 405 nm
the device tends to be around 1 mm is centered at a specified peak of 10 W/cm2 for the LED system and
square. The individual LED diodes are wavelength; whereas, arc and 2 W/cm2 at 365 nm for a conventional
then combined and packaged in various microwave systems are broadband UV system. The LED chips used to
ways to produce larger arrays targeted emitters with a range of output create the chart emit up to five times
to specific applications. The actual between 200 and 445 nm. Common the peak irradiance of microwave
packaging and integration of these wavelength peaks for UV-LED systems and mercury arc systems; however,
chips into larger diode assemblies or a are 365, 375, 385, 395 and 405 nm. it is concentrated in a very narrow
full UV-curing system will be covered Figure 7 illustrates this difference. The bandwidth. When users first view
in article two. For the purposes of this magenta spectral output in the chart is an LED system in operation, they
article, use of the words chip, diode from one conventional UV-arc system; often comment that the light appears
or die refers to the individual LED whereas, the five monochromatic brighter or more purple than
semiconductor, while LED array implies peaks toward the right half of the chart conventional UV systems. This is due
the full curing assembly, historically were emitted from five separate LED to the greater irradiance of UV-LEDs
known as the lamp head or irradiator. chips with outputs centered at their and the fact that for 395 and 405 nm
Any given LED array will incorporate respective peak wavelength. LEDs, a portion of the UV output
tens, hundreds or even thousands of Over the past 60 years, UV chemistry curve is actually in the visible portion
LED chips in its overall design. has been formulated to react with of the spectrum.

Thirdly, the output of a UV-LED is outputs could be produced. The longer the future. For now, simply know that
based on the amount of current flowing wavelength UV-LEDs (395 and UV-LEDs have the promise of being
through the chip. This will be covered 405 nm) more closely resemble LEDs incredibly energy efficient and, in certain
in more detail in article two as well as in the visible spectrum. Since the applications in which the LED array and
LED and total power consumption. For visible technology is more established, the chemistry are precisely matched,
now, simply note that the irradiance it is easier for chip manufacturers the application can be considered
of an LED chip increases or decreases to produce more powerful and more more efficient than conventional UV
as the forward current through the efficient LEDs at wavelengths closer curing. The energy savings for most
chip changes. This is different than arc to the visible spectrum as compared to current LED applications, however,
and microwave systems which require shorter wavelength UV-LEDs (365 and is negligible when compared to
more energy from physical ballasts and 375 nm). This is exemplified by the conventional curing applications due
magnetrons to produce additional UV. decreasing UV peaks shown in Figure 7 to the need for the chiller. Dont just
While there are many advantages to this as one moves left along the chart. assume that UV-LEDs translate into
that will be covered in article two, one With continued improvements in the direct energy savings. Sometimes it is
primary advantage that anyone who has science and manufacturing process, the case and sometimes it isnt. One
experience handling UV systems can UV-LEDs will increase in both output must run the numbers to be sure.
appreciate is that the power supplies for and electrical efficiency. For now, it is
LED systems are significantly smaller important to simply realize that with Measuring UV-LED Output
and lighter than those needed for todays technology it may take more Before discussing how to measure
conventional UV systems. total consumed energy to produce the UV output from LEDs, lets review the
Finally, UV-LED chips are currently necessary UV output for your specific definitions of irradiance (intensity) and
less efficient than conventional UV application than would be the case energy density (dose). In the RadTech
systems as well as visible and IR- with conventional curing. UV Glossary and in many articles
LEDs. This is often a surprise to The fact that todays UV-LEDs are written by Jim Raymont of EIT that
most people as visible LEDs have inefficient is the only reason that liquid have been published in previous issues
become increasingly common in chillers must be used for cooling the of the RadTech Report, irradiance and
everyday society and their high higher output arrays as opposed to energy density are defined as follows.
energy efficiencies have been strongly using air cooling. Less than 20% of the Irradiance is the radiant power
promoted in recent news features. electrical energy supplied to the LED arriving at a surface-per-unit area. With
Seasonal holiday decorations now system is actually converted into UV. UV curing, the surface is most often
incorporate visible LEDs that require As a result, the remaining energy is the substrate and a square centimeter
little if any cooling, claim to last wasted as heat. The amount of heat is the unit area. Irradiance is expressed
indefinitely, are 80-90% more efficient energy is so significant that the only in units of watts or milliwatts per
than normal lights and are relatively way to effectively remove it from the square centimeter (W/cm2 or mW/cm2).
inexpensive. If only this were the case system is by circulating a liquid coolant In UV curing, the term intensity is also
for UV-LEDs. Unfortunately, present around a heat sink attached to the commonly used to describe irradiance;
technical limitations render UV-LEDs chips. In general, systems that are rated however, irradiance more correctly
around 10 to 20% efficient for longer below 4 W/cm2 can be effectively cooled describes the concept of UV arriving at
wavelengths (395 and 405 nm) and with air; however, less than 4 W/cm2 a two-dimensional substrate.2
less than 10% for shorter wavelengths is not normally a sufficient irradiance Radiant energy density is the
(365 nm). This is because UV-LED for most curing applications. All energy arriving at a surface per unit
dies have only recently evolved out of arrays rated at 4 W/cm2 or higher must area. A square centimeter is again the
IR and visible LED developments and presently be cooled with a liquid chiller. unit area and radiant energy density
have not yet been optimized for the As the individual chip technology is expressed in units of joules or
UV region. improves, the higher output systems millijoules per square centimeter (J/cm2
As more and better combinations will eventually be cooled with air. It or mJ/cm2). The radiant energy density
of semiconductors and dopants have is even possible that one day little to is the time integration of irradiance.
been discovered and engineered, a no additional cooling will be needed. In UV curing, the term dose is also
wider, more intense and increasingly Unfortunately, it is difficult to know commonly used to describe radiant
efficient range of wavelengths and if that reality is five or 50 years into energy density.2

It should be noted that there is a wavelength are important whether the and the number of passes under the
maximum irradiance output from a emitter is mercury arc, microwave or LED will affect the total energy density
UV system at a given power level that LED. While the values themselves do at the curing surface. As a result, it is
is concentrated at a specified location not necessarily need to be measured, important to first select or arrange the
underneath the UV emitter. While the curing system and setup must UV-LED array(s) to cover the desired
irradiance attenuates as distance yield the UV requirements of the ink curing surface in one direction. The
away from the specified location or coating chemistry in order to obtain corresponding number of LED chips
increases, most applications orient full cure. or the length of the LED array(s) in
the UV source and setup so that the The irradiance value of 2, 4, 8 or 10 the perpendicular direction is then
curing surface is always in the spot W/cm2 for a given LED system (and determined by the applications
of maximum irradiance. As a result, commonly quoted by LED equipment energy density requirements. This is a
irradiance is treated as a fixed value, manufacturers) is typically measured variable factor based on chemistry and
while radiant energy density is variable at the emitting window of the LED line speed.
and can be increased by slowing the array. It attenuates significantly as Both applications with faster line
line speed, increasing the number of the distance between the emitting speeds and chemistry that requires
UV systems directed at the curing area window and the curing surface greater energy density will result in the
or by passing the UV source over the increases. It should be noted that need for LED arrays with more LED
curing surface multiple times. This fact the focal point commonly referenced chips, the use of multiple LED arrays
applies to mercury arc, microwave and with conventional UV systems is not or arrays that have been optimized for
LED systems alike. typically applicable for LED systems. greater output, or the use of repeated
With traditional UV systems, we While LED chips can be packaged in an passes underneath the LED array(s)
tend to communicate in nominal terms arrangement so that all UV energy is as demonstrated by scanning head
of Watts/cm or Watts/inch. While directed to a specified focal point, this wide-format UV printers. All of this
this terminology loosely applies to is not common practice. Current UV- currently complicates the process of
electrode and microwave UV systems, LED systems more closely resemble selecting an LED system for a given
it doesnt apply to LED systems at all. the flood profile of traditional systems. application. In other words, several
On the other hand, both irradiance The number of LED chips in the different LED systems all rated at 8
(W/cm2) and energy density (J/cm2) actual array, the way the chips are W/cm2 will all produce 8 W/cm2 at the
at the curing surface for a given powered and arranged, the line speed emitting window; however, this rating
Figure 8
Table-top integrating sphere and floor-standing integrating sphere

Figure 9
does nothing to communicate the
overall dimensions of the curing area;
the number of LED chips; the packing
density or optimization of the diodes; Power output representation for a 405 nm
or the resulting energy density (J/cm2) LED source
for your specific setup and line speed.
The best advice is to work closely with Peak irradiance of
10.2 W/cm2 at 405 nm
your ink and coating manufacturer as
well as your UV-LED and dispensing
supplier; and, if at all possible, conduct
trials to determine whether UV-LEDs
are currently a fit for your application.
There are a wide range of UV 16 nm width at half intensity
radiometers on the market designed to

measure UV generated by traditional
broadband mercury arc and microwave
UV systems. There have been many
articles written on these meters as well
as their proper use, limitations and
design variations. As a result, I wont
cover this material other than to make
it very clear that none of the existing
the integrating sphere and close the spheres inside surface is measured.
broadband meters can be used to
door. The die is powered and the Measurements are taken in 1 nm bands
measure the output from UV-LEDs.
UV energy is released from the LED and a mathematical computation that
I cannot emphasize this enough.
over its entire viewing angle. The includes the spheres circumference
UV radiometers designed for use
emitted UV bounces around inside and the LED size is used to determine
with broad band mercury arc and
the sphere and the energy that is the total UV output in W/cm.2 For most
microwave UV systems will not
radiated onto a detector of known current and potential users of UV-LEDs,
correctly measure the UV output
area and located somewhere on the its not necessary to understand all the
generated by UV-LEDs.
There are only a few companies in
the world currently manufacturing
Figure 10
UV-LED chips or dies. Each
Typical radiometer sensitivity (UVA response curve)
manufacturer measures the UV output
of the LEDs in an integrating sphere,
100% true energy only
also known as an Ulbricht sphere. measured near 375 nm
This device is best described as a
hollow sphere with a highly reflective 75% difference
between true
coating on the interior surface that and measured
allows for uniform scattering of light. energy values
Under reads by
Photos of typical integrating spheres about 75% at
are shown in Figure 8. Light rays 395 nm
incident on any point on the inner

surface are, by multiple scattering
reflections, distributed equally to all
other such points and effects of the
original direction of such light are
minimized.3
Chip manufacturers place a single
LED die or arrangement of dies inside

Figure 11
physics behind an integrating sphere or
how the irradiance is exactly calculated.
What you should take away, however,
is an appreciation of the complexities Typical radiometer sensitivity (UVV response curve)
involved in accurately measuring
UV-LED irradiance and how integrating 100% true energy only
measured near 412 nm
spheres, due to their shape and size,
35% difference between true
arent practical measuring tools for most and measured energy values
commercial UV-LED applications.
Under reads by about
LED chip manufacturers specify 35% at 395 nm
LEDs based on the tolerance of the
peak wavelength. The tolerance is not
something that is engineered into the
manufacturing process, but rather
something that is measured after
production. The peak wavelength of
a finished chip is determined using
an integrating sphere and the chip is
categorized or binned with other LEDs
that have a peak wavelength that falls
within the same tolerance range. The
tighter the bin width (i.e., the smaller Figure 12
the tolerance), the more expensive
the dies become. Typical wavelength Radiometer sensitivity required for UV-LEDs
tolerances are +/- 5 nm, +/- 10 nm and (380-400 nm)
+/- 15 nm. In general, the greater the
diodes irradiance and the tighter the
binning, the more expensive the chip.
While looser bin selection results
in cheaper dies, the process cannot be
guaranteed. In other words, a wider bin
selection does not mean a wider width
of wavelengths. It just means less
control over the wavelength. A randomly
selected range of dies between 380 nm
and 420 nm could all be 380 nm, 420
nm or some mixed variation between
the limits. In practice, however, most
chips within a given bin range tend to be
skewed toward the upper limits.
A narrow bell-shaped curve, as
shown in Figure 9, provides a generic
representation of the UV distribution UV to cure a given ink or coating, it In the lab and in the field, many
from an LED source centered at 405 is difficult to quantify the amount of UV-LED trials have produced desired
nm. In this case, the LED has a peak UV that actually reaches the curing curing results; however, the results
value of 10.2 W/cm2 at 405 nm at the surface. This is because integrating have often been downplayed since
chip surface. At 8 nm on either side spheres are not a practical tool to use the radiometer readings produced
of the peak (397 nm and 413 nm), the in a production environment, and most irradiance and energy density values
intensity falls to 2.0 W/cm.2 While this radiometers are not tuned to the specific significantly lower than those recorded
particular LED may provide sufficient wavelengths emitted by UV-LEDs. with mercury arc and microwave curing

systems. Measuring UV output is an Comparing LED Technologies answers may change quickly with
extremely important tool in maintaining As you begin or continue to rapid advancements in the technology.
and comparing UV processes; however, conduct your own evaluation of LED Please dont let this discourage you. If
if incorrect and inappropriate tools are technology, there are several questions it turns you off to the technology, you
used, its simply a meaningless exercise. that you should consider. may quickly find yourself left behind.
Commonly used devices for As I mentioned at the beginning of the
What is the peak wavelength and
measuring UV irradiance and energy article and will now reiterate, while
bin tolerance of the LED array, and
density are fitted with four distinct UV-LEDs are still not the right fit for
what is the impact on the ink or
sensors, each designed to measure many applications, the momentum
coating chemistry?
one of the four UV bandwidths (UVV, of technological advancement and
UVA, UVB and UVC). The individual What is the irradiance specification implementation continues to increase
sensors have a response curve that of the LED array? at an astonishing and exciting
was engineered to fit conventional Where and how was the irradiance rate, thus making more and more
broadband UV-curing systems and specification measured? applications more plausible! w
were never intended to capture output
concentrated in the 380-400 nm range.
What are the requirements of References
the curing application in terms of 1. Held, Gilbert. Introduction to Light
The graphs in Figures 10 and 11
irradiance and energy density? Emitting Diode Technology and
represent the sensitivity response Applications. Florida: Auerbach
curves of typical UVA and UVV sensors. Does the broadband ink or coating Publications. 2009.
The UVA sensor is centered at 375 nm chemistry cure with UV-LEDs or 2. Raymont, Jim. Establishing and
and under reads the peak UV irradiance does it need to be reformulated to Maintaining a UV Process Window
RadTech Report. May/June 2002:
of a 395 nm LED system by 75%. match the narrow band UV-LED
14-25.
Conversely, the UVV sensor is centered wavelengths?
3. Integrating Sphere. Wikipedia.
slightly above 410 nm and under reads Can similar LED performance January 7, 2010. March 15, 2010.
the peak output of a 395 nm LED http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
results be achieved at the Integrating_sphere
system by approximately 35%. same operational line speed or
Only radiometers with flat response throughput used with conventional Jennifer Heathcote is general
curves, as illustrated in Figure 12, UV systems? manager, North America,
are capable of producing accurate UV for Integration Technology in
What are the criteria for the Chicago, Ill.
irradiance (W/cm2) and energy density
physical installation of the LED
(J/cm2) readings from UV-LED systems
array (moving or static head,
in the 380-400 nm bandwidth range. A
single or multiple pass, area to be
single channel radiometer specifically
cured, existence and types of space
fitted to this measurement profile and
restrictions)?
contained in the well-known hockey
puck style transporter was introduced What is gained or lost in using
to the market in early 2010. Only by LEDs (power consumption, heat,
using meters of this specific design can efficiency, operating cost, purchase
accurate measurements of UV output price)?
from a UV-LED curing system be It is important to note that there
obtained. Please keep in mind, however, are no dumb questions when it comes
that all instruments have some inherent to UV-LEDs. It is equally important
measuring error and you should contact to note that suppliers dont yet
the manufacturer or read the manual have all the answers. If you ask a
to adequately understand the devices question and dont get an answer
limitations. For example, radiometers or the answer doesnt make sense,
are typically accurate to +/-10% from the please keep asking. We are all still
calibrated value and repeatable to +/-5%. learning and sometimes the answers
In addition, temperature variations of arent yet known. In other cases, the
0.2% / C can also affect readings.

UV-LED Overview Part II
Curing Systems
T
By Jennifer Heathcote his article is the second the marketplace. With emerging
installment in a three-part technologies such as UV-LEDs, an
series designed to consolidate additional challenge in learning the
key principles and technical jargon lies in the fact that the language
information regarding the science has not yet been properly established or
and engineering behind ultraviolet defined with respect to the UV curing
light-emitting diodes (UV-LEDs). industry, let alone consolidated for easy
If you have not yet read Part I reference. This increases the chances
Operation and Measurement in the that many of us are not using the same
July/August 2010 issue, you may words or are using them incorrectly.
want to do so before continuing Furthermore, if the words have
with Part II. multiple meanings or if the definitions
The best approach when tackling of the words are not apparent,
any new topic is to begin with a study their usage can lead to confusion or
of relevant terminology within the misunderstandings between suppliers
context of the defined subject matter. and customers as well as within
Without a firm grasp of the common companies. How many conversations
language, key concepts often appear have each of us had regarding UV-LEDs
disconnected and it can be difficult in which we either assumed the other
to achieve full comprehension or party understood what we were saying
communicate effectively within or we pretended to understand what
Figure 1
UV-LED system components
Power Supply Unit
LED Array Interlock Box
(Temperature & Flow)
Liquid
Chiller
Interconnect Cable
Primary Secondary

Figure 2
shapes, sizes and designs and while
Figure 2 highlights common features of
a standard array, it is just one example.
Liquid-cooled, UV-LED array A fully assembled LED irradiator
typically includes an emitting window
that physically protects the LED
chips within the assembly. The
window is commonly made from a
flat piece of quartz or borosilicate
glass located on the head between
the LED chips and the media or part
being cured. Borosilicatewhich is a
colorless, silica glass with a minimum
of five percent boric oxideis less
expensive than pure quartz and offers
exceptional thermal-shock resistance
and strength in comparison to both
pure quartz and lower quality glass.
they were communicating to us simply The LED array of Figure 1 is a The emitting window is sometimes
because of insufficient knowledge curing assembly that provides a chemically treated to further enhance
of the words being used in the function similar to that of a traditional its optical properties. This treatment
conversation? In order to document UV lamp head or irradiator. Often the can give the window a purplish or
the language of UV-LEDs, educate the name LED array is shortened to array yellowish tint. The actual emitting
UV-curing industry and separate or generically referred to as the head. window is hidden from view in Figure 2,
the truth from current marketing It is not uncommon to hear an array but it can be seen on the exposed top
claims, this article will outline key incorrectly called a lamp head as this surface of the LED array in Figure 1.
terminology within a larger discussion has always been a frequently used term The power supply unit, often called
of the integration of LED chips into in the UV-curing industry. A standard a PSU, is an electrical enclosure that
UV-curing systems. UV-curing array houses the LED contains the parts necessary to power
chips and, in many cases, includes a
UV-LED System Components and control the array. It also serves
self-contained cooling fan when the as the communication link to a host
All UV-LED systems designed
maximum UV irradiance is less than machine. The driver board(s), which will
for integration onto an OEM or host
4 W/cm2. In arrays designed for peak be discussed in more detail in Driving
machine consist of three primary and
irradiances above 4 W/cm2, liquid the LED Array, directly power the
two secondary components. While
some companies within the industry cooling is more commonly used. For LED chips and can either be mounted
may elect to use unique marketing these arrays, tube fittings or quick inside the array housing as in Figure 2
names for these items, the primary disconnect couplings are attached or in the PSU itself. The interconnect
components are generally known as to the housing or manifold, and the cable is the final piece of primary
the LED array, the power supply unit LED-chip cooling fan is removed. The equipment. It provides the electrical
(PSU) and the interconnect cable. fittings or disconnects are the means connection between the LED array and
Two common secondary components by which the liquid circulation chiller is the power supply.
generally necessary for LED arrays connected to the head and its internal The array, power supply and
currently rated at or above 4 W/cm2 cooling tubes. If a cooling fan is interconnect cable are required for
are the liquid chiller and the flow present in the array of a liquid-cooled a fully operating UV-LED system;
and temperature interlock. Sample system, it is specifically for cooling however, not all three components
images of the primary and secondary other electrical components such as necessarily need to be supplied by the
components are provided in Figure 1. the driver boards. A detailed photo of a UV equipment manufacturer. In some
Ancillary items not shown would liquid-cooled LED array is provided in cases, integrators or end-users may
include material handling equipment, Figure 2. It should be noted that LED elect to design their own power supply
mounting brackets and light shielding. arrays are supplied in a wide range of and/or interconnect cable. Though

great care should be taken to assure through them. These four terms constraints of an existing assembly that
that the proper specifications are met, are used interchangeably whether may not have been designed with the
they may even decide to buy smaller referring to single or multiple LEDs. necessary curing application in mind.
LED array packages (called modules) (For additional information on diode While there are many
and build their own irradiator. operation, refer to Part I.) manufacturers of visible LEDs
A liquid chiller is the cooling system In general, UV system designers with production facilities located
most often required for LED arrays with source LED chips directly from throughout the world, only about half
UV outputs greater than 4 W/cm2. semiconductor manufacturers who a dozen are capable of developing and
The chiller is used to ensure the LED have binned or categorized them producing chips that emit wavelengths
chips and wire bonds remain at the according to a desired wavelength in the ultraviolet region. Some of
correct operating temperature. It does tolerance and forward voltage. UV these manufacturers include large,
this by removing unwanted heat that is system designers engineer the chips well-known, multinational brands such
a by-product of the electroluminescence into an irradiator assembly that is like as Nichia, Fox, Nitride and Cree. As
process discussed in Part I. While the electrically powered, cooled with air with any business, each manufacturer
UV supplier can furnish the chiller as or liquid, and equipped with a controls of UV-LED diodes has strengths and
part of the curing system, it is often interface and, sometimes, optics. This weaknesses, as well as established
more cost-effective for the integrator is similar to the way in which electrode corporate strategies that determine
or end-user to purchase an off-the- and microwave bulbs are sourced which markets they pursue. Since
shelf chiller locally or to design their and then integrated into a lamp head the UV-LED market is extremely
own. The required cooling capacity assembly or irradiator and connected small in comparison to that of the
will vary depending on the array to a power supply unit. A basic LED visible and infrared LED markets
configuration, so be sure to consult package can consist of one or several targeted toward the commercial
with the UV systems operating manual chips, while an LED array usually lighting, automotive, communications
or with the supplier before making a contains a large number of chips and securities industries, not all
decision. If the cooling system is not arranged in a matrix pattern. Both of the capable manufacturers are
correctly designed or integrated into terms refer to an arrangement of LEDs interested in producing chips for
the system, the LED chips will fail that are physically and electrically UV-curing applications. Furthermore,
prematurely. assembled together and include a the flexibility of the UV-LED
The temperature sensor and flow means for the entire assembly to be manufacturers with respect to the
meter monitor the coolant conditions at electrically connected to another diode or module configurations they
the inlet and outlet of the array. If the device. When a heat sink and, are willing to sell varies among
temperature of the circulating coolant occasionally, optics are added to the an already small list of potential
at the array inlet and outlet exceeds a LED package, it is often referred to as producers.
specified set point or if the outlet flow an LED module. Several LED modules LED chips are made from very
rate drops below its predetermined can be joined together to form an even tiny slices of semiconductive material
setting, the interlock circuit switches off larger LED array. such as silicon or germanium that are
the LED array. This is a safety feature Some LED chip suppliers sell doped or impregnated with additives
designed to ensure that the correct individual diodes that can be to produce specific n-type and p-type
operating temperature of the LED diode fully integrated by the UV system conductivity (as discussed in Part I).
is maintained and that overheating and manufacturer into customized This should not be confused with
destroying the wire bonds is avoided. It modules or LED arrays while others additive UV lamps in which the
should be noted that the interlocks can only provide their own engineered internal gas mixture is doped with iron,
either be supplied by the LED system modules. Purchasing individual diodes gallium and indium (among others) in
manufacturer or furnished by the enables the UV system manufacturer order to shift the spectral output of
integrator or end-user. to better control and differentiate the a standard mercury lamp. Individual
final system design. Purchasing pre- LED chips vary in size from a fraction
Packaging UV-LEDs packaged modules, on the other hand, of a millimeter to a few millimeters
LED, chip, die and diode all refer eliminates some of the engineering but square and are typically less than a
to discrete, individual semiconductors also forces UV system developers to hundred microns thick. A wire bonding
that emit light when current flows work within the size and performance process that employs ultrasonic

Figure 3
sufficiently removed. Figure 3 shows
a magnified image of 16 separate LED
diodes taken from a larger assembly
16 LEDs with a wire bond at each anode and cathode consisting of 100 chips. Two wire
bonds are visible for each diode with all
16 mounted in a matrix to form a larger
square pattern.
The wire-bonded diodes and PCB
are secured to a metallic heat sink or
slug. The heat sink is used to draw heat
away from the diode and wire bonds.
A flat encapsulate that is transparent
and made of silicone, borosilicate glass
or quartz is placed over an individual
LED chip or over several LED chips
for added protection. Alternatively, a
dome-shaped lens made of silicone is
sometimes used to control the UV rays
welding or thermal compression is electrode UV sources are restricted to a so that they are uniformly directed at
used to electrically connect LED chips much narrower envelope based on bulb the media or part being cured. A cross
to a printed circuit board (PCB). One technology and microwave cavity sizes. sectional illustration of one type of
wire bond is made at the chips positive In practice, most UV-LED arrays LED package with a lens is shown in
terminal or anode while the other is are likely to contain hundreds or even Figure 4. In this assembly, there are
made at the negative connection or thousands of LED chips in a given a total of 25 LED chips. There are 10
cathode. assembly. The more chips, the more diodes shown in full while the cross
One of the many advantages involved the manufacturing process section of the drawing splits one row of
characterized by LED sources is the and the more expensive the final five in half.
inherent scalability of the technology. assembly. For example, if there are As previously mentioned, several
An LED package can consist of just 400 LED chips in an array, then 800 LED modules can be arranged together
a single LED chip or thousands of wire bonds are required. It should be to create a physically larger LED matrix
interconnected dies. As a result, an noted that the wire bond is thermally or head. The use of multiple plug-in
LED source could, in principle, be sensitive and can be destroyed if the modules, each containing a diode
fabricated to any size and shape; heat, an unwanted by-product of the matrix, provides the benefit of being
whereas, conventional microwave and electroluminescence process, is not able to make plug-and-play repairs
in the field. This reduces downtime
Figure 4 or the need for a backup array as only
faulty or spent modules need to be
Cross section of a 25 die LED module replaced. Alternatively, LED arrays are
sometimes designed so that the UV-
LED chips, PCB and metallic heat sink
form one large, uniform assembly that
spans the desired curing width. Arrays
of this nature are non-serviceable
and cannot be taken apart in the field
as all chips in the assembly are wire
bonded directly to a single PCB and
heat sink. As a result, the entire array
must be returned to the manufacturer
for any necessary die repairs. Figure 5
provides examples of plug-in modules,

Figure 5
UV-LED arrays (a) three plug-in modules, (b) 1 LED array encompassing 16 plug-in
modules, and (c) 1 LED array with 100 diodes all mounted to a single PCB and heat sink
a b c
a serviceable LED array and a non- and quality processes, and new the arrays UV irradiance or intensity at
serviceable LED array. combinations of semiconductor the substrate surface. Alternatively, the
Part I discussed the nearly materials. total dose delivered to the substrate is
monochromatic nature of UV-LEDs and As with traditional microwave and a factor of the output of the individual
how LEDs rated at 395 nm and greater electrode UV-curing applications, dies, the total number of chips used
emit more than five times the UVA sufficient levels of both irradiance and and the end-use process speed.
intensity at these wavelengths than energy density over a specific range of Both irradiance and energy density
conventional electrode and microwave ultraviolet wavelengths are required measurements should be referenced
UV-curing lamps do at their respective for complete cure. When UV irradiance with the wavelengths generated by
peaks. Even greater irradiance levels is taken over a period of time, it is the array. Today, only longer UV
can be achieved through the use of known as the energy density or dose. and shorter visible wavelengths in
optics and driving techniques. Figure 6 For example, an intensity of 1 W/cm2 the range of 350 nm to 430 nm are
illustrates the rapid growth in UV exposed for 1 second is equal to 1 J/cm2 generated by LEDs for use in UV-
output for a 395 nm chip over the of energy density. The design and curing applications. Commercially,
past seven years. The increase can be manufacture of the LED chip, the these dies have peak irradiances at
attributed to gains in understanding current flow through the die and 365, 375, 385, 395 and 405 nm with
the science behind LEDs, the distance of the array from the tolerances of up to 15 nm.
improvements in the manufacturing substrate all contribute significantly to For certain types of inks and
coatings, a fourth variable (heat) is
Figure 6 sometimes necessary to achieve a
successful cure. In most cases, heat
Advancement of UV intensity for 395 nm LEDs transferred to the cure surface by
the LED array is negligible as there
is no infrared component in the
spectral output of an LED array. For
slower process speeds, however,
some of the radiated UV energy that
is not absorbed by the chemistry is
converted to heat at the substrate.
This heat, however, is less than what is
generated by electrode and microwave
UV systems. The advantage of using
UV-LEDs is that if heat is required for
the application, it can be controlled

independently of the UV device and, 40 to 50% efficient while electrode UV case of air-cooled systems, the fan will
if it is not required, it is essentially systems are around 25% efficient. likely be provided as part of the array
eliminated. Inefficiencies with UV-LEDs result assembly. Liquid chillers, on the other
It is critical that the correct in the production of large quantities of hand, can be provided by either the
combination of irradiance, energy heat. In general, diodes with greater UV system manufacturer or sourced
density, wavelength and heat be irradiance ratings generate more heat independently by the integrator or
used in order to cure a given ink or than diodes with lower irradiance end-user.
coating at the desired application ratings. Since LEDs with longer Most industrial chiller companies
process speed. For a properly selected wavelengths such as 395 and 405 nm recommend using a mixture of
wavelength source, irradiance and currently emit the most irradiance, industrial inhibited glycol and water as
energy density work together like they generate more heat than shorter the circulation coolant. An inhibited
time and temperature in a thermal wavelengths and must be liquid-cooled coolant prevents the formation of scale
process. Fortunately, there are various for maximum output. The heat is and corrosion while simultaneously
combinations of irradiance and energy not radiated in the form of infrared protecting the metals. In addition, it
density that may result in an optimally energy but is instead a by-product also offers protection against algae
cured product. Most UV-curing of the electroluminescence process. and bacteria, provided a minimum
processes, therefore, occur not at a If the heat is not removed, the wire concentration level is used. Ethylene
single irradiance or energy density bonds and LED chips, which cannot glycol has better thermal transfer
level, but within a process window exceed a sustained temperature of properties; however, propylene glycol
that should be established during the around 125C, will suffer catastrophic is more environmentally friendly.
process specification trials. failure. In addition, the surrounding Both are marketed in North America
Confusion in selecting the optimal frame, manifold or housing of the array under the brands DOWTHERMTM
UV-LED product originates in the assembly will absorb the heat and and DOWFROSTTM, respectively, and
fact that most UV-LED suppliers radiate it out toward the substrate or can typically be purchased in either
simply quote the peak wavelength and part being cured. concentrated or diluted form in small
maximum irradiance at the emitting In the near future, UV-LED volumes through chiller suppliers. It
window as well as the physical efficiencies will improve and the is good practice not to mix different
dimensions of the LED matrix. Not cooling requirements will gradually types or brands of glycol as this can
all arrays that seem to be identical decrease. While there are always precipitate some inhibitors out of
in these specifications, however, will exceptions, the general rule of thumb solution. The net effect is a reduction
provide similar irradiance, energy today is that arrays with outputs of less in the effectiveness of the coolant and
density and heat at the substrate over than 4 W/cm2 can be sufficiently cooled possible particulate buildup at various
an identical range of wavelengths. with air; anything greater is typically locations within the closed-loop system.
This can be a bit misleading and is the cooled with a liquid-circulation chiller. The DOW Chemical Company
single biggest difficulty in comparing An advantage of liquid-cooled systems recommends that concentrations of
UV-LED systems or in selecting the is that there is minimal air movement its products be maintained between
best system for a given application. around the UV-light source. This 25% and 60% glycol. Concentrations
makes for a cleaner process since in the lower range result in better
Cooling the LED Array cooling air frequently stirs up airborne heat transfer; however, using less
The overall efficiency of an LED contaminants and allows arrays to than 25% glycol can lead to corrosion
semiconductor chip refers to how be mounted close to thin or fragile and less than 20% glycol will result in
much of the electrical energy supplied substrates without disturbing them. bacterial contamination. Commonly
to the system is directly converted In addition, liquid-cooled systems are used proportions are 25%-30% glycol
into useable light energy. Technical typically more compact and can be to water. Distilled or reverse-osmosis
limitations presently render UV-LEDs more easily located in tight spaces. It water can be used to dilute the glycol.
around 10 to 20% efficient for longer is always important to note that exact De-ionized water can sometimes
wavelengths (395 and 405 nm) and cooling requirements vary depending be used for dilution as long as the
less than 10% for shorter wavelengths on the array design and size so be de-ionized state of the liquid is not
(365 nm). Visible and infrared LEDs, sure to consult with the supplier or maintained. Maintaining a de-ionized
on the other hand, are in the range of respective operating manual. In the state can result in the breakdown of

certain metals in the system. Most emit UV. Ballast, choke or transformer however, if the design voltage or current
chiller suppliers strongly discourage combinations are wired into the circuit rating of any individual LED chip is
against the use of regular tap water. to stabilize the amount of current exceeded for an extended period of
Similar inhibited coolants are available flowing through a struck bulb and time during operation, the chip will fail.
from other manufacturers and may be provide for various UV power output LEDs can be connected in series
more accessible given your location. levels. LEDs, on the other hand, are or parallel circuits as illustrated in
Before selecting a chiller or before entirely solid-state devices that emit Figures 7, 8 and 9. While all three
filling the reservoir, make sure you ultraviolet light immediately when simple circuits demonstrate the
consult with the UV-LED system and connected to a low-voltage, DC power connection of four diodes, UV-curing
chiller suppliers, their respective source and do not require a high-voltage arrays will typically have hundreds
manuals, state and local codes, and ignitor. Each LED chip is designed to or even thousands of individual
the corresponding Material Safety operate between 20 and 500 mA and LEDs wired into a single chain. In a
Data Sheet. between 2 and 4 volts DC. The amount series installation, if one LED fails,
Today, the decision of whether to of UV irradiance emitted from an LED current flow through the circuit is
cool an LED array with air or liquid is directly proportional to the amount interrupted downstream from the
is primarily based on the maximum of current passing through the device; faulty LED. Parallel circuits have the
irradiance level. Higher irradiance LED
systems tend to incorporate liquid Figure 7
chillers because they are the most
effective way to remove unwanted Four LEDs wired in series with resistors and a
heat and result in a more compact DC power supply
array. Lower irradiance LED systems
that incorporate air-cooled arrays emit
less UV, making it more difficult to
cure some materials at faster speeds.
This is the trade-off when air cooling
is used. Failure to provide sufficient
cooling with either air or liquid will
result in catastrophic and premature
failure of the wire bonds and LED chips.
A temperature sensor and flow meter
interlock is a great safety feature that
can and should be built into systems
using liquid chillers. If the temperature
of the circulating coolant at the array
inlet and outlet exceeds a specified
Figure 8
set point or if the outlet flow rate
Four LEDs with identical voltage ratings wired in
drops below its predetermined setting,
parallel with resistors and a DC power supply
the interlock circuit switches off the
LED array. Do not assume, however,
that your system is equipped with an
interlock. You should always consult
with the operations manual or your
supplier to be sure.
Driving the LED Array

Traditional electrode UV-curing
systems utilize an ignitor to strike a
2 to 4 kilovolt arc across the bulb in
order to vaporize the mercury and

Figure 9
pulsed current varies the proportion of
ON and OFF time per cycle.
Figure 10 illustrates PWM output
Four LEDs with different voltage ratings wired levels of 25, 50, 75 and 100% power.
in parallel with four different resistors and a Duty cycle is defined as the proportion
DC power supply of ON time to the total cycle time (ON +
OFF) and is expressed as a percentage.
A low duty cycle corresponds to low
power because the power is OFF most
of the time, whereas 100% is fully ON,
0% is fully OFF and 50% means that
the power is ON half the time and OFF
half the time. It should be noted that
the total cycle time or period, indicated
by P in Figure 10, is constant across
all four duty cycles.
With PWM, the peak irradiance
advantage of continued operation of all easily accommodate fluctuations (W/cm2) is the same for all power
functioning LEDs even if one or more in die tolerances and operating levels, but the duration of the pulsed
LEDs fail. In either type of circuit, temperatures. Even the slightest current and, therefore, the duration of
it is important that the anode and variation in running conditions can the pulsed irradiance, is varied so as to
cathode connections be alternated. produce wide swings in UV output increase or decrease the total exposure
This is because LEDs have polarity and and chip lifetime hours. Producing time or energy density (J/cm2). The
current will only flow in one direction. systems with multiple power levels two main reasons for using PWM to
Placing two anodes or two cathodes in is also challenging since it requires drive the UV-LED power levels, as
sequence will disable the circuit. the use of many different resistance opposed to varying the actual drive
In all three simple circuits, resistors levels in order to vary the current current through the LED circuit with
are precisely sized to ensure the correct through the circuit as a means of resistors, are that PWM (1) provides
voltage drop and current flow across changing the amount of UV emitted truly instantaneous and infinitely
each LED. Insufficient voltage and from each diode. As a result, UV variable control of the UV output
current will yield less than optimal UV equipment manufacturers generally and (2) prolongs the life of the chips.
output, while too much can lead to power LEDs with regulated, constant- In addition, PWM provides for easy
premature failure of the dies. When current drivers and employ an addressability of individual banks of
LEDs are wired in parallel, as illustrated optional technique known as Pulse LEDs or modules within an array.
in Figure 8, they must all have the Width Modulation (PWM) when it is The fast cycling or strobing
same voltage rating. Otherwise, necessary to vary the UV output. of LEDs using PWM occurs at
current flowing through each leg of The use of constant-current drivers frequencies of 2 KHz or greater. A
the circuit will vary and result in some enables each and every LED chip to 2 KHz frequency means that there
LEDs not lighting or not all LEDs always experience a non-fluctuating are 2,000 cycles (or current pulses)
emitting the same light output. If LEDs and continuous current when powered. every second. While this high of a
have different voltage ratings, then The LEDs are either ON or OFF frequency cannot be detected by the
appropriately sized resistors must with no variability in irradiance. For human eye, an observer will notice
be placed in each leg of the circuit applications that require multiple that the LEDs become increasingly
to balance the current flow. This is power levels, PWM is used to generate dimmer in appearance as the relative
illustrated in Figure 9 with resistors an almost infinite number of outputs. output decreases. With respect to an
w, x, y and z rated at different values. PWM takes advantage of the nearly application using a PWM frequency of
In practice, the use of resistors to instantaneous response time of LEDs 2 KHz in which the media is traveling
regulate voltage and current within an and works by quickly and efficiently beneath the array at 0.5 meters per
LED circuit is actually quite inefficient switching current to the diodes second, the UV source illuminates once
as resistors generate heat and cannot between ON and OFF. The length of the every 0.25 millimeters of media travel.

Figure 10
The array driver boards are
essentially printed circuit boards,
(PCBs), although they are entirely
different PCBs than the ones to which PWM illustration of 25, 50, 75 and 100% duty cycles
the individual diodes are wire bonded.
The purpose of the driver boards is to
distribute the DC voltage to the LED
chips or modules in an array; deliver
the necessary constant current; and
provide the PWM capability of the
system. The driver boards can either
be mounted on the array or located
remotely in the power supply unit.
The advantage of mounting the boards
on the array is that electrical noise
can be minimized and the diameter
of the interconnect cable can be
reduced. There are many different
types of drivers used to perform a
wide variety of functions. As a result,
the style of driver board used in LED
systems will vary significantly between
manufacturers.
Installing UV-LED Systems

The task of installing a UV-LED
system is similar to that of installing
a conventional UV system, but in
some ways it is actually a bit simpler. for the operator and the UV-LED a greater curing area. The duty cycle
Unlike conventional UV systems, system, as well as the host and of an array equipped with PWM and
LEDs generate no ozone; do not ancillary equipment. the speed of the line can both be
emit short wavelength UV which can All UV output attenuates or adjusted to achieve a range of energy
attack many materials; do not require decreases in magnitude as the distance density while maintaining a constant
special filters for observation windows; between the emitting window and irradiance. In some cases, multiple
often draw far less electrical power; the substrate increases. As a result, arrays will need to be used to achieve
create less airborne contamination most LED arrays currently on the the required energy density. Keep in
near the media when liquid chillers market are typically mounted as close mind that the focal point commonly
are used; and possess none of the as possible to the substrate or object referenced with conventional UV
handling and disposal issues associated being cured. This distance is usually systems employing elliptical reflectors
with conventional medium-pressure between 5 and 15 mm; although, it is not typically applicable for LED
mercury vapor lamps. Installations does vary by supplier and application. systems. While LED chips can be
on a host machine typically require Most arrays are equipped with packaged in an arrangement so that
mounting the array(s); frequently mounting holes or threaded inserts all the UV rays are directed to a
purchasing or designing and then that allow the device to be secured to common location or manipulated with
connecting the chiller system; a host machine with a simple bracket optics, this is not standard practice.
electrically powering the PSU; designed by the integrator or the end- Current UV-LED systems more closely
connecting the interconnect cable user. The array should be mounted so resemble the flood profile of traditional
between the power supply and the that it either spans the curing width of arc or microwave systems.
array; providing a means for the I/O a static installation or can be physically The wavelengths emitted from
interface; and ensuring safe operation moved by the host machine to cover diodes used in curing systems are

UV-LED TErminoLogy
Anodepositive terminal of an LED. Dopedrefers to an LED semiconductor Forward Voltagethe actual voltage
material that has been impregnated with across a semiconductor diode carrying a
Binningprocess of sorting LED chips
impurities to produce a specific n-type or forward current.
into groups according to peak irradiance,
p-type conductivity.
wavelength tolerance and forward voltage. Interconnect Cableelectrically
Driver Boarda printed circuit board connects the LED irradiator and the
Borosilicatestrong, heat-resistant,
(PCB) that distributes the DC voltage to power supply unit.
colorless, silica glass that contains a
the LED chips or modules in an array
minimum of five percent boric oxide, Interlocka temperature sensor and/or
and provides the pulse width modulation
exhibits exceptional thermal shock flow meter designed into the LED-cooling
(PWM) capability of the system.
resistance, and transmits a greater system to monitor conditions at the inlet
percentage of ultraviolet energy than Duty Cyclethe proportion of ON time in and outlet of the array. If the coolant
glass. Common material used for the a pulse width modulation cycle to the total temperature exceeds a specified set point
emitting window on a UV-LED head. cycle time (ON + OFF) expressed as a or the flow rate drops below a specified
percentage. A low duty cycle corresponds set point, the interlock circuit switches
Cathodenegative terminal of an LED.
to low power because the power is off off the LED array in order to avoid
Chipa fully functioning, minute slice most of the time, whereas 100% is fully overheating and destroying the individual
of a semiconducting material (such as ON, 0% is fully OFF and 50% means that diodes and wire bonds.
silicon, germanium and gallium arsenide) the power is ON half the time and OFF
LED (light emitting diode)
doped and processed to have p-n junction half the time.
semiconductive device containing a
characteristics. Specifically, gallium
Electroluminescencean optical and p-n junction designed to emit specific
nitride (GaN) is used to generate longer
electrical phenomenon inherent to LEDs in narrow band wavelengths within the
ultraviolet and blue-visible wavelengths.
which a material emits light energy when electromagnetic spectrum via a process
In referring to LEDs, chip is often used
an electric current is passed through it. known as electroluminescence. When
interchangeably with diode, die and
a forward bias voltage is applied to the
semiconductor. Emitting Windowflat, rectangular piece
LED, current flows from the p-side to
of quartz or borosilicate typically secured
Coolantliquid circulation material the n-side (anode to cathode). As the
at the base of an LED head to protect the
that flows over the heat sink in the electrons cross the depletion zone and
dies while simultaneously transmitting
LED array or module in order to (1) fill a hole, they drop into a state of lower
ultraviolet wavelengths.
remove wasted heat energy produced energy. The excess energy is released in
by the electroluminescence process Encapsulatea transparent material the form of a photon. The energy of the
and (2) maintain the correct operating used to physically protect dies and block photon is directly related to the amount
temperature of the LED chips and wire moisture. It can either be flat or shaped of excess energy, while the wavelength
bonds. into a convex lens. Modern LEDs use of the photon is inversely related to
encapsulates made of silicone, while older the excess energy. In other words, the
Depletion Zonethe non-conductive
LEDs were made of epoxy resins. Both higher the excess energy, the shorter the
boundary where the positive and negative
silicone and epoxy resins fully surround wavelength.
sides of a p-n junction meet.
the LED chip(s). Encapsulates made of
Diea fully functioning, minute slice LED Array(1) packaged sub-assembly
quartz or glass generally do not surround
of a semiconducting material (such as or module typically consisting of multiple
the LED chip(s), but are used as a hard
silicon, germanium and gallium arsenide) LED diodes or chips that are individually
protective outer cover.
doped and processed to have p-n junction wire bonded to a printed circuit board and
Forward Biasoccurs when the anode then secured to a heat sink; (2) also refers
characteristics. Specifically, gallium
of an LED is connected to the positive to a full curing assembly which includes
nitride (GaN) is used to generate longer
terminal of a voltage supply and the numerous modules or LED chips, as well
ultraviolet and blue visible wavelengths.
cathode of the LED is connected to the as a cooling fan or tube fittings, a manifold
In referring to LEDs, chip is often used
negative terminal. The effect of a forward block, an emitting window and a sheet
interchangeably with diode, chip and
bias is that the positive holes in the p metal or plastic outer housing. In some
semiconductor.
region and the negative electrons in the cases, a complete array assembly will
Diodecommon semiconductor device n region of a p-n junction are pushed also contain the driver boards. The array
which is added to a circuit as a means of from opposite directions toward the is similar in concept to a lamp head or
restricting the flow of electricity. It can depletion zone. This significantly reduces irradiator in traditional UV-curing systems.
generically be thought of as a switch or a the width of the depletion zone causing
valve. A key property of a diode is that it LED Irradiator, LED Head or LED Light
the electrons on the n-side to respond
only conducts electricity in one direction. Enginea UV-curing assembly which
to the attractive forces of the holes on
In referring to LEDs, diode is often includes multiple LED chips or modules,
the p-side. The end result is the flow of
used interchangeably with chip, die and a thermal heat sink, a cooling fan or tube
electricity and the emission of photons.
semiconductor. fittings, a manifold block, an emitting

currently between 350 nm and 430 nm.
This renders all of it in the UVA and
visible bandwidth range and none of
window, a sheet metal or plastic Positive-Negative Junction (p-n it in the UVB and harmful UVC range.
outer housing and, sometimes, the junction)a specially engineered As a result, shielding is only necessary
driver boards. diode made by forming layers of
to reduce visual discomfort due to
semiconductive materials. Impurities
LED Packagean assembly containing brightness and can be addressed using
or dopants are impregnated or doped
one or several chips physically and
into the semiconductor layers to create sheet metal, tinted polycarbonate
electrically assembled together with
p- and n-type regions. These regions and various other low-cost plastics.
a means of electrically connecting the
can be made from the same or different
entire assembly to another device. Potential eye and skin issues due to
semiconductor materials. The two sides of
Lenstransparent device used to the diode are referred to as the anode (+) UVC are not typically a safety concern
physically protect LED chips, block and the cathode (-), respectively. Current is with the UV-LEDs presently on the
moisture and evenly manipulate or able to flow from the p-side of the diode market; however, it is always best to
spread the emitted UV radiation. Often to the n-side, but it cannot flow in the review this with the supplier and err on
made of silicone, borosilicate or quartz. reverse direction.
See encapsulate. the side of caution.
Power Supply Unit (PSU)a generic
Longer wavelengths also mean no
Liquid Chillercooling system term often used to describe an electrical
used to (1) ensure the LED chips cabinet containing the DC voltage supply,
ozone is produced since ozone is only
and wire bonds remain at the correct I/O interface and AC power connection generated when wavelengths shorter
operating temperature and (2) to for an LED array. The power supply than 250 nm interact with oxygen. As
remove wasted heat energy from the unit may also contain the driver boards. a result, it is not necessary to ventilate
electroluminescence process. Alternatively, the driver boards can be
or exhaust the system unless you are
Modulepackaged assembly consisting mounted on the array.
working with extremely heat-sensitive
of one or multiple LED diodes that are Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
individually wire bonded to a printed substrates when it is desirable to
efficient way of providing intermediate
circuit board which is then secured to amounts of electrical power by varying remove additional heat from the
a heat sink. A module often includes the proportion of ON and OFF time per electroluminescence process. With
a silicone encapsulate or lens over cycle. The peak irradiance (W/cm2) is the UV-LEDs, there can be a buildup of
the chips for protection and to block same for all power levels, but the duration
moisture. A module is an array, but heat around the exterior of the array
of the pulsed irradiance is varied so as to
several modules can also be assembled increase or decrease the exposure time or depending on the design. While this
together to form a larger array known as energy density (Joules/cm2). is typically fine for the operation of
a head or irradiator. the UV-LED equipment, it can create
Semiconductora substance that can
Optical Deviceused to evenly spread be made to conduct electricity or be a situation in which the array may
or sometimes focus the emitted UV an electrical insulator depending on its be hot to the touch. As a result, it
radiation from an LED module or array. chemical composition. The conductivity
is recommended that protection be
Printed Circuit Board (PCB)part of of the semiconductor varies depending
on the impurity (or dopant) concentration provided to ensure that the operator or
the LED module or array to which the
individual LED chips or diodes are wire created during the manufacturing maintenance staff does not unwillingly
bonded. The PCB provides the electrical processes. Common semiconductor base come in contact with the surface of a
interface between the LED chip(s) and materials include silicon, gallium nitride, powered array.
the driver board(s). gallium arsenide and gallium phosphide.
Power supply units for UV-LED
Plug-in-modulepackaged assembly Wire Bondrefers to the electrical
systems are more commonly solid-
consisting of one or multiple LED diodes connection between the LED chip and the
PCB. There are two wire bonds between
state devices where the main electrical
that are individually wire bonded to a
PCB which is then secured to a heat each LED chip and the PCB. These wire supply power can typically be anywhere
sink. A module often includes a silicone bonds are made at the anode and the between 100 and 240 Volts AC at either
encapsulate or lens over the chips for cathode of the chip. 50 or 60 Hz. Solid-state power supplies
protection and to block moisture. A Wire Bondingthe method of making an automatically accommodate for the
module is an array, but several modules electrical connection between the LED chip
can also be assembled together to
given voltage, frequency connection and
and the PCB using ultrasonic welding or
form a larger array known as a head or thermal compression. minor variations on the line; however,
irradiator. you should always consult with the
UV-LED systems operating manual
or with the supplier to be sure. A DC-
voltage power supply is installed in the

UV systems PSU to power the driver What are the local and state codes yourself uncertain of UV-LED words
boards and LEDs. Current draw on the for use and disposal of the coolant? used in conversation, please ask. It will
main AC line for products presently Can the array be repaired in the be a good test for those of us promoting
on the market vary from a few amps to field or must it be returned to the the technology and will hasten the
more than 20 amps for larger arrays. manufacturer? learning curve for all of us. w
For some applications that require
Is the UV array powered with PWM Jennifer Heathcote is general
thousands of LEDs, current draw will
or a constant current? Which is manager, North America,
be higher.
better for your application? for Integration Technology
The interconnect cable connections, in Chicago, Ill.
I/O interface and liquid cooling capacity, What length interconnect cable
while straight forward, will vary with does the application require?
each UV-LED system. As a result, these If the UV-LED array must move
specifications are not covered by this to provide full UV coverage, is the
article and should instead be discussed interconnect cable high-flex and
directly with the supplier. what is the minimum bend radius?
At what distance should the
Comparing LED Technologies
UV-LED array be mounted from
The following questions can be
the substrate or part being cured?
used as means of comparing UV-LED
What is the I/O interface?
products on the market or can serve as
a guide through the integration process. Does the UV system need to be
controlled by a host system or is
What terminology is being used that
it equipped with a local operator
you do not understand? Always ask
interface?
the supplier to clarify anything that
is confusing. Do you want a plug-and-play
solution or a partial solution that
What components are supplied
requires additional engineering?
by the UV system manufacturer
(module, array, interconnect cable, What is the supply voltage and
power supply unit, cooling fan, main AC current draw for the
chiller, interlock, mounting bracket)? entire system?
What components do you want to As you move forward with your

source locally or design yourself investigative study of UV-LEDs,
(power supply unit, chiller, make sure you are comfortable with
interlock, mounting bracket)? the terminology. For convenience,
a glossary of commonly used UV-
If supplying the chiller yourself, what
LED terms has been provided as
size tube fittings or disconnects are
an appendix to this article. The
supplied with the array?
importance of word usage cannot be
What is the necessary cooling
emphasized enough. Without a firm
capacity for the chiller in terms of
grasp of the common language, the
wattage, flow rate, temperature
progress of your project will likely be
and pressure?
delayed. Worse yet, you could proceed
What type of coolant mixtures are down a development path that is not
required or restricted by the chiller best for your particular application
and UV-LED system suppliers? or you could completely miss an
Are there any health or safety opportunity that may propel you ahead
concerns regarding the coolant? of your competition. If you ever find

UV-LED Overview Part III:
Diode Evolution and
Manufacturing
By Jennifer Heathcote This abridged article is the third installment in a three-part series designed
to consolidate key principles and technical information regarding the
science and engineering behind UV-LEDs. If you have not yet read
Part IOperation and Measurement (July/August 2010) or Part II
Curing Systems (Sept/Oct 2010), you may want to do so before continuing
with Part III. For the complete, unabridged version of this article, please
visit the Members Only area at www.RadTech.org.
L
ight Emitting Diodes (LEDs) are processing techniques. Much of this
engineered to produce discrete activity has been concentrated in
infrared, visible or ultraviolet the longer wavelength visible and
(UV) wavelengths when a DC voltage infrared ranges; and has directly led
is applied. The type of output, overall to improved yield rates, lower power
performance and operating efficiency consumptions, brighter colors and
of any given die is directly related increased operating efficiencies as well
to its material composition and the as a steady decline in unit costs.
manufacturing methods employed. As By comparison, UV-LED technology
a result, there has been a concerted is relatively new, and engineers and
effort for the last 60 years to identify developers are still hard at work
new semiconductive compounds, trying to understand and optimize the
improve chip structures and optimize core technology as well as implement
Figure 1 reliable manufacturing methods. The
purpose of this paper is to provide a
Timeline for evolution of LEDs brief history of LED development as
well as an overview of typical processes
employed in chip production. It is only
with an understanding of how far the
technology has come, as well as what
is involved in producing LED emitters,
that one can truly appreciate the
potential of where the technology has
yet to take us.
Brief History
Engineers and research
scientists have been formulating and
experimenting for nearly 60 years
with an ever increasing portfolio of
man-made semiconductor compounds

that emit infrared, visible and, most 50 years as most of the production processing that is not generally known
recently, UV wavelengths. These issues have been resolved. Yield to the public. As a result, the following
compounds have been engineered to rates for white and visible spectrum sections are meant to give the reader
embody specific electrochemical and high-brightness LEDs are increasing some general insight into a typical LED
emissive properties, while operating rapidly; although, there is still room for manufacturing process and are by no
at increasingly higher efficiencies improvement. The current quality of means meant to be fully comprehensive.
and consuming less power. Since UV-LED production, unfortunately, is The Ingot
each compound emits a different not very good and much optimization The manufacture of LED
wavelength and/or amount of energy, work remains to be done. With UV- semiconductors starts with the
an entire portfolio of materials is LEDs, there is a significant amount of production of a long, cylindrical ingot,
necessary in order to produce dies scrap generated during production that also called a boule. The ingot is typically
for various applications. The final has a direct impact on the final die cost formed to diameters of 2, 4, 6, 8 or 12
diode performance determines and performance. inches and can be grown to any desired
which compounds are used for which Every single stage and step of the length. The material properties are
applications. Some of the more widely production processfrom raw material uniform throughout the ingot, and the
used compounds include Aluminum selection through to packagingis crystalline structure contains relatively
Gallium Arsenide (AlGaAs), Gallium critical. Each has the potential to few impurities or contaminants. This is
Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP), and introduce defects or foreign matter, achieved through precision temperature
Gallium Nitride (GaN). It should be resulting in lower efficiencies and and pressure control in a clean
emphasized that research in this field insufficient performance in the final environment, and by using only the
is far from exhausted, and there are dies. As a result, numerous quality highest purity of raw materials.
presently complex high brightness assurance checks are performed, and Formation of the ingot begins when
alloys still in development, including most processes take place in Class 1 high-grade raw materials are mixed
GaN/SiC, GaN/Sapphire, GaN/ZnO and and Class 10 clean rooms. Each and together in a specially designed reactor
GaN/B-GaN/pAIN. Very preliminary every step of the manufacturing chamber as illustrated in Figure 2.
research into materials that emit process, therefore, is a distinct and When elevated temperatures and
shorter wavelength UV-A, UV-B challenging engineering and quality pressures are applied, the materials
and UV-C is also currently underway. improvement project that takes years, combine to form a uniform molten
A timeline summarizing key if not decades, to perfect. solution that is covered with a layer
An overly simplified description of of liquid boron oxide to prevent
breakthroughs in development
this process can be segmented into vaporization. A rod or chuck is then
since the discovery of the first
three parts that focus on the ingot, lowered toward the solution (2-a). On
semiconductive compound, Silicon
wafer and die. It should be noted the end of the chuck is a tiny, purified
Carbide (SiC), is illustrated in Figure 1.
that there are many variations to the seed that contains the exact properties
Semiconductor Manufacturing production methods described; not of the mixture. When the seed reaches
The spectral emission, electrical- all steps have been included in this the solution, a chemical bond begins to
to-optical power-conversion efficiency, document; and each manufacturer form between the seed and the molten
unit cost, quality, yield rate and likely incorporates proprietary material (2-b).
Figure 2
lifetime hours of each die depend not
only on the substrate material, but also
on each additional processing step and
manufacturing method employed. As a Forming the ingot
result, significant investment has gone
into developing and controlling the
production of LEDs.
Actual manufacturing yield rates
vary significantly depending on the
type of LED. Yield rates for standard
infrared and visible LEDs have
improved drastically over the past

Figure 3
of liquid abrasive, while etching is a material on top of each wafer. These
chemical process intended to dissolve layers often contain intentionally
unwanted material. Both are used to added impurities or dopants that
Fully formed ingots ensure a smooth surface. Next, the improve the emissive characteristics
thickness and flatness of each wafer is and efficiencies of the final diodes. The
measured; and the wafers are sorted dopants interfere with the crystalline
and polished in order to improve the structure of the die resulting in an
efficiency and quality of downstream altered output when a voltage is
processing and make the wafers applied. All epitaxial layers have the
more receptive to additional layers of same crystal orientation as the ingot;
semiconductive material. however, the existence of dopants
Any imperfections created when means that each layer has a different
the ingot is formed and slicedor electronic density.
when the wafer is lapped, etched Each epitaxial layer is several
As the rod is rotated and withdrawn or polishedwill lead to a poorly microns thick, and the process involves
at a slow and constant rate of speed, functioning or non-functioning LED. passing each wafer underneath various
some of the mixture begins to cool Unclean wafers also have a negative reservoirs of molten material or melt
and solidify on the seed. The top of effect on the performance of the final as illustrated in Figure 5. A melt can
the ingot takes the shape of a cone diodes. As a result, all wafers are contain one or several types of dopants.
that tapers from the seed outward cleaned using ultrasonic or solvent- If multiple dopants are needed to
to the desired diameter (2-c). The based methods in order to remove any produce the desired effect, they can
crystals continue to grow in length remaining dirt, dust or foreign matter. either be grown on the wafer structure
as long as the process conditions are Next, a process known as Liquid in sequential layers or all at once.
maintained. The applied temperatures Phase Epitaxy is used to grow Sometimes it is necessary to further
and pressures, as well as the rotation additional layers of semiconductive increase the quantity of dopants or
and extraction speed, all have a direct
effect on the diameter and the quality
of the ingot. When the desired growth
Figure 4
is reached, the seed and bonded ingot
Wafers being sliced from ingot
are removed from the chamber. The
result is an ingot with all the physical
characteristics of the original seed
material (2-d). A photo showing typical
ingots is provided in Figure 3. Before
moving to the next stage of production,
a diamond saw is used to remove the
cone and the remaining cylindrical
ingot is ground and polished. Figure 5
The Wafer
A diamond saw is used to slice Wafer processingliquid phase epitaxy
the ingot into crystalline wafers or
substrates that are less than 250
microns thick (10 mils). This is
illustrated in Figure 4. After slicing, the
wafer is subjected to a lapping
and/or etching process in order to
carefully remove unnecessary or
damaged particles from the surface.
Lapping is a physical process that
involves moving the wafer over a plane

Figure 6 Figure 7
Wafers in front of furnace tube entrance Processed wafer
and metallic contact pattern. Figure 8

shows one LED die resting on the face
of a U.S. penny. This single die would
have been one of many cut from a 2-,
introduce new dopants into the wafer of the semiconductor layers. It will be 4-, 6-, 8- or 12-inch diameter wafer
structure after the epitaxial layers are removed in a later step. using a laser or diamond saw.
grown. This step is often administered Contact metal is then evaporated After the dies are extracted from
using a continuous diffusion furnace or onto the wafer in the areas where the the wafer, a forward voltage is applied
furnace tube where dopants are forced resist was removed. This is done in to each and every die, and the output
into the upper layer(s) using high- a high-temperature, vacuum-sealed is measured using an integrating
temperature gases. A photo of one chamber flooded with a mixture of sphere. It is only at this time that
such furnace is shown in Figure 6. hydrogen and nitrogen gas. High manufacturers know whether the
The next step is to add conductive temperatures are used to vaporize production process was successful.
metal contacts or circuitry to the the metal contact material inside the Each functioning LED is then binned
wafer. This may be done all at once chamber. Once the metal is vaporized, according to wavelength, peak
or built up sequentially by repeating the chamber conditions are adjusted in irradiance and forward voltage.
the following photoresist and vapor order to condense the metal onto the For additional information on
deposition process several times. wafer in the areas where the resist was integrating spheres and binning,
Figure 8
First, a light-sensitive, liquid material removed. The remaining resist is then
called a photoresist is applied to the stripped in a chemical bath leaving just
top surface of the wafer while it spins. the epitaxial wafer and metal contacts.
Spinning ensures that the material is Finally, the contact pattern is annealed Completed individual
evenly distributed across the entire to the wafer in a high temperature die shown in
surface. Next, the wafer and applied furnace over a period of several hours. proportion to a U.S.
resist are baked at a low temperature The end result is a chemical bond penny
in order to harden the resist surface. between the semiconductor and the
A mask (also called a reticule) contacts. An example of processed
containing the metallic contact wafer is provided in Figure 7.
pattern is placed over the wafer.
The entire wafer is then exposed to The Die (Chip, Diode,
UV light. All exposed areas of the Semiconductor)
resist material that are not blocked by Depending on the diameter, a
the reticule cure underneath the light fully processed wafer is made up of
and are subsequently washed away thousands or even tens of thousands of Individual die
in a developer bath. The resist that individual light-emitting diodes all with
was under the mask remains on top the same general material structure

refer to UV-LED Overview Part I since the light relay was first necessarily happen overnight, but
Operation and Measurement. conceptualized; 56 years since the recent advancements evaluated in the
After the diodes are binned, initiative to engineer semiconductive historical context of LED evolution
they must be packaged according man-made compounds; 19 years since make it hard not to be excited about
to the intended application. The the first UV-LED was produced in a the technologys future and all its
semiconductor manufacturer will often lab; and eight years since UV-LED possibilities. w
package the dies itself before selling curing systems were first offered to
the LEDs to the market as modules. the market. It has been a long and
References
1. Schubert, E. Fred. Light-Emitting
Alternatively, some semiconductor remarkable journey that has involved
Diodes. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
manufacturers will sell the individual extensive development of previously University Press. 2008.
dies without further packaging. In this unknown compounds; the creation 2. Held, Gilbert. Introduction to Light
case, the packaging is done directly of diverse diode structures; and the Emitting Diode Technology and
Applications. Florida, USA: Auerbach
by the final equipment manufacturer invention and optimization of precision
Publications. 2009.
or other supplier. The packaging of manufacturing methods. Despite
3. Light-Emitting Diode. How Products
UV-LEDs was detailed in UV-LED all the amazing accomplishments, Are Made, Volume 1. 2006 - 2011.
Overview Part IIUV Curing Systems. this is a journey that is still far from April 4, 2011. http://www.madehow.
com/Volume-1/Light-Emitting-Diode-
over. During the foreseeable future,
LED.html
Conclusion UV-LED performance will continue
4. Silicon Wafer Processing. IISME.
The evolution of LEDs has spanned to improve. More wavelengths will Summer 2000. April 4, 2011.
187 years since the invention of become available; higher irradiances http://iisme.org/etp/Silicon_Wafer_
Silicon Carbide; 118 years since the Processing.pdf
will be generated; efficiencies will
commercialization of Carborundum; increase; lifetime hours will improve; Jennifer Heathcote is general
104 years since the discovery manager, North America,
and costs will become more attractive.
for Integration Technology in
of electroluminescence; 83 years These breakthroughs will not Chicago, Ill.

UV-LED Curing Systems:
Not Created Equal
T
By Sara Jennings, Bonnie he ultraviolet (UV)-light emitting solvent-based formulation systems are
Larson and Chad Taggard diode (LED) curing market has well documented. The advantages of
enjoyed considerable growth UV-LED curing over UV curing using
over the past several years as both traditional mercury lamps for specific
new and existing markets recognize applications have also been well
the inherent benefits of UV-LEDs. documented in previous articles.
This paper will focus on the potential Most, though not all, UV-LED lamps
differences in UV-LED systems. are focused on the UV-A range and the
Additionally, measurement methods ability to generate high-irradiance UV
that can be used to contrast and light with sufficient energy levels to
compare the differences in performance cure most materials. However, due to
of the various available UV-LED based its focused wavelength characteristics,
systems will be discussed. The reader the typical UV-LED lamp doesnt
can then quantitatively determine generate UV-B, UV-C or even infrared
the performance of a UV-LED curing emissions that are sometimes useful
system and see that not all UV-LED for certain curing applications. With
curing systems are created equal. the wide variety of inks, coatings and
adhesives having been formulated to
UV-LED Curing Advantages take advantage of UV-LED curing,
Application after application across there are no substantive reasons
many market segments have moved that UV-LED curing systems will not
to UV curing using photopolymer continue to enjoy rapid growth in the
chemistry and away from solvent- marketplace.
based formulations that contain volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) and require Components and Comparisons
large, power-hungry furnaces. The UV-LED curing lamp systems consist
advantages of UV-curable formulation of multiple sub-components which
systems versus conventionally cured taken together can be used to define
Table 1
UV-LED light source components
Component Purpose
I LED Solid-state component that generates UV light.
II Array Grouping of LEDs to maximize UV output to achieve desired curing rate.
III Thermal Cooling A properly designed thermal management system for the removal of heat
generated by LED array to ensure low operating temperature and long life.
IV Optics The shaping, molding, reflecting and guiding of the UV-LED light to insure
maximum light reaches the media.

Figure 2
the systems overall performance. The
key design subcomponents are outlined
in Table 1.
Wavelength characteristics
UV-LED Light Source Components
Examining these components
in closer detail along with their
interactions and interdependencies
will provide the reader with a better
understanding of how UV-LED curing
lamps are not created equal.
I. LEDsThe Base Building Block

Lets start with the LED. As the base
building block, this is the first choice
a UV-LED lamp supplier has to make.
It is a critical choice that impacts the
remainder of the systems architecture
and design. A pictorial example of an
LEDs construction is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 3
LED Construction Wavelength comparison
Simply put, an LED is a solid-state
device that produces light when an
electrical current is allowed to flow
from the positive (anode) side of the
circuit to the negative (cathode) side.
Not all LEDs are built the same
nor do they exhibit the same
characteristics. UV-LED lamp suppliers
have critical choices to make as to
the quality, type, material and shape
of LED for their systems. Key LED
characteristics considered by each UV-
LED lamp supplier include wavelength
and UV output.
Wavelength
The wavelength emitted from
an LED is controlled using differing
amounts of dopants such Chemistry plays a significant role in
Figure 1 as aluminum, gallium or

indium derivatives during the
this discussion. Some applications, due
to their specific chemistry, require a
LED construction manufacture of the LED. The given wavelength. However, for many
general rule of thumb is that applications a small shift in the peak
the shorter the wavelength, wavelength will have little impact as
the lower the peak UV output the photoinitiator that kicks off the
available from the die, as reaction has a broad absorption range.
shown in Figure 2. For example, as you can see in
The UV-LED supplier must Figure 3, three-fourths of the LED
weigh the trade-offs between energy output (with a peak at 385 nm
wavelength and the associated versus a peak at 395 nm) share the
total energy with cure rate. same wavelength band. Material testing

Figure 4
was not the major factor in improved
peak irradiance over time.
The other three factors (arrays,
Contributing factors of peak irradiance cooling and optics) significantly
improvement outweigh the increase in LED
capability. This answers the question
asked by UV-LED naysayers, If
all LED suppliers are eating from
the same bowl, then wont all the
products essentially be the same?
Therefore, lets continue examining
the other components that make up
the system.
II. ArrayGrouping of LEDs

Arrays are the second area
in which suppliers can begin to
differentiate their product offerings.
confirms that the difference in either vendors have improved from 2005 How the LEDs are combined; the
cure rate or quality when using die to 2011 with a compound annual growth number and type of LEDs chosen;
with peak outputs centered at 385 nm of 5-10%. This improvement shows the the shape of the array; the method
and 395 nm is negligible. LED vendors have and will continue to of electrically connecting the LEDs;
Therefore, UV suppliers will improve the output of UV-LEDs, which and even the size of the LEDs all
typically select the longer wavelength only provides a better foundation for the have significant impact on the
to achieve the highest UV output UV-LED curing lamps that utilize them. performance of the system.
that allows for higher application While it would be tempting to jump Most applications require UV-LED
throughput. to the conclusion that UV-LEDs are the curing systems that consist of more
UV Output single biggest contributor to UV-LED than one LED or LED array in order
The output of a single UV-LED lamp performance, Figure 4 shows to achieve not only the desired
is measured in milliwatts (mW) at a that UV-LED curing system suppliers throughput but to meet the demands
nominal input voltage and current. have more opportunity to differentiate for curing applications where the
UV-LED output has shown considerable themselves in the areas that go beyond media can be 1-2m wide. Therefore,
improvement in recent years where the base LED. A close examination of the a key question is can the LED
specifications for LEDs from various LED performance, while contributing, array be uniformly scaled? UV-LED
Figure 5
curing lamps can have a continuous
scalable array that provides for
better uniformity or a discrete array
Typical LED array package that can be scaled, but
doesnt provide the same uniformity
of output. See Figure 5.
This is an area where UV-LED
lamp suppliers can differentiate
themselves based on the LED
suppliers architecture, modules and
their own engineering capability
where two suppliers can take the
same batch of LEDs and achieve
very different performance in the
end product.

Figure 6
toward increasing the number of
processing cores at lower clock speeds
to stay within functioning thermal
UV-LED energy efficiency thresholds. UV-LED lamps face a similar
challenge. As the quality of LEDs
improves and the irradiance increases,
so does the need to remove the heat.
Original equipment manufacturers
(OEMs) and end-users do not want to
spend more on the cooling of the lamps
than the lamps themselves. Thus, the
third area of differentiation is in the
cooling technologies and capabilities
that suppliers choose.
IV. OpticsGuiding the Light

The final component and one of the
most important differentiators is optics.
The science/art of optically improving
the LEDs to maximize their UV output
III. ThermalsKeeping it Cool It is important to note that as is key to the lamps final capability.
The third component is cooling. the LEDs emit more light, they also Based on the end application, the
As any reader knows after using a generate more heat, which must be optical engineer has to decide what
notebook PC on their lap for a length managed. Thus, in the race to build shape, form and material best utilizes
of time, the byproduct of solid-state even higher irradiance products, the the LEDs unique characteristics. Next,
devices is heat. UV-LEDs transfer about ability of suppliers to control and they have to balance the fact that LEDs
15-25% of the received electrical energy remove heat has become more crucial are a flood type of light, unlike a
into light with the remaining 75-85% to building reliable systems. This is focused mercury lamp where the light is
transferred as heat; thus, the need to analogous to microprocessors where captured by a reflector and directed to a
cool the LED arrays. See Figure 6. heat became a constraining factor (due specific-point focal length. See Figure 7.
Currently, UV-LED arrays are cooled to increasing gigahertz performance) The optical engineer is challenged
with either air or liquid. Table 2 lists a by increasing the number of transistors to use methods to ensure the
comparison of the two most common while decreasing the trace width. maximum amount of light escapes
methods used for cooling LED arrays. Manufacturers eventually turned at the desired irradiance through the
Table 2
Air versus liquid-cooled light sources
Air-cooled Liquid-cooled
Less expensive total UV light source More expensive due to need for external cooling source.
solution.
Lower irradiance levels as irradiance Higher irradiance levels as waters thermal conductivity is
is directly proportional to ability to cool higher than airs (0.6 vs 0.025 W/(mK)), which means water
the LED array. Air is not as efficient at cannot only absorb more heat, but can do it faster than air.
cooling.
For given irradiance, larger lamp size due For given irradiance, UV source and cooling mechanism are
to fan size. separated allowing a smaller lamp size as no need for a fan.

Figure 7
window/glass toward the material.
LED lamp suppliers have used various,
confidential methods to maximize the
Traditional mercury lamp optics versus LED optics UV-LED light. A high level summary
of optics typically used by UV-LED
suppliers with their pros and cons is
shown in Table 3.
As shown, this is a small subset
of the myriad of choices an UV-LED
supplier has to make concerning the
light distribution generated by their
chosen LEDs, whether individual diodes
or previously assembled. Hence, it is
the third major area for differentiation
among UV-LED suppliers.
Measuring the Differences Between
UV-LED Curing Systems
Regardless of the LED, array,
thermal and optics design employed,
the end result that matters to end-users
Table 3
UV-LED optical options
Optics Pros Cons Example

MacroLED array High peak irradiance LED array cannot be scaled
inside reflector optic over small area. uniformly.
MicroEach Can be scaled uniformly. LED-to-LED spacing and,

packaged LED has therefore, maximum UV output
an individual optic limited by packaged LED size.
Integrated Optic Increased optical Expensive and array is hard to

Optic part of LED efficiency. scale uniformly.
formation process
Directional optic Increased peak Optics configuration limits number

irradiance over narrow of LEDs that can be configured in
band. system, limiting total available UV
output.
Scalable micro optic SLM module can be Light is not focused and diverges
scaled uniformly while over distance.
maintaining high peak
irradiance.

Table 4
Peak irradiance versus energy density
Peak Irradiance Energy Density

Definition Radiant power per-unit-area Radiant power per area per unit time
Measurement Watt per centimeter squared (W/cm ) 2
Joules/cm2 or mJoules/cm2
Impacted by Distance from material Material speed
Emitting window size
is that their material is properly cured. method will allow OEMs and end-users specification point of reference?
The two measurement parameters for to properly characterize the UV-LED 2. Over what area is the peak
this are peak irradiance and energy curing system. irradiance being delivered?
density (sometimes referred to as OEMs and end-users should Table 5 shows some of the typical
dose), and are outlined in Table 4. consider two key questions when measurement locations for measuring/
These two parameters work together measuring UV-LED Lamp output: specifying peak irradiance and the pros
and understanding their measurement 1. Where is the peak irradiance and cons of each approach.
Table 5
UV-LED measurement options
Usefulness Location Pros Cons Example
Poor At the Gives some Cannot be measured. Photon emitted at
LED indication of the base No practical application. Junction
LED, but this is only
a small component
of the performance
of a UV-LED curing
system.
Better At the Most relevant to Each customers operating Irradiance vs. Distance
media end-user. distance can be different
and, as noted above, the
emitted UV light is divergent
which means even though
there is UV light, the
measured peak changes
with distance.
Best At the Consistent metric Where on the glass should

emitting regardless of the irradiance be measured?
window application. In the middle? At the edges?
The corners? Average across
various locations?

Figure 8
in fact, only 2 W/cm2 is delivered at
the edges.
Figure 9 shows a 3D model of
Irradiance profile a wide area source and a narrow
emitting source that have the same
peak irradiance, but that deliver very
different total energy to the material,
which is the topic of the next section,
energy density.
Energy Density
Energy density can be a very
misunderstood concept and is also
variously called density, dose or
exposure. Energy density is the time
integral of irradiance; thus, the higher
Figure 9
the peak irradiance and/or the longer
the exposure time, the higher the
energy density. Consequently, even
Uniformity along emitting width with the same lamp unit operating at
the same peak irradiance and same
distance, media exposed at different
belt speeds do not receive the same
energy density.
Conversely, even as the measured
peak irradiance decreases with distance
away from the media, if the medias
exposure time remains the same, the
measured dose remains the same.
This decreased peak irradiance is due
to the divergent nature of the LEDs.
OEMs or end-users could be misled
by a single number that was taken
Figure 10
along a single axis. Knowing the
Energy density versus height (same speed)
location of the measurement and how
that measurement metric changes over
the UV emission area will give the best
overall characterization of the UV-LED
curing system.
Figure 8 is a thermal image which
depicts a UV emission area. The center
is the maximum UV irradiance and as
the emission falls off from the center
the irradiance impacting the substrate
decreases, which is shown as the series
of concentric circles. Each color is a
lower irradiance value.
The impact to the OEM or end-user
is they may believe they have purchased
a UV-LED system that delivers 4 W/cm2
across the entire emission area when,

Figure 11
lead to measurement errors and should
therefore not be used to set irradiance
and dose specifications.
LED versus arc lamp wavelength The spectral characteristics of UV-
LED lamps are significantly different
than traditional systems and UV meters
are just coming onto the market that
will accurately measure UV-LED lamps.
Even then, radiometers need
to be calibrated for specific
LED characteristics of the lamp
manufacturers. A generic UV-LED
radiometer that can be used between
different UV-LED lamps does not
currently exist. For process control,
it is important for OEMs and end-
users to utilize a UV-LED radiometer
that is calibrated to the UV-LED lamp
providers specifications. Otherwise,
false readings and/or improper
The light spreads out as the distance is There are several manufacturers conclusions are the likely results.
increased, but the total amount of light that provide products to measure As shown, measuring irradiance
delivered to the surface stays the same. irradiance. Most of these were and energy density is not a simple
This is an important point. So said converted from mercury lamp task. The authors believe the industry,
another way, for a given media speed, measurement devices and have not including UV-LED lamp manufacturers,
altering the height of the UV-LED light fully comprehended the unique LED measurement device manufacturers,
source from the media does not change characteristics. The sensors used in OEMs and end-users should align
the total amount of light delivered radiometers have been characterized around a single industry standard that
to the surface, but rather the peak and calibrated to work with the output can be used to consistently, accurately
irradiance decreases. profiles of mercury lamps (Figure 11). and succinctly report irradiance and
To show this graphically, see Since UV-LEDs have a very different energy density measurements.
Figure 10. The red curve has a peak output profile, the sensor calibration
irradiance of 8 W/cm2 while the green for a given wavelength band is the Result: UV-LED Lamps Arent
curve shows a peak irradiance of most important characteristic. A Created Equal
5 W/cm2. The key is that the area radiometer that crops or doesnt count UV-LED lamps are not created
under the curve is equal. The peak all of the UV emission based on a equal. Suppliers of UV-LED lamps
irradiance is lower but the overall normal LED wavelength tolerance can have significant architectural and
energy density remains the same. implementation decisions that
The quickest way for an OEM to significantly impact their products
improve the speed of their machines is performance. The end result will be a
to either (1) utilize UV-LED lamps with UV-LED curing system with optimized
higher peak irradiance or (2) utilize LEDs, arrays, optics and cooling for a
UV-LED lamps with larger arrays. specific application. Knowing how to
Either of these will deliver more total
energy density to the curing surface,
and allow faster cure speeds.
Measuring Irradiance and Energy
Density
Lastly, what device should be used
Different types of UV-LED lamps.
to measure UV-LED lamp output?

characterize the performance allows are created equal. It is vitally important Measurement, RadTech Report,
July/August 2010, 23-33.
the user to identify the best overall they consider the needs of their
3. Heathcote, Jennifer, UV-LED
system to meet their specific needs. application as well as the capabilities Overview Part IICuring Systems,
OEMs and end-users would be wise to of their supplier. Lastly, the authors RadTech Report, September/October
2010, 31-42.
learn these differences and ensure their believe the UV-LED industry must band
4. Karlicek, Robert F. Jr., UV-LEDs and
chosen suppliers are capable of not only together to create industry standards Curing Applications: Technology
meeting their needs today, but have the and capabilities that simplify OEMs and Market Developments, RadTech
technical ability to design, manufacture transition to a bright UV-LED future. w Report, November/December 2009,
17-23.
and support their needs in the future. 5. Karsten, Rob, Environmental
This article has attempted to build Sara Jennings, Bonnie Larson Benefits of UV-LED Curing, Seventh
and Chad Taggard are part of International Wood Coatings Congress
on previous work by highlighting the
the marketing team at Phoseon Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Oct. 12,
myriad of architectural and design Technology in Portland, Ore. 2010.
trade-offs UV-LED lamp makers have at 6. Mills, Paul, UV-LEDs: Separating
their disposal. More importantly, OEM References Myth from Reality in UV-LED
Curing, RadTech Webinar, January
and end-users considering the transition 1. Beck, Michael, UV-LED Lamps: 26, 2010.
from mercury tubes to solid-state UV- A Viable Alternative for UV Inkjet 7. Raymont, Jim, Establishing and
Applications, RadTech Report, Maintaining a UV Process Window,
LED technology must understand that November/December 2009, 27-33. RadTech Report, May/June 2002, 14-25.
(1) UV-LED isnt for every application 2. Heathcote, Jennifer, UV-LED 8. Yole Developpement, UV-LED Report,
and (2) not all UV-LED lamp systems Overview Part IOperation and March 2011.

Measuring the Output
of Ultraviolet Light
Emitting Diodes
By Jim Raymont and This article is based on a submitted UV-LEDs are narrow band sources.
Abhinav Kashyap paper and presentation delivered Production UV-LED sources have their
at the RadTech 2010 Conference in spectral emissions somewhere in the
M
Baltimore, Md. 365 to 405-plus nm region. UV-LEDs
ultiple articles and papers are described and identified by their
are available that discuss the most dominant (395 nm, etc.) spectral
construction, advantages and output. If measured with a spectral
disadvantages of Ultraviolet (UV) Light radiometer, the user would see that
Emitting Diodes (LEDs) sources. This the manufacturer has binned the
article will focus on understanding and individual LED chips so that the most
measuring the output of UV-LEDs. intense UV output is clustered around
Medium-pressure UV lamps the dominant name line (i.e., 395 nm
(microwave and arc) emit radiation if the source is a 395 nm source). It
across a broad electromagnetic would be very expensive to only use
spectrum. Output from these types 395 nm LED chips in this example
of sources includes UV, visible and and, in reality, it is common for the
infrared (IR) energy. actual spectral emission of a UV-LED
to extend plus/minus 8-15 nm in either
direction at the half-maximum power
point from the maximum.
Autobond inkjet spot varnish

system with UV-LED curing. Co
ur
te
sy
of
Au
to
bo
nd
Lt
d.

Figure 1
For each application, a balance needed
to be found between the amount
of UV and other types of radiation
Relative UV-LED output for various wavelengths (visible, IR) produced, along with the
formulation, substrate, application,
needed processing speed and desired
results. This balance or process
window also needs to be found with
applications using UV generated from
LED sources.
With traditional UV sources, it is
important to understand, document and
maintain your UV system. This includes
bulb type (mercury, mercury-iron,
mercury-gallium); how the system is set
up (focused, non-focused, additional
equipment such as quartz plates); and
Courtesy of Integration Technology
the irradiance (W/cm2) and energy
density (J/cm2) values expected.
It is also important to understand,
document and maintain your UV-LED
Measuring and characterizing and 80s, a lamp with more applied
system. The spectral output of LEDs
LEDs requires an understanding of electrical power certainly had to be
is described in nanometers (nm) such
your UV source and UV measurement better than a lamp with less applied
as 395 nm. The actual plus/minus
instrument. Instruments used to electrical power. A system with 400
range of the spectral output of the
measure broadband, medium-pressure watts/inch of applied electrical power
UV microwave or arc lamps may or was certainly better than a
Courtesy of Integration Techonology

may not be suitable for use with UV- system with only 200 watts/
LED sources. inch of applied power. Which
company would be the first
UV LED Output PowerDj Vu to reach 600 watts/inch of
All Over Again? applied power? 800? 1,000?
UV-LED sources continue to Many were quick to realize
increase in power. The output of UV- that comparing the power
LEDs has gone from milliWatts/cm2 of applied to the lamp is not
irradiance to Watts/cm2 of irradiance, as meaningful a measure
with some systems going over or in the in the curing process as
neighborhood of 10W/cm2. measuring the amount of
Output irradiance is usually one of useful UV energy delivered UV-LED modules.
the first numbers an LED manufacturer to the product. Sometimes,
will share with you. Do the discussions for design and engineering
(and claims) of increased output from reasons, a UV source with
UV-LEDs sound similar to discussions higher applied electrical
on computer processor speeds, power actually delivered less
computer memory sizes or the number usable UV.
of megapixels from a digital camera? As discovered with arc
A little closer to our UV world, do lamps, increasing the applied
the discussions (and claims) sound power or amount of UV
similar to discussions (and claims) delivered to the cure surface
that were held in the 70s and 80s with was not always beneficial to
traditional UV-arc lamps? In the 70s the cure process or substrate. LEDZero Solidcure assembled modules.
TM

of physics and photochemistry do not
cease to exist when you use LEDs.
They are present and lurking but
can be minimized by taking some
precautions:
During process design and testing,
establish how you are going to
measure the UV output of the LED.
Define the key process variables
that need to be monitored and
controlled in production.
Establish your process window
in the lab and carry it over to
production.
Exercise caution when you
communicate radiometric values
Power supplies being assembled for a UV system. either within your company or to
your supply chain.
LED will vary from manufacturer to surface while others measure at
Specify the process you used
manufacturer. the cure surface. Ask questions and
to obtain the readings and the
UV-LEDs are being packaged in a evaluate the equipment carefully;
instrument/bandwidth used.
wide range of shapes and sizesfrom making apples-to-apples comparisons.
large discrete devices to hundreds of Determine how often you need to
nearly microscopic individual LED The Lab-to-Production Transition take readings based on your process.
dies arranged into powerful arrays. Is Work While it is true that LEDs will last
Manufacturers of UV-LED sources How a specific UV-LED system longer than many other types of UV
use a variety of techniques to assemble, performs for your application is more sources, be aware of anything in the
direct and deliver the UV energy to important than the maximum power process between the LEDs and the
the cure surface from the actual LED output number on a sheet of product cure surface that could change and
chip or die. Manufacturers have literature. Do you get the results that alter the amount of UV delivered to
proprietary processes to bin LEDS you are looking for at the manufacturing the cure surface.
by their spectral output, forward speed that you need for production?
Absolute values established during
voltage and intensity. There has been impressive progress
the design phase often become relative
Many UV-LED systems were made in the development of coatings
readings during day-to-day production.
developed for a specific application that are specifically formulated to work
With relative readings, you are looking
and fit into areas that will not support with LED systems. Because LEDs are
for day-to-day or week-to-week
other types of UV technologies. relatively monochromatic, they lack changes and working to make sure that
Manufacturers are concerned with the shorter UV-C wavelengths that are the UV levels stay within the process
keeping the array stable over time. Ask traditionally used to establish surface window established during process
questions and evaluate the equipment cure properties such as tack, scratch, design and testing.
carefully. In the more is better stain and chemical resistance. This is
approach, manufacturers of LED not the show limiter/stopper that it Measurement of UV-Arc and
systems may use different techniques once was and you need to work with Microwave Sources
to determine the power rating of both your formulator and the LED Radiometers used for measurement
their systems. The techniques can supplier to achieve the properties of UV-arc and microwave sources have
include theoretical calculations of the desired in the final cured product. bandwidths (UV-A, UV-B, UV-C, and
output and measurement of the UV at You do not get a free go directly UV-V) that match the broadband arc
different points. Some manufacturers to production manufacturing pass and microwave sources. Instrument
may measure the output at the chip when working with LEDs. The laws bandwidths vary from manufacturer

to manufacturer. Some instruments

have narrow bands (UV-A classified
between 320-390 nm) while others
have wide bands (UV-A classified
between 250-415 nm). Because of
these differences, it is important to
specify the instrument used to obtain
the reading.
What happens if you use these
popular radiometers to measure the
output of an LED source? Will you get
a reading with one of the radiometer
bandwidths above with a UV-LED? It
depends on the type of UV-LED and
the bandwidth(s) of the instrument.
Just because there are values on the
instrument display does not mean
UV-LED arrays.
that the UV-LED has been properly
characterized. directions but LEDs do not follow There has been an incredible
equal radiant flux rule. This is amount of research done in recent
LED Intensity Measurement and
because most of the LEDs have years at various public and private
Challenges
micro-optics built into the LED organizations for developing
The same challenges that exist for
packaging. measurement techniques. Due to
measuring visible LEDs also exist for
several variances affecting intensity
measuring UV-LEDs. The light emission LEDs do not follow the inverse
measurement of an LED, the
from an LED is vastly different than a square law (i.e., intensity of light
Commission on Illumination (CIE)
point source. This poses challenges in reduces by square of the distance)
established a standard method guide
quantifying its intensity. Limitations in similar to extended sources. That
for LED measurement document (CIE
standardizing the measuring techniques means that even for the same solid
127:1997).
of LEDs include: angle, intensity measurements
A point source, by definition, could vary with distance and could RadTech UV Glossary Definition:
has a constant radiant flux in all be unpredictable.
Flux (radiant flux): The flow of
photons, in einstein/second; one
Figure 2 einstein = one mole of photons.
Spectral output of H bulb and spectral response of One of the most popular ways
different UV bands of radiometer of measuring radiant flux for an
LED is using a photometer at a
specified distance and specified area
recommended by the CIE. Individual
LEDs may be characterized this way
under controlled laboratory conditions,
but the recommended procedure
cannot be easily applied to LED
clusters and arrays (the arrangement
of UV-LEDs used for UV production
curing applications).
In order to measure total radiant
flux, an integrating sphere is used. CIE
127:1997 describes the placement of an

Figure 3
LED in a calibrated integrating sphere
and measuring total radiant flux. When
performing a measurement using an
integrating sphere, the intention is to
Spectral output of 365 nm LED source and EIT UV-A
capture all energy.
spectral response
In real-world applications, the user
might be more interested in capturing
the LED radiant flux for a small solid
angle that is also sometimes referred
to as useful radiant flux. In order
to make this measurement, the CIE
updated their guidelines in the recently
published CIE 127:2007 document to
include the term partial radiant flux.
Traditionally, intensity
measurements of a point source
are done using luminous intensity.
As described earlier, most LEDs
are not point source and do not contribute to the uncertainty of the UV-A response. The responses have
follow the inverse square law. LED measurement include: been normalized. If the LED is binned
intensity measurements claimed Radiometer calibration very close to 365 nm, the EIT UV-A
by a manufacturer could vary when uncertainties response does a good job of measuring
the end-user performs a similar this source.
LED short-term wavelength drift
measurement. When performing a But even a small drift in the LED
LED temperature drift
measurement, it is always important spectral output or variations in how
to know conditions and uncertainties DC current regulation for LED the LED dies are binned can generate
associated with the measurement. Optical alignment different responses in the radiometer,
Sources of uncertainties that can Industrial applications and setups which can have a pronounced impact
make it more challenging to easily on the measurement.
control and measure the above

parameters.
395 nm LED
As stated, LEDs have a narrow Measuring the output of a 395 nm
band emission and, hence, could have LED with a radiometer utilizing an
short-term or long-term wavelength EIT UV-A or EIT UV-V response can
drifts due to temperature variations lead to wide variations in the reported
or degradation over a period of time. irradiance values.
Most integrating type radiometers The output of a 395 nm source is
were originally designed for UV-arc and grouped around the 395 nm line with
microwave sources, and have a bell- variations based on how individual
shaped response curve across the UV LED dies are binned; how the array
band of interest. is assembled; and the stability of
the product over time. These slight
365 nm LED variations are normal. It is also normal
Using a radiometer designed for to expect slight variations in each
arc and microwave sources can lead to radiometer due to slight variations
large errors in measurement if UV-LED in the optical components (filters,
output happens to fall on the rising detectors, etc.) and electronics.
or falling edge of the optical stack In Figure 4, the output from a 395
response. Figure 3 shows a 365 nm nm LED clearly falls between the EIT
UV-LEDs used in UV coating. (UV-A) LED source and EITs UV-A and EIT UV-V response curves.

Figure 4
in the 380-410 nm regions. This region
better covers the 395 nm LED since
under normal conditions the source
Spectral output of a 395 nm LED source and EIT does not fall on the steep shoulder of
UV-A and EIT UV-V radiometer spectral response the response curve. Extensive testing
was done to get the UV-A2 radiometer
optical response to proximate a flat
top response. A flat top response
limits the shifts in the measured values
due to slight spectral variations in the
source.
The UV-A2 response bandwidth
inherits a Lambertian spatial response
by design from early generation
radiometers that further reduces
measurement errors due to LED
alignment. w
The steepest part of the shoulder of the LEDs themselves. Because of these Acknowledgements
each optical response curve is in the variables and their combinations, it is The authors wish to thank
output range of the 395 nm LED. So, hard to apply a correction factor to Phoseon Technology, Integration
while it is possible to get a reading the UV-A reading or UV-V readings to Technology, Solid UV and Summit UV
with a UV-A or UV-V bandwidth any single instrument. for their contributions to this paper
radiometer, the sharp cutoff at this A better approach to measuring and for their assistance during the
wavelength means that the readings LEDs in the 395 nm range is to use development of the UV-A2 bandwidth.
may reflect only 5-50% of the actual an instrument with a response curve
References
395 nm LED. The large variation that better matches the source. EIT
1. C. Cameron Miller, Yuqin Zong,
can result from the output being has developed a subset of our 320-390
Yoshihiro Ohno, LED photometric
on the steep slope of the response nm UV-A bandwidth now designated calibrations at the National Institute of
curve, variations between measuring as UV-A2 (Figure 5). The UV-A2 Standards and Technology and future
measurement needs of LEDs, Preprint:
instruments and variations between response curve is especially sensitive
Proc., SPIE Fourth International
Conference on Solid State lighting,
Figure 5 Denver, CO, August 2004, 5530,

69-79 (2004)
2. C. Cameron Miller and Yoshi Ohno,
Spectral output of a 395 nm LED source and EIT Luminous Intensity Measurements of
UV-A2 spectral response Light Emitting Diodes at NIST, Abstract
for the 2nd CIE Expert Symposium on
LED Measurement
Jim Raymont is director of sales

and Abhinav Kashyap is calibration
engineer for EIT Instrument Markets
in Sterling,Va.

The UV-LED
Paradigm Shift
O
By Paul Mills and n the game show Jeopardy!, user of the instrument still needs to
Jim Raymont the program turns the tables on understand what the value means and
contestants by presenting them whether or not it is the correct value.
with an answer and challenging them Care needs to be exercised when
to come up with the right question. communicating. Differences between
Sometimes it seems that the UV-LED different brands of radiometers or
market is engaged in its own version instrument types with different
of Jeopardy! There are plenty of good features and responses can lead to
answersif we can only figure out different answers. Instruments have
what are the right questions. evolved over the years and their
With the game show, only the host combination of electronics, optics
starts the dialog with the answer. and software are designed to provide
In the UV-LED world, there could be solutions to the challenges of cosine
25-plus UV-LED source/array response; the nature of the mercury
integrators asking questions along spectrum; and the predictable effects
with formulators, machine integrators of parabolic and elliptical reflectors.
and customers. If it seems as if mercury lamp
Some of the questions that seem suppliers and UV-LED manufacturers
important to guiding the discussion on are sometimes speaking two different
proper LED measurement are: languagesthats because they are.
What are the wavelengths of the The advent of UV-LEDs has resulted
UV sources? in a paradigm shift. This shift doesnt
What is their expected dynamic just require a new language, it also
range? shatters some of the conventional
wisdom and time-honored approaches
How fast should an instrument
to UV measurement. Developing a new
sample?
prescription for how to measure LEDs
Where is the right place to measure has been made more difficult by the
the LED? moving target nature of a solid-state
From a measurement perspective, technology that continues to morph
it feels like the clock has been turned and obsolete itself at a rapid pace.
back to the late 1980s or early 1990s. It The goal of this article is to
feels as if we are answering many of the suggest a number of important, but
same questions for UV-LED users that as yet unresolved questions that are
we have answered for arc or microwave fundamental to measuring UV-LED
users. In the established world of performance. The answers to these
mercury-based lamps these questions questions will determine if current
have long been settled and products measurement solutions will work; need
have evolved based on broad industry to be modified; or if a new class of
consensus. You press a button and the UV-measurement devices will best
instrument provides a value. The address the needs of its users.

What is the Spectral Output of a
UV-LED Light Source? Figure 1
Any device that measures a source
of irradiationwhether its visible Optical response of a typical photodiode sensor
light, Infrared (IR) or ultraviolet 100
requires a sensor that is sensitive to 90
that portion of the spectrum under 80
test. These detectors must accurately 70
Relative Sensitivity %
convert small changes in the incoming 60
Light Sensor
energy into corresponding changes in 50
electrical energy while discriminating 40
against wavelengths outside the band 30 Human
Eye
of interest. 20
ORANGE
For example, suppose that you 10
GREEN
CYAN
BLUE
RED
INFRARED
are a camera buff who wants to 0
400 600 800 1000 1200
accurately measure light so you can
Wavelength (nm)
take proper photos. Your goal is to
design a very accurate and sensitive
photographic light meter. Since you
might photograph under a range of the right size and the manufacturer of mechanical (optical) components
different light sources (i.e., tungsten, provides a chart that shows its optical and electronic circuitry, you can build
fluorescent, sodium vapor, sunlight characteristics. Figure 1 is, in fact, a a light meter that provides you with
and candlelight), you need an fairly representative optical response reliable measurements.
instrument that measures across a for many popular photoelectric diodes. Suppose one day you decide that
wide band of light sources. Note that the detectors response curve you want to start doing IR photography
The sources generally emit light in a is pretty close to linear in the visible instead. This involves working
range of about 380 nanometers (violet) portion of the spectrum (see inset). with sources in the 750-950 nm IR
up to about 740 nanometers (red). Though the response curve is not flat range. Theres a problem with your
In designing your light meter, you in the 380-740 nm band, its known old light meter. Measuring 900 nm
come across a light sensor that uses and predictable. Through some clever with a detector, filters and circuitry
a popular photodiode. Its affordable, engineering and using a combination engineered for visible light causes
Figure 2
Typical bandpass filters used across the UV spectrum
100
90
80
70
Normalized %T
60 UV-V
UV-A
50 UV-B
UV-C
40 UV-A2
30
20
EIT Inc.
10 2/26/09
0
230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400 410 420 430 440 450 460
Wave Length

Figure 3
of hundred milliwatts per square
centimeter a few years ago to more
than 10W per square centimeter today
Example of signal clipping (and twice that much in the current
development labs). This poses a
problem for existing radiometers.
Most conventional radiometers were
intended to measure light sources up
to about 10W per square centimeter.
Though most users mistakenly regard
LEDs as less powerful sources than arc
or microwave lamps, their intensity in a
narrow-band region is very potent. The
latest generation of LEDs challenges
the dynamic range of existing
instruments. You may be familiar with
clipping in audio applications where
loud peaks are artificially attenuated
some measurement problems when broad range detector will emerge as by amplifiers. The result of trying
used with infrared. It produces a the best solution. to measure with a device that has
reading, but the reading is likely to inadequate dynamic range is clipping
be misleading since the instrument is What is the Anticipated Power that results from overpowering the
intended for a different range of Output of a UV-LED? device. Clipping produces a lower
light sources. The minimum and maximum irradiance measurement than the LED
Thats the UV measurement problem expected amplitude of an incoming may be generating. See Figure 3.
with LEDs. The existing instruments signal is an important determinant To design a proper UV-measurement
were designed for light sources that for designing a measuring device. It instrument, engineers need to
are in a different spectral region. They must be sensitive enough to measure anticipate the appropriate dynamic
produce a reading, but the reading can the weakest signal and of sufficient range of the source. In a market
be misleading when used with new LED dynamic range to accommodate the environment where the light source
light sources. The chart in Figure 2 strongest signal. UV-LED output has output power doubles every couple of
shows the bandwidth configurations increased steadily from only a couple years, this is an engineering challenge.
Figure 4
developed over many years for arc and
microwave-type lamps. You can see
that a 395 nm LED would fall to the
high side of the UV-A band and the Cosine effect on UV irradiance
lower edge of the UV-V band.
The solution has been to engineer
a device optimized for 395 nm and
the answer was a new combination of
optics, detector and circuitry dubbed
UV-A2. The chart in Figure 2 illustrates
how the UV-A2 band satisfies the need
for a better (more linear) response in
the long wavelength LED market.
But there is still much uncertainty = 45 = 0
about what wavelength for the
LEDs will emerge from the chip
manufacturers; whether a new
bandwidth will be required; or which

Figure 5
the angle of incidence. For existing
instruments, the optical components
are designed to achieve or replicate
The optical footprint: traditional lamp vs. LED a cosine response in the instrument.
This response is not always able to
distinguish tightly packed UV-LEDs.
A second complication in the
geometry of measurement is that
those tiny LEDs do not radiate light
uniformly in all directions, especially
compared to traditional lamps with
reflectors (Figure 5). The optical
characteristics of current LED sources
make it more challenging to decide
where to best measure their UV
output.
Still, its important to not become so order to properly measure the light Recently, the LED lamp
caught up in the numbers that we miss coming from various angles, the manufacturers have begun to develop
whats really importantwhich is how instrument must correct for the effect optical components that can alter
the chemistry reacts. As long as there of the angle between the detector and the output of their arrays again,
is adequate irradiance and energy light source. sometimes with the goal of producing
density to fully cure the material in the The angular cosine correction a higher irradiance specification. When
process time desired, anything else is is achieved by tinkering with the comparing manufacturer specifications,
really just excess energy. response of the detector and optical be aware that there is no agreement,
components such as a diffuser. let alone industry standards, for
Where do you Measure an LED? A perfect detector and diffuser reporting UV-LED measurements. As
If the UV light that emanates from combination has an angular cosine the illustration in Figure 6 shows, this
a source were uniform everywhere, it correction of unity, regardless of can make it difficult to compare the
would be much simpler to measure
but this is not the case. UV intensity
falls off the farther distance it is away
Figure 6
from the light source. In fact, the
The Where Do I Measure? dilemma
fundamental principle is that if a point
source radiates light uniformly in all
Courtesy of Integration Technology Ltd.
directions through a nonabsorptive

medium, then the irradiance decreases
in proportion to the square of the
distance from the object. But that is
a big if since real-world UV-LEDs
are neither point sources nor do they
operate in a nonabsorptive medium.
Traditional UV lamps are not always
single-point sources either. UV light
from a lamp strikes the radiometers
detector from many angles as shown
in the Figure 4 diagram. Light from
directly above the radiometer produces
a different reading than light coming
from a slight angle. This causes an
error referred to as cosine error. In

Figure 7
rectangles and then add them all
together. Obviously, the narrower the
rectangles, the more precisely the
Computing energy density (joules) area can be measured without missing
the peak irradiance value. This is how
Peak Irradiance
many radiometers (originally dubbed
integrating radiometers) measure
energy density.
Power / Irradiance
The instrument takes many

irradiance (sample) measurements
every second, and then adds the values
Energy Density together. The push has been to faster
and faster sampling rates in order to
achieve high resolution and accurate
irradiance calculations that can lead
to more consistent energy-density
Time
calculations. The more samples that
are taken over time, the narrower
the rectangles, so to speak. Todays
manufacturers specifications without both measures. Successful UV curing radiometers sample hundreds (even
knowing much more about how the relies on two similar measures thousands) of times per second.
measurement was taken. Measurements irradiance (a measure of UV intensity) But what happens when you are
made even a couple of centimeters and time. Without sufficient time, trying to measure something thats
apart can be dramatically different. UV curing may be incomplete and also changing at the same time? Some
Its likely that the question of the result compromised. In fact, the LED electronic control systems use a
where to measuresuch as always combination of irradiance and time is scheme called Pulse Width Modulation
at the glasscan be answered so important that a measure known as (PWM). With PWM, the supply voltage
without difficulty. But if various energy density (sometimes referred to is turned on and off rapidly to alter the
manufacturers continue to develop as dose) is almost always provided output of the light source as illustrated
LED sources which focus their power when specifying a UV-cure process. in Figure 8. The strobing of the LED
further out from the LED array, they (Note: It is important to stress is normally so rapid that its invisible
may be understandably reluctant that an energy-density value by to the eye and, for many curing
to accept this method since these itself is not enough to properly processes, it works perfectly well.
arrays will be intentionally designed define a cure specification. From While PWM may allow the
to provide even greater irradiance at a UV-source standpoint, the manufacturer to vary the output power
another, somewhat further distance. irradiance value; type of spectral of the array, turning the light source
The question of where to make a output; and the absence/presence off and on very rapidly can create a
standardized measurement of LEDs of infrared all contribute to the cure challenge when taking samples at the
may, therefore, remain understandably process for a specific application. same time. It can be like trying to take
unresolved as competing ideas Parameters such as the coating photos of a spinning fan bladeits
about their optical characteristics thickness also need to be specified.) hit-or-miss. The sample energy-density
are sorted out. In a mathematical sense, energy readings may not accurately reflect the
density can be thought of as the area true measure and, depending on the
How do Sampling Rates Affect under a curve that measures irradiance algorithm used to used to calculate the
Irradiance and Energy Density over time. See Figure 7. irradiance and energy density, it may
Calculations? You might remember from math be higher or lower than the true values.
For thermal processes such as class that finding the area under a
curing paints and baking cookies, two curve is called integration, and that What are the Right Questions?
key parameters are vitaltemperature one technique to find this area is The preceding questions address
and time. Proper results depend on to break the area up into narrow important technical matters. The

Figure 8
Pulse width modulated signal
V
Lower duty cycle

Lower average DC
0 t
Time period
V
Higher duty cycle
Higher average DC
0 t
Time period
answers affect the design of measuring device for equipment that

radiometers intended for measuring moves from undefined to obsolete
UV-LED performance. But they do not within a short time span.
address all of the unresolved issues. UV-LEDs have opened up new
Many of the existing UV instruments markets to UV curing, in addition to
were designed with popular applications being a possible solution for existing
in mind. The versatile Power Puck, UV applications. Many people have
for instance, is well-suited for use on the opportunity to use UV sources
industrial conveyorized systems. But for the first time and do not have
the Palm Probe was designed to reach the experience that many of us have
into recesses and areas where a Power gained over the years with spot, arc or
Puck will not physically fit. microwave UV sources. We need to:
What are the likely uses for LED Welcome them to our industry
and how does the packaging of the
Continue to offer educational
test instrument need to be adapted?
opportunities
Perhaps LEDs will someday replace
Honestly present the advantages
conventional lamps in applications
and disadvantages of UV-LEDs
where an LED analog of existing
measurement tools will fit the bill. But Target applications that are best
LEDs also open up new applications, suited for UV-LEDs
such as digital printing, where a With years of proven performance
different size or shape may be useful. and expertise at measuring UV, there
At this time, there are more than is no shortage of solutions and good
25 manufacturers of commercial answers. The problem is agreeing on
UV-LED sources targeting industrial the right questions. w
UV applications that we are aware
of (and probably a number that we Paul Mills is a UV marketing
consultant and Jim Raymont is
are not). The industry is nascent and
director of sales for EIT Instrument
changes significantly from year to Markets in Sterling, Va.
year, making it challenging to design a

The State of UV-LED Curing:
An Investigation of
Chemistry and Applications
L
By Ed Kiyoi ight-emitting diodes for ultraviolet- light as shown in Figure 1. Only about
curing applications (UV-LEDs) 25% is in the safer UV-A range.
have been commercially available A UV-LED generates UV energy in
for nearly 10 years. However, their an entirely different way. As an
unique output characteristics require electric current (or electrons) move
newly formulated UV chemistries in through a semiconductor device called
order to take advantage of UV-LEDs a diode, it emits energy in the form of
many benefits. This paper discusses photons. The specific materials in the
the characteristics of UV-LED lamps; diode determine the wavelengths of
the importance of properly formulating these photons and, in the case of
chemistries; the benefits to end-users; UV-LEDs, the output is typically in
commercial applications of UV-LEDs; a very narrow band +/- 20 nm. The
and future expected developments. wavelength is dependent on the band
gap between excited state and the
Characteristics of UV-LED lamps ground state of the semiconductor
Traditional UV arc lamps produce material. The chart in Figure 1
UV energy by generating an electric compares the output of a 395 nm,
arc inside an ionized gas (typically UV-LED lamp with a typical mercury-
mercury) chamber to excite atoms, arc lamp. It is important to note the
which then decay and emit photons. difference in intensity and wavelength
The emitted photons cover a broad of the output as both are key to
range of the electromagnetic spectrum, understanding a UV-curing process.
including some infrared and even visible
Figure 1 The UV-Curing Process
UV curing is a photopolymerization
Wavelength output comparison of mercury-arc and process that uses UV energy to change
UV-LED lamps a liquid to a solid. Upon absorption of
the UV energy (as shown in Figure 2),
the photoinitiator (PI) produces free
radicals that initiate crosslinking with
binders (monomers and oligomers) in
a polymerization reaction to cure or
solidify the ink, coating or adhesive.
UV formulations also incorporate
various additives such as stabilizers,
wetting agents, adhesion promoters,
defoamers and pigments to provide
desirable characteristics or color of the
cured material.

Figure 2
the monomer reacts and becomes
part of the UV-cured material. The
oligomers (and their backbone
UV curing photopolymerization process structure) determine the overall
properties of the material. Monomers
and oligomers are generally derivatives
of acrylates or methacrylates
containing polyurethanes, polyesters
or polyethers.
The longer wavelength output
such as the UV-A range seen from
UV-LEDspenetrates through thick
and pigmented systems producing
through-cure of the material that
Comparison of Solvent and developed for curing with a typical
ensures surface adhesion and the
Waterborne to UV Processes mercury-arc lamp (shown as H-bulb)
ability to cure thicker screen ink
Solvent and waterborne use a broad spectrum PI. While there or pigmented wood coatings. Short
formulations change from a liquid to is often some absorption within the wavelength output (200-280 nm)
a solid (dry) via evaporation of the UV-LED output range, it is clear to see is unable to penetrate very far into
solventtypically volatile organic that much of the PI absorption range a material, but provides surface
compounds (VOCs) or water. This is wasted. A more efficient cure is curing which is important for surface
drying process (often requiring an possible with a formulation designed properties such as scratch and
oven) takes time, generates VOCs and specifically for UV-LED curing using a chemical resistance.
the dried film thickness is less than PI with concentrated absorption in
originally applied. UV curing happens the UV-A range such as those shown Overcoming Surface Cure Issues
much faster (typically less than a in Figure 4. Surface curing due to oxygen
second), does not generate VOCs The monomers in the formulation inhibition was often an issue for
and the film thickness applied is what serve as the reactive diluent enabling UV-LED curing, but has largely been
remains as a solid (critical for certain the formulator to control viscosity for overcome by various means. Of
end-use applications). UV-curing proper application (spraying, rolling, course curing in an inert (nitrogen)
processes are environmentally friendly, screen printing, etc.) of the uncured atmosphere is one option, but it adds
save energy costs and floor space, and material. Rather than volatilizing, as is cost and complexity to the system.
typically increase production rates typical with conventional formulations, Another option is to add in oxygen-
while reducing scrap or waste streams.
Figure 3
Formulating UV Chemistries for
UV-LED Lamps Photoinitiator spectral absorbance compared to
For efficient and effective UV traditional UV lamp output
curing of an ink, coating or adhesive,
the formulator seeks to overlap the
UV lamp output with the spectral
absorption of the PI. The amount
of PI in a typical UV formulation is
usually very small, less than 5%. PIs
typically absorb across a range of
wavelengths, not a narrow band. For
example, Figure 3 shows the spectral
absorption for different PIs and the
wavelength output for mercury-arc UV
lamps. Many existing UV formulations

Figure 4
combined with highly reactive acrylate
oligomers and it minimizes yellowing.
ITX (Type II) was more reactive, but
Examples of longer wavelength absorption caused too much yellowing for OPV and
photoinitiators white inks. She also noted that pigment
selection is key because pigments
compete with the PI for UV energy.4
Many advances have been and
are being made by raw material
suppliers and, in turn, more UV-LED
formulations are being commercialized
that result in production speeds
comparable to traditional mercury
lamp processes. Formulators should
work closely with their suppliers to
develop new UV-LED cure chemistries
which are non-yellowing, will overcome
surface cure issues and meet the
end-use production requirements.
consuming or scavenging compounds typically accounts for 20-40% of the
such as amines or aminoacrylates to formulation by weight. Mono- (MAPO) Benefits UV-LED Curing Delivers to
overcome oxygen inhibition.1 and bisacylphospineoxides (BAPO) End-Users
Research has indicated that peak are recommended photoinitiator types The benefits of UV-LED as
irradiance (W/cm2) and total UV-A for UV-LED curing. Some commercial compared to traditional mercury-
energy (mJ/ cm2) delivered are more examples are IRGACURE 2100, arc UV lamps are numerous and
important than a precise wavelength LUCIRIN TPO-L and ADDITOL TPO.3 significant as shown in Figure 5.
match on formulations developed to In September 2012, Eileen Jaranilla- UV-LEDs are more environmentally
cure in the UV-A region. Peak irradiance Tran with the Rahn-Group reported on friendly because they do not generate
is an important metric since intensity is her investigation of overprint varnishes ozone and contain no mercury as
required to initiate the polymerization. (OPV), flexographic inks and inkjet arc lamps do. They are a cool source
Higher peak irradiance (such as that inks. She found that Norrish Type I PIs compared to arc lamps, largely due to
found in UV-LEDs) results in a more such as BAPO are effective to achieve no output in the infrared range. This
aggressive polymerization mechanism good surface cure (and preferable to reduced heat eliminates complicated
helping to overcome oxygen inhibition TPO and BDMM), especially when cooling mechanisms such as chill
at the surface and achieving the rolls and external shutters, and
required cure rate.2 Figure 5
More recently, it has been shown
that higher functional oligomers Benefits and features of UV-LED curing
can also minimize the oxygen
inhibition and improve surface curing.
Commercially, Cytec offers a
co-resin called ADDITOL LED 01,
a mercapto-modified, polyester-
acrylate resin that replaces a portion
of the oligomer in a UV formulation
to improve surface curing under
UV-LED lamps. This co-resin is
compatible with urethane acrylates,
some epoxy and polyester acrylates,
and acidic adhesion promoters and

enables applications on heat-sensitive of fiberglass composites. These Narrow Web Flexo Takes Off
substrates. The electrical-to-optical early applications took advantage of More recently, UV-LED inks are
conversion efficiency of UV-LEDs is UV-LEDs form factor (lightweight being used for screen printing (rotary,
much better and the ability to instantly and small), through-cure capabilities flatbed and container) and narrow
turn the unit off and on enables saving and the increased safety inherent with web flexographic printing. Flint
about 50-75% on electricity. longer wavelengths. In fact, many of Group introduced the first UV-LED
Table 1 shows a comparison of key the earliest applications were actually combination print inks, flexographic
characteristics of UV-LEDs versus in the visible wavelength range. Today, four-color process and rotary screen
traditional mercury-arc UV lamps. as the energy density has increased white inks branded as EkoCure at
Compared to an arc lamps 500-2,000- and costs have decreased (especially Label Expo in September 2012. In
hour life, most UV-LEDs are specified for 395 nm output), UV-LED is October, they began working closely
for 10,000 hours, but can last more commercial in the graphic arts market, with a beta customer (a large label
than 20,000 hours. Its also important wood coatings, electronics, composites converter) to validate the inks and
to note that over this lifetime UV-LED
and others. process in a commercial setting.
output only drops about 5%, compared
Commercial UV-LED applications The customer had a narrow web
to arc lamps that can lose about 50%
in the graphic arts market (especially flexographic press running waterborne
of their original output by the end of
digital inkjet applications) advanced inks. They simply installed UV-LED
their life. In a production environment,
first owing to their form factor, low lamps to run the new EkoCure inks.
UV-LEDs require significantly less
heat and energy savings advantages. Since the UV-LED lamps run cool, there
space, monitoring, maintenance and
Commercial inkjet applications was no need to use chill rolls or other
downtime. That translates into higher
today include all inkjet segments, web cooling devices as would typically
productivity rates, less scrap and
including wide-web printing on a be required for mercury-arc lamps.
higher quality end products. Paybacks
variety of substrates for many end-use They have seen no film distortion, even
for retrofitting onto existing machines
applications. There are many UV-LED- on heat-sensitive, low-gauge films such
or replacing existing UV arc lamps can
specific inkjet inks and most inkjet as shrink films.
be as low as 12 months.
printing presses are available with Our beta site customer runs
Commercial Applications of UV-LEDs. For example, EFI Inkjet a variety of different commercial
UV-LEDs Solutions offers a 126-inch wide, products. So, as they needed something
Some of the earliest UV-LED UV-LED curing printer capable of 1,000 new, we formulated it for them, said
commercial applications were small dpi and eight-color (plus white) with Tom Hammer, product manager,
area adhesive and bonding applications speeds of up to 1,200 ft2/hr. End-users Narrow Web North America, Flint
such as medical device assembly; are able to print on thinner, more heat- Group. We started with flexographic
low-end thermal inkjet printing sensitive materials reducing material inks, but have also done clearcoats and
applications such as marking, coding costs in half without sacrificing any adhesives, both PSAs and laminates.
and variable printing; and field repair quality or speed.5 Nothing has been a problem and the
Table 1
customer is very impressed.
The beta customer has been running
the 10-station, 17 press since October
Comparison of UV-LED to mercury-arc UV lamps on a 24/7 schedule. No matter what
UV-LED Mercury Arc theyve been runningshrink films,
Life 20,000+ hrs 500-2,000 hrs four-color processes, pressure-sensitive
On/Off Instant 10 Minutes labels, lamination and othersthey
Output Very Good. 95%+ Drops up to 50% are seeing faster line speeds than with
Consistency
traditional UV. They are currently on
Heat Generated 60C ~350C
Energy Efficiency Saves 50-75% track to see a payback for the press
Environmental Mercury Free, Mercury Waste, retrofit in less than 12 months. The
Ozone Free Generates Ozone beta customer is also adding a rotary
Footprint 30-50% less head to the press and will run the
opaque white ink already developed for
UV-LED curing. Flint Group plans to

further develop rotary screen inks in a the UV-LED lamps provide consistent that is needed is an end customer
variety of colors for UV-LED cure. output, require less maintenance and willing to be first, as is so often the
Formulating inks for UV-LED reduce the fire hazard. Gloss control case with new technologies.
curing does not require starting from has been an issue when applying Richard Baird, a process engineer
scratch, but it is also not as simple thick, pigmented layers (>15g/m2) via for Boeing, wrote in the fall 2011 issue
as just replacing the photoinitiator roll coating or with spray application of the RadTech Report that he expects
with one that has a longer wavelength (rarely used). When the customer UV-LED curing to become a viable
absorption. The pigments used in the needs to produce matte finishes they option for large-scale aerospace paint
flexographic and rotary inks are similar simply use a combination of arc lamps curing in the very near future.6 By all
to those used in traditional UV-cured and the UV-LED. Gloss control is not indications, this and many other UV-
inks as are some of the oligomers an issue for thinner topcoats. There LED curing applications will indeed be
and monomers, added Hammer. is also an EU framework project FP7 taking off soon. w
However, there are fewer choices of (http://www.fp7-uvled.eu) focused
photoinitiators (longer wavelength) on researching UV-LED wood coatings. References
to use and it is more challenging to Findings were expected in early 2013. 1. UV-LED Lamps: A Viable Alternative
for UV Inkjet Applications, by Michael
get cure performance (surface and
through-cure) while still keeping costs Future UV-LED Applications Beck, RadTech Report, November/
December 2009, p. 39, http://www.
for the end-user in mind. The future for UV-LEDs looks very phoseon.com/Documentation/UV-LED-
bright given the progress made to Lamps-A-Viable-Alternative-for-UV-
Inkjet.pdf
Wood Coating Applications date by raw material suppliers and
2. Characterizing the Efficiency o
Sherwin Williams introduced its formulators. And, if the trends for UV- UV-LED Curing, by Rob Karsten and
Becker Acroma UV-LED coatings LED development continuenamely Bonnie Larson, Phoseon Technology
for wood in January 2012 and their increasing peak irradiance (77% and Kent Miller, University of Akron,
presented to Radtech Europe 2009.
customer BJS has been successfully compound annual improvement) and
3. UV-LED Curing ADDITOL LED 01,
using the UV-LED coatings since decreasing costswe should see rapid CYTEC presentation, April 2011,
June 2012. adoption by end-users in the near https://www.cytec.com/uv/Downloads/
The primary driver for developing future for many new applications. ProductPresentationADDITOLLED01.pdf
these UV-LED coatings was to extend According to Hammer, Flint Group 4. UV-LED Curing in Graphic Arts
Applications, by EileenJaranilla-Tran,
the use of UV curing to heat-sensitive is developing UV-LED inks for offset RAHN-Group, presented at Chicago
wood substrates such as pine (< 45C) and letterpress applications and he Printing Ink Production Club meeting,
and other resinous woods. Most September 2012, http://www.cpipc.
fully expects this to translate to sheet-
org/downloads/cpipc%20led%20
end-users in Europe face strict limits fed and wide-web applications as well. 092012.pdf
on VOC emissions and traditional Hammer also sees food packaging as 5. Maturing UV-Cure Technology, by Bill
UV arc lamps cause problems on a growth area, once low migration Schiffner, Sign & Digital Graphics,
February 1, 2012, http://sdgmag.com/
heat-sensitive wood material, said inks are available. Right now, most of
article/printing-finishing/maturing-uv
Lars Sandqvist, technical project the photoinitiators approved for food cure-technology
manager at Sherwin-Williams Sweden. packaging are not appropriate for 6. UV-Curable Paints for Commercial
With the UV-LED coatings, end-users UV-LED ink formulations. Aircraft Exteriors, by Richard W. Baird,
RadTech Report, Fall 2011, p. 43,
have a choice of arc or LED, or even Sherwin-Williams is developing
http://radtechreport.com/pdfs/RT_
a combination. Customers who have a UV-LED fillers for use by furniture fall11_baird.pdf
UV line, but have heat problems, can manufacturers who want to use
retrofit the line with LED in a couple of lower cost particle board, but need a Ed Kiyoi is a technical marketing
positions to get the temperature down engineer at Phoseon Technology in
smooth edge after cutting and shaping.
Hillsboro, Oregon.
and keep the rest of the arc lamps to The clear, thick fillers are an ideal
minimize investment. application for UV-LEDs. According to
BJS (which runs both arc lamps Sandqvist, another application that will
and UV-LEDs on the same line) has soon be available is UV-LED coatings
seen a 60% energy savings with the on wood moldings. The coatings
UV-LED compared to the arc lamps. are ready and shown to cure at the
In addition to energy cost savings, required speeds of 40-100 m/min. All

Market Overview of
UV-LED Applications:
Not a One-Size-Fits-All
Approach
A
By Jennifer Heathcote nyone who has ever and microwave curing. What works for
investigated UV-LED curing one application does not necessarily
has likely encountered work for another. As a result, opposing
contradictory statements and statements generally directed at the
claims regarding the viability of the UV curing industry as a whole are
technology as well as its future. Why really only credibleand much less
does UV-LED technology garner such contradictorywhen given correct
varied support from industry experts? application context.
Quite simply, it is because there is Many readers of this article are
no such thing as a universal UV-LED likely familiar with the UV-LED curing
solution that works for every UV-curing benefits championed by those operating
application in existence in exactly the within the UV-LED supply chain. For
same way. Or in other words, UV-LED convenience, a short list is provided
technology is not a one-size-fits-all in Figure 1. The cost savings as well
substitute for conventional UV arc as process and safety improvement
Figure 1 benefits are often the impetus that

leads individuals to investigate LED
UV-LED curing system benefits curing in the first place.

But even the strongest and most
Solid-state technology
persuasive list of benefits has little
Easy integration
to do with whether an application is
Near-ambient array housing temperatures
Negligible heat transfer to cure surfaces
practically or economically viable.
Instant on/off curing Focusing solely on a generalized list
No warm-up/cool-down cycles of benefits excludes everything that
No shutters needed makes an installation successful.
Diode life in excess of 20,000 hours That includes hours of formulation
Consistent UV output over time and engineering work to adapt the
No mercury-filled UV bulbs
technology to the specific process,
No ozone production
field tests, general technology
No system exhaust
No conditioned plant makeup air
improvements, safety certification and
No radio frequency emissions the cost analysis needed to justify the
Lower total cost of ownership business case for adoption.
In order to achieve a better
understanding of when and why

Figure 2
Applications that lend themselves
to UV-LED systems with smaller
form factors easily positioned within
General market diffusion of UV-LED innovation a half inch of the cure surface; and
Applications where the chemistry
First Movers Second Movers Later Adopters
has been tweaked to react within
Inkjet Pinning Inkjet Full Cure Litho/Offset
the 365-405 nm output range
and Full Cure Scanning Graphics
3-D Finishing emitted by most UV-LED systems.
Slower Speed
InkjetUnder White
Inline Graphics High-Speed A few more specific examples
Inkjet Industrial Coatings
Inkjet Marking include inkjet marking and coding of
and Coding Screen High-Speed gift, security and hotel cards; inkjet for
Adhesives
Spot-Cure Adhesives Flexo narrow web labels; coating, bonding
and Sealants UV-B Curables and sealing electronic displays and
Wider Area
Slow-Speed Sealants/Adhesives UV-C Curables devices as well as smaller automotive
Coatings assemblies; inkjet product decoration,
Photoresist
particularly on heat-sensitive materials;
and coatings applied to thin films.
As UV-LED innovations diffuse the
broader market, UV-LED first-mover
UV-LED curing makes sense, it is the UV source from its cure surface applications have and continue to
helpful to survey the markets that are all influence which UV configuration receive the vast majority of engineering
embracing the technology today, and is needed. Just as these applications effort and comprise the most
evaluate the industry and application employ very different conventional significant UV-LED revenue stream
factors that are enabling successful UV solutions, they also require very for system manufacturers, formulators
installations as well as the processes different UV-LED solutions. and integrators. For this portion of the
that guided the evolution. Conversely, First Movers industry, listed in column one in Figure
factors that hinder adoption and Generally speaking, UV-LED curing 2, UV-LED technology has increasingly
penetration in other markets can also is most commonly used in slower become the preferred solution and
provide notable insight regarding speed applications, including inkjet, is truly the result of a full decade of
the technical issues that must yet coatings and spot-cure adhesives and development.
be overcome. sealants. It also tends to be employed
Second Movers
It should not be any surprise that for relatively flat substrate surfaces.
In other applications such as screen,
a 30-second static exposure bonding While the activity across the early
flexo and both scanning and industrial
application over a -inch or one-inch adopter markets is diverse, it is often
inkjet, formulators see great near-term
square area; a 10 fpm, 22-inch wide driven by:
potential and have subsequently
electronics coating line; a 60 fpm, Heat-sensitive applications that
invested heavily in research and
six-inch wide multicolor inkjet; a cannot use conventional UV due to
development in recent years to
48-inch wide screen graphic the emitted infrared;
make the applications work. These
application; a 250 fpm, -inch wide Wavelength-sensitive applications suppliers become strong promoters
single color inkjet coding application; that utilize the relatively of the technology even if there are
a 650 fpm 17-inch wide eight-station monochromatic output of UV-LEDs few, if any, installations to reference
flexo printer; a 2,000 fpm, 60-inch wide to avoid product-damaging and even if more development work
lithography line; and a 3-D UV-curing wavelength regions; needs to be done. Many formulators
chamber all have very different UV Industrial coating and bonding and LED equipment manufacturers
process and integration requirements. applications at larger manufacturing have produced successful field trials
The type of ink, coating or adhesive; facilities that have additional while some integrators are leading
desired post-cure functional engineering resources available the industry by developing custom
properties; substrate width or part to support development and LED-curing machines and printers. All
profile; line speed; and distance of integration; continue to improve and optimize the

technology as they hunt for end-users where the technology can be made before this point, formulators begin
ready to embrace LED curing. to work, it is often not economically experimenting with LED chemistry in
The greatest hurdle, however, is feasible at the desired production the lab. (3) Once formulators achieve
that while the technology works or can speeds. While each application should working samples, they partner with
be made to work, the business case is be evaluated individually, economics, LED-system manufacturers who have
not always sufficiently demonstrated as line speed and distance are the key been working on their own technology
to what is often a very price-sensitive reasons why there has not been any in parallel. Together, formulators and
machine builder or end-user. While significant migration toward adoption. LED-system suppliers perform field
it is typically much easier to make Nevertheless, many suppliers are trials on existing process equipment at
the business case for using UV-LEDs actively engaged in these areas true production speeds. (4) Successful
on new machines, field retrofits can as customers have demonstrated trials demonstrate the viability of the
be a bit more challenging. The large interest in the technology based on technology and highlight weaknesses.
and still functioning installed base the potential benefits, and suppliers Without a strong economic business
of conventional UV; the obligation want to provide these users with a case, however, the technology hits a
to requalify the curing process for solutionsomeday. Commercial Adoption Barrier. It is
use in particular segments such as
Market Evolution only when the UV-LED curing system
food packaging; and the need for and the formulation material meet
Figure 3 provides an illustration
customized, longer or multiple arrays a sufficient level of the end-users
of the general market evolution for
on wider and faster speed machines process requirements and the business
an application. First, machine
make the initial capital investment case for adoption is economically
builders and end-users of conventional
or development more expensive. All justifiable that end-users begin
UV-curing and drying methods become
of this contributes to slower market embracing the technology. The time
aware of the benefits and successes of
penetration. duration between stages 3 and 4 can
UV-LED technology in early adopter
Later Adopters and second-mover markets. (1) In an be a few months, a few years or even
At the far end of the spectrum are effort to determine whether UV-LEDs decades, depending on the application.
the LED-lagging applications that are an option for their application, (5) But once stage 4 is reached,
operate at extremely fast speeds; they begin calling formulators, it is typically not too long before
handle complicated 3-D part profiles; LED system suppliers and machine commercial adoption accelerates,
require UV-B and UV-C outputs; or builders. (2) When a critical mass of bringing more and more end-users and
exist within machine frameworks that interest is generated, or possibly even suppliers onto the scene.
prevent the curing system from getting
sufficiently close to the cure surface. Figure 3
For these applications, todays UV-LED
curing technology often does not make UV-LED market evolution
commercial sense from a technical
or economic perspectiveno matter
how the numbers are run. In fact,
these applications may even require
another big leap in the evolution of the
base chemistry or LED technology, or
possibly necessitate peripheral array
enhancements in order to get sufficient
UV irradiance and energy density at the
optimal wavelength to the cure surface.
All of this takes time and money.
It should also be noted that for
many of these applications, some of
the touted UV-LED benefitssuch as
lower total cost of ownershipdont
really hold up. Even in applications

Science of UV Curing intensities necessary for industrial the diodes increases, but it also
It is often helpful to review the photopolymerization. Formulators are decreases as the junction temperature
basic science behind UV curing as constrained to an existing selection rises. In addition, the relationship
a means of understanding what is of raw materials developed to be between irradiance and current is not
necessary to move through stages most reactive at 365 nm or shorter. a linear one and eventually it saturates.
2, 3 and 4 as illustrated in Figure 3. Some applications such as inkjet have Further increases in current lead
All UV processes require a certain overcome less reactive photoinitiator to even greater inefficiencies in the
combination of wavelength (nm), zones by leveraging the higher peak conversion of electricity to UV output
irradiance (watts/cm2) and energy irradiances emitted by UV-LEDs at and the need for more total cooling
density (joules/cm2) in order for longer wavelengths. These values capacity and AC power. Irradiance also
sufficient photopolymerization to commonly exceed those emitted decreases as the array moves away
occur. The material being cured does by conventional UV systems. While from the cure surface. This alone makes
not care how the UV energy is supplied it is certainly possible to produce applications such as sheet metal offset
(arc, microwave, fluorescent tube, increasingly higher peak irradiance decorating and 3-D finishingwhere
sunlight, LED, xenon pulse, electron and energy density levels for longer machine frameworks or complicated
beam, etc.) as long as the formulations wavelength LEDs (395-405 nm), part profiles prevent the LED array
minimum threshold reaction doing so leads to greater junction from being mounted close to the cure
parameters are met. As a result, inefficiencies; potentially shorter diode surfacevery difficult and generally
the total UV energy (wavelength, life; significantly larger input power impossible with todays technology.
irradiance and energy density) requirements; and increased cooling Energy Density
required by the formulation at the all of which leads to both a larger While some UV-LED curing systems
cure surface for a given process speed capital investment and generally higher use higher irradiances to generate
dictates whether an LED solution is running costs. more energy density (Joules/cm2),
even possible with todays technology, energy density is more effectively
Irradiance
as well as how much the total solution increased by adding more diodes to an
For any UV reaction, a minimum
will cost. See Figure 4. array; increasing the number of LED
irradiance (watts/cm2) threshold is
Wavelength arrays in a process; or increasing the
necessary to start the polymerization
UV-LED outputs are relatively overall dwell time. The latter method
process and counter oxygen inhibition
monochromatic with peak intensities is accomplished by decreasing the line
at the cure surface. As previously
between 365 and 405 nm. UV-LED speed; increasing the number of passes
mentioned, UV-LED irradiance
wavelengths shorter than 365 nm under the UV source; or extending
is typically higher than that of
are not generally available on the the time the cure surface is parked
conventional UV systems. The LED
commercial market, at least not at the beneath the UV source.
irradiance increases as current through
Presently, the most expensive
Figure 4 component in a UV-LED curing

system is the diode. This means that
UV process requirements increasing the total number of diodes
or arrays proportionally increases the
total cost of the curing and cooling
systems. As a result, application speed
is an important factor in determining
whether a process is economically
viable since speed can play such a large
part in dictating how much energy
density is required and, therefore, how
many diodes or arrays are needed.
Faster applications such as lithography
simply require more total energy due
to the fact that the media is under the
UV source for a shorter period of time.

Figure 5
For example, if achieving proper
cure for a given application at a
specified wavelength and irradiance
occurs at a maximum speed of Technology development network
100 fpm using an existing UV-LED
system that costs X, in order to cure at
1,000 fpm under the same conditions,
the application will typically require
10 UV-LED curing systems (or a single
array with 10 times the diodes) at a
total cost of 10X. Chemistry, array
cooling and AC power consumption
aside, this scaling investment cost is the
primary factor that makes many high-
speed, wide-web presses economically
unattractive for LED curing today.
UV-LED Supply Chain

Since financial resources for
product development are finite, key
suppliers focus on the markets that are
most conducive to the UV-output levels
delivered by todays LED technology
as well as markets where UV-LED For the sake of clarity, lets focus encapsulate for physical protection and
technology is more economically viable on the lower left hand quadrant of to seal out dirt and moisture.
for the end-user. These markets are Figure 5. This area consists of four UV-LED system manufacturers
most likely to produce the best rate- distinct equipment supplier segments then arrange the packaged diodes
of-return for technology developers. that are further detailed in Figure 6. into a final assembly; provide a means
That does not mean that suppliers are Please note that Figure 6 is not a for cooling the diodes (air or liquid);
ignoring slower developing markets fully comprehensive representation. and engineer the base controls for
the activity is simply at a research- While specific companies are host interface and connection to a DC
and-development stage as opposed referenced, this is for illustrative power source. Finally, other original
to a commercial one. Typically, purposes only. Please also note equipment manufacturers (OEMs)
this research and development is that it is not uncommon for some or system integrators purchase the
spearheaded by multiyear partnerships companies to operate within entire plug-and-play, UV-LED system
involving large end-users or machine multiple segments, while others elect or simply the LED array for integration
builders, UV-LED system suppliers and to specialize in only one area. onto a larger machine. While all parties
formulators. Within the equipment portion of collaborate as previously discussed,
As the technology diffuses into the supply chain, discrete UV-LED the integrator is ultimately responsible
new markets, suppliers rely on the diodes, diode packages or modules for making sure that the curing system,
development network illustrated in are purchased from a finite list of formulation, formulation delivery/
Figure 5. All of the entities in this seven semiconductor manufacturers dispensing system and the material
network contribute and collaborate in shown in Column 1. Before individual handling equipment all seamlessly
order to propel successful applications diodes can be used in a curing system, work together for the end-user.
toward more efficient evolution. It they must be properly packaged By now, it should no longer be
often takes an application champion either by the semiconductor supplier a surprise that many statements
to introduce, educate and focus or another company in the supply generally directed at the UV-curing
co-suppliers on a new opportunity. It chain. In general, packaging diodes industry as a whole are really only
also means that the markets that have includes wire bonding the anodes credible and often not so contradictory
the most champions as well as the (+) and cathodes (-); securing the when given correct application
most promise draw the most attention. dies to a heat sink; and providing an context. The UV-LED reality is that

Figure 6
UV-LED supplier segments
UV-LED Diode UV-LED Diode UV-LED System System Integrators

Manufacturers Packagers Manufacturers
Cree Diode Manufacturers (1) Integration Technology Machine Builders

Fox LED System IST Branded OEMs
LG Manufacturers (3) Heraeus Noblelight End-Users
Nichia Specialist Electronics Honle General Integrators
Nitride Manufacturers Lumen Dynamics
Phillips LED Engin Luminus Devices
SemiLEDs Luminus Devices Phoseon
for every successful application in successfully using UV-LED technology not a drop-in solution. As a result,
operation today, there are many more right now. Various UV applications that the industry plugs away within the
examples where only conventional were not possible with conventional technology development network one
UV technology is employed. Businesses arc or microwave systems have also application and one market at a time,
must invest time and resources to become possible with LEDs; thus, learning more and more as it anxiously
develop specific UV-LED solutions expanding the total UV-curing pie. No anticipates the next big market
for each market application. While matter how much LED technology breakthrough. w
some markets may require years or suppliers and end-users may want
Jennifer Heathcote is general
possibly decades for viable economic to utilize LED curing for specific manager, North America,
solutions to mature, many others are applications, the technology is simply for Integration Technology in
Chicago, Ill.

Wood Coating
with UV-LED Curing:
A Focus on Heat
L
By Ed Kiyoi ight-emitting diodes for ultraviolet discusses the characteristics
curing applications (UV-LEDs) and benefits of UV-LED curing
have been commercially available systems for wood coating applications,
for more than a decade. However, their including recent temperature test
unique output characteristics work best comparisons, and reviews formulating
with newly formulated UV chemistries strategies for optimizing the
that take advantage of UV-LEDs many performance of UV-LED systems.
benefits. Initially, UV-LEDs were used
in applications such as medical device UV-LED Lamp Characteristics
assembly and inkjet printing, but, with As electrons move through a
increasing energy outputs and lower semiconductor device (called a diode),
initial costs, wood-coating applications it emits energy in the form of photons.
became commercially viable. Coating The specific materials in the diode
heat-sensitive wood substrates is determine the photon wavelengths
especially challenging, but recent and, in the case of UV-LEDs, the
testing shows that UV-LEDs provide output is typically in a very narrow
band +/- 10nm. Figure 1 compares
Figure 1
a significant advantage. This paper
Wavelength output comparison of traditional UV and UV-LED Lamps

Figure 2
applications. The electrical to optical
conversion efficiency of UV-LEDs is
much better, plus the instant on/off
UV-curing photopolymerization process
and no warm-up time results in a
combined savings of 70% on electricity.
They are a cool source largely due to
no output in the infrared range. This
reduced heat eliminates complicated
cooling mechanisms such as cooling
air (quieter operation) and external
shutters, and enables applications on
heat-sensitive wood substrates such as
glued veneers and resinous woods.
UV-LED Wood Coating

Applications
Taking a deeper dive into wood coating
lines, a significant challenge is the heat
generated throughout the process.
the output of a 395nm UV-LED lamp binders (monomers and oligomers) Heat is particularly challenging for
with a typical traditional UV lamp. It in a polymerization reaction to cure resinous/oily woods such as pine, fir,
is important to note the difference or solidify the wood coating. UV spruce and mahogany. When a resinous
in irradiance and wavelength of the formulations also incorporate various wood becomes too hot, the resins or
output, both are key to understanding additives such as stabilizers, wetting pitch come to the surface or bleed,
a UV curing process. agents, adhesion promoters, defoamers causing problems with coating adhesion
and pigments to provide desirable and discoloration. See Figure 4.
The UV Curing Process characteristics or color of the cured Properly drying resinous wood is
UV curing is a photopolymerization material. an important factor for successful UV
process that uses UV energy to change coating. During kiln drying of pine,
a liquid to a solid. Upon absorption of UV-LED Curing Benefits for a special procedure is used to set
the UV energy (as shown in Figure 2), Wood Coating Operations the pitch (71-77C) to help prevent
the photoinitiator (PI) produces free- Figure 3 highlights the overall bleeding during coating operations.1
radicals which initiate crosslinking with advantages for UV-LED curing in wood Also, for best results, moisture content
Figure 3
UV-LED curing benefits and features

Figure 4
impact on the substrate/work piece
temperature. Testing has shown that
the UV-LED curing lamps utilizing
Resin bleed damage
optimized coatings increase the work
piece temperature from 20C to 29C
(45% increase) after 10 passes, while
traditional methods increase that
same work piece from 20C to 60C
(200% increase). See Figure 5. This
is due to two factors. First, UV-LEDs
emit no infrared energy which is
the largest contributor to the heat
increase. Second, UV-LED energy is
concentrated in a small tight region
(see Figure 1 again) and properly
formulated coatings take advantage
of the tight energy band, utilizing it all
Figure 5
should be about 6-8% and certainly
not above 12%. The inconsistencies of
wood products from pallet to pallet and
even board to board, make it desirable
Surface temperature testing results
to find a lower temperature UV-curing
solution that will enable consistent
finishing and coating results, and
possibly enable the use of less costly,
lower grade woods.
If utilizing a traditional mercury
lamp, heat in the form of UV energy
as well as infrared energy (IR) can be
seen in three separate ways:
1. Work PieceHeat is delivered
directly from a curing system as it
passes under a UV lamp.
2. ConveyorAs the work pieces do
not fully cover the conveyor, energy
not used to cure the work piece is Figure 6
then absorbed by the conveyor that
will later transfer a portion of that Surface temperature and conveyor heat
stored heat onto the next work piece
placed above the conveyor location.
3. StackAt the end of a coating line,
the work pieces are stacked. Heat is
trapped between pieces as they wait
to either be coated on the other side
or placed into storage.
Work Piece Heat

A typical coating line can range
from six curing stations up to 10.
Image courtesy of Sherwin-Williams
Each curing station will have an

Figure 7
formulation is usually very small, less
than 5%. PIs typically absorb across
a range of wavelengths, not a narrow
Photoinitiator spectral absorbance compared to band. For example, Figure 6 shows
traditional UV lamp output the spectral absorption for different
PIs and the wavelength output for
traditional UV lamps. Many existing
UV formulations developed for curing
with a typical UV lamp (shown as
H-bulb) use a broad spectrum PI. While
there is often some absorption within
the UV-LED output range, it is clear
to see that much of the PI absorption
range is wasted. A more efficient cure
is possible with a formulation designed
specifically for UV-LED curing using a
PI with more concentrated absorption
in the photopolymerization process with the hot conveyor causing damage in the UV-A range such as those shown
without any extra or unwanted to the already coated pine boards. With in Figure 7.
wavelengths. UV-LED lamps, the conveyor does not The monomers in the formulation
increase in heat, a savings of up to serve as the reactive diluent enabling
Conveyor Heat 30C over traditional methods. the formulator to control viscosity
Another important result was the for proper application (spraying,
significant decrease seen in the surface Formulating UV Chemistries rolling, etc.) of the uncured material.
temperature of the conveyor belt. for UV-LED Lamps Rather than volatilizing, as is typical
After the first pass through the coating For efficient and effective UV curing with conventional formulations, the
line, the boards are flipped over and of a coating, the formulator seeks monomer reacts and becomes part of
run through again to coat the second to overlap the UV lamp output with the UV-cured material. The oligomers
side. This means the first side, which the spectral absorption of the PI. (and their backbone structure)
is already coated, is in direct contact The amount of PI in a typical UV determine the overall properties of
the material.
Figure 8 The longer wavelength output,
such as the UV-A range seen from
Examples of longer wavelength absorption UV-LEDs, penetrates through thick and
photoinitiators pigmented systems producing through-
cure of the material that ensures
surface adhesion and the ability to
cure thicker pigmented wood coatings.
Short wavelength output (200-280nm)
is unable to penetrate very far into a
material, but provides surface curing.
See Figure 8.
Overcoming Surface
Cure Issues
Surface curing is important for
wood coating applications because it
determines properties such as scratch
and chemical resistance which are
important for furniture and cabinetry

applications. Improper surface curing good surface cure and preferable to lines.Wood coating lines that already
due to oxygen inhibition was often an TPO and BDMM (especially when have traditional UV installed, but have
issue for UV-LED curing, but has largely combined with highly reactive heat problems, can retrofit the line
been overcome by various means. Of acrylate oligomers and they minimize with LED in several positions to reduce
course, curing in an inert (nitrogen) yellowing). ITX (Type II) was more temperatures and utilize traditional
atmosphere is one option, but adds cost reactive, but caused too much lamps for special performance
and complexity to the system. Another yellowing for OPV and white inks. She characteristics.
option is to add oxygen-consuming also noted that pigment selection is
or scavenging compounds such as key because pigments compete with Conclusions
amines or aminoacrylates to overcome the PI for UV energy.6 Although this UV-LED lamps offer significant
oxygen inhibition.3 testing was done using varnishes advantages over traditional
Research has indicated that peak and inks for printing applications, UV lamps for wood finishing,
irradiance (W/cm2) and total UV-A these findings have implications for including less space, monitoring,
energy (mJ/ cm2) delivered are more formulators of wood coatings as well. maintenance and downtime which
important than a precise wavelength translates into higher productivity
match on formulations developed Gloss Control rates, less scrap and higher quality
to cure in the UV-A region. Peak As is common with UV coatings in end products at lower costs.
irradiance is an important metric since general, achieving lower gloss has The use of traditional UV lamps
irradiance is required to initiate the been an issue when applying thick to cure coatings on heat-sensitive
polymerization. Higher peak irradiance pigmented layers (>15g/m2) via roll substrates such as glued veneers
(such as that found in UV-LEDs) results coating or with spray application and resinous woods (such as pine)
in a more aggressive polymerization (rarely used).It has been observed causes damage to the substrate
mechanism helping to overcome oxygen that higher temperatures just prior and increases scrap rates. UV-LEDs
inhibition at the surface and achieving to topcoat application results in produce significantly less heat,
the required cure rate.4 lower gloss. For example, using a enabling coating of heat-sensitive
More recently it has been shown combination of arc lamps and then wood substrates.
that higher functional oligomers can UV-LED can produce satin finishes
Test results showed significantly
also minimize the oxygen inhibition, (30-40 gloss). Gloss control is not an
lower surface temperatures of pine
thereby improving surface curing. issue for thinner topcoats.
boards when cured with UV-LED
Commercially, a mercapto-modified UV-LED curing offers many
lamps as compared to traditional
polyester acrylate resin is available economic and environmental
lamps. The UV-LED lamps kept the
that replaces a portion of the oligomer advantages to wood coating end-users
pine board surface temperature
in a UV formulation to improve surface and growth opportunities for
8C lower and the conveyor surface
curing under UV-LED lamps. This formulators. These tests demonstrated
temperature 30C lower than the
co-resin is compatible with urethane lower substrate temperatures during
traditional lamps.
acrylates, some epoxy and polyester UV-LED curing of coatings. UV-LEDs
expand the capability of wood finishers Formulating chemistries for
acrylates, and acidic adhesion
to more cost-effectively coat heat- UV-LED presents challenges due
promoters; and typically accounts
sensitive substrates such as glued to the narrow wavelength output in
for 20-40% of the formulation
veneers and resinous woods such as the UV-A range. Previous research
by weight. Mono- (MAPO) and
pine. Coating formulators have the showed that peak irradiance and
bisacylphospineoxides (BAPO) are
opportunity to expand their market total UV-A energy delivered are
recommended photoinitiator types for
by formulating coatings specifically for more important than a precise
UV-LED curing. There are a variety of
UV-LED wood coatings as this market wavelength match because high
commercial examples available.5
grows. End-users have a choice of peak irradiance results in more
In September 2012, Eileen Jaranilla-
arc, LED or even a combination of aggressive polymerization, thus
Tran with the Rahn-Group reported on
both, thus providing more flexibility to helping to overcome oxygen
her investigation of overprint varnishes
better control production parameters inhibition at the surface.
(OPV), flexographic inks and ink jet
inks. She found that Norrish Type I PIs along with the option to coat heat- Gloss control is not an issue
such as BAPO are effective to achieve sensitive substrates on their existing on thin topcoats, but typically

a temperature boost from a
traditional UV or an infrared lamp
causes lower gloss on thicker
pigmented coatings. w
References
1. Agricultural Handbook AH-188:
Dry Kiln Operators Manual, by
Boone, Simpson, U.S. Department
of Agriculture, 2001, Chapter 7
Kiln Schedules, www.fpl.fs.fed.us/
documents/usda/ah188/chapter07.pdf
2. UV-LED Curing for Wood Coatings, by
Robert P. Karsten, p. 7, www.phoseon.
com/Documentation/uv-led-curing-for-
wood-coatings.pdf
3. UV-LED Lamps: A Viable Alternative
for UV Inkjet Applications, by Michael
Beck, RadTech Report, November/
December 2009, p. 39, www.phoseon.
com/Documentation/UV LED-Lamps-A-
Viable-Alternative-for-UV-Inkjet.pdf
4. Characterizing the Efficiency of
UV-LED Curing, by Rob Karsten and
Bonnie Larson, Phoseon Technology
and Kent Miller, University of Akron,
presented to RadTech Europe 2009.
5. UV-LED Curing ADDITOL LED 01,
CYTEC presentation, April 2011,
www.cytec.com/uv/Downloads/
ProductPresentationADDITOLLED01.pdf
6. UV-LED Curing in Graphic Arts
Applications, by Eileen Jaranilla-Tran,
RAHN-Group, presented at Chicago
Printing Ink Production Club meeting,
September 2012, www.cpipc.org/
downloads/cpipc%20led%20092012.pdf
Ed Kiyoi is a technical marketing

engineer at Phoseon Technology in
Portland, Ore.

UV-C Light Emitting
Diodes
U
By Craig Moe ltraviolet (UV)-LEDs have majority of the optoelectronics in
rapidly improved as they have use today are constructed from
entered the commercial market, III-V materials.2 For example, the
with sales totalling $45 million out mature technologies of lasers used
of the total $495.4 million UV lamp in fiber-optic communications are
market in 2012.1 The majority of the fabricated from indium gallium
market is currently served by products arsenide phosphide and are designed
emitting in the UV-A wavelength with specific alloying ratios to emit
range, with curing being the largest at wavelengths of 1.3 m or 1.55 m,
application. UV-C-LED technology is while the laser in a commercial DVD
improving rapidly as commercialization player has an active region of gallium
has begun, with large markets in water indium phosphide and emits at 650 nm.
purification and disinfection driving The nature of III-phosphide and
UV-C LED technology is improving rapidly as

III-arsenide materials is such that
optoelectronic structures with alloys
commercialization has begun, with large markets in of specific concentrations can be
designed so that the entire material
water purification and disinfection driving advances. stack has the same crystal lattice
advances. This article discusses the constant or spacing between atoms.
technology behind UV-LEDs and This, in conjunction with the ready
how advances in the UV-C range can availability of near-perfect substrates
complement longer wavelength curing of gallium arsenide and indium
applications. phosphide, allows for defect-free
UV-LEDs are manufactured from a optoelectronic devices to be produced.
class of materials referred to as III-V Any defect in the crystal structure
semiconductors. These materials are is a point where electrical carriers
epitaxially grown into crystals with can recombine in a way that does not
a precise ratio of one atom from the produce the desired wavelength and,
Group V column of the periodic table thus, the efficiency is reduced. It is
to one atom from the Group III. because of these native substrates
The smaller the atomic number of and careful epitaxial growth of
the elements used, the more ionic optoelectronics that much of the
the character of the atomic bonds, technology we use today is possible.
resulting in a smaller lattice constant Up until the early 1990s, the
and larger electrical bandgap. This shortest wavelength, commercially
bandgap determines the wavelength available III-V light-emitting diodes
at which a particular material will were a weak greensuitable primarily
emit light. This ability to tailor by for telephone backlighting and
alloying and the fact that many III-V indicator lights. They were made from
semiconductors are direct bandgap aluminum gallium phosphide. It wasnt
is responsible for the fact that the until Shuji Nakamura3 and others

successfully produced LEDs of indium Below 365 nm, aluminum gallium the lower mobility of the aluminum
gallium nitride that blue and true green nitride becomes the active medium for adatom during growth. While AlGaN
LEDs (and later solid-state lasers) in UV emission. For wavelengths as short with dislocation densities on the
these wavelengths were realized. as roughly 340 nm, GaN substrates or order of 108 cm-2 are obtainable with
Unlike their longer wavelength GaN-on-sapphire templates can still be sophisticated epitaxial processes, this
counterparts, there were no native used without a significant increase in remains expensive, while the output
substrates available to use in producing crystal defects. Below this, however, power and reliability of the resulting
these devices. Epitaxial structures most commercial LEDs use sapphire LEDs appear to still be limited by a
were instead produced on foreign substrates with aluminum nitride or high defect density. However, using
substrates, such as sapphire and aluminum gallium nitride buffer layers. an AlN substrate allows for device
silicon carbide. Due to the large lattice The films are generally more defective layers to be pseudomorphically grown
mismatch between these materials, than their GaN counterparts due to without introducing new defects,
the resulting epitaxy had a large
number of defects, as many as 1010 per Figure 1
square centimeter. While this would
make light generation impossible in
Histogram of LEDs run for 1,000 hours at 100 mA
phosphide or arsenide materials, a without hermetic packaging
unique property of the III-nitrides
makes LEDs of this quality reasonably
efficient in this material.
Numerous improvements in this
field have steadily increased the output
power and efficiency of blue LEDs,
which (in conjunction with phosphors
to convert the short wavelength
into white light) has launched the
revolution in solid-state lighting that is
projected to save 1,488 terawatt-hours
from 2010 to 2030.4
By using aluminum instead of
indium in the nitride alloys, shorter
UV wavelengths can be produced
from solid-state emitters. The output Figure 2
wavelength is dependent on the ratio
of aluminum, gallium and indium used. Histogram of LEDs run for 1,000 hours at 100 mA
The emitting wavelength of gallium with hermetic packaging
nitride is near 365 nm. UV wavelengths
longer than this (most of UV-A) use
InGaN in the active region and are,
for the most part, grown on sapphire
substrates like their visible brethren
although some very high-power LEDs
use more expensive GaN substrates.
This similarity to visible emitters allows
manufacturers to take advantage of the
tremendous amount of development
poured into solid-state lighting, and it
is for this reason that UV-A-LEDs are
the most mature and reliable of UV
solid-state emitters.

Figure 3
producing LEDs with dislocation
counts less than 106 cm-2. It is for this
reason that the highest power, most
Light output versus input current for 268 nm Crystal
reliable devices in the mid-UV will
IS LEDs tested by the U.S. Army Research Laboratory7
come from AlN substrate technology.
The shortest wavelength III-nitride
LED produced consisted almost
entirely of aluminum nitride and
emitted at 210 nm.5 This, however,
was only a proof of concept and
emitted very little light. Currently,
the nature of the dopants used to
produce carriers in AlN and AlGaN
is such that the wavelength limit of
commercializable UV-LEDs is around
235 nm.6 In general, the efficiency
of an LED decreases as one moves
deeper into the UV. Some of this is due
to the material challenges of working
Figure 4
with aluminum gallium nitride, as the
dopant species that provide carriers
requires more energy to activate.
Efficiency versus input current for 268 nm Crystal IS
However, the lack of research funding
into the mid-UV is also a contributing
LEDs tested by the U.S. Army Research Laboratory7
cause. When the Defense Advanced
Research Projects Agency funded a
two-year program to increase power
output and efficiency in wavelengths
below 280 nm, a large improvement
was achieved in the targeted
wavelengths, pushing external
quantum efficiencies to more than 5%.
The ideal emission wavelengths for
LEDs produced on AlN templates and
substrates range from 250 to 290 nm.
Below these wavelengths, significant
research is needed to mitigate the
low electrical conductivity of high
aluminum composition AlGaN, and
low quantum efficiency of the devices. AlGaN structures epitaxially grown longer term. UV-C-LEDs grown on
Above about 300 nm, the lattice on these are pseudomorphically AlN substrates show a lower thermal
mismatch between the corresponding strained to the substrate, producing derating than even UV-A-LEDs on
AlGaN layers and the underlying no additional defects through the sapphire substrates, while a test of
aluminum nitride makes it difficult to active region. This defect reduction 170 UV-C-LEDs fabricated over the
produce epitaxial structures without both improves the wall-plug efficiency course of six months showed a median
introducing an increased number of of the LEDs and reduces the heat degradation of less than 4% after 1,000
crystal lattice dislocations. generated in the chip, which, in turn, hours of continuous operation at 100
Crystal IS has successfully produced reduces the output power degradation mA. Hermetically sealing the LED in
low-defect density AlN substrates for both in the short term as the device a TO-39 package further eliminated
mid-UV-LEDs. The optoelectronic achieves thermal equilibrium and the catastrophic failures. (Figures 1 and 2)

Figure 5
fabrication and the use of a
UV-transparent encapsulant.
These extraction improvements
Light output versus input current for 278 nm Crystal
coupled with improvements in the
IS LEDs tested by the U.S. Army Research Laboratory7
epitaxial structure of the device has
allowed Crystal IS to achieve high
output powers from a single LED on an
820 m by 820 m chip with an active
area of 0.37 mm2. Figures 3-6 show the
light output versus current for devices
emitting at 268 and 278 nm
under both continuous and pulsed
operation as measured by the U.S.
Army Research Laboratory. The two
current input methods diverge only
slightly beginning above 150 mA as
device self-heating begins to limit
the output power of the continuously
driven LED. This shows in the external
quantum efficiency (the ratio of the
Figure 6 extracted photons to the injected
carriers) and wall-plug efficiency
Efficiency versus input current for 278 nm Crystal IS (the ratio of the optical power emitted
LEDs tested by the U.S. Army Research Laboratory7 to the input electrical power) where
the efficiency loss due to heating is
between 9 and 15%.
Note that the conditions for pulsed
operation (40 s pulses and a 0.4%
duty cycle) result in the device being
turned on and off 100 times a second.
This is only possible due to the
solid-state nature of the LED and its
instant turn-on. LEDs have been run
in this mode for thousands of hours
with no increase in degradation over
continuously driven devices. This
greatly extends the lifetime in a real-
world usage scenario, where the LED
needs to only be in operation when the
application calls for it, as opposed to
A key efficiency limitation in critical to use with UV-LEDs as the the long warm-up times of traditional
UV-LEDs is managing the light output index of refraction difference between UV lamps.
both in extracting the light from the III-nitride material and the air The final challenge is to evenly
the AlGaN layers from which it is increases with increasing bandgap, distribute the generated UV light
generated and directing the light to the resulting in greater internal reflection across the desired area. As the
desired surface in a uniform manner. at the interface and less light primary application looks to be water
Many light extraction techniques have extraction. Crystal IS has increased purification, this distribution becomes
been developed for visible LEDs to the extraction efficiency of our LEDs extremely important to avoid dead
use in solid-state lighting applications. from 2.5% on-wafer to 15% through spots where untreated water might slip
These are both more difficult and more thinning the AlN substrate after through. Crystal IS has done significant

Figure 7
Computer modeling displaying cross sections of
a 3.1 cm diameter, 10 cm long Teflon-coated tube
irradiated with five 15 mW UV-LEDs at each endcap
modelling of flow cells and, through problems in longer UV wavelengths

careful choice of materials and LED leads us to believe that UV-C-LED
configuration, has demonstrated a performance will exceed that of UV-B
5 mW/cm2 minimum exposure across for the near future. w
a 10 cm long, 3.1 cm diameter tube
with five LEDs each emitting 15 mW in Acknowledgements
power, as shown in Figure 7. This work was partially supported
Similar principles can be applied by the New York State Energy
to curing applications where a Research and Development Authority
UV-C-LED would work in conjunction (NYSERDA).
with a longer wavelength UV-A light
source. The shorter penetration depth
References
of UV-C would be ideal for surface 1. Yole Dveloppment, UV-LED
Technology and Application Trends,
curing of paints and inks, which is (2013)
currently a weak point in single- 2. Schubert, E.F., Light-Emitting Diodes
wavelength UV-curing solutions. 2nd. Ed. Cambridge University Press,
This would require optimized (2006)
photoinitiators which are currently 3. Nakamura, Shuji and Fasol, Gerhard,

The Blue Laser Diode Springer, (1997)
being developed for a wide range of
4. Energy Savings Potential of Solid-
wavelengths in the UV spectrum. The
State Lighting in General Illumination
large markets projected in air and Applications (2010), www.ssl.energy.
water disinfection will help drive cost gov/tech_reports.html.
per milliwatt down for UV-C-LEDs, 5. Taniyasu et al Nature, vol. 441
pp. 325-328 (2006)
possibly making them a cost-effective
6. Kneissl et al Semiconductor Science
alternative.
and Technology, vol. 26 pp. 014036
(2011)
Conclusion
7. Grandusky et al Applied Physics
UV-C-LEDs on aluminum nitride Express, vol. 6 pp. 032101 (2013)
substrates are making great strides
in output power, reliability and cost Craig Moe is a process engineer at
Crystal IS in Albany, N.Y.
effectiveness, and look to be a solution
which complements UV-A-LEDs for
curing applications. The combination
of other markets in air and water
disinfection and the inherent material

Analyzing the Business Case
for UV-LED Curing Part I:
Identifying Cash Flows
T
By Jennifer Heathcote he benefits of UV-LED curing each equation provides distinctly
present a strong case for its use in different insight.
industrial applications. As a result, ROI measures an investments
a growing number of companies are efficiency with the result expressed
using the technology or are considering as either a ratio or as a percentage. It
it for future projects. In situations is calculated by dividing the benefit
where both conventional and LED of an investment by its total cost.
curing are viable options for a given From a financial perspective, an
UV formulation at the desired process investment should only be pursued if
speeds and under the constraints of the it has a positive ROI and there are no
installation, a financial analysis is often competing investment opportunities
used to determine which technology yielding a higher value.
makes better economic sense. Alternatively, the PB is the length of
Equations for three common time required to recover the cost of an
methods of analysis, Return on investment. It is calculated by dividing
Investment (ROI), Payback Period the total project costs by the annual
(PB) and Life Cycle Cost Analysis cash inflows. In general, only short-
(LCCA), are provided in Figure 1. ROI term payback periods are desirable.
reflects the profitability of a project. However, the acceptable length of time
PB is a measure of liquidity and LCCA is subjective and varies by industry
assesses the total cost of ownership. and project. Among equally attractive
While all three are evaluations of cash opportunities, the investment with the
flowthe difference between inflows shortest payback period is preferred.
(receipts and savings) and outflows Finally, the LCCA is used to
(capital costs and expenses)
Figure 1
determine the most cost-effective
investment by calculating the total
costs over the expected life of the
Methods for evaluating and comparing equipment less any salvage value.
investment opportunities LCCA focuses on all cash outflows
related to an investment above and
beyond the initial financial outlay. The
venture with the lowest LCCA among
equally desirable opportunities is
typically the one that is pursued.
For short-term investment periods
in which all transactions occur within
a single year, executing the analysis
is very straightforward. All respective

cash flow values are simply plugged than anticipated. As a result, future point in time. Since no two UV-curing
into the equations, and the results money must be discounted to the NPV applications, installations or situations
are tabulated for evaluation. In most so that cash flows spanning multiple are completely identical, the data and
cases, however, investment periods years can be added together. factors used for analysis will always be
span multiple years. As a result, it is Whenever a cash flow analysis different.
necessary to adjust cash flows that accounts for the time value of money, In general, the more familiar one is
occur in different years to a common it is referred to as discounted. When with the subject matter or the greater
point in time. the time value of money is ignored, ones experience in the respective field,
Most multiyear methods begin the analysis is referred to as simple. the more the complexity can typically
the evaluation period when the Multiyear investment periods analyzed be reduced to simple calculations
first transaction takes place. This is with discounted methods yield more scratched on a note pad or on the
considered the end of year zero and is accurate results and facilitate better back of a napkin. This is because
effectively the present day. Subsequent investment decisions. However, simple experience teaches which factors carry
cash flows are totaled within the year methods are much quicker and easier to more weight as well as which can be
in which they occur and each years calculate. As a result, simple methods omitted without greatly affecting the
total is individually discounted back to are often used for initial estimates. results. For riskier, more complicated
the present. ROI, PB and LCCA equations and less familiar endeavors, a much
The process of discounting cash should be individually tailored to more thorough analysis involving many
flows to the Net Present Value (NPV) discrete investment opportunities and more variables further scrutinized
is necessary due to the inherent time can either be simple or discounted. with sensitivity analysis is sometimes
value of money. An amount of money The person conducting the analysis required. An extended analysis
available today is worth more than has great liberty regarding how the has the benefit of increasing ones
the same amount of money available analysis is executed as well as what understanding of the investment being
at any point in the future. Money is included and what is not. While
considered as well as strengthening
today can be invested and used to the calculations themselves are not
ones confidence in the final results.
make a profit; whereas, any expected terribly difficult, the challenge lies
It also helps illustrate where possible
future cash flow carries risk and in determining the input variables,
risks might lie.
uncertainty which may make the actual collecting the actual data and correctly
Regardless of complexity, whenever
amount at the time it occurs different discounting everything to a common
critical factors are considered and the
Table 1 most accurate information is used,

all fair and honest methods generally
UV-curing line costs point toward the same course of
action. On the other hand, when poor
Cost Component Conventional data is used, critical information is
UV-LED
Purchase, Installation, Operation, Maintenance UV Curing
omitted or underlying assumptions are
(1) UV-curing system Higher
(2) UV shutters (pneumatic or electric) Occasional Eliminated not clearly acknowledged, the outcome
(3) UV cooling system (air or liquid) will often be extremely misleading
(4) Exhaust fan and ducting to outside of facility Occasional Eliminated even if the methodology is correct.
(5) Makeup air (heated in winter, cooled in summer) Occasional Eliminated
It is important to understand that
(6) Mounting of lamphead / array
(7) Light shielding
ROI, PB and LCCA results are meant
(8) Communication to and from host machine to be evaluated with respect to other
(9) Safety and equipment interlocks opportunities, including the option
(10) Warm-up and cooldown cycles Eliminated of doing nothing. Unfortunately, the
(11) Spare parts and repair labor Lower
results are easily manipulated by
(12) Electricity for startup, operation, and shutdown Lower
(13) Natural gas for conditioned makeup air Occasional Eliminated
altering or omitting certain input
(14) Inks, coatings and adhesives Higher variables in order to yield a particularly
(15) Financing desired numerical outcome for
(16) Project management (time and staff resources) comparison to the alternatives. As
a result, utmost caution should be
used when assessing someone elses

calculations or results. If a promoter the application of the ink, coating or responsible for supplying the DC
of a technology declines to share adhesive. In addition, the descriptors power supply, interface cable and
the input data used in the analysis in the UV-LED column are meant as connections, as well as the control
or does not disclose the underlying a relative comparison to conventional signals. In other cases, the UV-LED
assumptions, then the promoters technology. equipment is supplied as a complete
claims should be considered Table 1 is not a fully comprehensive plug-and-play system that only
questionable. Overly optimistic or list as many applications will likely requires host interface signaling. It
exceedingly pessimistic results may have other costs not specified. Some of is important to understand which
very well be accurate. However, they these include pretreatment systems, configuration is quoted so that no
may also be a reflection of an individual chilled rollers or compressed air for costs are overlooked and left out of
persons biases or hidden agenda. shutter actuation. Systems that use the calculations. The purchase price
Even with full disclosure, it is strongly forced air blowers for cooling may also needs to reflect the actual array
recommended that the intended require an exhaust hood or enclosure or lamphead length, irradiance and
user and purchaser of the technology to contain the heat and ozone emitted energy density requirements of the
personally tailor the analysis directly by conventional systems so that it can application. Comparing two systems
to the application being considered for be properly exhausted. Some material that arent both capable of curing
their facility. formations may also require the use within the process constraints will
The process of conducting an of a nitrogen chamber or blanket skew the results and likely lead to poor
ROI, PB and LCCA analysis on the to counter oxygen inhibition. Many investment decisions.
purchase, integration and operation arc lamp systems, as well as longer Many, though not all, conventional-
of a UV-LED curing system will be length UV-LED curing systems, are arc systems employ the use of a
explored in a three-part series of often powered by higher voltage, shutter mechanism to block the UV
articles. The information is segmented three-phase, AC supplies. If the exact light when the system is in standby
into identifying cash flows, executing AC supply is not readily available at mode. The cost of the shutter is
calculations and interpreting the installation site, then a voltage typically included in the price of a
results. The overriding purpose of the transformer must be purchased and UV systemalthough sometimes
articles is to demonstrate the method installed. If any of these items are it is an optional add-on that can
of analysis and is not meant to be a essential for the curing system and be supplied by the UV equipment
justification for or against using application being evaluated, they must manufacturer, integrator or end-user.
UV-LED curing in a specific application be factored into the analysis. It is necessary to know the shutter
or in the broader sense. cost; who is supplying it; who is
UV Curing Systems, Shutters installing it; the common maintenance
Input Variables for ROI, PB and Cooling (1, 2 and 3) parts; and whether the actuation is
and LCCA The purchase price of the UV-curing electric or pneumatic. If compressed
The input variables for ROI, PB and system is a key cash flow that air is required to drive the shutter
LCCA calculations are all the costs, significantly affects the ROI, PB and and is not currently available at the
revenues and potential salvage LCCA calculations. As a result, it is installation site, then it represents an
values associated with the proposed critical that real pricing from actual installation cost as well as an operating
investment or investments. This paper vendors be used. In general, the expense. It is equally important to
predominantly focuses on the costs purchase price of UV-LED curing know the actuation time of the shutter
detailed in Table 1 (page 11) that systems is often much greater than mechanism as this has an impact
are directly related to purchasing, that of conventional UV-curing on production cycle times. Since
installing, operating and maintaining systems. However, the difference has UV-LED curing systems are instant
a UV curing line. While some of recently narrowed for shorter length ON and instant OFF, shutters are not
the costs are necessary with every systems; systems used in slower typically needed. Shutters are also not
system, others apply only in certain material handling applications; and commonly used with microwave-
situations. It should be noted that some air-cooled units. curing systems.
Table 1 is limited to curing costs and Some UV-LED curing systems are The purchase, installation and
does not reflect material handling supplied as array-only configurations operation of the UV-cooling system
equipment or systems required for where the buyer or integrator is are also cash flows. Conventional

Figure 2
UV-curing systems typically employ
forced air blowers or extraction fans
ducted outside the building. Some
Six-color screen press with 85 -inch, UV-arc system
also incorporate a liquid circulation
system to cool the lamphead
housing or utilize additional blowers
or fans to cool shutters or other
machine parts. Larger, industrial and
multihead UV-LED curing systems
are commonly cooled by refrigerated
liquid circulation. As with the shutter
mechanism, it is very important to
know all the costs associated with
the cooling system, including who is
supplying it, who is installing it, and
what is required for upkeep.
Before proceeding with ROI, PB
and LCCA calculations, you should
obtain purchase, installation and
spare parts quotes for the UV system,
shutter assembly, cooling system or
systems, and the AC transformer connection. The reservoir and external more than 12,000 cfm into the plant
to power the UV system, if one is water lines should be drained and shut during operation. This is necessary to
needed. It is also necessary to obtain off in winter to avoid freezing. This, maintain positive air pressure within
technical data sheets detailing the as well as filter changes, represent the facility. Purchase, installation and
AC voltage and wattage requirements a maintenance task that should be maintenance for these items should
of each cost component as well as included in the analysis. factor into the cash flow analysis.
any recommended preventative Consider the six-color screen A key benefit of UV-LED curing
maintenance schedules. press shown in Figure 2. It consists of is that the arrays do not produce
six banks of 85-inch long, negatively significant heat or any ozone that must
Exhaust Fans, Ducting and air-cooled UV-arc systems. Each be exhausted outside the facility. As
Make-up Air (4, 5 and 13) bank has two UV lamps that operate a result, conditioned plant makeup
Exhaust hoods, exhaust fans, ducting at either 300 or 400 watts per inch. air that is heated in the winter and
and makeup air factor into the The six banks of lampheads each cooled in the summer is not necessary
purchase, installation and running have an exhaust fan whose stack with LED technology. However, this
costs of conventional UV-curing penetrates the roof. The exhaust benefit, is entirely lost on facilities
systems. In many cases, roof mounting fans provide cooling to each of the which operate in temperate climates
or roof or wall penetration is required. banks, simultaneously removing heat where unconditioned forced air fans
In others, connecting the system to and ozone. The cooling and exhaust are sufficient or in production facilities
an existing HVAC infrastructure may requirements for the system in that simply elect not to condition
be sufficient, or the equipment may Figure 2 are 2,000 cfm for each of the the air.
simply be ducted up toward the ceiling six stacks resulting in a combined total When contemplating an investment
without penetration. Whatever the exhaust of 12,000 cfm. in an entirely new UV-LED line, the
case, applicable cash flows must be During installation, appropriately purchase and installation costs for
included in the analysis. sized exhaust fans are purchased, exhaust fans, ducting and makeup
Makeup air systems are either all installed and ducted to the UV air are eliminated. When considering
electric or a combination of electric systems in Figure 2 as well as outside a retrofit from arc to LED, however,
and gas. Evaporative cooling makeup the facility. In addition, the makeup the purchase and installation costs of
air systems also include a reservoir air unit (either conditioned or non- these items will have occurred in the
that requires a water supply line conditioned) is sized to supply slightly past and, therefore, do not represent

any savings. Furthermore, the value the analysis always leads to greater An additional characteristic of
of the existing capital equipment may comprehension. conventional UV systems is a very
or may not be fully depreciated on the high peak in-rush current that occurs
companys books. If the items still have Conventional UV Warm-up at startup. As will be discussed in
useful life, they can possibly be sold or and Cooldown (10) the next section, monthly electricity
used elsewhere. Otherwise, the items Since UV-LED curing systems are demand charges reflect the maximum
will need to be repurposed, idled, instant ON and instant OFF, there rate at which a facility consumes
scrapped or written off. These are all is no need for the warm-up and electric power over a single 15- or
cash flows that must be factored into cooldown cycles associated with 30-minute period. Starting all UV
the analysis. conventional systems. This creates systems simultaneously results in a
The fuel for makeup air burners savings both in process time and high peak demand rate even if average
is either electricity or natural gas. in total energy consumption when electrical demand during normal
Natural gas is more common as it is compared to conventional UV curing. operation is much less.
cleaner, cheaper and more efficient. By The significance of these savings, For example, the six-color screen
reviewing a recent utility statement or however, entirely depends on the press in Figure 2 operates on a
speaking with a utility representative, application and will be greater for lines 480-volt, three-phase AC Supply.
it is possible to determine a facilitys that start and stop the UV system more During startup, each lamp experiences
natural gas rate in dollars per 1,000 frequently. a 90-amp in-rush current that
cubic feet ($/1,000 ft3). General It is important to know the warm-
subsequently drops to 28 amps during
estimates can also be found online. up and cooldown cycle times of the arc
normal operation. Staggering the
Costs due to electricity consumption or microwave system being evaluated.
startup of the six banks of UV systems
are covered in a subsequent section. A two- to five-minute startup cycle
will reduce this peak demand, but
and a five-minute cooldown cycle are
it will also increase the total time
Mounting, Shielding, typical. However, it is important to
required for startup, resulting in lost
Communication and Interlocks use actual times for the systems being
production time.
(6, 7, 8 and 9) evaluated. For the stated values, the
Mounting the lamphead or UV-LED total cycle time results in seven to 10 Spare Parts and Repair
array; shielding the stray UV light; minutes of production downtime each Labor (11)
integrating the communication and every time the system is switched Table 2 lists common components for
between the UV-curing system and ON and OFF. both conventional and UV-LED curing
the host machine; and the installation
of safety interlocks are all necessary Table 2
integration tasks required for both
conventional and UV-LED curing Spare parts for conventional and UV-LED
systems. The costs and associated curing systems
installation labor will vary slightly
Conventional UV UV-LED
between systems as well as between
Bulbs (500 to 2,000 hours) Diodes (10,000 to 20,000 hours)
new lines and retrofits.
Borosilicate or quartz plates Borosilicate or quartz plates
In calculating ROI, PB and LCCA for Filters (air and coolant) Filters (air and coolant)
the comparison of new but different Reflectors DC power supplies
UV systems, it is often feasible to Ignitors Driver boards
treat these cash flows as offsetting Pipe fittings and tubing Pipe fittings and tubing
one another. This simplifies the Coolant for liquid cooled systems Coolant for liquid cooled systems
O-rings for liquid cooled systems O-rings for liquid cooled systems
calculations and reduces or eliminates
Electronic ballasts, chokes, or transformers
the estimating time. If contemplating
Shutter mechanics for arc units
whether to install a new line in Machine parts adversely affected by ozone
isolation or when considering a retrofit, Magnetrons and screens for microwave units
these costs should always be factored Exhaust ducting
into the calculations. Precisely
detailing each and every cash flow in

systems. Depending on the situation, to the negative impact of ozone on used to increase the total exposure
it may be necessary to include the machine parts. Conventional UV-curing window. As a result, the potential
maintenance costs and repair labor systems emit various amounts of ozone electricity usage for UV-LED curing
for the ancillary equipment such as that can corrode metals within the systems on higher speed lines today
exhaust fans, chillers and makeup material handling equipment. This may can be closer to that of conventional
air systems. Included in all of these simply be a cosmetic issue that has no UV-curing systems.
costs should be shipping charges and impact on the performance of the line. Electricity rates vary significantly
proper disposal fees. It is helpful to However, it may require that certain by country and within regions of
get spare parts quotes and suggested machine parts be periodically repaired a single country. In general, the
preventative maintenance schedules or replaced. Since UV-LED curing rates are determined by supply and
from all vendors before performing systems do not emit ozone, this issue is demand; type of power generation;
ROI, PB and LCCA calculations. not a factor. fuel prices; transmission; government
An accurate prediction of the useful One final maintenance issue is subsidies; government and industry
life of the UV-LED curing system can relevant to both UV-LED curing regulation; taxes; rate schedules;
be a bit difficult. The individual UV-LED and conventional curing. Whenever and local weather patterns. By
diodes are solid-state technology and a curing line stops, either the LED reviewing a recent utility statement or
have an extremely long life, ranging system must be turned OFF or the speaking with a utility representative,
from 10,000 to 20,000 hours or more. conventional system must be turned it is possible to determine a viable
In reality, the actual life is often OFF or switched to standby. If this is electricity rate for the calculations.
compromised when less suitable, not done, any heat-sensitive materials General estimates for regional
less efficient and cheaper diodes are underneath the light source (such as electricity rates can also be found
used; the diodes are not packaged or plastic parts, paper media, films or online. However, published estimates
cooled correctly; air-cooled systems conveyor belts) will begin to warp and will likely not capture additional fees,
are run in extreme ambient conditions; may even melt. The damage is typically penalties, rate schedules or usage
systems are abused during operation; reduced with UV-LED curing, but it can discounts specific to a facility.
the coolant is not filtered sufficiently; still occur. If the damage is significant, When reviewing a utility statement,
different coolant formulations are then the parts being processed will it is helpful to understand the language
mixed; or the array pushes or exceeds need to be scrapped and any affected and cost elements influencing
the limits of the diodes rated UV machine parts will need to be cleaned, commercial electricity billing as well as
output. As a result, some UV-LED repaired or replaced. Properly installing charges billed in addition to the base
curing systems may last less than both safety interlocks and interfacing rate. Some of these include:
10,000 hours. the UV system with the host machine Wattunit of power equivalent
If failures occur, UV-LED systems can help prevent this from occurring. to a Joule per second.
built on a modular structure can be (1 Watt = 1 Joule / second).
repaired in the field. If modules are Electricity Calculations (12)
Demandrate of energy usage
not used, it is often difficultif not In general, electricity consumption expressed in kilowatts (kW).
impossibleto repair the UV-LED often proves to be a savings with
Electricity Ratecost per unit of
array. If a UV-LED array cannot be UV-LED when compared to arc or
electricity expressed in dollars per
repaired and only lasts a few thousand microwave. However, this fact is
kilowatt hour ($/kWh).
hours before failure, then an entirely entirely dependent on the application.
For example, in high-speed lines where Total Energy Usageaggregate
new array must be purchased in
the part being cured is underneath the power consumption used by
order to get the system back up and
UV source for shorter periods of time, a facility over a billing period
running. In general, the economics of
the UV system must incorporate a expressed in kilowatt-hours (kWh).
shorter life UV-LED curing systems are
not very attractive in comparison to much larger quantity of UV-LED diodes Peak Demandhighest rate of
conventional curing systems because that emit much greater irradiance in usage over a 15- or 30-minute
the UV-LED array effectively becomes order to deliver the required energy period. It is reported in kilowatts
an expensive spare part. density and counter oxygen inhibition (kW) or KVA Demand which is
In some applications, a maintenance during the short exposure period. kilowatts (kW) divided by the
benefit with UV-LED curing relates Alternatively, multiple arrays can be Power Factor (PF).

Power Factorreal power (kW)
divided by apparent power (kVA). Figure 3
It is a measure of how effectively
electrical power is being used. A
Formula to calculate the total electricity cost for a
value of one means that voltage
UV-curing system
and current are perfectly in phase;
however, values between 0.80 and
0.95 are more typical. The lower a
facilitys power factor, the higher the
corresponding electricity bill. Utility
providers typically have a minimum
acceptable power factor. Anything
less results in billing penalties.
Ratchet Chargesminimum
electricity charge designed to For conventional UV-curing These consumable costs impact
discourage high peak demand. systems, the demand wattage varies operating expenses and should be
These charges are typically during startup, operation, standby and included in the equations in order to
50-80 percent of the highest billing shutdown. A precise analysis would determine whether any differences
demand incurred in the preceding identify these wattage levels and are significant. It is important to get
12-month period. respective time durations separately actual pricing from vendors and have
Fuel Adjustment Chargeline and then calculate the corresponding an understanding of annual material
item in a utility bill that reflects the energy costs. A simplified analysis consumption requirements for the
actual cost of materials such as coal would assume that the UV-curing application being evaluated. If both
or natural gas burned to produce system is always at a fixed wattage conventional and UV-LED curing
electricity. when it is ON and ignore the startup, lines exist in a facility and each
standby and shutdown cycles. Since requires a different formulation, it
In order to calculate the cost of
UV-LED curing systems instantly will be necessary to stock and manage
energy consumption for all items
switch from OFF to the desired power both sets.
related to a UV-curing system, the
level, it is only necessary to know the
wattage of each component; the
power level wattage and ON time when Financing (15)
respective ON time for the evaluation
calculating the energy costs. Many UV systems are purchased
period (typically a year); as well as the
The operating power level of both outright. If not, the costs of financing
electricity rate and power factor should
a conventional and a UV-LED curing a new or retrofit line should also be
be determined. The analysis should included in the analysis. Fortunately,
system determines the effective
include all components associated with interest rates remain at all-time
wattage. Lower power levels for a
the line, including (but not limited to) lows. However, financing may not be
given system require less energy.
the UV system, liquid circulation readily available for all manufacturers.
Using the full wattage on the UV-rating
chillers, exhaust fans, blowers, Whatever the situation, if the
plate for a system that is always run
compressors and makeup air system. equipment is to be leased or financed
at 70 percent power would produce
The formula in Figure 3 can be on credit, the associated costs for
misleading results. Finally, since
used to calculate the total electricity securing funding and paying interest
UV-LED arrays run on DC power, it is
cost. However, it does not reflect any should be included in the analysis.
important to make sure that the AC
additional charges stemming from
wattage of the DC power supply or full
high peak demand or other billing and
control unit is used for the calculation.
Project Management (16)
delivery fees. It should be noted that All too often, project management
whenever a facilitys power factor is Inks, Coatings and costs and internal technical support
above the electric suppliers minimum Adhesives (14) labor are left out of the investment
requirement, the power factor Today, the costs of UV-LED inks, analysis. However, this minimizes the
correction is not necessary and falls coatings and adhesives are often more role that a facilitys executive team,
out of the equation. than the conventional counterparts. engineering staff and project managers

play in coordinating and supervising References
the purchase and installation of 1. DeGarmo, E. Paul, William G Sullivan,
new equipment. Depending on the and James A. Bontadelli. Engineering
Economy. Upper Saddle River, NJ.
application and the nature of the
1993.
project, the time and labor needed to
2. Myers, Brealey. Principles of Corporate
qualify the capabilities of the curing Finance. New York. 2003.
system, ink, coating or adhesive
and manage the overall selection, Jennifer Heathcoate is a member
of the RadTech NA Board.
purchasing, installation and training
processes can be significant, especially
with new and less prevalent technology
such as UV-LED curing. In addition, the
time, energy and resources required to
certify new equipment for use in food
packaging, medical applications and
for printing color and image-sensitive
consumer product labels are also cash
flows that must be considered.
Final Comments
Before proceeding with ROI, PB and
LCCA calculations on the purchase,
integration and operation of a UV-LED
curing system, it is important to first
identify the cash flows discussed in
this paper and collect the respective
data. The data should reflect the actual
values specific to the facility and its
geographic location as well as the exact
UV-curing systems being evaluated.
Using more accurate information
will always lead to more tangible
results and facilitate better investment
decisions. An extended analysis, while
more time consuming, has the benefit
of increasing ones understanding of
the investment being considered as
well as strengthening ones confidence
in the final results. It also helps
illustrate where possible risks may lie.
The next installment of this
paper will present an actual case
study and demonstrate the methods
for executing ROI, PB and LCCA
calculations. The third and final paper
will explain how to interpret the results
and perform a sensitivity analysis. w

Analyzing the Business Case
for UV-LED Curing Part II:
Executing Calculations
M
By Jennifer Heathcote This article is the second installment any existing users of
in a three-part series designed to UV-curing equipment are
illustrate the process of conducting a contemplating whether to
business case analysis on UV-curing replace aging conventional systems
systems. If you have not yet read with UV-LED alternatives. Others are
Part IIdentifying Cash Flows evaluating UV-LED technology as a
(which appeared in the RadTech possible curing solution for new lines.
Reports December 2013 issue), you When both conventional and UV-LED
may want to do so before continuing curing are equally viable options for
with Part II. The article can be found a given application, the decision on
at www.radtech.org. which technology to use for a new line
Table 1 or the decision on whether to proceed
with a retrofit predominantly rests on
Assumptions the business case.
In order to illustrate examples
Single-color screen press with 50-feet-per-minute maximum line speed
of decision-making methodology, a
38-inch wide press cures 36-inch wide substrates and less
Plant makeup air is conditioned all 12 months
real-world example will be used to
General maintenance of arc and LED systems for non-key issues
calculate the Return on Investment
is similar (ROI), Payback Period (PB) and
Storage, handling and maintenance with respect to arc and LED inks Life-Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA) for
are the same the purchase, integration, operation
Plant is located in a suburb of Chicago, Illinois and maintenance of both a UV-arc and
8-hour day, 5-day week, 50-week year with 15% downtime a UV-LED curing system. Equations for
Ink usage is approximately 3-5 pounds per day; 750-1,250 pounds ROI, PB and LCCA were introduced
per year
and discussed in Part I as well as an
$30 per hour internal labor rate; $100 per hour contract labor rate
explanation of how to identify the
$0.08/kWh electricity rate (cost and transmission); Plant PF is 0.95;
Target PF is 0.90 cash flow variables needed to conduct
$7.79/1,000 ft3 delivered natural gas commercial rate such an analysis.
State and local utility sales taxes are a combined 6% For the sake of brevity, the ROI
UV systems purchased and not financed; Resale values are $0 and PB examples in this paper will
Time value of money is not factored into the ROI and Payback use simple methods of analysis,
Period calculations while the LCCA will be a discounted
Installation costs include labor, travel expenses and parts not analysis. The reader can always apply
mentioned elsewhere the discounted methods covered in
All costs and calculations in U.S. dollars with an annual inflation of 3% the LCCA example to the ROI and
Useful life of UV systems is eight years based on case study daily PB examples in order to improve the
operating demand
accuracy of the analysis. The concept
of discounting and the justification

Figure 1
that investment opportunities that may
be justifiable and appropriate for one
project or location may not make sense
38-inch, flat-bed screen press
for another.
Screen Printing Example

Consider the flat-bed screen press
shown in Figure 1. It is an existing
press fitted with a single 38-inch,
air-cooled arc lamp that does not
incorporate a shutter mechanism. The
maximum line speed is 50 feet per
minute, and the maximum substrate
width is 36 inches. The UV system is
negatively cooled with heat and ozone
exhausted through the buildings
roof. The corresponding makeup air
for incorporating it into an economic and installation site should be used is heated in the winter and cooled in
analysis were presented in Part I and instead of those presented here. In the summer. The UV-power supply is
will be further expanded upon in doing so, readers will likely discover interlocked so that the conveyor belt
this paper.
The first variation of the case study Figure 2
considers a completely brand new line
which could be equipped with either UV-arc lamphead
conventional UV or UV-LED. The
second demonstrates an analysis on an
existing line that is being evaluated for
a possible LED retrofit. The case study
is a relatively basic example; however,
the exercise steps through the entire
process and provides the foundation
for applying the methodology to
more complicated scenarios. Even
though actual values are used, they
are solely for illustrative purposes as
some have been estimated and others
rounded to protect the confidentiality
of the vendors. This is acceptable
since it is the analytical process being
demonstrated in this paper and not a Figure 3
justification for or against a particular
type of curing system. UV-LED array
It is important to understand that
purchase, installation and running
costs; electricity rates; energy demand
of components; and the need for
conditioned plant makeup air, among
other costs, vary significantly between
facilities and geographic locations. As a
result, values for a specific application

Table 2
benefits. That said, if one UV-LED
array delivers insufficient energy
density (Joules/cm2) to cure the ink
UV-curing system specifications
at the desired line speed of 50 fpm
Spec UV-Arc Lamp UV-LED and a second UV-LED array is needed
Length 38 inches 37 inches to make the technology viable, then
Cooling Air, negatively extracted Refrigerated liquid the combined energy for the two
Shutter None None LED arrays doubles from 4.5 kW to
Peak Irradiance 2 Watts/cm2 5 Watts/cm2
9 kW. This illustrates the importance
Nominal Power 125, 200, 300 125 Watts/inch
Watts/inch of ensuring that the business case
AC Supply 11.5 kW, 480 Volt, 4.5 kW, 480 Volt, analysis is conducted on curing
3 Phase 3 Phase equipment that is proven suitable for
Running Current 14.6 amps per phase 5.7 amps per phase
the application.
Bulb or Diode Type 1 x Mercury H Bulb 395 nm
Bulb or Diode Life 1,000-2,000 hours 10,000-20,000 hours
Cash Flow Summary
Bulb Cost $160 each Not Applicable
Reflector Qty./Life 2/1 year Not Applicable Using the cash flow identification
Reflector Cost $85 each $0 guidelines from Part I, the list of
Warm-up/ 5 minutes/ 0 seconds/ assumptions in Table 1 and the curing
Cooldown 5 minutes 0 seconds
system specifications of Table 2, 16
System Cooling 1.6 kW, 1,140 cfm, 4.2 kW, 230 Volt
and Exhaust 230 Volt fan, 30 feet duct refrigerated circulation different cash flow values can be
chiller identified. The cash flows are itemized
in Tables 3, 4 and 5 and reflect
purchasing, installing, operating and
is always running when the UV system compared to 2 Watts/cm ), the total
2 maintaining both an arc and an LED
is ON. If the belt stops, the UV source energy required to power the LED curing system as well as purchasing
switches OFF since there is no shutter. system is less than half of that required the corresponding UV-curable screen
A complete list of underlying by the arc system (11.5 kW compared inks. All operating costs are based on
assumptions and known operating to 4.5 kW). This is quite typical of an eight-hour day, five-day week, and
factors for the UV system, press and UV-LED technology and is one of its 50-week year. No labor for setting up
Table 3
manufacturing facility are detailed
in Table 1. Images of the existing
arc lamp as well as a viable UV-LED
Purchase and installation cash flows
replacement array are provided in
(including labor)
Figures 2 and 3, respectively. The
technical specifications for both curing Cost Component UV-Arc Lamp UV-LED
systems are summarized in Table 2. 1 UV system $28,000 $42,000
Since the maximum substrate width 2 UV cooling Exhaust Fan: $1,250 Chiller: $5,500
is only 36 inches, it is feasible to use 3 Mounting bracket, $1,500 $1,500

shielding, safety interlocks,
a 37-inch UV-LED array even though communication to host
the original arc lamp system is 38 machine
inches long. With both arc and UV-LED, 4 Duct, stack and roof $1,500 $0
penetration
it is advantageous to use a curing 5 Makeup air system (for $7,000 $0
system that is slightly longer than the heating and cooling)
substrate width in order to ensure 6 One-day UV and chiller $1,500 $1,500
installation
proper curing up to the edges of the
7 Two-day exhaust and $2,500 $0
cure surface. makeup air installation
While the irradiance of the UV-LED TOTAL: $43,250 TOTAL: $50,500
system is much greater than that of
the arc lamp system (5 Watts/cm2

Table 4
if what is required is not currently
available and must be developed.
The purchase and installation costs
Annual electrical and natural gas operating of makeup air systems, exhaust fans,
cash flows chillers, mounting brackets, controls
Cost Component UV-Arc Lamp UV-LED interface and duct lengths can vary
8 Full power UV operation 11.5 kW 8 hours 4.5 kW 7.8 hours significantly among suppliers and
= Wattage (Target PF / 5 days 50 weeks 5 days 50 weeks models. There are always cheaper
Existing PF) On Time 0.85 uptime $0.08 0.85 uptime $0.08
or more expensive options. The
Electricity Rate Tax Rate kW/h 1.06 = kW/h 1.06 =
installation location with respect to
$1,658 $633
9 Exhaust fan operation 1.6 kW 8 hours the UV system will also dictate duct
= Wattage (Target PF / 5 days 50 weeks and cable lengths, as well as the
Existing PF) On Time 0.85 uptime $0.08
Electricity Rate Tax Rate
capacity requirements for the fans
kW/h 1.06 =
and chillers. As a result, it is critical
$231 $0
that the intended equipment user do
10 Heat makeup air in winter $3,000 $0
11 Cool makeup air in summer $1,500 $0 the calculations themselves and not
12 Liquid chiller operation 4.2 kW 7.8 hours base any decisions on calculations
= Wattage (Target PF / 5 days 50 weeks performed for another facility or for a
Existing PF) On Time 0.85 uptime $0.08
completely different curing application.
Electricity Rate Tax Rate kW/h 1.06 =
$0 $590
The energy consumption costs in
TOTAL: $6,389 TOTAL: $1,223 Table 4 assume an eight-hour day for
the arc system and a 7.8-hour day
for the LED system. This is because
UV-LED curing systems are instant
or running the printing line is included application and supplierall of ON and instant OFF; whereas, arc
in the cash flows as it is assumed to be which factor into the materials price lamp and microwave curing systems
the same for both types of UV systems. structure. More unique and lower have warm-up and cooldown cycles.
Each of the cash flows listed in the volume formulation purchases will The case study calculations assume
three tables will increase or decrease typically be more expensive, especially that the UV systems are each turned
Table 5
based on the facilitys geographic
location as well as choices made by
the buyer and the facilitys engineering
Annual consumable cash flows
team. For example, a new makeup air
unit will cost considerably more than Cost Component UV-Arc Lamp UV-LED
a used unit or may be unnecessary 13 Annual bulb / diode / array 2 bulbs x $160 each,
if an existing makeup air system has replacement $40 shipping each,
$30 labor each, $25
additional capacity. The installation disposal each = $510 $0
of the makeup air unit will cost more 14 Annual reflector 2 reflectors x $85
if the unit needs to be hoisted up replacement each and $40 shipping
per pair, $30 labor per
to the roof or if a concrete resting pair = $240 $0
pad needs to be poured next to the 15 Annual filter replacements
building. If a liquid chiller is installed (cost & labor for lamphead,
exhaust fan, makeup fan,
outside a facility that experiences
chiller, control cabinet) $400 $60
freezing temperatures, the unit will 16 Annual increase in UV-LED
need to filled with a glycol coolant ink costs over conventional
and be capable of withstanding ink costs (approximately
1,250 pounds @ $3 per
outdoor environmental conditions. pound average) $0 $3,750
Finally, the availability and functional TOTAL: $1,150 TOTAL: $3,810
characteristics of the ink, coating
or adhesive will vary by process,

ON and OFF once a day and that the Actual and Real Dollars where k is the point in time at which
arc lamp total cycle time is 10 to 12 Actual or nominal dollars (A$) are the actual cost occurs, and b is the
minutes (approximately 0.2 hours). the quantity of dollars associated base time to which all of the actual
In order to ensure a fair comparison, with a cash flow at the time at which costs are adjusted.
both systems were evaluated equally it occurs. It is effectively the price
in terms of productive manufacturing that appears on the price tag at the Simple and Discounted
time. Alternatively, the calculations time the purchase is made. Most Analysis
could have assumed that the LED business case analysis deals in actual In order to sum costs that occur
system was ON for the full eight hours, dollars; however, calculations can also in different years of the evaluation
but, in order to do so, it would have be executed using real dollars. Real period, it is more accurate to adjust
been necessary to know how much dollars (R$) are the number of dollars the cash flows to a common point
additional annual profit would have adjusted to reflect true purchasing in time, typically year zero. This is
been generated by the increased power relative to a defined point in referred to as the Net Present Value
throughput of the LED line during time. Only at the present time are the (NPV). With either actual or real
the additional 0.2 hours of daily two ever equivalent. Whether one is dollars, discounting the cash flow
production. Remember, it is cash using actual or real dollars, all cash values from the future to the present
flow that is being analyzed, and it is flow values in the analysis should be day using a nominal or real discount
important to capture everything on exclusively one or the other. rate respectively will make the
equal footing so that the results are The following two examples calculations more accurate. As long as
not compromised. highlight the difference between the appropriate discount rate is used,
actual and real dollars. While often both actual and real dollars will yield
Adjusting for Inflation disregarded, there have been the same result. When discounting is
Whenever estimating costs that occur incredibly significant gains in the not used, the analysis is referred to
in future years, it is generally accepted production, processing and distribution as Simple ROI, Simple PB and Simple
to use a constant rate of inflation. of food over the previous 80 years. LCCA. When discounting is used, it is
Inflation rates for all countries are Even though the actual dollars spent called Discounted ROI, Discounted PB
widely published and available online. on food items today is much greater and Discounted LCCA.
The inflation rate in the United States than in years past (A$), the real cost The NPV of each cash flow can
and Europe has hovered around 2% of the items adjusted to another base be determined by dividing the
or less for several years, while certain period in time is far less (R$). In respective cash flow (C) by one plus
Asian and South American countries general, it is much cheaper to feed
the companys discount rate (r) raised
have experienced much higher rates. oneself or ones family today than
to the power of the year in which
A conservative analysis for a facility at any other time in history (R$),
it falls (n). C0 represents the initial
operating in the U.S. or Europe might even though the actual quantity of
investment at the start of the time
employ a 3-4% annual inflation rate. dollars (A$) spent to purchase food
A simple formula can be used period. The formula for discounting
items is greater today. Alternatively,
to project future costs adjusted for all cash flows over the length of the
highly demanded luxury items such
inflation. In general, cash flows are evaluation period is:
as famous paintings, homes in older
often represented by the letter C. more desirable neighborhoods, or
The cash flow in actual dollars after certain automobile models that may
NPV requires knowledge of a
n years (Cn) is the cash flow at have been much more affordable at the
companys discount rate (r). The
present day (C0) multiplied by one time of production often become more
plus the inflation rate raised to the discount rate is an interest rate that
valuable in future years resulting in
nth power. As inflation is generally takes into account the time value of
both higher actual costs (A$) as well
positive, an items actual cost in money. There is a discount rate for
as a higher real costs adjusted to any
n years is typically greater than its use with actual dollars and a separate
other base period in time (R$).
actual cost in year zero unless there discount rate for use with real dollars.
The equation to convert actual
are significant technological advances Both discount rates are different for
dollars into real dollars, assuming a
or efficacy gains in manufacturing. each company and are based on a
constant rate of inflation, is:
The mathematical formula is: companys cost of equity, a companys
Cn = C0 (1 + inflation rate)n cost of debt and the type of project. For

Table 6
increases the value of the numerator.
The further into the future the profits
are estimated, however, the more
Discount rate examples
unreliable the estimates become.
Category Discount Rate The appropriate length of evaluation
Speculative venture 30% is unique to each facility and should
New products 20% be based on the useful life of the
Expansion of existing business @ company cost equipment, nature of the business and
of capital 15%
general economic climate.
Process improvement using known technology 10%
The UV-curing system and printing
line investment costs are a one-time
cash flow occurring at the end of year
example, one particular company might the numerator and denominator zero; whereas, the profit cash flows
structure their nominal discount rates represents all costs associated with occur in each year of the evaluation
as shown in Table 6, while another purchasing and installing the line. With period. If the annual profits are totaled
might use completely different values. respect to the case study, the ROI without discounting to the net present
Determining a companys cost of equation can be rewritten as shown in value, the result is a simple ROI.
capital and discount rate is a bit more Equation 2. If the annual profits are separately
involved than the other calculations The profit potential includes discounted to the present, then the
presented in this paper and so will only the revenue and operating costs resulting value is a discounted ROI.
not be covered. If the reader does resulting directly from the new line. It Since the profit potential is the only
not know the appropriate discount is calculated by deducting all projected cash flow occurring over multiple
rate for his or her operation, it is operating costs from expected revenue. years, it is the only value that needs
recommended that he or she consult (See Equation 3) discounted.
with the companys financial business The profit potential is highly Analyzing the profit potential
analyst or accountant. For the dependent on the evaluation time as well as evaluating the purchase,
purposes of the discounted LCCA period, industry, facility and economic installation and maintenance costs
calculations in this paper, a nominal climate. In fact, the attractiveness of the of the printing equipment is not the
rate of 8% will be used. ROI can almost always be strengthened focus of this paper. As a result, the
by extending the evaluation period case study will only address the cash
Calculating Return on since this produces more profit and flows related to curing. Plug the
Investment
The ROI is a measure of an Equations 1-5
investments efficiency. It is calculated
by dividing the benefit of the
investment by its total cost. The ROI
can either be expressed as a ratio 1.
or as a percentage. From a financial
perspective, an investment should
2.
only be pursued if it has a positive
ROI and there are no other competing
investment opportunities yielding a 3.
higher value. (See Equation 1)
When an ROI is applied to a 4.
completely new curing line, the Gain
from Investment in the numerator
5.
of the equation is the expected
incremental increase in the facilitys
profits driven exclusively by the new
line. The Cost of Investment in both

total UV-curing system purchase and generated by switching curing systems Investment includes all purchase
installation costs presented in Table 3 or if profits are actually decreased due and installation costs associated
into the ROI equation. (See Equations to insufficient color gamut necessary with the material handling and
4 and 5) for full production, then the gain from application equipment as well as the
In order for ROI to justify the new investment in a new UV-curing system curing system. The Annual Cash
line, the profit potential has to exceed is zero or even negative. Inflows include all the incremental
the total investment costs, including For any retrofit scenario, the profits (revenue less operating costs)
the UV system and the printing line. As line investment costs are effectively or savings directly resulting from
previously stated, the profit potential zero since the material handling and installing and running the new line.
is incredibly dependent on the length printing system already exists in As with the ROI calculations, the
of time the line will operate. In general, the facility. If the expected gains in purpose of this paper is not to dwell
a greater profit and lower overall business or expected gains due to on the earnings potential of the
investment cost result in a greater reduced scrap are sufficient to offset opportunity. This is because earnings
ROI. Based on this analysis alone, the the investment costs of the LED are highly dependent on the industry,
opportunity with the greatest ROI is system, then the ROI will be a positive facility and economic climate in which
the one that should be pursued. number. Otherwise, it will be negative the equipment operates as well as
For the case study, ROI values for and the investment should not be
the length of the evaluation period.
a new line with either an arc or an pursued according to ROI.
Instead, the purpose of this paper is
LED system will be positive as long
to focus on the cash flows specifically
as the profit potential is greater than
related to the curing equipment and
the sum of the curing system and the If the existing curing system is evaluate them in isolation.
printing line costs. The ROI values will viable and currently generates profit For the case study example, it is
likely be similar enough that one could for the line, then the ROI for a retrofit the comparison of UV-arc to UV-LED
justify using either technology for this is less attractive than if the existing UV that is the goal. As a result, the PB
particular case based solely on the ROI. system is spent and must be replaced. analysis will determine how long it will
The results will be discussed in more The same retrofit formula can be used take the annual operating savings of
detail in Part III. for a replacement arc system if the a UV-LED curing system to offset its
When an ROI is applied to an existing arc system has reached the greater purchase cost. In doing so, the
existing line as a means of evaluating end of its useful life. Comparing the Cost of Investment is the difference in
a potential retrofit from UV-arc to ROI for the LED and the ROI for an the purchase and installation costs of
UV-LED, the gains from investment arc (or microwave system) would help the arc and LED systems. The savings
are reduced to only the incremental indicate the better capital investment
business over what the line currently in operating and maintenance costs
path for retrofitting the line and
yields with conventional UV. An generated by UV-LED in comparison
keeping it running.
increase in profit might be due to to UV-arc constitute the Annual Cash
Inflows. The resulting payback period
(1) the ability to better process Calculating Payback Period
heat-sensitive materials; (2) reduced equation becomes:
The payback period is the length of
product damage and scrap resulting time required to recover the cost of an
from less heat transfer to the substrate; investment. It is calculated by dividing
(3) possible increased throughput the total project costs by the annual
created by less downtime due to cash inflows. In general, only short- The case study analysis assumes
instant ON/OFF or potentiallybut not term payback periods of a few years that either an arc or an LED system
guaranteedfaster line speeds; (4) are desirable; however, the acceptable could be installed on the printing
any gains in business from marketing length of time is subjective and varies line and the UV-LED system and
manufacturing processes using UV-LED by industry and project. corresponding LED ink set have a
curing equipment; or (5) the ability to higher purchase price and a lower
produce a value-added capability with overall operating cost than their
UV-LED curing that was not possible conventional counterparts. The same
with the conventional curing system. When analyzing the acquisition formula can be applied to a new line or
Alternatively, if no additional profits are of an entirely new line, the Cost of to an existing line where the current

Equations 6-8 Calculating Life-Cycle Cost
Analysis
The LCCA is a method of determining
the most cost-effective investment by
6. calculating the total system costs over
the expected life of the equipment
less any salvage value. The formula
7.
should be applied to each equally
desirable opportunity. The venture
8. with the lowest LCCA is typically the
one that is pursued. As long as the
cash flows are discounted to the NPV,
the LCCA accounts for the time value
UV system has reached the end of its also be the case if one was trying to of money and forces the consideration
useful life and must be replaced. retrofit the existing arc lamp system of all costs related to an investment
Plug the purchase, installation, with a different arc or microwave above and beyond the initial financial
operating and maintenance costs system. It is not so much an issue of outlay. As previously presented, the
presented in Tables 3, 4 and 5 into LED versus arc as it is scrapping a mathematical formula for NPV is:
the Payback Period equation. (See viable piece of equipment just to install Cn
NPV = C0 + n
n = 1 (1+r)n
Equations 6 and 7) newer technology. As a result, many
The results indicate that if it is retrofits only make sense if they result An LCCA is always performed
viable to install either an arc or LED in additional capabilities that are not over the entire life of the venture (n);
system on a new printing line similar possible with the current curing system however, expected life is subjective and
to the one shown in Figure 1, then it or if the current curing system has is entirely up to the person performing
would take approximately three years reached the end of its useful life. the calculations. The expected life may
for the savings in daily LED operating The Payback Period example be up to the point where the equipment
expense to recover the increased used for the retrofit assumes that is projected to no longer work, becomes
investment costs of the LED system the existing UV-curing system has obsolete or is too expensive to maintain
over the arc system. However, if the no remaining useful life as stated in or operate; the product the equipment
printing line already exists and is the list of assumptions in Table 1. If is being used to produce is expected
equipped with an arc lamp system that it is possible to sell the UV system, to no longer have sufficient demand;
still has remaining life, then it would then the gains from the sale could the equipment is scheduled to be
take approximately 20 years to recover be used to offset the initial costs in liquidated; or the equipment is planned
the purchase and installation costs the numerator. For example, if it is to be idled in order to pursue another
of the LED curing systemassuming possible to sell the conventional UV more profitable opportunity.
there are no incremental gains in profit system for $5,000, then the equation It is important to note that the
from switching to LED. If there are changes. (See Equation 8) investment opportunities being
potential gains such as savings due to For even greater accuracy, each compared may not have the same
reduced scrap, then the increase in years operating costs could be useful life and the useful life may
profit is added to the denominator and adjusted for inflation and the cash not always be clear. If one UV-curing
the payback period is reduced. flows occurring in each future year system is expected to last eight years
It is relatively easy to argue both for as well as any potential salvage and another one is expected to last
and against installing an LED system value could be discounted to the net 12 years, then the latter will yield four
on a new printing line for this particular present value for year zero. Since the additional years of profit-producing
case study. The payback of three years investment costs already occur in year potential. However, if the line will
is right on the edge of what would be zero, no discounting is required. The only be used for a manufacturing
acceptable. Trying to justify an LED LCCA analysis that follows provides an operation meant to last six years, then
system as a retrofit for this particular example of discounting and inflation the increased life of one product over
line and facility, however, would be adjustment that could be extended to the other is negligible aside from the
nearly impossible, but that would the payback period example. potential impact on salvage value.

Table 7
Annual cash flows for a UV-arc curing line and discounted LCCA
UV-Arc Cost Component Y0 Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4 Y5 Y6 Y7 Y8
Purchase / installation $43,250 $0 $0 $0 $0 $0 $0 $0 $0
Energy for Operation $0 $6,581 $6,778 $6,981 $7,191 $7,407 $7,629 $7,858 $8,093
Spare parts / maintenance $0 $1,185 $1,220 $1,257 $1,294 $1,333 $1,373 $1,414 $1,457
Unplanned repair @ 15% of
$0 $0 $0 $0 $0 $6,488 $0 $0 $0
investment
Annual Total $43,250 $7,766 $7,998 $8,238 $8,485 $15,228 $9,002 $9,272 $9,550
For the purpose of the case Since the technology is still presented in Tables 3, 4 and 5 as well
study, the useful life of the venture relatively new, the cost of the LED inks as the preceding paragraphs. The
is arbitrarily eight years for both arc is assumed to be $3 more expensive initial cash flows are assumed to be
and LED, and the discount rate is per pound than the conventional actual costs estimated at year zero. As
8%. The facility in which the printer counterpart. In addition, since the a result, a 3% inflation rate is applied
runs operates on an eight-hour day, consumable volume for this particular for each year following year zero.
five-day week and 50-week year. The line is low at 750-1,250 pounds per year, Plugging the annual totals from
line runs continuously with an average any decrease in ink pricing is not likely Tables 7 and 8 into the NPV equation
of 15% downtime. An annual inflation to occur over the selected evaluation reveals that while the initial investment
rate of 3% applies to all operating period. As a result, the increase in LED cost of the LED system is greater
costs and expenses. Coolant for the ink costs over conventional ink costs is than that of the arc system ($50,500
chiller is typically replaced every assumed to be constant at $3 x 1,250 > $43,250), the LED system costs
two years, so it is assumed that the pounds or $3,750 annually. Because $10,540 less than the arc system over
replacement will take place in years inflation will apply to both conventional its estimated eight-year life ($96,680-
three, five and seven. As a result, an and LED inks equally and since the $86,140). This will not necessarily be
actual coolant cost of $250 at time cash flow being used is the difference the case for every application. Some
zero with a 3% inflation rate results between the two, an adjustment for installations will yield even greater
in projected costs of $273, $290 and inflation will not be factored into the ink savings for LED while others may
$307, respectively. In addition, a non- analysis. Inflation, however, will be used prove that an arc system is cheaper to
planned maintenance repair for both for all other items. operate over the respective life cycle.
the arc and LED systems has been All relevant cash flows are (See Equations 9 through 12)
forecasted for year five at a value of summarized in Tables 7 and 8. The As was the case with ROI and
15% of the original system prices. values are based on the initial costs PB, a retrofit scenario results in
Table 8
Annual cash flows for a UV-LED curing line and discounted LCCA
UV-LED Cost Component Y0 Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4 Y5 Y6 Y7 Y8
Purchase / installation $50,500 $0 $0 $0 $0 $0 $0 $0 $0
Energy for Operation $0 $1,260 $1,297 $1,336 $1,376 $1,418 $1,460 $1,504 $1,549
Chiller filter replacement $0 $62 $64 $66 $68 $70 $72 $74 $76
Coolant $0 $0 $0 $273 $0 $290 $0 $307 $0
Unplanned repair @ 15% of
$0 $0 $0 $0 $0 $7,575 $0 $0 $0
investment
Increase in ink costs over arc $0 $3,750 $3,750 $3,750 $3,750 $3,750 $3,750 $3,750 $3,750
Annual Total $50,500 $5,072 $5,111 $5,425 $5,194 $13,103 $5,282 $5,635 $5,375

Equations 9-15
$7,766 + $7,998 + $8,238 + $8,485 + $15,228 + $9,002 + $9,272 + $9,550

9. LCCAArc = $43,250 +
1.081 1.082 1.083 1.084 1.085 1.086 1.087 1.088
10. LCCAArc = $96,680
11. LCCALED = $50,500 + $5,072 + $5,111 + $5,425 + $5,194 + $13,103 + $5,282 + $5,635 + $5,375
1.081 1.082 1.083 1.084 1.085 1.086 1.087 1.088
12. LCCALED = $86,140
13. LCCAArc = $43,250 + $7,766 + $7,998 + $8,238 + $8,485 + $15,228 + $9,002 + $9,272 + $9,550
1.081 1.082 1.083 1.084 1.085 1.086 1.087 1.088
14. LCCAArc = $53,430
15. LCCA = NPV All Costs NPV Salvage Value
the elimination of the arc system and for technology that is so specific to are completely identical, the data and
investment cost in year zero. a given application such as UV curing. factors used for analysis will always be
Consequently, the LED system for In addition, estimating anything so far different. As a result, it is important to
the retrofit scenario costs $32,720 into the future is always a gamble. A make sure that the input data always
more than the arc system over the conservative approach is to assume that reflects the intended application and
estimated eight-year life ($86,140 - the equipment has no salvage value. geographic location of the investment
$53,430). This makes the investment opportunity.
in an LED retrofit difficult to justify Final Comments When used correctly and together,
unless the LED-curing system provides ROI , PB and LCCA are three distinct ROI, PB and LCCA can greatly
technical capabilities or additional methods of evaluating the merit of increase ones understanding of the
profit not possible with the existing investment opportunities. ROI reflects investment being considered as well
arc-lamp system. If this proves to the profitability of a project. PB is as illustrate where possible risks may
be the case, then an ROI and PB a measure of liquidity and LCCA lie. The accuracy and relevancy of
should be used to further determine determines the total cost impact over all calculations can be improved by
whether the investment is viable since the investments useful life. All three adjusting for inflation; using reasonable
they will account for any increase in equations are designed to be tailored evaluation periods; and discounting
profitability. (See Equations 13 and 14) to discrete opportunities, and the future cash flows to the net present
The case study assumes that person conducting the analysis has value. The results of any calculation,
neither curing system has any salvage great liberty regarding what is included however, are only as good as the input
value. If either piece of equipment is in the analysis and what is not. data and are easily manipulated by
saleable after its expected life of eight The numerical results of ROI, PB altering or omitting certain variables.
years, then the value of the sale would and LCCA are meant to be interpreted As a result, utmost caution should
enter the LCCA calculations as a cost with respect to other opportunities, be used when assessing calculations
offsetting cash flow in year nine. The including the option of doing nothing. done by someone else. It is strongly
salvage value(s) would need to be They are decision-making tools recommended that the intended
discounted back to year zero just like designed to reduce investment risk user and purchaser of the technology
each of the other cash flows; however, and guide the overall selection process. personally perform the calculations
it would be a negative number. While the calculations themselves are and perform a sensitivity analysis
(See Equation 15) not terribly difficult, the challenge lies as will be demonstrated in the third
Determining a reasonable salvage in determining the input variables and and final installment of this series
value can be difficult, especially for collecting the actual data. Since no two whenever the results will be used for
new technology that is still evolving UV-curing applications or installations making actual investment decisions.

Finally, ROI, PB and LCCA are
only tools of analysis and the results
are always subject to interpretation.
Common sense must also play a
role. If UV-LED curing offers new
capabilities that cannot be achieved
with conventional curing technology,
then there may be very strong
reasons for moving forward even if
the financial argument is not that
appealing. Likewise, if UV-LED curing
is not technically viable for a given
formulation at the desired process
speeds and under the constraints of
the installation, then it should not be
pursued even if the financial business
argument is strong. w
References
1. DeGarmo, E. Paul, William G Sullivan,
and James A. Bontadelli. Engineering
Economy. Upper Saddle River, NJ.
1993.
2. Myers, Brealey. Principles of Corporate
Finance. New York. 2003.
Jennifer Heathcote is a member of

the RadTech NA board.

Analyzing the Business
Case for UV-LED Curing
Part III: Interpreting Results
R
By Jennifer Heathcote eturn on Investment (ROI), ensure that the optimal investment
Payback Period (PB) and Life decision is reached. Since the person
This article is the final installment Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA) conducting the business analysis has
in a three-part series designed to are analytical methods widely used great liberty regarding how the study
illustrate the process of conducting a to guide investment decision-making. is executed as well as what is included
business case analysis on UV-curing Equations for each are provided in and what is not, it is important to
systems. If you have not yet read Figure 1. In general, ROI reflects state all assumptions and operating
Part IIdentifying Cash Flows or the profitability of a project. PB is conditions as well as the data used
Part IIExecuting Calculations, a measure of liquidity and LCCA in the calculations. Defining all
you may want to do so before assesses the total cost of ownership. parameters and conditions aids the
continuing with Part III. All three equations, as well as typical thought process, ensures transparency
cash flow variables used in the and helps expose any biases. It also
calculations, were covered in Part I. provides the necessary backup to
Part II presented a simple case study support investment decisions and
as a means of demonstrating how the address questions or challenges
tools are employed in practice. This from colleagues, management or
third and final paper illustrates the business advisors.
benefit of performing a sensitivity Ideally, actual values for the
analysis and offers additional insight specific curing application as well
into the case study results. as the intended installation facility
should be used. This will always make
Sensitivity Analysis the analysis more accurate. In cases
The process of financial analysis where actual values are unknown,
should be both transparent and the alternative is to use best-guess
Figure 1
intellectually honest. Doing so will help estimates scrutinized with a sensitivity
analysis. A sensitivity analysis consists
of varying one or more of the values
Methods for evaluating and comparing investment
in a calculation as a means of gauging
opportunities
the impact on the results and exposing
potential risk. It is often employed
on variables that are more volatile or
uncertain. A few examples of where
it is often used include inflation in
less stable economies; energy costs
in resource-poor, politically unstable
or increasingly regulated geographic
locations; support or repair costs for
newer and less familiar technologies;

Table 1
that the analysis was not extended
to the HVAC cash flows that were
evaluated separately. It should also be
Case study data from Part II
noted that the electricity rate analysis
Costs UV-Arc Lamp UV-LED would favor the UV-LED system much
more in cases where the UV-LED is
Purchase and Installation $43,250 $50,500
only cycled ON as discrete product
Annual Energy @ $0.08 per kWh $6,389 $1,223
passes underneath the curing unit
Annual Consumables $1,150 $3,810 since this decreases the systems total
energy demand. (See Tables 2 and 3.)
The results in Tables 2 and 3
scrap rates; projected years of except the discount rate. Please note illustrate that for this particular
operation; and production downtime. that all parameters of analysis were case study, a UV-LED curing system
The primary objective of a identical to those presented in the becomes much more attractive as the
sensitivity analysis is to determine Part II case study. For reference, rate of electricity increases. For higher
the range of conditions that make the the case study cash flow totals for electricity rates, the discounted eight-
investment opportunity economically purchase and installation, energy year LCCA for a UV-arc system (which
viable. It is also used to determine consumption and consumables are requires relatively more power to
which cash flow variables have a summarized in Table 1. operate) increases more steeply than
negligible effect on the calculations as the discounted LCCA for a UV-LED
well as which have the greatest impact. Electricity Rate curing system.
All factors that significantly influence The case study assumed a nominal Similarly, the payback period to
the financial outcome should be closely electricity rate of $0.08 per kWh for recover the investment of installing a
monitored and managed over the life of a facility operating in a suburb of UV-LED curing system on a new line
the investment in order to ensure that Chicago, Ill. Electricity rates, however, as well as on a retrofit line becomes
optimal value is achieved. vary by geographic location and can be shorter at higher rates. In fact, the
To demonstrate, a sensitivity as high as $0.40 per kWh in Hawaii. In payback period to operate a UV-LED
analysis was conducted on the case order to better understand the impact system on a newly installed line in a
study detailed in Part II. Five cash flow of electricity costs on the LCCA and low-energy state at an electricity rate
variables were evaluated, including PB results, the rate was adjusted in closer to $0.05 per kWh (as opposed
(1) electricity rate, (2) discount rate, $0.05 increments up to $0.40 per kWh. to operating in a high-energy state
(3) purchase and installation cost The incremental adjustment and at a rate closer to $0.40 per kWh) is
of UV-LED curing system, (4) scrap range of analysis was arbitrary but reduced by 1.8 years (3.21-1.40).
and (5) HVAC energy. Discounted reasonable. The primary goal was to In general, if the curing line is
calculations for LCCA were run for all better understand how a changing located in a geographic region with
five variables while simple calculations rate or a plant location affects the both a low cost of electricity and a
for payback were run for everything investment decision. It should be noted stable cost of electricity, then the
Table 2
LCCA sensitivity analysiselectricity rate
Electricity Rate
$0.05 $0.08 $0.10 $0.15 $0.20 $0.25 $0.30 $0.35 $0.40
Per kWh
LCCA of UV-Arc $92,072 $96,677 $99,746 $107,420 $115,094 $122,767 $130,441 $138,115 $145,788
LCCA of UV-LED $83,157 $86,140 $88,126 $93,095 $98,064 $103,033 $108,002 $112,971 $117,940
LED LCCA Savings $8,915 $10,537 $11,620 $14,325 $17,030 $19,734 $22,439 $25,144 $27,848

Table 3
PB sensitivity analysiselectricity rate
Electricity Rate Per kWh $0.05 $0.08 $0.10 $0.15 $0.20 $0.25 $0.30 $0.35 $0.40
Running Costs $5,680 $6,388 $6,861 $8,041 $9,221 $10,402 $11,582 $12,762 $13,942
Arc Lamp System and
Ancillary Equipment
Running Costs $764 $1,223 $1,529 $2,293 $3,057 $3,821 $4,586 $5,350 $6,114
UV-LED System and
Ancillary Equipment
PaybackUV-LED New Line 3.21 2.89 2.71 2.35 2.07 1.85 1.67 1.53 1.40
PaybackUV-LED Retrofit 22.38 20.15 18.90 16.35 14.41 12.88 11.65 10.63 9.77
decision of whether to use an LED or account the time value of money. arc-lamp system. This is because the
an arc system is less affected by cash Discount rates are different for each LED-curing system, when compared
flows due to electricity. The opposite company and are based on a companys to the arc-lamp system, has a greater
is the case in geographic regions cost of equity, cost of debt and type initial investment cost at the beginning
operating under high or unstable rates of project. Higher discount rates have of the eight-year study and lower
of electricity. less impact on costs and benefits that operating costs in the future. At a
occur later in the evaluation period. discount rate of around 37%, the LCCA
Discount Rate In other words, higher discount rates net present value is the same for both
The case study assumed a discount favor projects where the benefits are the arc- and LED-curing system. At
rate of 8% over an eight-year period. In realized early and the costs are pushed rates above 37%, however, the arc-
order to demonstrate the impact of the into the future. Using too high of a lamp system becomes more attractive
discount rate on the LCCA calculations, discount rate, however, often results since its numerically larger annual
a sensitivity analysis was conducted in the rejection of otherwise attractive operating costs occurring in the future
where the discount rate was adjusted longer term projects with upfront carry less weight.
from 5% to 40%. (See Table 4.) Please costs. Alternatively, using too low of a
note that the PB calculations can also discount rate can lead to funding less Cost of UV-LED Curing System
be discounted; however, for the sake lucrative investments. The purchase costs of UV-LED curing
of brevity, this was not done for this Table 4 indicates that at lower systems vary considerably. This is
particular paper. discount rates, the net present value of mostly due to the fact that systems are
The discount rate is an interest operating the line for eight years with not completely identical. Some only
rate that enables financial calculations an LED-curing system is more cost- include the array or head, while others
spanning multiple years to factor into effective than operating it with an also include the DC power supply
Table 4
LCCA sensitivity analysisdiscount rate
Discount Rate 5% 8% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%
LCCA of UV-Arc $103,699 $96,680 $92,654 $84,389 $78,078 $73,171 $69,291 $66,177 $63,642
LCCA of UV-LED $90,776 $86,140 $83,474 $77,985 $73,777 $70,495 $67,893 $65,801 $64,096
LED LCCA Savings $12,923 $10,540 $9,180 $6,404 $4,301 $2,676 $1,398 $376 ($454)

Table 5
LCCA sensitivity analysisUV-LED system and installation costs
Cost of UV-LED
System and $30,500 $40,500 $50,500 $60,500 $70,500 $80,500 $90,500 $100,500 $110,500
Installation
LCCA of UV-Arc $96,680 $96,680 $96,680 $96,680 $96,680 $96,680 $96,680 $96,680 $96,680
LCCA of UV-LED $64,098 $75,119 $86,140 $97,161 $108,182 $119,202 $130,223 $141,244 $152,265
LED LCCA Savings $32,582 $21,561 $10,540 ($481) ($11,502) ($22,522) ($33,543) ($44,564) ($55,585)
Table 6
PB sensitivity analysisUV-LED system and installation costs
Cost of UV-LED
$30,500 $40,500 $50,500 $60,500 $70,500 $80,500 $90,500 $100,500 $110,500
System
PaybackUV-LED (5.09) (1.10) 2.89 6.88 10.87 14.86 18.85 22.85 26.84
New Line
PaybackUV-LED 12.17 16.16 20.15 24.14 28.13 32.12 36.11 40.10 44.09
Retrofit
and integrated controls that range whether the items are supplied by the arc system under the parameters of
from the simple to the very complex. curing system manufacturer, integrator the case study equal. For UV-LED
In addition, the type, wavelength or end-user. Tables 5 and 6 vary the investment costs greater than this
and quantity of diodes; method of UV-LED system cost from $30,500 to amount, the arc-lamp system is the
packaging the diodes; delivered peak $110,500 in $10,000 increments. Since better choice.
irradiance; array form factor; cooling the value used for the Part II case From a PB perspective, the payback
system; country of manufacture; study was $50,500, an investment of is immediate for UV-LED systems
and suppliers desired markup all $100,500 (as shown in the table) could costing $43,250 or less. As the initial
contribute to the final purchase price. effectively represent two full units investment costs increase, the payback
Before starting any analysis, it is mounted on the same conveyor as well period becomes significantly longer. In
critical to first ensure that all curing as a single system that is essentially fact, if two UV-LED curing systems are
systems being evaluated are truly twice the price. It should be noted required to cure at the performance
capable of delivering the required that the cost of the arc-lamp system requirements of the case study or
curing results for the given application remained fixed for the analysis. if the desired LED-curing system
at the desired process speeds and The results of the cost analysis costs twice the one in the original
setup. It is also important to make sure are somewhat obvious. All else being case study, then the payback would
that the cash flows include all purchase equal, lower purchase and installation be almost 22.85 years for a new line
and installation costs for all necessary costs make a system more attractive. and 40.10 years for a retrofit. From a
components regardless of who is For this particular LCCA case study, financial perspective, no one would
supplying them. the decision to use a UV-LED curing rationally pursue such a project.
For the purposes of the sensitivity system makes strong financial sense In general, as the overall pricing
analysis, the cost of the UV-LED curing up to an initial investment of about of UV-LED curing systems improves,
system refers to the total system $60,064. This is the amount that investment decisions will more strongly
cost and its installation regardless of makes the LCCA for an LED and an favor their adoption. In the meantime,

many projects already make financial run product beneath the UV source materials and a high image quality or a
sense and are being incorporated during the UV systems warm-up poorly maintained line that produces
into manufacturing lines. Even some period. With conventional curing, any significant jams or curing issues. (See
projects that are determined to be a product run before the UV system is Tables 7 and 8.)
bit risky or financially unattractive at the desired power level must be If scrap represents a large
are being pursued for non-financial scrapped. Secondly, UV-LED curing operating cost which can be reduced
reasons. This often includes the desire systems transmit less infrared energy to or eliminated through UV-LED curing,
to learn and develop new processes the cure surface. While damage to heat- then the use of a UV-LED curing
as a hedge against competitors as well sensitive products and materials can system becomes significantly more
as for applications where UV-LED still occur, it is less likelyespecially attractive. Over the eight-year LCCA
curing provides process and functional if jams or line stops are interlocked so study, depending on the actual cost of
capabilities that cannot be achieved that the UV-LED curing system turns scrap, the LED-curing system has the
with conventional curing. OFF when incidents occur. potential to generate between $13,413
While it may not be possible to and $378,325 in savings as shown in
Scrap Costs eliminate all scrap with UV-LED, Table 7. The ability to eliminate or
One key data point that was not the analysis assumed there would reduce scrap also has the potential to
included in the case study was scrap generally be more scrap with the arc significantly reduce the payback period
costs. This was due to the fact that lamp system. As a result, in order to for both a new line and a retrofit line.
scrap costs vary dramatically based on evaluate the significance, a sensitivity (See Table 8.)
the application and the facility, and the analysis was performed where the Both tables demonstrate that
value that is used in the calculations additional annual scrap costs of the scrap is a key variable that drastically
has the potential to dramatically skew arc system were varied, while the influences the financial results.
the financial results in both directions. scrap costs for the UV-LED line were Overestimating or underestimating
UV-LED curing systems have the held fixed. The increased annual costs its value, as well as omitting it
ability to reduce scrap costs relative to were varied from $500 for minimal from calculations, can lead to poor
conventional curing. This is because scrap on a low-production cost product investment decisions. If the actual
UV-LED curing systems are instant or well-run line up to $64,000 for a amount of scrap is uncertain, it
ON/OFF which eliminates the need to product requiring very expensive raw is always better to make more
Table 7
LCCA sensitivity analysisarc system scrap
Cost of Scrap $500 $1,000 $2,000 $4,000 $8,000 $16,000 $32,000 $64,000
LCCA of UV-Arc $99,553 $102,427 $108,173 $119,666 $142,653 $188,626 $280,572 $464,465
LCCA of UV-LED $86,140 $86,140 $86,140 $86,140 $86,140 $86,140 $86,140 $86,140
LED LCCA Savings $13,413 $16,287 $22,033 $33,526 $56,513 $102,486 $194,432 $378,325
Table 8
PB sensitivity analysisarc system scrap
Cost of Scrap $500 $1,000 $2,000 $4,000 $8,000 $16,000 $32,000 $64,000
PaybackUV-LED New Line 2.41 2.07 1.61 1.11 0.69 0.39 0.21 0.11
PaybackUV-LED Retrofit 16.80 14.40 11.21 7.76 4.81 2.73 1.46 0.76

Table 9
LCCA sensitivity analysisHVAC
HVAC Costs $0 $4,500 $5,500 $6,500 $7,500 $8,500 $9,500 $10,500 $11,500
LCCA of $67,420 $96,676 $103,178 $109,679 $116,181 $122,682 $129,183 $135,685 $142,186
UV-Arc
LCCA of $86,140 $86,140 $86,140 $86,140 $86,140 $86,140 $86,140 $86,140 $86,140
UV-LED
LED LCCA ($18,720) $10,536 $17,038 $23,539 $30,041 $36,542 $43,043 $49,545 $56,046
Savings
conservative estimates and perform a The sensitivity analysis evaluated economically viable. For the case
sensitivity analysis. the impact of heating, ventilating and study, the UV-LED curing system has
air conditioning (HVAC) the facility a life-cycle cost that is $18,720 greater
HVAC Energy Costs in which the arc-lamp system was than the arc-lamp system when HVAC
One of the more attractive benefits installed. The calculations were run for is not required, but for annual HVAC
of UV-LED curing is the elimination a temperate climate that requires no costs of $11,500, the life-cycle costs of
of exhaust. Conventional systems HVAC ($0), the case study of Part II the LED system are $56,046 less than
require exhaust to remove heat and ($4,500), as well as seven additional the conventional system.
ozone. In many cases, the UV units scenarios where the HVAC costs were The HVAC factor also applies to
are exhausted outside the facility. The increased in $1,000 increments up to the payback period as presented
consequence is that the exhausted $11,500 annually. (See Table 9.) in Table 10. Where HVAC costs are
air must be replaced. Depending on Table 9 illustrates that a facilitys nonexistent or low, the payback period
the facility and geographic location, HVAC costs are a vital factor in for installing a UV-LED curing system
the makeup air is often heated in the determining whether an LED or an on a new line under the conditions
winter and cooled in the summer at a arc-lamp system makes better economic of the case study is 3.64 years. It
considerable cost. The actual costs of sense. In temperate climates where increases to 25.32 years if the LED
conditioning the air vary depending HVAC is not necessary, an arc-lamp system is used to replace a functioning
on environmental conditions as well may often be the better financial choice; conventional system on an existing
as the use of electric, natural gas and however, as HVAC costs increase, line. As HVAC costs for the case study
evaporative methods. the UV-LED system becomes more increase, the payback period decreases
Table 10
PB sensitivity analysisHVAC
HVAC Costs $0 $4,500 $5,500 $6,500 $7,500 $8,500 $9,500 $10,500 $11,500
Running Costs $1,888 $6,388 $7,388 $8,388 $9,388 $10,388 $11,388 $12,388 $13,388
Arc Lamp System and
Ancillary Equipment
Running Costs $1,223 $1,223 $1,223 $1,223 $1,223 $1,223 $1,223 $1,223 $1,223
UV-LED System and
Ancillary Equipment
PaybackUV-LED New Line 3.64 2.89 2.07 1.61 1.32 1.11 0.97 0.85 0.76
PaybackUV-LED Retrofit 25.32 20.15 14.41 11.21 9.17 7.76 6.73 5.94 5.31

to 0.76 years for a new installation and are reported with stated assumptions and intellectually honest manner,
5.31 years for a replacement. and clearly defined input data. then the correct investment decision
Furthermore, performing a sensitivity for a particular facility should
Downtime analysis will always strengthen ones ultimately be achieved. w
The examples in this paper focused on confidence in the numerical results and
LCCA and PB. A sensitivity analysis can also be used to expose potential risk Jennifer Heathcote is a member of
the RadTech NA board.
should also be performed on the ROI. and errors due to preconceived biases.
For example, it might be assumed that While the overriding financial
a new machine with a UV-LED curing benefit of any investment should be
system will always run at full capacity. the driving factor, there are situations
In practice, however, it may not be where UV-LED technology may be
possible to secure all of the UV-LED pursued even when the economics are
ink colors necessary to run every job not very appealing. This would include
or it may be time-consuming to run cases where UV-LED technology offers
samples and get customer approvals process capabilities that cannot be
for each new ink color. achieved with conventional systems
If the production volume in a as well as the desire to install a pilot,
particular facility is high and there are low-capacity or hybrid line in order
numerous lines, it may be possible to to learn more about the technology
shift jobs that only require currently and develop processes for the future.
available or currently approved inks In some cases, the decision to use
to the LED line. However, if a facility a UV-LED curing system is heavily
does not have this flexibility, it may influenced by current or pending
not be possible to always run the regulatory mandates. On the other
UV-LED decorating line at full capacity hand, there are also situations where
all the time. This will impact the ROI. facilities have already made significant
The degree of impact can and should investments in a particular type of
be evaluated with a sensitivity analysis. curing system. This may lead them to
stick with existing technology for the
Final Comments purposes of standardization.
The purpose of this three-part series In the end, the decision of
was not meant to be an argument which curing technology to use
for or against any particular type of is a combination of analytical and
UV-curing system, especially since subjective factors. Different facilities
the values used in the examples do operating under very similar conditions
not readily lend themselves to every can often reach drastically different
scenario. Instead, the sole intent was investment decisions based on
to demonstrate common methods of their respective risk tolerance and
business case analysis and to show their decision-making methodology.
that the data used in the calculations Lab and field trials; evaluations
significantly impacts the results and, of exiting installations and case
ultimately, the investment decision. studies; availability of formulations;
Hopefully, the papers also serve to relationships with suppliers;
encourage readers to run their own analytical business case specific to
calculations and scrutinize others the application and facility; and the
results by demonstrating that it is consideration of relevant subjective
vitally important that calculations only factors are all tools designed to
use data specific to the application and minimize risk and aid the decision-
installation site and that ROI, PB and making process. As long as a thorough
LCCA claims only carry weight if they analysis is pursued in a transparent

Advancements
in UV-LED Curing
Technology and
Solutions for Print
P
By Pamela Lee rinting processes have drastically were factors that prohibited market
evolved over the years, adoption. With advancements in UV-
originating in the form of labor- LED technology, utilization of UV-LEDs
intensive manual printing presses for curing in printing processes has
and advancing to modern day offset, become increasingly prominent in the
flexography, digital and 3D printers. market. There are several technological
While a number of different printing advances that have enabled the use
technologies are available, printing of UV-LEDs for ink curing, as well as
with UV inks is a fast growing sector, specific advantages UV-LEDs bring to
and UV-LEDs are becoming the light printing processes.
source for curing UV inks in many
printing applications. Evolution of LEDs
Until recent years, UV-LEDs have While the adoption of LEDs into
been faced with a number of technical consumer devices and applications
and economic barriers that have such as televisions, electronics,
prevented wide commercial adoption. displays and lighting has been prolific,
High cost and limited availability of this uptake has been predominantly
LEDs, low output and efficiency, and in the longer wavelength spectrum of
thermal management challenges, visible light or infrared. Until recently,
UV-LEDs have experienced a more
Figure 1
combined with ink compatibility
Projected growth of UV-LEDs from 2012-2017
Source: Yole Dveloppement

Figure 2
modest adoption because of a number
of commercial and technological
challenges. Some of these barriers
Lifetime as relative light output vs. operating time
included high cost, low output power
at different junction temperatures of LEDs
and efficiency, as well as thermal
management challenges. Significant
progress has been made to address
these shortfalls and, as such, has helped
advance the acceptance and viability
of UV-LEDs as a curing solution.
According to market research from
Yole Dveloppement (Figure 1), the
UV-LED business is expected to grow
from $45 million in 2012 to nearly $270
million by 2017, with majority of this
being accounted for by UV curing.
Cost
As with most new technologies,
Source: IoP, LED Quarterly Insights
acquisition costs tend to be greatest in
the early stages of product availability
and decline as mass market adoption
occurs. While the LED components a conventional lamp-based solution, handling of an increased heat density
themselves contribute most of the gap in expenditure has narrowed and power consumption. Irradiance is
the total system cost for UV-LED significantly in the past few years, inversely proportional to the junction
installations, the implementation and making the payback period much temperature of the LED die. Thus
efficiency of designs also dictates shorter. With growing demand and maintaining a cooler die not only
how well the produced radiant further advancements in process and extends life and improves reliability, it
energy is delivered to the working technology, the overall cost of UV-LEDs also increases efficiency and output.
surface. For instance, the better the will continue to be on the decline. Figure 2 illustrates the lifetime of LEDs
implementation of optics and cooling, at different junction temperatures and
the fewer LEDs will be required. Output Power and Efficiency the relative output. A sharp decrease
Despite much of LED development Arguably one of the areas under the can be seen in LED performance with
and adoption being focused on most scrutiny for UV-LED technology higher junction temperatures. Thermal
visible light, the growing market, is the efficiency and maximum radiant management has become a crucial
increasing commercial use of LED and power that is produced. Curing of inks technological component in UV-LED
investment into the technology itself requires concentrated energy to be advancements and will be further
have helped to drastically improve the delivered to the curable ink, and this discussed in this article.
cost landscape for UV-LEDs as well. can be achieved with LED systems The components of LED arrays,
Efficiency and yields have been on the by concentrating the radiant energy thermal management and optics all
rise while costs have come downby through optics and/or packaging. High work together, as optimizing one piece
more than a factor of 10 in the past power systems are created by grouping often impacts the others. The effective
decade. This all has contributed to arrays of LED die together, increasing use of optics, for example, will allow
wider adoption, increased volumes both the packing density and, in light to be projected more efficiently,
and increased support for UV-LED principle, the radiated power. However, thus reducing thermal load, increasing
compatible inks and materials available in practice, there are limitations to irradiance at longer working distances,
for the marketplace. the packaging as a higher packing reducing the number of LEDs required
While the upfront capital investment density results in a greater power and, as a consequence, lowering cost.
in a UV-LED curing system for per area (an increased irradiance), A good implementation of UV-LED
printers may be higher than that for but with that must also come the systems requires expertise in each area

Table 1
and an understanding that each piece
is interwoven to work as a system.
The challenges of packaging
Typical output to input power efficiency of LEDs
UV-LEDs into arrays have been
overcome, as there are a number of Wavelength Typical Efficiency
solutions available today for various Visible Blue 45%
applications. Both small and larger area 395 nm 45%
UV-LED curing systems are available 385 nm 40%
with different wavelength offerings,
365 nm 35%
including (but not limited to) 365 nm,
385 nm and 395 nm.
As wavelengths increase, the
output power, efficiency and costs densely populating LED die in arrays. particularly in applications where
also scale. For example, 365 nm LEDs The complexity in the packaging of high power densities are required
provide less output than 395 nm LEDs. arrays alone is one aspect, but these over large curing areas. Low junction
The performance of the die is better at arrays must also be housed, driven, temperatures can be more easily
longer wavelengths, thus cost per cooled and optimized. The roles that obtained with this technique, and
watt output is lower while delivering thermal management and optics play in consequently higher efficiency, longer
more energy. a system design are profound, as they lifetime and great reliability are the
Depending on the application help dictate the efficiency, form factor end result. Another advantage of
and the inks that are used, often and implementation. water cooling is the compact UV-LED
395 nm wavelength solutions can head size, permitting integration into
adequately cure formulations at a
Thermal Management applications where space around the
more economical system cost than Cooling of discrete UV-LEDs does curing area is limited. However, the
365 nm alternatives. In other instances, not present a particularly difficult drawbacks of water cooled solutions
365 nm or shorter wavelengths truly engineering challenge. However, are the heavier weight of the curing
may be required to achieve full cure. creating a solution (using LED arrays) unit, and added complexity
However, as more processes begin to that can meet commercial needs is a including floor spaceto integrate
adopt UV-LED curing, the commercial demanding and technically complex such a solution. The need for chillers
drive has pushed formulators to task. Performance, space and system and water pipes requires extra
tailor products with photoinitiators, size constraints, noise, environmental infrastructure that some applications
resins and additives packages conditions and ease of integration or print environments cannot afford.
that function efficiently with LED are factors that dictate the design The second thermal management
emission wavelengths and thus are of a solution. As outlined above, the solution is air cooling. Since air is
more effectively cured without any performance, reliability and lifetime inherently less effective at extracting
compromise on the quality of cure. of LEDs, particularly those in high heat than water, special design
Table 1 is an overview of the typical density and high output arrays, are considerations must be made to
output to input power efficiency of dependent on how effectively the heat enhance airflow, as well as, to pack the
LEDs at various wavelengths. is dissipated. High peak irradiance and LEDs and optimize the curing solution
delivering sufficient energy density by employing the use of optics. The
UV-LED System Solutions are necessities in UV curing. Thermal benefits air cooled systems bring are
UV-LED curing systems typically are management is often overlooked the ease of integration, being light
composed of an LED head, power but plays a crucial component in the weight and reducing costs, with no
supply and interconnect cables. successful execution of a design to need for external chillers, tubing
Piecing these components together achieve the required performance or coolant. While in its infancy, air
to create a viable solution is a parameters. There are currently cooled solutions could only be utilized
challenge, with the bulk of engineering two implementations of thermal for low output UV applications.
development being focused on the UV managementwater and air cooling. However, in recent years, considerable
head design. As mentioned previously, Water cooling is an extremely advancements have been made,
high power systems are created by efficient method of extracting heat, such that higher power air cooling

Figure 3
an LED solution utilizing optics are
maintained at longer working distances
Performance advantage of employing optics for when compared to a solution that does
LED solutions not employ optics.

UV-LED systems can use optics
to provide benefits for specific
applications, such as those requiring
longer working distances and a
narrower, more focused illumination
area. Optics also can be designed for
flexibility, allowing systems to be joined
to create larger illumination areas
while maintaining the same uniformity
between the units. By providing high
output and custom optics to deliver
high irradiance at flexible working
Source: IoP, LED Quarterly Insights distances, UV-LED curing systems
enable users to increase productivity
by maximizing the use of UV energy.
implementations can be achieved can be very high at the emitting Applications of UV-LEDs
without negatively impacting lifetime window but decreases with distance for Print
and reliability. Air-cooled UV-LED because without optics, the light is A wide range of applications can take
products offering peak irradiance up diffused and unfocused. To mitigate advantage of the many benefits that
to 12 W/cm2 are available for varying the effects of an increased working UV-LEDs bring, from spot curing
applications and market segments to distance, employing optics to focus the to small and large area curing
cure adhesives, coatings and inks. UV light helps to optimize the output requirements for a range of industries.
and results in a more efficient solution. Table 2 compares typical performance
Optics Figure 3 illustrates the advantages of spot and area UV-LED curing systems.
Maximization of UV-LED output optics bring for UV-LED area curing For print manufacturers, the capital
power is crucial in the implementation solutions. The irradiance levels of costs for infrastructure needed to
of systems. Through the use of
optics, the energy from LEDs can be Table 2
delivered better to the substrate or
ink. Different methodologies ranging Typical performance of UV-LED spot and area
from reflection to focusing light with curing systems
lensing can be employed to enhance
LED Spot Cure LED Area Cure
the output and minimize loss of
Cooling method Passively cooled Air Water
energy. Depending on the application,
optics can be customized to meet the Typical maximum 10 W/cm 2
10 W/cm 2
18 W/cm2
irradiance
performance requirements, including
working distance and curing area. Typical spot size 2-4 mm 25 x 50 or 20 mm x
75 mm 60 mm
For instance, in some processes, a
Optical power < 500 mW 100 W 160 W
very narrow beam of UV energy is
needed. Having a window or flood that Wavelengths 365 nm, 385 nm 365 nm or 365 nm or
or 400 nm 395 nm 385 nm
illuminates onto a wide area for such
a process would mean the majority of Cure type static static or static or
continuous continuous
energy is wasted. Additionally, in most
environments, a minimum working
distance is required. LED irradiance

Figure 4
and UV-LED-based curing systems
certainly have been narrowed.
Whether it is performance, cost
Lifetime as relative light output vs. operating time
or availability of formulations that
at different junction temperatures of LEDs
are compatible with UV-LEDs, the
technology has unquestionably made
considerable advances to allow
UV-LED curing solutions to become
commercially viable. w
Pamela Lee is senior product

manager of OmniCure UV curing
solutions at Excelitas Technologies
Corporation. She holds an MBA
and Bachelor of Science degree in
Electrical Engineering from the
University of Toronto, and has
authored several publications
and presented at a number
of industry-related speaking
engagements. Contact Pamela Lee
at pamela.lee@excelitas.com.
Courtesy of Smithers Pira
support traditional UV lamp curing products market sector is forecast to

systemssuch as exhaust and make- grow 18.3% and reach $15.9 billion by
up air systemsis a big overhead that 2018 (Figure 4). UV inkjet printing has
can be reduced or eliminated by using a variety of uses, including signage,
UV-LED-based solutions. However, labels, commercial print, security and
depending on the print application, packaging. Of these, packaging and
the practicality of implementing UV- labels are the fastest growing.
LED solutions may vary. Taking into However, in high speed printing
consideration the type of print process, processes that require large scale
required throughputs and print area, curing systems with extremely high
the use of UV-LED curing systems optical output, the economics of
may be a viable option, and one that attaining a cost competitive solution
can help overcome many challenges. using LEDs is an area that is still being
For instance, in UV label printing, optimized. The technological advances
wide-format digital, flexography or that have been realized in the past few
3D printing, air- or water-cooled LED years have enabled cost reductions,
configurations can be used without higher output and efficiency, and
costs being prohibitive. In digital UV better thermal performance and
inkjet printing, the flexibility and system design. It is anticipated that as
customization that can be afforded the technology continues to mature,
with the technology has driven more and more processes will adopt
growth in this segment. The ability to UV-LED curing solutions.
have tighter controls on the process
results in high quality prints and Conclusion
fast turnaround times. According to The gaps that previously existed
Smithers Pira, The UV inkjet printed between traditional lamp solutions

Comparing Traditional
UV Systems with UV-LED
Systems for UV Curing
By R.W. Stowe Editors Note: The following paper will affect, for example, depth of cure
won the 2014 John Matteucci and adhesion. Optical thickness also
Technical Excellence Award for can be described by the ratio of photon
Web Coating at the Association of flux at the top of a film to the photon
International Metallizers, Coaters flux at the bottom. The implications
and Laminators (AIMCAL) Web of optical thickness on adhesion are
Coating & Handling Conference USA. quite clear.
The spectral absorbance of the
Abstract films will affect which wavelengths will
Enthusiasm and rapid development more effectively penetrate and how the
are two characterizations of the entry irradiance level will achieve depth of
of UV-LED sources into UV-curing cure. Of course, the action spectrum of
applications. In many cases, UV-LEDs the photoinitiator blend will determine
are replacing the traditional mercury- the wavelength responsivity. The key
based, medium-pressure lamps. We parameters are as follows:
will explore some of the similarities Irradiancethe profile of radiant
and differences of these UV sources, power arriving at a surface,
concentrating on measurement. measured in W/cm2 or mW/cm2, in
Whether applying medium-pressure a specific wavelength band; (often,
mercury lamps or UV- LEDs, accurate only the peak value is reported);
UV measurements of spectral
Time (or speed)the time in
irradiance and exposure are essential
seconds of exposure; inverse of
to optimized design and production
speed;
control of the UV-curing process.
Spectral distributionrelative
The most important principle
radiant power versus wavelength, in
of effective radiometry is that the
nanometers (nm).
measurements must be relevant to
the process or, in other words, must The temperature of the film (ink
be related to the development of or coating) is important to the curing
the physical properties of the final process. It is a consequence of radiant
product. This also is true of the energy delivered from the UV source
need for optical characterization including infraredand the absorbance
(or specification) of UV lamps for the of the work surface. Some heat is
purpose of system design. beneficial to the reaction, but excessive
heat can cause damage to temperature-
Key exposure parameters sensitive media. A non- contacting
The optical thickness of a curable film optical thermometer is recommended
determines to what extent irradiance for surface temperature measurement.

Figure 1
measurement that incorporates time, and irradiance pattern are shown in
reporting of exposure tends to be Figures 1 and 2. These lamps usually
commonly used. are classified in watts per inch,
Typical elliptical
Spectroradiometers are very which does little to describe their
focusing
narrow-band instruments, essentially optical features.
reflector used
responding to spectral irradiance,
with MP UV lamps and are highly wavelength-specific Irradiance and irradiance
some with resolution as fine as 0.50 profile
nanometer. These instruments Although peak irradiance is a very
actually miniature monochromators important component of exposure and is
can be valuable when there is a need easily measured, the irradiance profile
to evaluate irradiance in a selected is more important. This is because
wavelength band to a high degree parts of the exposure-profile curve
of detail. will have different effects on cure and
Radiachromic dosimeters are tabs depth of cure. Depending on the power
or films that attach to a test surface and optics of the UV source, irradiance
and respond to total time-integrated and peak irradiance may fall into any
energy by changing color or by one of the following general categories:
changing optical density. These can be Very high: Over 10 W/cm2
evaluated with a densitometer and can High: 1 W/cm2 to 10 W/cm2
A useful measure is exposure be correlated to an exposure meter. Low: 100 mW/cm2 to 1 W/cm2
commonly, but incorrectly, called Very low: 1 to 100 mW/cm2
dose. Exposure is the time-integral Medium-pressure mercury Figure 2 shows a comparison of
of the irradiance profile, so it is
lamps different irradiance profiles, but all at
not a separate variableit is the The most common arrangement of the approximately the same exposure
consequence of two independent medium- pressure (MP) UV lamp area under the curve. This is typical
variablesirradiance profile and either arc- or microwave-poweredis of a highly focused lamp, illustrated at
timeexpressed in J/cm2 or mJ/cm2 in with the tubular lamp set in a semi- positions progressively further from
a specific wavelength band. Exposure elliptical reflector. The typical reflector the work surface or radiometer.
or dosecan be useful only if spectral
distribution and irradiance or time Figure 2
is known, as none of the key design
variables can be derived from it. Typical irradiance profiles of MP UV lamps
Radiometric instruments
and devices
Radiometers measure irradiance
usually in watts/cm2at a point, but
over a uniquely defined wavelength
band. The wavelength range to which
they respond is defined by the spectral
responsivity of their internal filters and
detectors. Advanced instruments can
map the irradiance profile and also
calculate exposure.
Exposure meters measure
accumulated energy at a surface
watt-seconds/cm2 or joules/cm2also
over a uniquely defined wavelength
band. Because this is the only

Spectral distribution
A benefit of the MP lamp is seen in Figure 3
its wide spectral distribution and its Spectral distribution of MP mercury UV source
ability to alter the spectral output in (shown in 10 nm integration)
different regions of the UV spectrum.
This allows a range of photoinitiators
to be selected with various action
spectra to react to longer or shorter
wavelengths, to achieve deeper cure
by long wavelengths and surface cure
by shorter wavelengths. The spectral
distributions of two types of MP bulbs
are shown in Figures 3 and 4.
Reporting exposure
Because exposure is directly
proportional to time of exposureor
inversely proportional to speedit can
be calculated for any speed from data
at a known speed. It does not have to
Figure 4
be repeatedly measured at different Spectral distribution of MP mercury UV source
speeds. To calculate exposure at any with iron halide additive to enhance the UVA band
speed, simply multiply an error-free (D bulb)
exposure measurement by its speed
and divide by the desired speed.
MP lamp output
A comparatively high-powered MP lamp
with an additive-type bulb may have
an output peak irradiance of up to 10
watts/cm2 and deliver an exposure of up
to 2 J/cm2in the UVA band at 20 fpm.
Radiometers
Several instruments are available
for making irradiance and exposure
measurements, and many of these
instruments will provide both in may be accurate and calibratedthey as MP lamps, but with characteristic
spectrally divided and defined ranges simply cover different ranges. This is differences. First, the spectral
for example: UVC, UVB, UVA and UVV the reason that data communication distribution is very limited. Individual
over the entire UV region. always must be accompanied by the chips (die) for construction of LED
A radiometer from one manufacturer identification of the radiometer used. As arrays are nearly monochromatic,
can report UV data differently from a practical matter, many users prefer to but are selected (binned) based on
another. This is because instruments compare data from instruments only of three parameters: wavelength, power
have different responsivity, or the same type. output and voltage. This permits the
wavelength sensitivity. Further, construction of arrays, each with
instruments differ in their spatial UV-LEDs for UV-curing different centerline wavelengths:
sensitivityangle of acceptance applications typically 365 nm, 385 nm, 395 nm and
although most have diffusers to give For UV curing, the use of UV-LEDs 405 nm. The highest irradiance per
them a cosine response. All of these follows the same rules of exposure watt typically is in the 395 nm group

Figure 5
Several measurement bands used for MP-UV lamps and UVA2 band for UV-LEDs
Courtesy of EIT
others significantly lower further from Owing to the fact that the radiant difficulty in surface cure. This is
that. Almost monochromatic, each of energy from todays UV-LEDs is remedied in the chemical formulation
these arrays may have a wavelength entirely in the long wavelength UV of LED-curable inks and coatings.
spread of only 10-20 nm and irradiance between UVA and UVVthey provide
in the very high category. excellent depth of cure but potential WavelengthUV-LEDs
Generally, radiometers whose
Figure 6 bands are suitable for MP-lamp
measurements are not usable for
Measurement error related to using the wrong UV-LED measurements. This has
(UVA or UVV) measurement band with 385 nm or generated the need for filter-detector
395 nm LEDs radiometers more suited for this
range, which happens to lie between
the traditional designations of UVA
and UVV. For practical distinction
from existing designations, the
Measurements Group of RadTech
International North America proposed
that this bandfirst promoted
commercially by EITbe designated
UVA2 or simply UVA2.
Figure 5 shows the relationship of
UVA2 to the other bands that typically
are applied to MP lamps. Figure 6
illustrates the measurement and
resulting error of measuring a 385 nm
UV-LED and a 395 nm UV-LED with
a radiometer designed for UVA and

Figure 7
UVV wavelength bands, as compared
to one responding to the UVA band.
An important lesson here: Know the
Irradiance profiles of 16 W/cm2 385 nm LED at 2 mm
radiometer response banddont
and 0.50 in. from lamp face (UVA2 exposure at 20
use the wrong radiometer for
measurement of LEDs.
fpm)
Irradiance vs. distance

For practical application of UV-LED
lamps, the exposure pattern at the
work surface is as important as it
is for MP lamps. The UV-LED field
of illuminationto borrow a term
from visible lightingis usually
more flat and uniform owing to the
construction of the multi-chip array
that constitutes the lamp. Unlike MP
lamps that typically focus the highest
irradiance at a distance of a few inches
in front of the lamp, irradiance of the
UV-LED array is progressively lower
Figure 8
from the lamp face (window) toward
the work surface. Consequently, the
most common applications of UV-
Illustration of the effect and benefit of micro-optics
LEDs today are in near-field and flat or
nearly flat applications that can take
advantage of the high irradiance near
the lamp face.
Irradiance profile
A mapping radiometersimilar
to those used with MP lampscan
determine the irradiance profile.
However, as there usually is very little
distance between the LED and the
work surface, it may be difficult to
pass a common integrating radiometer
or exposure meter under the lamp.
Irradiance profiles can be determined
using a small probe and plotting Micro-optics and irradiance Large-scale opticslenses or
the profile from carefully spaced The LED arrayessentially a cluster reflectorsto focus this energy are
measurements. Figure 7 shows the of point-sourcesexhibits a radiation impractical, owing to the fact that
irradiance profile of a comparatively pattern that can be described as a virtually all rays are diverging from
high-power LED at two distances. quasi-Lambertian source with radiant multiple points. Individual micro-
Because LEDs are very stable, a one- energy diminishing as a function of lenses in the forward region of
time determination of profile may be distance. Because the LED actually is each LED can redirect much of the
sufficient and may be checked only an array of individual LEDs, irradiance energy into the forward direction.
periodically. Exposure at any speed measurements very close to the lamps This decreases the area of exposure
can be calculated from this profile. window canshow some non-uniformity, and increases irradiance. Figure 8
Currently, no UV-LED manufacturers which is reduced as measurements are illustrates the function of micro-optics,
publish irradiance profiles. made slightly further from the face. and Figure 9 shows the benefit of

Figure 9
micro-optics in irradiance at distances
from the lamp face.
Describing and specifying Near-field and far-field effects of micro-optics

UV-LED lamps
The ways in which UV-LED lamps are
described varies from manufacturer to
manufacturer. UV-LEDscomparatively
new to UV curinghave not yet
developed a consistency of description
relating to the features important to
process design. The importance of the
length or width is thatdepending
on the orientation of the lamp to
the process travelit will have a
controlling effect on the exposure in a
dynamic process. Because of differing
patterns of irradiance, array densities,
distance from the lamp face, lack of
instrument identification and the ways
they are presented by manufacturers, Conclusion with graduate studies in electrical
there can be some confusion of lamp engineering at George Washington
For UV-curing applications, the key
University. Stowe has published
specifications. exposure variables for characterizing more than 150 technical papers and
Important optical-design the output of UV-LEDs and MP articles, and he has several patents
information to know about a UV-LED mercury-based lamps are the same. in UV-energy sensing, electronics,
system includes the following: These parameters can be used for radiometry and UV curing.
He is a member of the board of
1. The principal wavelength of the system designs, as well as for the
directors of the International
array; occasionally the wavelength characterization of UV systems. The Ultraviolet Association (IUVA), is
spreadat the 50% point from the ability to determine the optimum co-founder of the UV Measurements
center wavelengthwill be disclosed. exposure for UV-LED- curable material Group of RadTech International
North America and is an
2. The static peak irradiance at and the ability to characterize the
editorial board member for
the center of the lamp face at a output of any selected UV-LED source UV+EB Technology magazine.
distance, preferably at the working can shorten the trial-and-error that
distance; this is the most common may otherwise be required and can Contact Richard Stowe at
simplify the process of lamp selection. dick.stowe@ heraeus.com.
characterization of UV-LEDs
typically expressed in watts, Wavelength, irradiance and time
although the units are actually and temperature are the important
watts/cm2. This distance must be variables of the UV-curing process.
part of the irradiance specification. The fact that exposure over a range
of speed can be calculated for a given
3. The dimensions of the irradiance
lamp type and configuration can be
profileideally, the length and
helpful for system design. w
width of the exposure field at the
50% irradiance points, as these Richard W. Stowe, director
determine the length (and time) of of applications engineering for
dynamic exposure and the width Heraeus Noblelight America
LLC, has more than 35 years of
of exposure along the length of
experience with the design and
the lamp. Most often, only the engineering of UV-curing systems
mechanical dimensions of the and processes. He holds a BS in
transmitting window are provided. physics from American University,

RadTech Conference Paper
A 100% Solids UV-LED

Curable Floor Coating
A
By Elena Komarova, 100% solids UV-LED curable UV-LED found its industrial
Dennis Sheirs, Brandy field applied floor coating implementation in graphics and UV
Padilla, Donald Wall and and the machine for its cure printing industries first. The power
Mark Davis has been developed. The machine is and efficiency of UV-LEDs that are
equipped with a 395 nm UV-LED. The commercially available is increasing
coating is suitable for different flooring constantly making it a valuable cure
applications: vinyl composition tile source for other UV coatings as well as
(VCT), hard wood, laminate, marble, UV adhesives.
terrazzo and concrete. Some of the The advantages of UV-LED
applications such as hard wood, technology over well-established
concrete and terrazzo floors require UV Medium Pressure Mercury Lamp
a 100% solids UV-LED curable primer technology are lower operating
has been developed as well. The temperature, long lifetime, and low
resulting coating is scratch and maintenance. UV-LED is an ozone-free
impact resistant. and mercury-free environmentally
friendly technology. In addition,
Introduction UV-LEDs are very compact. Low
The industry started implementing UV operating temperature and low emitted
(Ultra Violet) cure since the 1960s. heat allows curing a UV coating on
Energy cure of (meth)acrylated resins very thermally sensitive substrates.
is already a well established process The small compact size of the UV-LED
that is still gaining further acceptance. machine permits an easy transfer of this
The UV curable coatings offer high technology to field applied coatings.
productivity, low energy consumption UV cure is already being
if compared to thermally cured ones. implemented in field-applied wood,
A wide variety of commercially concrete and VCT floor coatings. Fast
available (meth)acrylates allows return to service, the UV coating is
to achieve desirable properties fully cured immediately after the
throughout the spectrum of possible irradiation, of UV curable coatings is a
coating properties: from hard and huge advantage of these coating over
scratch resistant coatings through soft conventional technology that requires
and robust ones. several days for the coated floor to
For slightly more than a decade fully return to service.
a new emerging sector of UV cure Traditional medium pressure
started forming: UV-LED (Light mercury lamps emit a wide spectrum
Emitting Diode) cure. This became of radiation with a significant portion
possible with the recent developments of it in the ultra violet region: UVC,
in LED industry allowing production of UVB, and UVA. This spectral breadth
powerful UV-LEDs. allows a wide variety of photoinitiators
As with UV technology at the to choose from. On the other hand,
beginning years of its acceptance, lots of hard stray UV light from the

UV mercury machines that are used these include thiols, phosphites, amines hardest plastic materials is usually
to cure coatings in the field today and borates. In this work, additives utilized for the surface protective
requires strict safety measures to be that prevent oxygen inhibition such layer of HDPL. HDPL lanes get worn
executed for the people that are in a as multifunctional thiols have been out after several years of use. These
vicinity of the UV cure machine. It is researched to overcome this problem. lanes are not usually resurfaced,
different for UV-LEDs. The stray light A completely oxygen scavenger free they get changed which is expensive.
that can be reduced to a minimum by formulation was developed as well. A very hard and scratch/impact
bringing the LED head very close to Environmental protection agency resistant coating can prolong a life of
the substrate surface has a wavelength (EPA) VOC regulations are getting a worn HDPL lane. The focus of this
of 395 nm that is essentially free of stricter each year especially for indoor presentation is such a coating.
hard UV, no ozone is produced by coatings/finishes. Therefore, the need Although at the beginning of
the operating UV-LEDs. This makes exists for a 100% solids or water based this project the presented coating
this technology suitable for the field coating that can be cured in ambient was designed as a synthetic bowling
application and the cure of the coating conditions with UV-LED light. lane finish in mind, the coating was
when the public is present. Therefore, It is an object of this paper to successfully transferred to many
a business owner does not have to describe an EPA compliant UV-LED other substrates that need a scratch,
close the whole facility to coat the floor curable coating formulations. All the abrasion and impact resistant clear
just a part of it. This means that the job described coatings have low viscosity or pigmented coat. Such substrates
of coating the floor does not have to be and are efficiently curable with include but not limited to concrete,
done during off hours. It is very useful UV-LED light in ambient conditions. wood, vinyl tile, and terrazzo, marble.
for the warehouses or stores that are The performance (scratch, abrasion, Some of the applications including
open 24/7. impact resistance) of the cured hard wood, concrete and terrazzo
UV-LEDs that are available today coatings compares to the performance floors require a 100% solids UV-LED
have a narrow (almost monochromatic) of the conventionally cured UV curable primer that has been developed
emission bands in UVA region of the coatings and in some cases exceeds it. as well. The coating is free of oxygen
spectrum. High energy UV radiation Kegel LLC is a company that scavengers such as amines and thiols,
such as UVC is required to effectively develops products, procedures, stable in the absence of light. The
cure standard UV coatings in ambient and systems to enhance the sport formulation has low viscosity that
conditions. Ambient conditions here of bowling. The presented coating allows ambient temperature application
are defined as the presence of oxygen research was performed to create a in the field. The resulting coating
at concentrations that are equal or coating for a synthetic bowling lane. is very robust, scratch and impact
above 20% by volume which can be Bowling lanes are subjected to a very resistant. The coating formulation has
translated into 18 kPa oxygen partial high scratch, abrasion and impact low odor and is VOC-free.
pressure. In these conditions, forces. A conventional bowling ball that
most of the existing UV curable weighs 8-16 pounds is thrown down Experimental
coatings will not be sufficiently cured the lane more than a hundred times Components of the coating composition
under UV-LED light even if the UVA during a day, thousands times per year. were mixed in ambient conditions with
absorbing initiators are applied. Current bowling balls are made of light exposure kept to a minimum.
The surface of the coating does not the materials that are very aggressive Plastic (polyethylene) containers
completely cure i.e. remains tacky after towards the lane surface. United were used for mixing with a laboratory
UV exposure due to oxygen inhibition. States Bowling Congress (USBC) mixer equipped with a stainless steel
The practice to apply a nitrogen blanket requires wooden lane to be resurfaced blade. Nanoparticle dispersions in
in order to properly cure UV coating once a year to meet flatness of the acrylic monomers were received as
compositions is customary even when lane requirements. Currently most samples from Nanophase Technologies
Mercury vapor UV lamps are utilized. of the bowling lanes are made with (Romeoville, IL, a part of Evonik Tego
This is true especially if high scratch high pressure decorative laminates Chemie GmbH (Essen, Germany)),
or abrasion resistance is required. (HDPL). Melamine-formaldehyde and Nissan Chemical America Corporation
There are several antioxidants that phenol-formaldehyde resins are the (Houston, TX); other monomers
can offset oxygen presence in the main constituents of HDPL. Melamine- were received as samples from either
formulation to be cured. Examples of formaldehyde resin as one of the Sartomer USA, LLC (Exton, PA) or

Cytec Industries (Woodland Park, NJ); air cooled RX Firefly light source from about 0.5 feet per second is measured.
multifunctional thiols (Thiocure) were Phoseon Technology (Hillsboro, OR). The resulting force is then divided by
samples from Evans Chemetics Inc. All coatings were cured at the speed of 14 lb weight to calculate the kinetic
(Waterloo, NY) and photoinitiators 10 fpm at the distance from the LED coefficient of friction.
were samples from BASF. surface of 5 mm. Gloss was measured by a BYK
Three different coatings were Scratch was tested with a 000 micro-tri-gloss meter on the coatings of
tested for LED cure: steel wool, 20 rubs no weight applied the same thickness applied to a black
FC001-epoxy novolak acrylate (0= best; 5=worst). Abrasion (Haze) VCT surface and cured.
based coating containing VOC- was tested with a TABER Rotary
exempt solvent, reactive acrylate Platform Abrasion Tester. The coating Results and Discussion
diluents and less than 5% was subjected to a 100 cycles with 500
Coating formulation
nanoparticles, g load and CS-10F wheels. Haze of the
There are a couple of approaches to
coating was determined before and
FC002-a 100% solids mixture of get a VOC compliant formulation.
after the abrasion and the change in
acrylate monomers containing less One is to go solventless. Another is
haze (Haze) was recorded. A bigger
than 20% nanoparticles, to use a VOC-exempt solvent such
number means more scratches, less
FC003-a 100% solids nanocomposite as acetone, methyl acetate (MeAc),
abrasion resistance.
(high concentration of nanoparticles, p-Chlorobenzotrifluoride (PCBTF).
Abrasion (weight loss) was tested
>20%) in low viscosity acrylate with a TABER Rotary Platform Two new additions to VOC-exempt
monomers. Abrasion Tester. The coating was solvent list are Dimethyl Carbonate
Once mixed coatings were applied subjected to 1000 cycles with 1000 g (DMC) and Propylene Carbonate
with a wire rod of different sizes to a load and CS-17 wheels. The weight (PC). The third approach would be
PET film to test abrasion resistance loss after these cycles is recorded. a UV curable aqueous dispersion. In
( Haze), scratch and onto a sample Bigger weight loss means less abrasion this presentation the focus is on the
of synthetic bowling lane for adhesion resistant coating. solvent-borne (VOC-free) and 100
and impact resistance tests. Other Coefficient of friction was tested % solids formulations. Besides being
substrates such as vinyl tile, primed according to the test specified for impact, abrasion and scratch resistant,
concrete, marble and wood have been synthetic bowling lane surface in USBC the bowling lane coating has to meet
tested as well. manual: The force needed to slide a several requirements described in
The coatings were cured with a sled with a total weight of 14 pounds USBC bowling lane specifications.
UV-LED light source: 4 W/cm2 395 nm across a coated surface at a speed of The Sward rocker hardness of the
Table 1
Solvent base UV-LED bowling lane finish
FC001, % Thiol Coefficient of Friction Scratch (5-worst, Haze (Abrasion)
(by weight of resins) 0-best, no scratches)
0 0.36 4 15.1
0.15 0.34 2-3 12.9
0.35 0.33 2-3 14.9
0.6 0.33 3 13.2
1.2 0.28 0.5-1 14.6
2.4 0.29 0.25 12.2
3.5 0.305 0 13.5
5 0.35 0 12.4
10 0.36 0 12.8

Table 2
100% solids UV-LED bowling lane finish
FC001, % Thiol Coefficient of Friction Scratch Haze (Abrasion)
(by weight of resins)
0 0.38 2 8.0
0.5 0.40 0.5 7.8
1 0.38 0-0.25 8.2
1.5 0.36 0 5.6
2.5 0.35 0 5.9
5 0.39 0 6.0
10 0.40 0 5.9
coating should be 35 or higher. In The influence of the addition requires at least 3.5% of thiol in order
addition, the coating should maintain of thiol on surface properties and to achieve sufficient scratch resistance
its recoatability. Bowling lanes are surface cure of the FC001 and FC002 while solvent-free formulation requires
cleaned and conditioned (oiled) daily have been studied. In Tables 1 and 2 only 1.5%.
and the coating should not interfere the influence of thiol concentration The impact on abrasion resistance
with that. Once the technology is onto the properties of the coatings is is not as dramatic but the abrasion
transferred to floors, the coefficient demonstrated. resistance continually improves with
of kinetic friction (COF) of plays an The results collected show that the increase in thiol concentration.
important role in order to avoid slip scratch resistance of the coating The effect of thiol addition on the
and fall hazard, especially if the coating and therefore surface cure depends coefficient of friction is present as well.
is applied in public places. significantly on the amount of the The coefficient of friction decreases
In order to meet all the added thiol. Solvent-borne formulation with the addition of thiol at lower
aforementioned requirements
nanocomposite formulations were
investigated. The additions of
Table 3
nanosilica helps scratch, abrasion The effect of nanoparticle concentration on oxygen
resistance dramatically and improves inhibition of UV-LED cure of TMPTA, concentration
the hardness of the coating to meet of photoinitiators is 5.5% (w)
the required Sward rocker hardness
limit. In order to ensure effective Percent of Scratch Haze, %
nanoparticles in
surface cure of the coating with
TMPTA
UV-LED, multifunctional thiols are
50 0 5
typically added.
Two coating formulations have 45 0 5.4
been investigated for UV-LED cure. 40 0 5.3
FC001 is a mix of an epoxy novolak 35 0 5.5
acrylate with VOC-exempt solvent 30 0.3 6
and reactive acrylate diluents to 25 2 8.2
reduce the viscosity containing less 20 5 11.5
than 5% nanoparticles. FC002 is
15 >5 12.8
a 100% solids mixture of acrylate
monomers containing less than 20%
nanoparticles.

Table 4
UV-LED coatings comparison to a commercially available field applied UV top coat
Coating Abrasion, Abrasion, Coefficient Scratch Gloss
Haze weight loss mg of Friction (at 60)
Uvolve topcoat (DSM) 25 40 0.166 1-2 85
FC-001 (thiol, no nanoparticles) 25 25 0.236 1-2 85-90
FC-002 (thiol, with nanoparticles) 10 5 0.272 0.5 85
FC-003 (no thiol) 6 2 0.407 0 85
concentrations of thiol until the full shelf life of the solvent borne coating (meth)acrylate formulation is possible
cure of the surface of the coating is formulation is more than six months in when a classical radical stabilizer is
achieved. After that, the coefficient of a glass container at room temperature, combined with acidic co-stabilizers.
friction increases with further increase the shelf life of 100% solid formulation The significantly improved storage
in thiol concentration. depends on its composition but stability of thiol-acrylate system has
Besides fighting oxygen inhibition generally is much shorter than that of a been demonstrated.1
while the coating is cured with UV- solvent borne composition. During the search for another way
LEDs thiol makes the formulations Since the addition of thiol as an of overcoming the oxygen inhibition
unstable for storage since oxygen that oxygen scavenger is getting accepted without the oxygen scavengers the
provides inhibition of spontaneous for low energy cure and thiol-ene effect of the addition of nanoparticles
in the absence of light is scavenged reactions in general are getting more to the 100% solids formulation
by the thiol. At concentrations of attention from industry, there were has been studied. The example of
thiol above 10% the formulations studies on the stabilization of thiol- the influence of the nanoparticle
become very unstable, solvent-free containing formulations. It has been concentration on the oxygen inhibition
formulations gel almost instantly. The demonstrated that a stable thiol- of UV-LED cured TMPTA is shown
Table 5
Chemical resistance of UV-LED 100% solids coating
Chemical 30 min 1 day 1 month
Nitric acid (70%) No effect No effect Not tested
Sulfuric acid (2.5M) No effect No effect Not tested
Hydrochloric acid (37%) No effect No effect Not tested
Sodium hydroxide (30%) No effect No effect Not tested
Ammonium hydroxide (30%) No effect No effect Not tested
Ketchup No effect No effect No effect
Red 40 dye in water No effect No effect No effect
Pickle juice No effect No effect No effect
Mustard No effect No effect No effect
Olive oil No effect No effect No effect
Cleaners No effect No effect No effect

Figure 1
in Table 3. The effects of oxygen
inhibition is significantly minimized
in the presence of about 35% of
UV-LED floor curing machine
nanoparticle and the coating with the
thickness of about 30-35 microns can
be successfully cured with a UV-LED
without the oxygen scavenger present.
The UV-LED storage-stable
coating formulation is based on the
findings above. FC003-a 100% solids
nanocomposite (high concentration of
nanoparticles, >20%) in low viscosity
acrylate monomers. The properties
of all three discussed UV-LED
formulations were compared to a
commercially available UV field applied
topcoat formulation in Table 4.
Figure 2
The chemical resistance of FC003
coating was assessed as well. The
Before clear coating application results are collected in Table 5.

Since the coating was intended
for the bowling lane other specific
tests were run on it. For example, a
machine shoots a bowling ball to the
coated lane twice a minute from
~1 m height to the same spot. The
coating presented can withstand
25,000-30,000 impacts.
Machine
Kegel developed a prototype 8 W/cm2
UV-LED floor machine (Figure 1) that
has variable speeds and the distance of
LED head form the floor surface can be
Figure 3
controlled.
After UV-LED primer and UV-LED top coat

Figure 4
several layers that were cured prior to
application of the following layer; the
clear top coat was applied and cured
Before and after pigmented primer
as well.
Conclusions
There are plenty of applications for
the demonstrated environmentally
friendly UV-LED coating in the field.
Floor coating industry would benefit
from implementing this technology. A
floor contractor can take advantage of
the convenience of the UV-LED floor
Before After (1 layer) coating application during normal
hours as well as immediate return to
service of the floor and outstanding
abrasion, scratch and impact resistance
Clear and pigmented concrete of pigments is reached. For most of characteristics. w
coating field test the applications, the fact that the
Clear coating: floor is completely ready for use right References:
Clear coating was successfully applied after application and UV cure as well 1. Storage Stable Thiol-Ene
as the fact that UV-LED coating can Formulations and Advances
in the industrial environment. The
Applications Thereof Xiaohua Qin,
floor preparation included only wash/ be applied without closing the facility
Parichehr Esfandiari, Samuel C. Ligon,
scrub with a cleaner. The floor was down (or in off-hours) would sway Aleksandr Ovsianikov, Robert Liska;
most of the floor coating contractors RadTech Europe 2013 presentation.
dried in ambient conditions and the
coating primer was applied. The top towards UV-LED coating.
Elena Komarova, Dennis Sheirs,
coat followed the primer coat. Figure 4 show the pigmented Brandy Padilla, Donald Wall
Both coating were cured with primer coating application.1 layer and Mark Davis. Kegel LLC,
UV-LED machine shown above with of the primer is not sufficient, the Lake Wales, Florida, USA
the speed of 10-15 fpm and the underlying concrete is visible through
UV-LED head distance from the the pigmented primer. In Figure 5,
surface of 5 mm. Figures 2 and 3 show the pigmented primer is applied in
the floor before and after the coating
application. Figure 5
Pigmented coating: Pigmented primer and clear topcoat is applied
Pigmented UV-LED primer has the
same advantages and disadvantages of
a regular pigmented UV coating. The
biggest disadvantage is the inevitability
of application the pigmented primer
several times in order to achieve the
right look since the concentration
of pigments in the UV (or UV-LED)
coating is controlled by the depth of
penetration of the coating by UV light.
High loads of pigments prevent the
light from reaching to the bottom layer
of the coating and therefore the layer is
left uncured if a specific concentration

Mitigation of Oxygen
Inhibition in UV-LED, UVA
and Low-Intensity UV Cure
By Dr. Jo Ann Arceneaux Introduction show the cured coating properties of
Oxygen inhibition is an age-old these formulations.
problem for coatings that cure via
free-radical polymerization. Molecular
Oxygen inhibition of free
radical polymerization
oxygen can physically quench the
triplet state of the photoinitiator/ A schematic of UV initiated free radical
sensitizer, or it can scavenge the free polymerization is shown in Figure 1.
radicals or active radical centers to Photoinitiator is I, double bond
produce unreactive peroxide radicals. containing materials are depicted by R
The end results range from reduced and R, and AH is a material with easily
coating properties to uncured, abstracted hydrogens (chain transfer
liquid surfaces on the coating. This agent). The photoinitiator absorbs UV
issue is even more pronounced in energy and generates a carbon-based
low- intensity cure processes, such free radical in the radical formation
as UV-LED or UVA cure, which step. This free radical then initiates
frequently result in tacky, uncured the polymer chain through reaction
surfaces. There are known physical with R. The steps of propagation,
and chemical ways to reduce oxygen chain transfer and termination then
inhibition or improve surface cure. occur throughout the process. The
This paper will discuss these methods, molecular weight, molecular weight
provide starting point formulations distribution and polymer composition
that use the chemical solutions and are determined by the relative ratios of
Figure 1 the steps.

Figure 2 shows the reactions of
UV-initiated free radical polymerization oxygen with photoinitiator (PI) and
free radicals (R). In the reaction of
oxygenwith the excited state of the
photoinitiatorthe photoinitiator is
quenched and returns to an unexcited,
nonreactive state. The end result is
fewer free radicals produced by the
photoinitiator, with fewer initiated
polymer chains and less polymer
formation in the coating.
When oxygen reacts with a carbon-
based free radical, it converts the
growing chain to an oxygen-based free
radical. This oxygen- based radical is

Figure 2
the issues seen in the industry. Since
this oxygen is at the surface of the
coating, oxygen inhibition is referred to
Reactions of oxygen in UV-initiated free radical
frequently as a surface cure problem.
polymerization
There are known physical and
chemical ways to reduce oxygen
inhibition or improve surface cure:
1. Remove oxygen from the UV cure
zone by use of inert gas, by use of
waxes that migrate to the surface
and form a barrier or by use of
films that are in direct contact with
the coating.1 In UV water-based
systems, the water vapor may act as
an inert gas.2
2. Increase free radical concentration
by increasing the photoinitiator
concentration or the UV intensity
(irradiance).1
3. Use chemicals that react with the
less reactive than the carbon-based polymerization is a very real problem
peroxy radicals.1
radical, and it slows down the free in the energy cure industry. Oxygen
radical polymerization, resulting in is present in two places: in the bulk These solutions have been and are
lower molecular weight chains. In material and at the surface of the currently used in the industry, but they
either case, the reaction with oxygen coating. Oxygen generally is required all have advantages and disadvantages.
may give a range of results, from in the bulk material to provide storage The removal of oxygen is not an
reduced coating properties to uncured, stability. (In this case, the oxygen easily implemented or cost-effective
liquid surfaces on the coating. inhibition is a welcome attribute.) This solution. Nitrogen inerting is used in
bulk oxygen is consumed fairly rapidly some specialty applications, but the
Mitigation of oxygen upon exposure to UV and has little typical end user cannot afford the
inhibition impact for most coatings. The oxygen cost. Inerting a web-based application
Since oxygen is present at about 21% at the coating surface is replenished as can be especially difficult as well.
in air, oxygen inhibition of free radical it is consumed, and it causes most of Waxes can be used, but they impact
Figure 3
Reaction of amine with oxygen

Figure 4
Mercury lamp and LED emission spectra
Courtesy of Phoseon Technology
the final properties of the coating, and abstractable hydrogen atoms are can result in yellowing (either upon
time is needed for migration of the found in compounds containing sulfur cure or after cure), residual odor and
waxes to the surface of the coating. (thiols), nitrogen (amines) or oxygen moisture sensitivity. The yellowing
Laminating adhesives is an example (ethers). The hydrogens on the carbon can be masked or lessened through
of an application that uses film as an atoms alpha to the sulfur, nitrogen use of dyes or optical brighteners.
oxygen barrier. In this case, the film or oxygen are those that are easily Ethers are the least effective solution
becomes part of the product. When abstractable, and there are many of to oxygen inhibition, but they can be
water is evaporated from water-based these in each molecule. The efficacy used in large quantities via polyether
UV coatings, the water vapor acts of these compoundsfor the same structures. Many urethane acrylates
as a barrier to oxygen. If UV cure is equivalencyis thiols > amines > utilize polyether backbones based on
immediate after water evaporation, ethers. Improvements in performance polyethylene oxide, polypropylene
very good surface cure is obtained.2 are noted when the thiols, amines and oxide or polybutylene oxide. Since
The UV intensity is determined by polyethers are acrylated. The acrylate large amounts of these polyethers are
the available UV-curing equipment functionality ensures that the materials required, the performance properties
and often cannot be changed. Higher become part of the polymer backbone of the coating are affected by polyether
intensity lamps are generally more and cannot migrate or bloom to the choice. Diluting acrylates also may be
expensive also. Increased photoinitiator surface. A reduction in odor also ethoxylated or propoxylated to give
levels may result in increased may be obtained through acrylation. reduced oxygen inhibition. The ether
concentrations of undesired residuals Figure 3 shows the mechanism for groups can cause reduced temperature
or by-products. It also may result in the reaction of an amine with oxygen. resistance of coatings anddepending
lower molecular weight polymer chains Since there are six abstractable on the type of polyetherreduced
and reduced coating properties due to hydrogens in this amino compound, it water resistance.
increases in initiation and termination can react six times with oxygen. The polyethers may be used
reactions. (See Figure 1.) One drawback of the use of thiols alone or in combination with the
The use of reactive chemicals is is odor; however, improvements in thiols or amines to provide further
the most commonly implemented purity have reduced the odor of many improvements in cure performance.
solution to mitigate oxygen thiols. Advantages of using thiols When polyethers are used alone, the
inhibition. The chemicals that react may be improved thermal resistance, deficiencies of the thiols (odor) and
with peroxy radicals contain easily reduced moisture absorption and amines (yellowing, odor, moisture
abstractable hydrogen atoms. These improved adhesion. The use of amines sensitivity) are absent. The ultimate

Figure 5
cure speed of these products is
determined by the molecular weight,
Cure time versus UA 1 content using low-intensity the acrylate functionality, the type and
UVA lamp amount of modification and the type

of resin (epoxy acrylate, urethane
acrylate, polyester acrylate, etc.). See
Table 1 for a summary of the methods
to mitigate oxygen inhibition and the
advantages and disadvantages of each.
Low energy cure systems

In the past, UV-curing systems
typically have consisted of one or two
medium-pressure mercury bulbs, with
broad spectral emissions and with
the wattage steadily increasing over
the years from 200 to 600 watts per
inch. (See Figure 4.) These systems
generally were designed to obtain
the fastest cure speed possible, with
productivity gains the ultimate goal.
Table 1
Today, curing systems are being
Methods to mitigate oxygen inhibition, with advantages and disadvantages

available but at lower intensity.

(See Figure 4). The LED lamps
have seen a steady increase in peak
irradiance, from 1.1 watts/cm2 to
16 watts/cm2. Improvements in the
optics of UV- LEDs also have led to
an increase in the irradiance that is
delivered to the substrate surface.
Formulation and cure basics

Better surface cure also can be
improved via conventional formulating
guidelines and design of cure
equipment. Increasing the functionality
or double bond concentration of the
coating gives a more cross-linked or
harder coating. There are certain
UV-LED ink technologies (courtesy of Flint Group Narrow Web)
structures that provide for highly
designed with other goals also in mind. beyond the surface, and longer reactive materials3 also. Increasing
Safety and environmental concerns, wavelength energy (UVB and UVA) the viscosity of the coating decreases
cure temperature, energy consumption survives to penetrate deeper into the the oxygen diffusion into the coating
and maintenance schedules are all material. (See Figure 4 for wavelength and improves the surface cure.1
influencing the design of these new nomenclature.) Some of the newer Thicker coatings suffer less from
curing systems. As a result, some of the energy cure systems do not emit oxygen inhibition due to the bulk
newer cure systems deliver less energy UVC wavelengths, resulting in polymerization reaction, which
to the coating and eliminate shorter increased oxygen inhibition at the increases viscosity and significantly
wavelength UV. Both of these factors surface of the coating. reduces oxygen diffusion.4 Decreasing
tend to increase the impact of oxygen UVA lamps, by definition, primarily the distance from the lamp to the
inhibition on UV cure. emit wavelengths in the UVA range. substrate increases the irradiance
As mentioned earlier, increasing Most LED lamps emit at 395 nm, also delivered to the substrate. Increasing
the irradiance increases the in the UVA range. LED lamps with the exposure timevia slower
concentration of free radicals, 385 nm and 405 nm emissions also are cure speeds or multiple lamps
and higher concentrations of free used. Lamps with 365 nm emission are generally increases the extent of
Table 2
radicals consume more oxygen.
Conversely, low energy cure systems
with lower irradiance result in lower
UV-LED surface cure with and without thiol
concentrations of free radicals and
(mercapto acrylate)
more oxygen inhibition. The irradiance
should be measured at the substrate
to determine the delivered energy
because delivered energy decreases
with distance from the lamp to
the substrate.
There is also a wavelength
dependence on absorption of UV.
UV-curable materials exhibit a higher
absorbance to short wavelength energy
(UVC) than to longer wavelength
energy. As a result, short wavelength
energy does not penetrate much

Table 3
cure. These basics can be combined
with the oxygen inhibition mitigation
techniques to further improve coating
Effect of thiol concentration on UV-LED surface cure
performance.
Experimental results and

discussion
Table 2 shows the improvement in
surface cure when a thiol (mercapto
acrylate) is used at 20% in an LED
cure application. (The LED had an
emission wavelength of 395 nm and
a peak irradiance of 8 W/cm2.) With
the thiol present, only one pass is
needed to obtain a surface that cannot
be marred with a fingernail. In the
absence of thiol, surface marring is
still present after four passes. Better
Table 4 surface cure also is noted when curing
the same formulation with standard
Effect of distance from UV-LED lamp to substrate on medium-pressure mercury lamps.
surface cure Increasing the concentration of the
thiol also increases the surface cure.
Table 3 shows fast cure speed (greater
than 40 m/min) when 40 parts of
mercapto-modified polyester acrylate
is used in a formulation. Using 20
parts of mercapto-modified polyester
acrylate and 20 parts of unmodified
polyester acrylate reduces the cure
speed to 5 m/min. Formulations
without any mercapto modification do
not cure after four passes at 5 m/min.
Table 4 shows the effect of cure
Table 5
distance on surface cure using a
formulation that contains 20% thiol.
At small distances, 0.5-1.0 cm, only
Effect of coating thickness on surface cure with
one pass at 5 m/min is needed for
UV-LED lamps good surface cure. At 2.0 cm distance,
two passes at 5 m/min are needed
to obtain a non-marring surface.
The irradiance is decreased at the
further cure distance, resulting in
less polymerization at the surface and
reduced surface properties.
The effect of coating thickness is
shown in Table 5. Thinner coatings
(10) are 3-4 times less surface
reactive than thicker coatings (30).
The bulk polymerization in the thick

Table 6
coating increases its viscosity, reducing
the diffusion of oxygen into the
coating and allowing surface cure.4
Effect of coating functionality on surface cure with
(In this experiment, the LED array
UV-LED lamps
was arranged lengthwise in order to
provide more UV exposure.)
Table 6 shows the impact of the
coating functionality or double bond
concentration on surface cure. In
this experiment, the concentration
of the thiol is held constant and the
functionality of the other acrylate
components is varied from 2.76 to
6.0. There is a very large increase
in reactivity as the functionality is
increased, from 10 m/min to 40 m/min.
(The UV-LED array is in the lengthwise
configuration for this experiment.)
Table 7
Table 7 shows the impact of amine
modification on the cure speed of
polyester acrylates. The coatings were
Effect of amine modification on polyester acrylate
applied to aluminum test panels at
~12 thickness and cured with one
cure speed
300 watt/inch medium pressure
mercury lamp. Cure speed is the
minimum line speed required to give a
mar-free surface. Polyester Acrylate 2
is notable for exhibiting the highest
reactivity, but all of the amine modified
polyester acrylates have higher
reactivity than the non-amine modified
product. Based on past experience and
literature, similar results are expected
with the use of low-intensity UV cure.1
Comparing the reactivity of only the
amine modified materials, viscosity is Table 8
more influential than amine content.
The reactivity and viscosity follow
Low-intensity cure of urethane acrylates
the same relative ranking: Polyester
Acrylate 2 > Polyester Acrylate 4 >
Polyester Acrylate 3; whereas the
relative amine content is Polyester
Acrylate 3 > Polyester Acrylate 4 >
Polyester Acrylate 2. As mentioned
earlier, increased viscosity decreases
the oxygen diffusion into the coating
and improves the surface cure.1
Table 8 compares the surface cures
of various polyether- and polyester-
based urethane acrylates. Thick resin

Table 9
castings of 15 mm were exposed for
20 minutes to a 20 watt fluorescent
black light (Philips F20T12/BL). Then,
Cure response of urethane acrylates with standard
they were assessed for surface cure via
medium-pressure mercury lamp mar resistance and tack. Only UA 1a
difunctional polyether based urethane
acrylateexhibited a completely mar-
free, non-tacky surface. UA 4another
polyether based urethane acrylate with
2.3 functionalitywas second best. The
other polyether-based resinUA 6
has a very low Tg and did not perform
well in this test. (Mar resistance and
surface tack is influenced by the Tg
of the polymer.) The polyester-based
urethane acrylates did not give mar-
free surfaces. Figure 5 provides data on
cure time versus content of UA 1 when
Table 10 using a low-intensity UVA lamp. As the
concentration of UA 1 is increased, the
Synergistic effect of polyether urethane acrylate cure time decreases. The formulation
(UA 1) plus thiol (mercapto acrylate) with LED cure at was based on UA 1, propoxylated
two coating thicknesses neopentylglycol diacrylate (NPG(PO)2
DA) and photoinitiator. All these data
show that polyether modification of
urethane acrylates can be used to
increase surface cure speed with low
energy UV lamps.
Table 9 shows the improved cure
response of a polyether-based urethane
acrylateUA 1as compared to
polyester-based urethane acrylates
when cured with standard medium-
pressure mercury lamps (600 watts/
inch). The formulations in Table 9 were
Table 11 prepared to have equal resin (urethane
acrylate) content. The surface cure
Cure response of bio-based oligomer with LED lamps energy is the UV energy required to
achieve a mar-free surface, with lower
energy indicating greater reactivity.
The difunctional UA 1 has the highest
reactivity, even when compared to the
trifunctional UA 7. These numbers
show that polyether modification of
urethane acrylates also can increase
surface cure speed with high energy
UV lamps.
Table 10 shows the synergistic
effect on surface cure speed of
combining polyether-based UA 1

Table 12
3. Radiation Curing in Polymer Science
and Technology, Volume III, pp 33-64.
J.P. Fouassier and J.F. Rabek. Elsevier
Synergistic effect on LED cure response of bio-based Science Publishers LTD 1993.
oligomer plus thiol at two coating thicknesses 4. Impact of Oxygen on

Photopolymerization Kinetics
and Polymer Structure Allison
OBrien and Christopher Bowman.
Macromolecules, 2006, 39, 2501-2506.
5. Formulating for Reactivity, Kurt
Willard. Proceedings, RadTech e/5,
2006.
Acknowledgements
The experimental work on thiols was
carried out and reported on by my
colleagues: Dr. Steven Cappelle,
Dr. Xavier Deruyttere, David Martel,
Dr. Stefan Smeets and Stijn Vrijsen.
Dr. Jo Ann Arceneaux is the

with a thiol (mercapto acrylate). The (TMPEOTA) and alkoxylated
manager of technical service and
combination is especially effective at pentaerythritol tri/tetra- acrylate business development for the
low coating thicknesses. Cure was with (PE(OR)xTA). Also in this study, Radcure business unit of Allnex USA
a 395 nm, 8 W/cm2 UV LED lamp at the propoxylated monomers showed Inc. Previously, she was the global
technical manager of new business
1 cm distance from substrate. no net benefit in reactivity from the
development for Cytec Industries
Table 11 shows the reactivity of a propylene oxide groups. 5 Inc., the manager of the Graphics
bio-based oligomer with inherently fast Technical Service & Development
cure due to structural components. The Conclusions Lab for Radcure in the Americas and
difunctional bio-based oligomer is more In both low and high energy cure the manager of research for Radcure
Technologies at Surface Specialties
reactive than a six functional urethane applications, acrylates modified with
UCB. In total, Arceneaux has 29
acrylate under LED cure conditions. thiols, amines or ethers and products years of experience in the radiation
Combining the bio-based oligomer with with highly reactive structures can curing industry, and she has made
a thiol (mercapto acrylate) provides be used to mitigate oxygen inhibition numerous presentations at
and increase surface reactivity. The RadTech, NPIRI, FSCT and other
even better surface cure (determined
professional conferences.
by surface marring by fingernail) at surface reactivity increases with
both 30 and 10 thicknesses, as the concentration of the modified Contact Jo Ann Arceneaux at
shown in Table 12. Cure was with a acrylate. Synergistic effects are seen joann. arceneaux@allnex.com.
395 nm, 8 W/cm2 UV LED lamp at 1 cm by combining thiols with polyethers or
distance from substrate. highly reactive structures. Increasing
Monomersor acrylated diluents the functionality or thickness of
also can be modified to contain the coating also improves surface
ether groups. It has been shown reactivity. Decreasing the distance
previously that ethoxylated diluting from the low energy lamp to the
acrylates have faster cure speed than substrate aids surface cure. w
the corresponding non-ethoxylated
products.5 Several diluting acrylates
References
were evaluated in this reactivity 1. UV Coatings: Basics, Recent
Developments and New Applications,
study: 2-phenoxy ethyl acrylate pp179-184. Reinhold Schwalm.
(2-PEA), oxyethylated phenol acrylate Elsevier 2007.
(P(EO)2A), tetraethyleneglycol 2. UV Curable Aqueous Dispersions for
diacrylate (TTEGDA), ethoxylated Wood Coatings Z. Jeffrey Wang, et
al. Proceedings, RadTech 1996.
trimethylolpropane triacrylate

Pushing the Limits of

LED Curing and Looking
Forward to a Bright Future
I
By Thomas R. Mawby n recent years, LED curing has exhaust as with traditional solvent/
become a viable and economical heatset inks and coatings. This also
technology for offset printing. In reduces the need for government
order to maximize the full potential of permits, based on environmental
the LED process, the industry needs impact. The amount of energy needed
to overcome certain technological to cure a UV ink or coating is much
barriers, such as lamp energy and the less than that needed to dry solvent/
lack of suitable photoinitiators. It is heatset inks and coatings. The instant
now possible to optimize the chemistry cure of the UV inks and coatings results
and process in order to produce inks in faster turnarounds and secondary
for packaging and even low migration finishing directly off press. Although
inks for primary food packaging. the impact of UV curing on the
environment is minimal, there is always
Background room for improvement.
As the price of oil continues to rise and Some of the drawbacks with
the necessity for lower environmental traditional UV lamps are:
impact increases, technology must the lamps contain a small amount
adapt in order to conform. Energy of mercury. If they are broken,
curable inks and coatings are special care is needed to ensure
already known to have one of the that the mercury is contained and
lowest environmental impacts, when disposed of safely.
compared to solvent or waterborne Because UV lamps emit
systems, with zero VOCs and minimal wavelengths in the UV region
energy required to cure. Within the below 280 nm, ozone is produced.
past few years, developments have This requires an outside exhaust
been made to make UV curing of to remove the ozone from the
inks and coatings even more energy production floor.
efficient, thus reducing the impact on
In order for the lamps to remain lit,
the environment even further.
they must stay above a minimum
The commercial use of UV curing
light intensity. If the energy is
inks and coatings has been around
reduced lower than this, it will result
for many years and continues to
in a lamp that is not producing light.
gain popularity based on its many
advantages. The biggest of these It takes time for the UV lamps to
advantages is the fact that they contain come up to full power and, if shut
little to no VOCs. By the elimination off, they must cool prior to re-firing.
of the VOCs, UV curing does not need A high amount of heat is generated
to either recapture or incinerate the which can distort non-porous

substrates, resulting in registration The efficiency of a medium pressure produce 60 C of heat whereas
issues. Additionally, it is possible mercury lamp is approximately mercury lamps will produce heat in
to dry out paper/board substrates <10-15%. Most of the energy produced excess of 350 C. In order to remove
causing curl or cracking. To combat is converted to IR energy, in the form heat, either large amounts of chilled
heat, the use of dichroic filters (used of heat. With LED lamps, 25-30% air or water are required.
to remove IR energy), water cooling efficiency of the energy is converted The LED lamps are instant on
and air cooling have been utilized. to useful UV light and the remaining and off. Normal UV curing lamps
The water cooling and air cooling energy consists of heat generation.4 It is require time to achieve working
needed for UV lamps, along with the imperative that cooling be used in LED output intensity. If the lamps are
exhaust needed to remove ozone, (either water or air cooled). If the turned off, then the lamps need to
makes them bulky. LEDs get too hot, it will reduce the cool prior to re-firing. In order to
lifetime of the LED lamp. As the get around this, lamp manufactures
Efficiency of UV lamps is typically
below 15% of the energy used. One wavelength of the LED is decreased, have developed the use of a shutter
of the first technologies to reduce for example 395 nm to 365 nm, the to help reduce the time between
the drawbacks of UV is LED curing. efficiency will also be reduced by starts and stops.
25-30%. The energy required to run
LED technology has now been Because of the exhaust, cooling and
an LED lamp is 80 Watts/lamp whereas
introduced into industrial applications. shutters, traditional UV lamps are
the traditional UV lamp uses 1.2 kW/
One of the earliest commercial uses of bulky. LED lamps do not require
lamp. This difference in energy use can
high powered UV-LED was for dental the extraction of ozone. They do
result in a significant savings.5
work where curing with UV light of require water or air cooling, but
UV-LED lamps come in a variety
dental adhesives and fillers reduced due to the lower temperatures, the
of sizes, power and wavelengths.
the time the patient was held in the size is minimal. There is no need for
The output spectra of the LEDs are
dental chair waiting for their work to shutters because the LED is instant
monochromatic. Their outputs only
be completed. The small compact size on and off. Therefore the size of the
span, at the most, 40 nm with the peak
of a LED lamp was able to pinpoint the LED lamps is much smaller than a
at 365, 385 or 395 nm. (Other UV-
area needing attention.1 Another early mercury UV lamp.
LEDs have been produced at 350, 405,
application was the use of UV-LED for The LED lamps have been found
210, 250, 275 or 290 nm). Most of the
curing adhesives on printed circuit to have much greater lifespan than
special output ranges are for specialty
boards. Once again the time to cure the normal UV arc lamps. The LED
applications such as water purification.
UV adhesives was minimal compared lamps have a working lifetime of
As a rule of thumb, as the output
to traditional adhesive curing methods. >20,000 hours whereas the UV arc
spectra is decreased so is the maximum
Additionally, the LED was able to spot lamp is rated normally between
intensity of the lamp.6 A 365 nm lamp at
cure the adhesive with minimal heat 1,000 and 2,000 hours.
this time has a maximum output of
thereby reducing possible damage to
2 W/cm2 whereas the 395 nm lamp has LED lamps contain no mercury
the fragile electronics. It was only a
a maximum output of 10-16 W/cm2. where a traditional UV lamp has
matter of time until the UV-LED caught
LED lamps also have other factors a small amount of mercury which
up with the graphic arts market to bring
which make them more desirable than would have to be disposed of
its advantages to the production floor.
a traditional UV lamps: properly.
UV-LEDs have been around since
Because the wavelength of the Maintenance with LED lamps is
the 1990s. In 1998, the first high
light produced by the LED is not also minimal when compared to
power UV-LED was developed and had
output wattage of 5 mW/cm2.2 It was not in the area of 280 nm or less, this traditional UV curing lamps. A
until 2006 that UV-LEDs became viable means that no ozone is produced traditional UV lamp needs to be
for use in UV curing with lamps that by these lamps and thus, there is changed every 700-1,000 hours and
had output wattages of 2 W/cm2. With no need for an external exhaust. the reflectors need cleaning when
increased packing of LEDs, (Figure 1) Traditional UV lamps require the bulbs are replaced.
and cooling technologies that allow the exhausting of the ozone. There are some drawbacks with
LEDs to run at a reduced temperature LED lamps run at cooler LED lamp technology:
(approximately 60 C), the output temperatures than traditional Due to the limited amount of
wattage has increased to 16 W/cm2.3 UV lamps. A LED lamp will at most photoinitiators available, the LED

Figure 1
curing of varnishes and coatings
becomes more challenging. The
photoinitiators that are used to cure
365 nm absorbance of photoinitiators (100 ppm
these products have a tendency to
concentration of PI)
shift yellow when cured.
The choice of raw materials
(especially the photoinitiators) that
can be used for LED is limited and
therefore the price of the
inks is greater than traditional
UV curable inks.
Since the LED lamps do not contain
short wavelength light energy
(under 320 nm), most of the curing
associated with the lamp will be
through cure.
The LED lamps, at this time,
cost almost 3.5 x the amount as a
traditional UV lamp. A 110 cm
LED lamp would be approximately
$102,000 where as the arc lamp
would be $28,500.7 As with any of the compounds are usually less than wavelength lamps, such as 385 nm
new technology, as the number of 385 nm and therefore the efficiency of and 405 nm. (Figure 2 and Figure 3)
units sold increases, the cost will the photoinitiator to absorb all of the Please note: the spectral data of
decrease. available light at 385 nm is diminished. the photoinitiators was obtained
As with any UV curable ink or at a 100 ppm concentration with
The power output of LED lamps
coating, it is necessary to know the spectroscopy grade methanol using a
is continually improving, although
output spectra of the lamps and the Hewlett Packard Model 8453 UV/VIS
is still lacking when compared to
dosage delivered to the substrate at Diode Array Spectrophotometer and
traditional UV lamps.
press speeds, in order to match the a 1 cm quartz cell.
The effects of oxygen inhibition photoinitiator package with the lamps When using Norrish type II
must be overcome to get acceptable output. Once the lamp information is photoinitiators such as DETX (CAS#
surface cure of inks and coatings. obtained, it is necessary to find the 82799-44-8), ITX (CAS#7508121-9),
Since surface curing is minimal with photoinitiators that absorb at the peak EMK (CAS# 90-93-7), BMS (CAS#
LED (365 nm and above), the effect intensity wavelengths of the lamp. 83846-85-9), 4-MBP (CAS# 134-84-9),
of oxygen inhibition plays a greater By taking the output spectra of each Esacure 1001M (CAS# 272460-97-6)
part in cure. Additional steps must of the photoinitiators, a graph can be and MBF (CAS# 15206-55-0), an amine
be taken over what is typical in made to pinpoint which photoinitiators synergist must be used for hydrogen
conventional UV curing. are viable candidates. For example: abstraction to produce a very active
In order to develop inks and Figure 1 shows the photoinitiators donor molecule which carries out
coating that will cure with LED that absorb at 365 nm. It can be seen the photo polymerization reaction.
lamps, the photoinitiator must utilize that at 365 nm, EMK (Ethyl Michlers The reactivity of the type of amines
the energy of the lamp between the Ketone) gives the greatest absorbance. increases in the following way:8
385 to 410 nm. At this time, there In order to have an ink or coating that
(C2H5)3N < CH3N(C2H4OH)2
are very few photoinitiators which will cure with a 365 nm UV-LED lamp,
< (CH3)2NCH2CH(OH)CH3 <
absorb within these wavelengths. This it would be beneficial to use EMK in
(CH3)2NC6H4COOC2H5
impacts the cost and efficiency of the combination with other photoinitiators
photoinitiator package. Even though that have appreciable absorbance in Since the effective LED lamp
the photoinitiator absorbs in this the 365 nm output. Additionally, the output is toward the high end of the
region, the primary absorption peaks same technique can be used for other UV electromagnetic spectrum (365 nm,

Figure 2
The use of waxes in the ink or coating
that provides a surface barrier.
385 nm absorbance of photoinitiators (100 ppm The use hydrogen donors to quench
concentration of PI) the peroxy radicals (amines, thiols,
ethers, silanes, phosphites).10
A combination of high levels of
photoinitiators and high intensity
light sources providing an excess
of produced photoinitiator free
radicals.
Short wavelength UV light.
If the inks and coating are to be
used on food packaging, one must
follow applicable regulations for the
geographical location. For example,
all European regulations must be met
for inks and coating which may come
in contact with foodstuffs (primary
food packaging not intended for direct
food contact). This would include
all European Council directives and
Figure 3 suitable use listings. (i.e., Regulation
(EC) No 1935/2004, Swiss Ordinance
405 nm absorbance of photoinitiators (100 ppm 817.023.21 Annex 6, Directive 2007/42/
concentration of PI) EC, Directive 2002/72/EC, Regulation
(EC) No 2023/2006, etc.) Along with
these regulations, certain end use
customers have their own guidance
rules for materials used for food
packaging inks and coatings. (i.e.,
Nestle Guidance Note on Packaging
Inks11) Looking at the suitable
photoinitiators in the figures and
these listings, mixture of BDK/BDMM
(CAS# 24650-42-8/119313-12-1),
BMS (CAS# 83846-859), MBF (CAS#
15206-55-0), DETX (CAS# 82799-44-
8), ITX (CAS#75081-21-9), TPO (CAS#
7598060-8), MMMP (CAS# 71868-
10-5), 4-MBP (CAS# 134-84-9) and
mixture of HMMP/TPO (CAS# 75980-
60-8 / 7473-98-5) cannot be used
385 nm, 395 nm or 405 nm), the oxygen inhibition at the surface of for products printed for Nestle. This
amount of surface cure is minimal when the ink or coating. The most effective leaves only BAPO (CAS# 162881-26-7),
compared to through cure. In order to ways to offset oxygen inhibition is the BDMM (CAS# 119313-12-1), Esacure
achieve a non-tacky surface, the need following:9 1001M (CAS# 272460-97-6) and EMK
to maximize the amount of surface The use of a gas to remove the (CAS# 90-93-7). In addition to these
cure, needs to be examined. This oxygen at the surface such as photoinitiators, certain polymeric
would require formulations to minimize nitrogen or carbon dioxide. photoinitiators can be utilized.

Experimental with UV rollers at an application a thumb twist (delivered with

The UV-LED curing unit that was speed of 0.5 m/s and a pressure of great downward pressure) and the
utilized for all LED testing was the Air 700 N. The substrate that was used amount of ink movement is noted.
Motion System XP5 and categorized for printing was a standard 14 point Scratch resistanceThe print is
as a 12 W/cm2 lamp. The output of the SBS board (Solid Bleached Sulfate). scratched with a fingernail and the
lamp was measured with an EIT Power The inks were printed to the following
damage to the printed surface is
Puck II equipped with UVA, UVB, UVA2 densities: Black 1.80, Cyan 1.40,
recorded.
and UVV filters. The output of the lamp Magenta 1.50 and Yellow 1.05.
Cross-hatch adhesion was
running at 100% power, 7.5 cm from (The densities of the prints were read
performed on all printed samples to
the conveyor belt at a speed of 300 fpm, with an X-rite 528 spectrodensitometer
assess the cure of the inks using 3M
was measured as 2093.9 mW/cm2 UVA, with Illumination/Observer setting
of D50/2). 610 type tape.
3383.6 mW/cm2 UVA2 and 3078.5
mW/cm2 UVV with the smoothing The cure of the printed samples Cotton ball testa cotton ball is
setting on the instrument in the off was evaluated by using a combination rubbed across the surface of the
position. The delivered dose of the of subjective tests, which are typically print to check for tackiness of the
lamp running at these conditions gave a performed at the end of a press, surface. The amount of fuzz left
dose of 26.7 mJ/cm2 UVA, 43.6 mJ/cm2 and near-infrared spectroscopy. The by the test is quantified. The near
UVA2 and 40.4 mJ/cm2 UVV. subjective testing included: infrared spectroscopy is utilized to
All inks were printed using a Thumb twistimmediately after look at the C-H vibration due to the
Prufbau Printability Tester equipped curing, the print is subjected to stretching of the acrylate double
Table 1
Lab testing with 12 W/cm2 395 nm lamp at 100%, 7.5 cm from curing surface
and a speed of 300 fpm
Thumb Twist Scratch Adhesion Cotton Ball NIR
Resistance Test Conversion
Mixture A -Black 3 4 5 3 62%
Mixture B -Black 5 4 5 4 68%
Mixture C -Black 5 4 5 4 72%
Mixture D -Black 4 4 5 4 70%
Mixture A -Cyan 4 4 5 4 65%
Mixture B -Cyan 5 5 5 5 72%
Mixture C -Cyan 5 5 5 5 76%
Mixture D -Cyan 5 5 5 5 74%
Mixture A -Magenta 4 4 5 4 64%
Mixture B -Magenta 5 5 5 5 72%
Mixture C -Magenta 5 5 5 5 74%
Mixture D -Magenta 5 5 5 5 75%
Mixture A -Yellow 4 4 5 4 67%
Mixture B -Yellow 5 5 5 5 76%
Mixture C -Yellow 5 5 5 5 76%
Mixture D -Yellow 5 5 5 5 74%
5 = Excellent 1 = Poor

Table 2
Commercial press testing with one 9 W/cm2 and one 12 W/cm2 395 nm lamp at 100%,
7.5 cm from curing surface and a speed of 15k impressions per hour
bond at 1620 nm. It is the decay of press equipped with two 395 nm to see if a primary food packaging UV-
this bond that gives insight as to UV-LED lamps at output wattages of LED offset ink could be made and pass
the extent of conversion of the UV 9 W/cm2 and 12 W/cm2. Testing was the migration/extraction testing.
curable materials.13 conducted at both 10k impressions per The inks were made in the
hour and 15k impressions per hour. laboratory and tested according to
Results The first test was run with both lamps EN 14338: Paper and Board intended
Through a screening design of at 100% power and 15k impressions to come into contact with foodstuffs.
experiment and subsequent optimize per hour. The results can be found Conditions for determination of
design, the above mentioned in Table 2. The second test was migration from paper and board
photoinitiator compounds and amine performed using the two lamps at 100% using modifiedpolyphenylene
synergist were tested. A total of four power and 10k impressions per hour. oxide (MPPO) as a simulant. and
different combinations were identified The results can be seen in Table 3. EuPIA Guideline on Printing Inks
as having proper cure when utilizing From these mixtures, it was applied on the non-food contact
the UV-LED 395 nm lamp at the determined that the inks developed surface of food packaging materials
7.5 cm distance. Each mixture was for offset UV-LED printing are a viable and articlesSeptember 2009. The
tested in all four process colors in a option and could be used for packaging testing was conducted utilizing both
UV curable offset formulation. See applications. A variation of the GC/MS and LC/MS to ensure that the
Table 1 for results. photoinitiator was then made, utilizing lowest possible quantifiable limit of
These mixtures were then press the European Council directives and 10 ppb was met for all ingredients
tested on a commercial UV-LED offset suitable use listings mentioned above, in the formulation. Please note: In

Table 3
Commercial press testing with one 9 W/cm2 and one 12 W/cm2 395 nm lamp at 100%,
7.5 cm from curing surface and a speed of 10k impressions per hour
order to ensure that the cure of the to develop inks that can be used LEDs a possibility in the near future.
inks are at optimum level, each ink for packaging applications, it is also In addition to the advancements in the
must be cured prior to the next ink possible to provide inks that can be lamp technologies, advancements will
being applied. Knowing this and the used as a primary food package (for have to be made in the photoinitiators
traditional press sequence of colors, certain food types). As the technology that absorb in the UV-LED wavelengths.
the black ink was cured four times, continues to grow, the ability to Not only will they have to produce
the cyan ink was cured three times, utilize these curing processes will free radicals, but they must also
the magenta ink was cured two times become more commonplace. The lamp provide pathways for low migration/
and the yellow ink was cured one manufactures are making great strides extraction inks and coatings. With all
time through the lamp at 100% power by doubling the output lamp energies of the benefits of this technology, along
and 300 fpm. This would simulate the approximately every two years. The use with the advancements to overcome
amount of lamps each ink would see on of differing wavelengths will also be key. the disadvantages, (i.e., lamp output,
press. See Table 4 for the results of the At this point, the only lamps that can available photoinitiators, etc.) the
migration/extraction testing. deliver the output necessary are based future of this technology is now, and
on 395 nm lamp technologies. Work like the lamps that are utilized, only
Conclusion is continuing on lamps whose output getting brighter. w
It is now possible to produce offset spectrum is 365 nm, 300 nm, 285 nm
printing inks that can utilize the and 265 nm. At this time, the power References
advancements in UV-LED lamp and reliability are not quite there but 1. Wiggins, KM; Hartung, M; Althoff, O;
technology. Not only is it possible Wastian, C; Mitra, SB (2004). Curing
recent advancements are making these

Table 4
Quantified extractables from printindirect contact, Tenax GR 60/80 as food
simulate (units = g of substance/kg of foodstuff)
Sample Board Irradiated Board Black Cyan Magenta Yellow LQL(ppb)
PI 1 <LQL <LQL <LQL <LQL <LQL 10
Monomer 1 <LQL <LQL <LQL <LQL <LQL 10
Monomer 2 <LQL <LQL <LQL <LQL <LQL 10
Oligomer 1 <LQL <LQL <LQL <LQL <LQL 10
Oligomer 2 <LQL <LQL <LQL <LQL <LQL 10
Additive 1 <LQL <LQL <LQL <LQL <LQL 10
Additive 2 <LQL <LQL <LQL <LQL <LQL 10
g/kg food corresponds to g/6 dm2, assuming that 1 kg of food is in contact with 6 dm2 of packaging
performance of a new-generation 6. Series of Articles on the Subject of LED 11. Nestle Guidance Note on Packaging
light-emitting diode dental curing UV Technology (part 2). What are the Inks, Version 02-2014, Stephen Klump.
unit. Journal of the American Dental Opportunities for LED UV Technology
13. Process control in UV curing: in-line
Association (1939) 135 (10): 1471-9. in the Graphic Arts Industry? The
monitoring of the acrylate conversion
http://dentistry.tbzmed.ac.ir/joddd/ basics of LED UV Technology
by near-infrared spectroscopy,
index.php/joddd/article/viewFile/62/99 (Part 2). http://www.istuv.com/
Lucht, Hartmut, JCT CoatingsTech,
fileadmin/user_upload/Wir_ueber_uns/
2. Ye, Fangming. High Power LEDs: Aug. 1, 2006.
Presse/IST_LED-UV_2_gb.pdf
a review. ECE226 Optoelectronic
Devices. Topic Paper. http://www. 7. UV Curing for Sheet-Fed Screen- Acknowledgements
learningace.com/doc/1539304/ PrintingAre we Being LED Astray?,
d9667764fde9242326ee33a468ce2850/ Alan Shaw, Commercial Director of I would like to acknowledge the
high-power-leds-review Natgraph, Specialist Printing Worldwide: following for their help and support for
Issue Three: 2013 http://www.natgraph.
3. Anand, Richa PhD. Current and the work conducted on this paper:
co.uk/pdfs/Specialist%20Printer%20
Developing Markets for UV-LED
article%202.pdf Air Motion SystemsSteve Metcalf,
Technology. Phoseon Technology.
February 27, 2013. Presentation. , 9, 12:
8 Flint GroupRodney Balmer,
http://www.uvebwest.com/ Industrial Photoinitiators A Technical Colleen Dalton, Mike Hazell,
presentations/Overview%20of%20 Guide, W. Arthur Green, CRC Press,
Commercial%20&%20Developing%20 Boca Raton, FL, 2010.
Cindy Harbin, Sum Trang,
Markets%20for%20UV %20LED%20 and Dr. Grant Shouldice.
10. An overview of anti-oxygen
Technology.pdf
inhibition strategies for LED-based
4. Keep It Cool to Keep It Clean, Ed wood coatings, Samuel C. Ligon,1* Thomas R. Mawby, Flint Group,
Kiyoi, Phoseon Technology, European Branislav Husr,1 Harald Wutzel,1 Ypsilanti, MI, USA
Coatings Journal, 10/2013, Helmuth Hoffmann,1 Jan Torgersen,2
http://phoseon.com/Documentation/ Robert Liska1; 1Institute for Applied
ECJ_2013_10_Kiyoi.pdf Synthetic Chemistry, Vienna University
of Technology, Getreidemarkt 9/163,
5. Metcalf, Steve. President and
A-1060 Vienna, Austria; 2Institute
CEO Air Motion Systems. About
of Material Science & Technology,
AMS -Dependability, Innovation,
Vienna University of Technology,
Market Leader. Print UV 12. 2012.
Favoritenstrasse 9, A-1040 Vienna,
Presentation. http://microcontrolsinc.
Austria, 05/2013; In proceeding of:
com/data/AMS_Komori.pdf
RadTech Asia 2013, At Shanghai, China

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UV-LED curing

Revised February 2016

Our Mission is to: 34 60

To develop and disseminate 39

77 108 Brandy Padilla, Donald Wall and

for UV-LED Curing Part II:

2016 RadTech International N.A. RadTech eBook 4

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interest in making very large power

2016 RadTech International N.A. RadTech eBook 7

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understanding of the underlying technology. for generating activity in many diverse

2016 RadTech International N.A. RadTech eBook 11

Figure 2 that without altering the characteristics

Forward bias electrons will not flow through the p-n

2016 RadTech International N.A. RadTech eBook 12

The LED P-N Junction

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(a) (b) (c)

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radiometers on the market designed to

incident on any point on the inner

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Driving the LED Array

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Installing UV-LED Systems

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What components do you want to As you move forward with your

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and metallic contact pattern. Figure 8

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I. LEDsThe Base Building Block

Figure 1 as aluminum, gallium or

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II. ArrayGrouping of LEDs

2016 RadTech International N.A. RadTech eBook 41

IV. OpticsGuiding the Light

2016 RadTech International N.A. RadTech eBook 42

Optics Pros Cons Example

MicroEach Can be scaled uniformly. LED-to-LED spacing and,

Integrated Optic Increased optical Expensive and array is hard to