Multiphase Flow

Technologies in
Coal-fired Power Plant

TECHNOLOGY STATUS REPORT

CLEANER FOSSIL FUELS PROGRAMME

TSR022 MARCH 2004


The DTI drives our ambition of
prosperity for all by working to
create the best environment for
business success in the UK. We
help people and companies become
more productive by promoting
enterprise, innovation and creativity.
We champion UK business at home
and abroad. We invest heavily in
world-class science and technology.
We protect the rights of working
people and consumers. And we
stand up for fair and open markets in
the UK, Europe and the world.
CONTENTS
SUMMARY..............................................................1
INTRODUCTION .....................................................2
Background to the Study ......................................2
What is Multiphase Flow? ....................................2
Multiphase Flow Challenges in Power Plant .......3
GRANULAR AND SUSPENDED FLOWS...............4
Bunker and Silo Flow ..........................................4
NEURAL NETWORKS AND CHEMOMETRICS .....7
Neural Networks ................................................8
Chemometrics ....................................................8
SENSORS AND TOMOGRAPHY ..........................10
Electrostatic Meters .........................................11
Microwave Meters ...........................................12
Ultrasonic Meters .............................................13
Radiometric Meters ..........................................13
Power Station Trials ...........................................14
Mechanical Vibration .........................................14
Electrostatic Sensors ........................................15
Acoustic Sensors ..............................................15
Imaging Sensors ...............................................15
Tomography ......................................................16
Sensor Design ..................................................16
Data Fusion and Control ...................................16
Standards, Traceability and Calibration ..............17
CFD AND EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION .........18
DISCUSSION ........................................................21
CONCLUSIONS ....................................................22
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS......................................24
REFERENCES........................................................24
TECHNOLOGY STATUS REPORT: The review has focused on
the six key areas identified

Multiphase Flow under the IEA Multiphase

Flow Implementing
Agreement. These are:

Technologies sensors
tomography

in Coal-fired computational fluid

dynamics (CFD) and
experimental verification

Power Plant neural nets and

chemometrics
granular flow
suspended flow.

A survey questionnaire
was distributed to a range
of suppliers, universities
and generators, that were
potentially interested in
multiphase flow
technology, soliciting their
views on technological
gaps and associated
hurdles. Problem areas
identified included a lack
of basic understanding of
particle-fluid interaction,
insufficient experimental
investigations of
multiphase flows,
operational difficulties in
handling biomass and
Coal handling at Aberthaw power station (courtesy of RWE Innogy) difficulties in controlling
the fuel distribution
between burners.
Additionally, the results
SUMMARY indicate that many
companies with limited
The DTI Cleaner Fossil Fuels Programme commissioned financial resources had
RWE Innogy to review the status of multiphase flow difficulty with some stages
technology in coal-fired power plant from an international of product development,
and UK perspective. The aim of the review was to assess particularly in taking
the current global state of multiphase flow applications, and products from verification
to identify areas in need of further R&D and technology at a laboratory scale to
transfer activities. A particular aspect for examination was testing in an industrial
how and where the market potential of UK-based environment.
multiphase flow technologies might be enhanced.
1
 The review showed that the market position
of UK multiphase flow technology is strong
in research in most of the areas studied,
although this is qualified for CFD (see
below). However, the development and
launching of commercial applications into
the industrial market is difficult.
In the field of CFD, UK vendors of software
and services have a dominant position.
Many businesses, however, that were
initially totally UK-owned now have strong
foreign interests and, as a result, much of
the initiative for research and development
has shifted from the UK.
INTRODUCTION
Background to the Study
This review assesses the status of
multiphase flow technologies in coal-fired
power plant both internationally and in the
UK, and discusses the current market
position of the UK-based companies and
their potential in future markets. The
associated study focused on multiphase
flow phenomena in the fuel and combustion
side of coal-fired power plant and did not
include steam drums in the boiler, steam
turbines for power generation or particles in
the flue gases after they leave the
combustion chamber.
The focus of the review is on the six priority
areas identified in the IEA Multiphase Flow
Implementing Agreement:
sensors
tomography
CFD and experimental verification
neural nets and chemometrics
granular flow
suspended flow.
The Rand report [1], published in 1981,
presented the results of an investigation of
2
the performance of 37 projects and plants at
25 companies in the oil, chemical and
mineral industry. It was found that two
thirds of the plants working with solid
feedstock operated at less than 80% of the
design capacity by the end of the first year
of operation. It was also found that the
ability to design and construct plants for
bulk solids handling (ie multiphase flow) had
not improved at all from the mid-1960s to
the late 1970s. No similar investigation of
this type from the 1980s or 1990s was
found during this study, but the impression
formed during this review is that a similar
situation still exists today.
What is Multiphase Flow?
Multiphase flow is the concurrent flow of
two or more phases (ie gases, liquids or
solids). There are many situations where
multiphase flow might exist in a coal-fired
power station. These include:
Discharge of solid fuel from transport,
storage, milling or classification
processes.
Pneumatic transport of fuel to burners.
Combustion of fuel in a pulverised fuel
(pf) flame.
Transport and deposition of ash/slag
particles through the combustion
chamber and convection section of the
boiler.
Particle separation in precipitators.
Emission of the remaining particles to the
environment and their precipitation to the
ground or transport in the atmosphere.
There are also other multiphase flow
situations on the water and steam side of a
boiler, eg where the water/steam mixture is
fed to the steam drum, the two phases are
separated with variable efficiency. Small
water droplets can also condense out from
the steam while in transit to, or within, the
steam turbines. These phenomena are not
considered in this report.
Multiphase Flow Challenges in Power
Plant
While many of the multiphase flow
systems in coal-fired power plant are both
understood and successfully managed,
there are other areas that are still
problematical. The main issues are
reviewed below.
The control and measurement of granular
flows is one area where much work
remains to be done before reliable and
accurate systems and equipment will be
available. The main challenges here are to
ensure an uninterrupted flow of the granular
materials and to control the mass flow of
the material. This can be a particular
challenge with blends of coal that might
have different physical properties, or where
biofuels are used.
The main difficulty in controlling suspended
flows arises from the different properties of
the phases involved. The physical
properties of the particulates, such as
density, size and shape, mean that they can
behave differently to the gas phase
entraining them. Consequently, any
multiphase flow system must be designed
to handle the properties of the different
phases involved. In systems where two
types of solid particles with different
physical properties might be involved, such
as co-firing with coal and biomass, the
system can be even more complex.
Particle size classification after milling is a
process where the different flow properties
of particles of different sizes are exploited to
achieve a separation based on size.
However, a problem can occur when
particles of varying density or shape are
being classified, as might happen, for
example, during the co-firing of coal and
wood. The different density of the two
solids might mean that larger particles of
lighter wood behave similarly to smaller
particles of heavier coal. This difference in
classification performance is further
accentuated by the fact that wood has a
more fibrous and porous structure that gives
it a larger specific area than coal.
In power stations, the pulverised fuel is
pneumatically transported to multiple
burners, often with the fuel stream being
sub-divided several times. The efficiency of
the combustion process is dependent on
matching the flows of air and fuel. Many
power stations distribute the fuel from 6-8
mills to 30-50 burners. The result is that it is
often difficult to ensure that the air-fuel feed
to the burners is optimised. The existence
of strict emission control regulations means
that ensuring the correct air-fuel ratio is
critical for the successful performance of
the burner.
The measurement of the flow characteristics
of a mixture of air and particles is difficult.
The particle distribution in a cross-section of
a carrier pipe cannot be assumed to be
homogeneous and sensors protruding into
the multiphase flow will disturb the very
flow they are attempting to measure.
Additionally, any intrusive sensor can be
subject to substantial erosion, depending on
the nature of the solids and the gas velocity.
In the UK, a particular problem is the need
for control and measurement systems to
cope with frequent variations in the type
and quality of the fuel used. UK power
stations are fed a more varied range of coals
than is the case in many other countries.
This is further accentuated by the trend
towards increased co-firing of coal with
various bio-fuels where the physical
characteristics of the two components will
differ greatly. Any system that was
developed to successfully handle these
systems would have considerable
commercial potential for applications to
other situations with variable fuel types.
3
 GRANULAR AND SUSPENDED
FLOWS
Obtaining a reliable flow of solid materials at
a specified throughput without blockages, in
an energy efficient way, has long been
recognised as technically challenging. One
of the main problem areas is the on-line
metering of such flows [3] where numerous
problems can be encountered that do not
arise when metering single-phase gas or
liquid flows.
The small diameter of many coal feed pipes
at a coal-fired power station, typically 356,
508 or 607mm (14, 20 or 24 inches),
coupled with the low coal concentrations
(typically in the order of 1% or less), can
represent a problem for the use of flow
sensors. The very low concentration of coal
in these pipes often means that there is an
insufficient signal for particulate flow
sensors to operate successfully [5, 6].
The response of a particulate flow instrument
can also be adversely affected by many other
factors. These include heterogeneous
particle distribution, irregular velocity profiles,
variations in particle size and shape, moisture
content and any deposition of fine particles
on the inner wall of the pipeline. Some of
these factors may be impossible to control or
predict. A particular example of problem flow
is the segregation (roping) of pulverised coal
flow [5, 6].
The increased use of the co-firing of
biomass and pf coal in recent years has
resulted in a more complicated situation.
As very little is known about the nature of
biomass flow and its mixture with pf, the
measurement of this flow only complicates
an already difficult measurement problem.
In addition to problems associated with
particulate flow within an entraining gas,
there are also potential problems for bulk
solids flow under the influence of gravity.
4
Reviews of the theory of bulk solids
mechanics are available from various
sources (Dietmar Schulze [9, 10];
Pulverskolen [11]; University of Greenwich
[12, 13, 14, 15]. A bulk solid has properties
that lie somewhere between those of a
liquid and a solid body. For example, a bulk
solid can be at rest with a sloping surface
and permanently maintain a shear stress,
while a liquid cannot. Conversely, a bulk
solid can also flow like a liquid under certain
conditions, which a solid body cannot.
Problems associated with bulk solids flow
often manifest themselves when the solids
are being discharged from storage silos.
These include phenomena such as funnel
flow (core flow), piping (rat-holing), arching
and segregation (Figure 1). However, there
are reasonably well-established design criteria
that take into consideration the various
characteristics of the bulk solid and which will
generally result in reasonable flow control. It
is in instances of poor design when it can be
extremely difficult to measure and control the
mass flow of a bulk solid.
Segregation results from a variation in the
physical characteristics of the individual
particles that form the bulk solid, as this
influences the behaviour of each particle.
For example, when a bulk solid is
discharging from a conveyor belt into a silo,
variations in size, shape and density will give
particles slightly different trajectories so that
a separation based on these physical
characteristics occurs. This process of
segregation can completely counteract any
mixing or homogenisation processes that
had previously been undertaken.
Bunker and Silo Flow
Flow in a silo is complex and the silo has to
be designed for a particular range of bulk
solid properties. Design criteria for silos and
bunkers are well established [14, 16, 17] and
have been successfully applied in numerous
cases so that a range of solids can
discharge reliably under gravity, at a
consistent rate and with a minimum of
segregation. Two of the most important
factors in the design of a silo are the slope
of the hopper walls and the dimensions of
the opening. However, the importance of
considering the characteristics of the solids
to be stored in the silo at the design stage
cannot be overstressed. For example, when
an existing silo is used for the storage of a
different material than it was designed for,
the potential for poor flow conditions is
increased.
The desired flow regime in a silo is the
mass flow, ie the material is moving
downwards with a uniform velocity in all
points of the silo when it is discharged; see
the far left alternative in Figure 1 below. If
the silo design is not matched correctly to
the properties of the bulk solid, the
consequential adverse flow conditions
include funnel flow, piping or even arching.
Funnel flow occurs when the central part of
the solid flows out through the discharge
opening leaving material hanging on the side
walls and slopes of the hopper. Piping is
when only material in a narrow channel
discharges and most of it stays within the
silo. Arching is the extreme situation when
Figure 1. Examples of, from the left, desired flow (mass flow), funnel flow (core flow), rat-holing, arching and
segregation
only the material immediately above the
outlet discharges and an arch or bridge is
formed above the opening.
A number of computer models for the
prediction of mixing and segregation have
been and are being developed. The current
models are still highly simplified and mostly
(with some exceptions) limited to two-
dimensional systems with spherical and
uniform particles [8]. Recent developments
allow for more accurate prediction of
segregation using empirical data to describe
specific characteristics of the solids [42].
Worldwide and UK Status
While the number of research organisations
active in solids handling is limited, some of
the most active in granular flow are the
Wolfson Centre for Bulk Solids Handling
Technology at the University of Greenwich,
Edinburgh University, Glasgow Caledonian
University, the Department of Electrical
Engineering and Electronics at the
University of Manchester Institute of
Science and Technology, POSTEC (Powder
Science and Technology at the Telemark
Technical Research and Development
Centre) in Norway, the Technical University
in Braunsweig in Germany, CSIRO in
5
 Australia and a joint centre of expertise
between the Universities in Wollongong and
Newcastle in Australia. Experimental
facilities for advanced studies related to
transport, conveying and storing of bulk
solid materials are available at the UK
research institutions mentioned above.
In the area of segregation measurement,
the Quality in Particulate Management
(QPM) project [42] claims to have produced
a commercially available test instrument for
measuring the segregation potential of a
bulk material or blend. Additionally, the
project has devised mathematical models so
that the information on segregation potential
can then be used in conjunction with
process details to predict segregation in an
actual plant handling system.
The project has determined that some
development work is carried out by the
suppliers of equipment themselves.
However, although this is important, it is
fairly limited as most suppliers have only
modest R&D resources because they
operate in a highly competitive market.
Much of the recent work has centred on the
development and application of advanced
surface coating materials.
In general, the basic design of conveying
equipment has changed very little although
capacity is generally increasing. The most
innovative recent development in conveying
is probably the introduction of air supported
belt conveyors (Figure 2).
Attempts are underway to develop more
flexible handling systems, although in
some plant, separate systems might be
installed to handle different materials, eg
two fuels in co-firing situations. There is
also a general trend towards increasing the
life of material handling systems. However,
contrarily there is also some recent interest
in cheaper, less robust systems with a
short lifespan (eg 1-2 years).
6
Figure 2. Operational principle of an air-supported
belt conveyor
The study also suggests that excessive
emphasis on cost control at the design and
specification stage of a solids handling
process can result in an inefficient system.
This, in turn, can lead to operational
problems such that running costs for the
lifetime of the plant are subsequently higher
than would otherwise be necessary.
Recent Developments and Trends for the
Future
UK suppliers and research organisations
seem to have a strong position in the area
of solids handling. There are a number of
medium-sized companies supplying the
power generation sector, with no one
company significantly dominant. These
suppliers generally operate in a highly
competitive market that has seen many
European companies close.
At present there is no practical method for
classifying the handleability of solid
materials and for predicting the ability of
equipment to successfully handle solids of
different classes. The development of such
a methodology would allow a particular
solid to be classified and the range of
equipment that can handle it to be
subsequently identified.
The Way Forward
The uncertainties of future legislation
concerning the co-firing of biomass fuels
with fossil fuels, under the renewable
obligation system in the UK, are seriously
hampering the development of granular flow
systems. Companies are not willing to
invest in new equipment as it is not certain
for how long that equipment will be in
operation, and thus able to generate a
revenue. Early clarification of the legislation
and its implications is therefore necessary.
There seems to be a lack of effective
communication between suppliers of
equipment and the end-users of material
handling systems. The encouragement of
technical discussions between suppliers and
end-users would enhance the ability of the
suppliers to develop equipment that is more
optimised for user needs.
Most equipment suppliers are relatively
small and have limited resources for R&D.
Grants or tax benefits could be used to
encourage the development of more energy
efficient and cost-effective designs and
technologies.
NEURAL NETWORKS AND
CHEMOMETRICS
Artificial neural networks are used for the
processing of data in a way that tries to
emulate the learning and response capability
of a brain. The networks can be taught how
to control a system by comparing
input/output information with their own
learnt experiences.
A neural network is an interconnection of
simple logic elements (neurons) operating in
parallel (Figure 3). Each neuron typically
combines the weighted outputs from other
neurons, passes this through a non-linear
transfer function and feeds the result into
Figure 3. Multilayer neural network
the network. The first step in programming
a neural network is to specify the functions
of the neurons and their interconnection
pattern. The second step is to train the
network with sample input data. This
training is data intensive, but once the
network has been trained, any given inputs
will generate accurate answers within the
domain of its training.
Neural networks are used extensively in the
USA for combustion optimisation at coal-
fired power stations. The achievements are
typically a 10% reduction in NOx emission
from a power station using a constant coal
quality. In the UK, however, where there
may be frequent variations in coal quality at
a power station, the potential of a neural
network combustion control system is yet
to be determined.
Chemometrics is the field of extracting
information from multivariate data using
statistical and mathematical tools. It is
typically used to explore patterns of
association in data, track properties of
materials or to prepare and use multivariate
classification models. Chemometrics is
closely related to statistical process control
(SPC) and data mining, which are widely
7
 used within the petrochemical industries. It
is also used as a tool for combustion
optimisation on power plants.
Chemometrics and neural networks have
similarities in that they are both data-based
tools that attempt to establish relationships
between input and output data and which
are generally considered non-valid for
application outside of the data range used
for modelling. The main difference between
the two techniques is that neural networks
can be considered as black box models with
no identifiable relationships being
established, while chemometrics does
establish identifiable relationships between
the input and output variables. A weakness
of chemometrics, however, is that correlation
does not necessarily equate to causation.
Worldwide and UK Status
Neural Networks
The USA is the leading user of neural network
technology in coal-fired power plants.
Consequently, during the course of this study
meetings were held with several
organisations in the USA including the Electric
Power Research Institute (EPRI - a leading
sponsor, developer and promoter of research
and applications on technologies for power
generation), Pegasus (supplier of combustion
optimisation systems for power plants [38]),
Council Bluffs, Nebraska (a power station with
an installed Pegasus system), NeuCo (supplier
of combustion optimisation systems for
power plants [39]) and Chiswick, Pennsylvania
(a power station with an installed NeuCo
system). The most important conclusions
from these meetings are:
Emission permit trading in the USA has
resulted in much R&D in advanced control
techniques on power plants. The majority
of the applications have been combustion
optimisation systems installed on plants to
help minimise NOx or LOI (loss on ignition).
8
Pegasus and NeuCo are involved in
research to extend the use of neural
network technology to new areas, ie SCRs.
Over 100 power plants have implemented
combustion optimisation systems and are
all claiming benefits in terms of reduced
emissions, typically about 10% reduction
in NOx. Most of these plants operate
with a single diet of coal and tend to run
at base load.
Powergen, EPRI and some American
utilities have developed GNOCIS, which is a
neural network-based combustion
optimisation package. GNOCIS has been
tested at one power station [40] in the UK.
The study found that the limited number of
controllable parameters and variable coal
quality in a typical UK power station
seriously limit the benefits from neural
network-based control systems.
There are many leading universities in the
UK with expertise in neural networks,
including Queens University in Belfast,
Imperial College of Science and Technology
(London), Reading University, Liverpool
University, Newcastle University and
Southampton University. Some early work
in the 1990s by Newcastle University, EDS
and National Power to use neural networks
for combustion control proved disappointing.
However, there appears to be no current
research or application of these systems in
UK coal-fired power plants.
Chemometrics
The few current applications of
chemometrics for multiphase flow control in
coal-fired power plants appear to be
implemented as multivariate statistical
process control systems. One of the few
available examples is the Ultramax software
package, which is owned by Pegasus.
Despite many installations on coal-fired
power plants (over 100 units) in the USA,
the consensus view is that it has failed to
deliver, and most of the power plants on
which it was installed no longer use it.
Pegasus is of the view that Ultramax is best
used as an exploratory package. It is better
suited to identify potential opportunities for
improving the operation of small units of
around 120MW or less, rather than for the
on-line combustion optimisation of large
coal-fired plants.
Ultramax has been tried at West Burton,
Longannet and Eggborough Power Stations,
although none of these trials was successful
enough to warrant continuous usage on the
units involved. The trial at Eggborough
demonstrated some improvement in NOx
emissions, but the results were not
consistently reproducible and could have
been achieved by adjusting the oxygen
supply via the normal control system. The
system was limited in flexibility and
produced only local models and optimisation
as opposed to the wider plant optimisation
claimed by neural network technology.
Ultramax, as with other techniques, was
also found to be susceptible to coal quality
and load changes.
The Centre for Process Analysis,
Chemometrics and Control (CPACC) at
Newcastle University is probably the leading
institution in the UK for chemometrics and
among the leading research institutions
worldwide. However, most of its research
activities are geared towards chemical or
petrochemical plant processes rather than
power generation.
Recent Developments and Trends for the
Future
Neural network technology has been shown
to be effective for many general
applications. Its extensive use in power
plants in the USA demonstrates the
potential for improving the operation of coal-
fired power plants. However, experience to
date in UK power plants has shown only
limited benefits. Nevertheless, UK research
institutions are international leaders in neural
network development and application in
other areas.
Neural network-based combustion
optimisation systems have only limited
capability during non-steady-load operations.
Current systems in the USA cannot cope
with the magnitude or rate of load changes
typical in the UK during frequency regulation.
Consequently, the utilisation factor for the
existing neural network systems applied to a
typical UK power plant could be as low as
30% compared to over 90% in the USA. As
a result, there exists an opportunity to
develop systems appropriate for UK power
plant, although the approach used should be
to enhance existing systems rather than to
invent new ones.
One system that is currently being
developed in the UK is a sensor that can
balance air and coal flow between individual
burners. This work is being undertaken by
RWE Innogy and the University of
Greenwich [50].
Chemometrics, in contrast to neural
networks, does not need exhaustive plant
testing and can use historical data. This
means that it is quicker to implement than a
neural network, typically four weeks
compared to 5-6 months. Available
information suggests that chemometrics
currently has restricted scope for wholesale
plant optimisation, but would appear to have
potential for diagnostics and condition
monitoring.
The Way Forward
UK academia is strong in the field of neural
network technology, but has not successfully
applied this to coal-fired power plants.
Consequently, the commercial position of UK
industry, research organisations and
9
 universities is weak in this specific area. A
possible factor hindering interest in applying
the technology to coal-fired power plant may
be the perceived limited benefits as
determined by earlier trials.
Another factor that has contributed to the
lack of application in coal-fired power plants
is the associated cost. Typically, about 6-8
weeks of plant tests are required to collect
the necessary data, during which time
generation will be lost. Total costs can be
>250,000 for an installation. Such high
costs are likely to severely restrict the
introduction of neural networks into a
commercial market.
A particular problem area for many UK
plants is the adequate control of air flow to
individual burners or mill groups and this can
be a major source of excess emissions. The
availability of grants for improved airflow
measurements and mechanisation of
secondary and tertiary air dampers on coal
plants would be one potential way of
reducing the cost to plant operators.
Two areas of research considered worthy of
support are the development of neural
network-based instrumentation for the
on-line monitoring of coal quality during
combustion, and for the measurement of
carbon-in-ash.
Chemometrics is considered to have
considerable potential for commercial
installations in the power industry. The
varying coal qualities used in most UK coal-
fired power plants would provide a
significant source of variable data that can
be used for chemometrics system
development. This would contrast
significantly to system development in other
countries where coal sources are
considerably more restricted.
10
SENSORS AND TOMOGRAPHY
Sensors and advanced control techniques
are needed for the on-line measurement
and control of the coal/air flows to
individual burners. This need is being
driven by increasingly stringent emissions
legislation, plant maintenance requirements
and the need for increased fuel flexibility
[2]. Consequently, many industrial
organisations and academic institutions are
attempting to develop commercially viable
sensors and instrumentation systems for
mass flow rate and velocity measurement
of pf [3].
Many flow sensors for pf are based on the
following techniques:
backscattering of microwaves transmitted
into the coal pipe to measure
concentration and velocity
attenuation of a pulsed ultrasonic beam
for velocity measurement
absorption of beta or gamma-rays for coal
flow rate determination
monitoring of mechanical vibrations
caused by the particles colliding with an
array of metal bars for the determination
of particle size distribution
electrostatic sensors for determining
particle size and segregation
digital imaging techniques using a low-
cost CCD camera and laser sheet
generator for determining particle size
distribution.
Tomography is an imaging technique that
can be used to provide information on phase
distributions within process vessels.
Process tomography is the measurement of
internal density distribution within pipes and
vessels [7]. The change in strength of a
signal passing through a pipe or vessel is
used to predict the particle concentration.
There are various types of tomography
dependent on the basis of the signal used:
electrical capacitance tomography (ECT)
electrical resistance tomography (ERT)
microwave tomography
optical tomography
X-ray tomography
radioactive tomography e.g. positron
emission tomography (PET)
ultrasound tomography
electric impedance tomography.
Another classification that can be used for
the different techniques is whether they are
intrusive or non-intrusive. From the plant
owners point of view, any techniques
requiring minimal modification to duct work
would be preferred. Coal-fired power plants
will therefore favour non-intrusive
techniques based on ECT, microwave,
ultrasound and X-ray methodologies.
Worldwide and UK Status
Over the last 20 years, substantial resources
have been put into the development of
suitable technologies that may offer
solutions to difficult measurement
problems. Instrument manufacturers,
universities and power generators in the UK
have worked in close collaboration to
develop sensors and this has resulted in the
UK taking a leading position internationally.
A number of flow instruments designed for
measuring suspended pulverised coal flow
are available either commercially or in
prototype form. Many different sensing
techniques have been developed, but
electrostatic charge detection, microwave
injection, acoustic monitoring and radiometric
attenuation are the main contenders.
However, any benefits gained through the
installation of coal flow meters are limited if
reliable control actuators are not available. In
comparison to coal flow metering, the split
control of pf is embryonic. Plant tests with
this type of device [22] have show only
limited success (ABB Automation [33];
University of Greenwich [34, 35]; University of
Teesside [36]; University of Nottingham [37]).
Electrostatic Meters
Figure 4 shows four different electrode
configurations that have been used in
commercial or prototype electrostatic pf flow
meters produced by ABB (UK), PCME (UK),
TR-Tech (Finland) and ESKOM (South Africa)
respectively. All these meters have been
tested on full-scale power plant (Figure 5). To
minimise the wear problem of the intruding
electrodes, wear-resistant electrode materials
are used including carbide alloy (TR-Tech) and
tungsten carbide (ESKOM). Nonetheless, the
need to replace worn electrodes after a
period of operation is inevitable.
Figure 4. Electrodes used in electrostatic coal flow
meters (courtesy of University of Greenwich)
An electrostatic sensor with ring-electrodes
exhibits a major advantage over other types
in that it is non-intrusive. However, the
electrodes have to be housed in a spool-
piece with flanges, which is bulky and
heavy, making installation and maintenance
difficult or impractical. In contrast, all the
intrusive sensors can be mounted through
drilled and tapped holes.
The electrostatic technique is limited by the
influence of various factors arising from the
physical and chemical properties of coal
particles. Despite these intrinsic
limitations, electrostatic sensing technology
(in combination with cross-correlation signal
processing algorithms) represents the
11
 ABB PCME TR-Tech

Figure 5. Installations of electrostatic sensors on coal pipes (courtesy of Powergen)

simplest and most cost-effective means of

measuring pulverised coal velocity. All four
coal flow meters outlined in Figure 4 are
capable of providing a continuous indication
of velocity in coal pipes. Although the
technique is ideal for the cross-correlation
velocity measurement, it is fundamentally
unsuitable for the absolute measurement of
solids concentration.

Microwave Meters

Microwave coal flow meters can have a Figure 6. Microwave transceiver for particle
combined transmitter and receiver concentration measurement
(transceiver) (Figure 6) or separate screw-in
microwave transmitters and receivers [4] (Figures 7 and 8).

Low-power microwave energy is transmitted into the flow field and the back-scatter from the
moving particles is detected by the receivers. The main advantage of the transceiver design is
that it is easier to install. A problem is that it does not cover the flow field uniformly. Multiple
transceivers are therefore often installed around the pipe.

Figure 7. Sensing arrangement using microwave transmitters and receivers (courtesy of Promecon)

12

Figure 8. Installation of the Promecon microwave
sensors on a coal pipe (courtesy of Promecon)
In the transmitter-receiver design, the
traditional two pairs of sensors have now
been replaced by one pair (Figure 7), which
the manufacturer claims can give sufficient
coverage of the pipe. The particle velocity is
determined through cross-correlation
between the two signals.
Deposition of solids in the pipeline can lead
to systematic errors and a certain degree of
heterogeneity remains in the microwave
field, which means that this technique can
be affected by particle roping. Additionally,
precautions must be taken to avoid
absorption of microwave energy by lining
materials such as basalt (commonly used to
reduce wear at bends) [23].
One problem commonly associated with
microwave flow sensors is their dependence
on the dielectric properties of the coal. This
makes their response sensitive to the
chemical composition of the coal.
Ultrasonic Meters
The concentration of pf suspended in air can
be deduced from the attenuation of a pulsed
ultrasonic beam by the coal particles. A pair
of low-cost ultrasonic transceivers is
mounted on the opposite sides of the
pipeline with the ultrasonic beam at a 60
angle to the flow [24]. The system
measures the velocity of air in the pipe by
determining the difference in transit times of
pulsed ultrasonic beams sent upstream and
downstream in the pipe.
The ultrasonic beam in this sensing
arrangement only transmits across part of
the pipe cross-section and does not detect
heterogeneous flow regimes such as roping.
This type of flow sensor tends to be
sensitive to other fuel parameters such as
particle material, size and moisture content.
Radiometric Meters
Physel Ltd in Finland has developed a coal
flow meter based on the radiation absorption
technique [25]. A significant attenuation signal
characterising the dilute coal particles in the
pipe is measured using beta-rays. Entry and
exit windows have to be made from special
materials in order to minimise the absorption
of the radiation by the burner pipe wall.
Radiometric attenuation techniques for coal
flow metering using low-energy gamma or X-
rays are being developed at the University of
Greenwich and the University of Teesside [26,
27]. Figure 9 shows a radiometric sensing
head that uses parallel gamma-ray beams
interrogating the entire pipe cross-section [26].
Figure 9. Radiometric sensing head employing
parallel gamma-ray beams [26]
13
 Power Station Trials

A significant number of trials of the above pf

flow meters have been conducted at full-
scale power stations in recent years (Table 1).

The US organisation, EPRI, also investigates

various techniques to measure pf flow. It
was involved in trials by Powergen of
different systems at Kingsnorth Power
Station and is currently performing trials
with microwave technology at two power
stations in the USA.

Mechanical Vibration

Mechanical vibration sensors use an array of

metal bars inserted into the pipe (Figure 10)
to generate signals caused by the collision Figure 10. Vibration sensing arrangement
of particles with the bars [23]. A neural
network is trained to extract particle size
distribution information from the signal. plant, but the intrusion of a sensing grid into
the pipe results in wear and regular
This method has the potential to measure maintenance problems.
the particle size distribution on a full-scale

Table 1. Recent power station trials with pf flow meters

Meter Technology Country Stations where trials were carried out

ABB Electrostatic UK Methil, UK

Kingsnorth, UK
PCME Electrostatic UK Kingsnorth, UK
TR-Tech Electrostatic Finland Kingsnorth, UK
Logan, USA
Fiddlers Ferry, UK
Turku Energia, Finland
Salmasari, Finland
ESKOM Electrostatic South Africa ESKOM stations, South Africa
Promecon Microwave Germany Armstrong, USA
Mainova Heizkraftwerk, Germany
Philip Sporn, USA
Kingsnorth, UK
SWR Engineering Microwave Germany Kingsnorth, UK
Ferrybridge, UK
Gersteinwerk, Germany
Heilbronn, Germany
CSIRO Ultrasonic Australia Bayswater, Australia
Physel Beta radiation Finland Unknown

14
Electrostatic Sensors
Electrostatic particle size sensors have
generated some interest in recent years.
TR-Tech has developed electrostatic sensors
to determine particle size at the mill outlet
(Figure 11). Two electrostatic sensors are
mounted at right angles to each other after a
bend in the pipe [22, 28], where they detect
the particle segregation in the bend and
deduce the particle fineness. Test data have
shown a crude agreement with the classifier
speed, although the effectiveness of the
approach is not yet established.
Figure 11. TR-Tech particle size sensors under test
(courtesy of Powergen)
The University of Greenwich has tried to
derive the median particle size using a
mesh-sensing grid and a novel signal-
processing algorithm [29]. Figure 12 shows
the sensing grid that has been tested on a
small-scale laboratory test rig.
An attempt has also been made to use the
ring-shaped electrode (Figure 12) for the
detection of coal particle size [30], using the
autocorrelation peak width of the
electrostatic signal to infer the particle size.
Figure 12. Sensing grid for particle size
measurement [30]
Acoustic Sensors
Scottish Power and Inflo Bulk Controls
conducted trials of non-intrusive acoustic
techniques at Longannet Power Station in
Scotland [31]. Similar work has also been
performed by National Power (now RWE
Innogy) in co-operation with Process
Analysis and Automation Ltd. In both cases
the systems are comprised of acoustic
transducers installed on the mill door, mill
outlet and a burner pipe. Power spectra of
the acoustic signals were found to change
with the coal flow rate and the particle size
distribution of the mill product. However,
direct quantitative relationships between the
spectra and the particle size distribution
were not reported.
Imaging Sensors
Digital imaging techniques have been
applied to measure the size distribution of
pulverised fuel [32]. A CCD camera is used
to capture images of a particulate flow field,
illuminated by a laser sheet (Figure 13). The
particle size distribution is determined by
processing the images. Initial results have
demonstrated that the system can be
calibrated to measure particle size to within
1.5% with excellent repeatability. Further
work is being conducted to extend the
system for trials on full-scale plant.
15

Figure 13. Digital imaging for particle sizing
Tomography
Process tomography offers the potential to
measure the flow rate of multiphase flows
in pipes and there is much activity
worldwide to improve the technology. Much
emphasis outside the UK appears to be on
the use of X-rays or radioactive methods.
Ultrasonic methods are used to determine
particle mass fraction and distribution in
multiphase flows.
ECT has been used for flame monitoring
using charge carriers produced during
ionisation in the flames. To date, virtually all
applications of tomography have been
imaging and flow characterisation rather
than velocity and flow measurement.
The UK is a leading player in the
development of tomography techniques.
Academic institutions such as UMIST,
University of Birmingham, UCL, and
University of Surrey are among the leading
research institutions in the UK.
One of the pioneering companies in the field
is Process Tomography Ltd (PTL), which was
established in the mid-1990s to market
UMIST tomography technology under licence.
The company has recently made a major
breakthrough in the use of ECT to measure
16
flow of particles and its technology seems
close to industrial application. This has led to
the establishment of a new company,
Tomoflow Ltd [41].
Recent Developments and Trends for the
Future
Sensor Design
Currently, there are no systems that can
provide absolute measurement of coal
mass flow rate and particle sizing
distribution. A number of prototypes have
been installed on coal-fired power stations
but these have not met the requirements of
the end-users. The increasing trend
towards co-combustion of biomass in
pulverised coal-fired boilers in recent years
will mean that flow rate determination and
particle size distribution measurement are
likely to be even more difficult.
Flow sensors operating on electrostatic,
microwave and acoustic principles have
shown their fundamental limitations for the
measurement of coal concentration and
particle sizing. Other methods, such as those
based on differential pressure, laser sheets
and capacitance tomography for absolute
concentration measurement, are likely to be
very difficult. It is believed that the
development of entirely new sensing
techniques, such as digital imaging [17], may
well provide the best potential for success.
Additionally, a combination of different
sensing techniques making full use of their
individual advantages should also be explored.
Data Fusion and Control
A pulverised coal flow meter should
normally provide the operator with a set of
data including coal velocity, mass flow rate,
fineness and/or particle size distribution.
The installation of multiple pulverised coal
flow meters on all burner pipes will result in
an enormous amount of data. How such
measurement data should be analysed and
effectively used for the overall optimisation
of the entire plant needs to be investigated.
More importantly, the feasibility of feeding
the data to the control system for automatic
control and optimisation of the plant needs
further study. Additionally, relationships
between the coal mass flow rate, velocity,
coal/air ratio and resulting flame quality,
combustion efficiency and emissions should
be identified.
Advanced flame monitoring techniques are
now being developed for the optimisation
of coal-fired boilers [19]. The development
of such techniques may lead to ultimate
optimisation and balance between
individual flames without the installation of
coal flow meters.
Standards, Traceability and Calibration
It has been recognised that the
development, production and application of
coal flow meters are inhibited by the lack of
defined standards and satisfactory
calibration facilities [5, 6]. Without a clear
audit trail for particulate flow metering and
calibration, a fundamental problem of
defining accuracy exists. This has been a
barrier to users acceptance of pulverised
coal flow meters in the industry and has
presented a significant problem for anyone
attempting to evaluate such an instrument.
Some recent development projects have
resulted in the construction of small-scale
solids/air flow loop facilities (pipeline bore
below 75mm) in the UK and other
countries, but little attention has been paid
to the problem of traceability and
subsequently, calibration.
Tomography
It is clear that power plant operators will
favour tomography techniques that are safe
and demonstrate minimum risk. Non-
intrusive techniques, which are not based on
the use of radioactive isotopes, will be
preferred. The leading contenders,
therefore, are electric impedance
techniques, eg ECT and ERT, microwave and
ultrasound techniques. The trials at
Kingsnorth and Didcot power stations
demonstrated some of the potential of
tomography on power plants, as well as the
remaining issues regarding the reliability of
the measurements. More needs to be done
to obtain reliable and consistent
measurements across the full operating
range of units, and for the varying coal
quality and coal types used in most UK coal-
fired power plants.
The development of novel ECT techniques
that can measure absolute flow in addition
to velocity appears to hold some promise.
Work carried out on the use of electrostatic
techniques (which can be classified as ECT)
for pf measurements needs to be further
investigated.
The Way Forward
Independent measurement of coal velocity
in burner pipes would provide useful data for
the diagnosis and subsequent optimisation
of plant operation. Consequently, the
development of a portable particle
velocimeter is highly desirable.
The UK is at the forefront of R&D in
metering and control devices for suspended
flow, largely due to close collaboration
between the UK instrument manufacturers,
university research groups and power
generation companies. This collaboration
should be encouraged.
There is a need for the establishment of
dedicated calibration facilities in the UK. If
this type of facility were available, it is
believed that it would enhance the market
potential of the UK industry. Traceability is
clearly a key aspect of such a facility.
17
 Although there are still no split control
devices and on-line particle sizing systems
available on the market, development in
these areas is actively continuing in a
number of UK university research groups
and industrial organisations. Adequate
financial support for the testing of new ideas
and to enhance the links between the
academic and industrial groups is essential if
the UKs competitiveness in this area of
technology is to be maintained. Recognition
of this at a national level is warranted.
There is a Technology Foresight Challenge
Project in progress, Process Technology A
New Dimension in Advanced Sensor
Technology, which is making use of ECT for
demonstration projects. As yet, there is no
coal-fired plant based project included within
the programme. If a suitable project could
be established then this would represent an
effective way to sponsor further R&D and
technology transfer for the power generation
industry. Demonstration projects involving
leading UK research institutions and
companies working on tomography with a
coal-fired plant would help to identify issues
and opportunities for the technology and
also quantify the potential benefits.
CFD AND EXPERIMENTAL
VERIFICATION
CFD has been shown to be a successful
tool that can be used to gain insight into the
nature of a wide range of industrial
processes that cannot, or only with
difficulty, be achieved by traditional
experimental methods. An in-depth
understanding of the underlying physical
phenomena controlling various processes
makes it easier to optimise current
processes, and to design improved or
completely new ones.
Three main reasons for the success of the
commercial CFD codes, despite the, often
18
low, absolute precision in the predictions
they produce, have been identified by
Lockwood et al [18]:
The only alternative is often excessively
expensive experimental investigations or
very simple engineering models.
The predicted trends are almost always
correct.
Important physical phenomena, which
cannot be investigated or detected by
available experimental techniques, are
often revealed.
An additional advantage is that it is possible
to simulate hazardous scenarios safely,
which in real situations would put staff and
equipment at risk.
One serious difficulty in CFD modelling is
obtaining accurate input data. There are
rarely, for example, accurate measurements
of the air and coal flows to individual
burners etc. The number of coals whose
combustion properties have been
investigated experimentally is also limited.
As the quality of modelling by CFD code is
only as good as the quality of the input data
used, an increase in the quality and amount
of data available will improve the quality of
CFD modelling.
The experimental data that are needed to
validate the various sub-models used in CFD
codes must be obtained during well-
controlled conditions and represent a wide
range of operating conditions. The type of
experimental facilities that are required for
these types of experiment are mainly found
in university research laboratories and it is
rarely possible to fund them completely by
commercial activities. They are, therefore,
highly reliant on financial support.
It is the view of several CFD vendors that
both the quantity and quality of the
experimental work that is carried out today
is declining. Results from a study of a
phenomenon by one research group are
considered an insufficient basis on which to
generate a numerical model; much more
experiment is needed to produce significant
conclusions. There is also a tendency to
produce more general measurements
without the backing of detailed
measurements in well-controlled laboratory
environments.
Worldwide and UK Status
Work is being carried out worldwide on the
development of methods for the simulation
of multiphase flows. The majority of the
fundamental research and development
takes place in the academic world. The
vendors have the impression that the focus
for this work has moved from the UK to
countries such as Germany, the
Netherlands, Finland, Australia and the USA.
The development of CFD codes started in
the UK where companies such as CHAM
(Phoenics) [43], Fluent [44], CFX [45],
Computational Dynamics (Star CD) [46] and
Cinar [47] were initially established. The
pattern of ownership has now shifted,
however, with the three largest companies
(Fluent, CFX and Computational Dynamics)
having a high level of foreign ownership.
There seems to be a complete consensus
that the most important factor in the
progress of CFD during the last five years
has been increased computer power, which
has allowed the use of larger computational
meshes. This makes it possible to resolve
smaller scale phenomena in relation to the
overall size of the geometry. Some physical
sub-models have proved able to improve
prediction accuracy considerably when they
have been applied to finer meshes. An
example of a modern detailed mesh
representing burners, air ducts and wind
box arrangement in one single mesh is
shown in Figure 14.
Considerable progress has also been made
in turbulence modelling although there is
still scope for further improvement.
Additionally, modelling of chemical reactions,
parallel computing, unsteady particle
tracking, Eulerian multiphase modelling and
generic modelling to predict carbon-in-ash
are areas where progress has been
prominent.
The overall status of the CFD technology
applied to coal combustion can be
summarised as [48, 49]:
CFD is a well-established and powerful
tool for the analysis and design of burners
and furnaces. It is widely used in the
power generation industry to help reduce
emissions, increase thermal efficiency,
select fuels and extend plant life.
Current CFD models are able to predict
NOx emissions with a precision of 10%.
Char burnout cannot be predicted
accurately, but trends are usually well
predicted.
Accurate predictions cannot be expected
unless the operational conditions in the
boiler are known in detail.
Figure 14. Detailed representation of burners, air
ducts and wind box arrangement of a gas-fired boiler
by a single mesh of 6.8 million cells (courtesy of
Computational Dynamics)
19
 It is also possible to import the geometry of
equipment into CFD models directly from
CAD drawings, thus saving considerable
time on inputting data.
There are a number of projects where CFD
simulations are used together with expert
systems and neural nets. The CFD model is
used to build up knowledge about how a
plant would react in situations that are
outside the normal or safe range of
operational parameters. This will improve the
performance of the system when the
operational parameters stray from the normal
and increase the ability to quickly move back
within the normal operational constraints.
Universities in the UK are well positioned to
provide experimental investigations and
develop improved models. However, this
situation can be maintained only if enough
funding for the upgrading of ageing
equipment is available and if the volume and
quality of the research are sufficient to keep
the current experts and train new staff and
researchers. The perception that much of
the initiative in this area of work seems to
have moved to continental Europe and USA
indicates that those countries might be more
supportive of this type of work than the UK.
Recent Developments and Trends for the
Future
Some fundamental requirements are the
need for:
accurate turbulence models that are less
demanding on the computer resources
models for interaction between
particles/droplets and turbulence eddies
accurate models for combustion of solid
particles that can predict the combustion
properties from fundamental fuel analysis.
Measurement technologies have advanced
quickly during recent years and various
optical or laser-based methods for
measurements without the need for
20
insertion of mechanical probes are now
available. This has made much more
advanced and complex measurements
possible. However, the new equipment is
also expensive and many research
laboratories do not have the finances to keep
up to date with the latest developments.
The following developments during the next
5-10 years are expected:
The rapid increase in computer power will
continue and make it possible to move
towards larger meshes and so increase
the precision of the predictions.
Transient, time dependent, simulations
will be more common.
The ability to handle complex chemistry in
combustion modelling as well as the
interaction between turbulence and
chemistry will increase.
Char combustion models will be
improved further [20, 21].
Comprehensive combustion sub-models
for co-firing of biomass and coal will be
developed and improved [51].
The use of multi-physics (ie different
regions of the computational domain
having completely different physical
properties) will increase.
The use of statistical methods, eg pdf
(probability density function) methods
will increase.
Heat radiation between particles and their
surroundings will be an area of priority.
Improvements in the user interface are
expected to be rapid. One area is the
development of application-specific
templates for equipment such as cyclone
separators and fans.
An improved ability to represent the
behaviour of individual non-spherical
particles in a multiphase flow is expected.
Improvements to the Lagrangian
approach to particle interaction prediction
are expected to result in reduced
sensitivity to the mesh coarseness.
(Solutions to this problem have been
 suggested by Schmidt and Rutland [52]
among others.)
Increased use of both stand-alone and
clusters of PCs running Linux is expected.
Large Eddy Simulations (LES) are
expected to be used much more
frequently in conventional simulations.
The Way Forward
More fundamental experimental data for the
development and verification of sub-models,
such as turbulence models, particle-particle
interaction, particle combustion etc, are
needed. There is also a need for detailed
and accurate experimental data from well-
defined experiments in full-scale equipment.
Much of the development work in the CFD
area has historically taken place in the UK or
in co-operation with universities and
companies in the country. There seems to
be a consensus between the vendors that
much of this initiative has now moved
abroad, and that CFD R&D in the UK has
taken a secondary position. However, the
implementation of commercial software still
has a strong position, with vendors seeing
their main role as implementing the scientific
methods developed and published by the
research community. They contribute actively
to research, but their work is tightly focused
on the needs of industrial users, for whom
efficiency, ease of use, robustness, data
management and software quality are of
equal importance to scientific sophistication.
Adequate funding for continued high quality
research is therefore crucial and could be
provided by the UK Government.
DISCUSSION
The focus of this review is on multiphase
flow-related technologies that are of benefit
to coal-fired power stations in the UK. The
potential benefits to the stations can be of
different types:
Increased ability to control processes;
this will make it possible to reduce
emissions, increase efficiency and give
more flexibility in operation.
Better understanding of the underlying
physical and chemical processes and
improved design tools; this will make it
possible to design more flexible and
efficient equipment with better
environmental performance.
Improved ability to predict performance
and emissions.
Out of the technologies discussed in this
report, sensors, granular and suspended
flows, neural networks and chemometrics
are all used to control the process
accurately whilst CFD has its main use in
research and in design of efficient
equipment. Tomography is currently mainly
a research tool that can be used to generate
understanding, but it might soon be
available for on-line flow measurements.
Recent uncertainties in the legal framework
within which the power industry is operating
has an impact on the development and use
of multiphase flow technologies. At the
moment there are many uncertainties
relating to suggested changes in the
Renewables Obligation, the Large
Combustion Plant Directive and the Waste
Incineration Directive and their implications
to the power industry. These uncertainties
in an environment where the power prices
are depressed mean that the generation
industry is reluctant to make investments in
equipment and systems unless the payback
time is very short.
The power stations cannot afford to take
the risk of installing equipment that is not
tested and reliable, as failure would cause
serious disturbances to the operation of
the plant. This, in turn, presents a problem
to suppliers if the demand for equipment
and systems is low. This can be
particularly serious for new companies
21
 which might have a product that has been
successfully tested in the laboratory but
which has not yet been proven in an
industrial environment. The Government
supports this type of testing through the
DTI and this support will continue to be
important in the future.
Insufficient communication between
researchers, suppliers and users of
different technologies has also been
identified as a problem. Although there
are numerous forums in existence where
this communication can take place, the
attendance levels are low. There is a need
to encourage representatives of all interest
groups to come to these existing forums
to share ideas.
Another perceived potential problem for
smaller research organisations in general is
the policies expressed in the recent White
Paper on Higher Education published by
the UK Government. The intention seems
to be to channel more resources to well
known, high profile establishments and
less to the smaller and less established
ones. This would mean that some of
these smaller groups risk losing a major
source of their funding. If this
interpretation were correct, then it would
seriously hamper the ability of these
organisations to produce novel ideas.
CONCLUSIONS
A number of conclusions have been drawn
from this review and are summarised below.
Technologies
Sensors
A number of flow instruments are now
commercially available for the
measurement of suspended flow at coal-
fired power plant. The instruments
22
operating on electrostatic and microwave
sensing principles are relatively more
successful than their counterparts in
terms of operation and performance.
The absolute measurement of coal
concentration and mass flow rate remains
challenging.
In spite of significant efforts there are still
no proven devices available for the split
control of coal flow. The absence of such
devices will limit the application and
market potential of coal flow meters.
No proven devices are currently available
for the on-line monitoring of coal fineness
and particle size distribution.
Tomography
No coal-fired plant based projects seem
to be included in the Technology Foresight
Challenge Project Process Technology A
New Dimension in Advanced Sensor
Technology. The inclusion of a coal-fired
plant based project would be an efficient
method to sponsor further R&D and
technology transfer to the power
generation industry.
The power plant operators are likely to
favour technologies that represent
minimum risk for operational disturbances
and which are safe for the operators.
Consequently, preference will be for non-
intrusive techniques that do not involve
hazardous materials such as radioactive
isotopes, eg electric impedance
techniques such as ECT and ERT,
microwave and ultrasound.
Neural Networks
There is a need for reliable and accurate
carbon-in-ash measurements. Inferential
measurements of carbon-in-ash using
neural network technology are a potential
solution to this problem. Financial
support would speed up the development
of a prototype that could be tested in a
power station.
 The UK has a weak market position in the
application of neural networks to
multiphase flow technology, although the
academic position is strong. To date,
demonstrations on UK power plants have
produced only limited benefits.
It is considered that an opportunity exists
for the UK to develop more capable and
robust systems than those currently
available, by tailoring equipment for use in
UK power stations that are characterised
by frequent and rapid changes in load.
Chemometrics
Chemometrics has considerable
potential for exploitation by the UK
power generation industry, probably
more so than in many other industrial
countries, due to its more varied coal
diet. The development and installation
of a demonstration system at a UK
power station would be a significant
step towards promoting the UK position
in this field.
Suspended Flows
The UK is at the forefront of R&D in
metering and control devices for
suspended flow. Closer links between
the UK industry and academia, with
adequate financial support, will enhance
the UKs competitiveness in these areas
of technology.
There seems to be a demand for semi-
industrial scale test facilities for mills,
pneumatic transport of two-phase flows
and for combustion tests with multi-
burner configurations. Some of these
facilities are available but they are not
always accessible.
The measurement of suspended flow is
inhibited by the lack of defined standards
and satisfactory calibration facilities.
Granular Flows
The development of a system to
characterise the handleability of solid
materials and handling equipment is
required.
Greater consideration of the need to
improve the specification of multiphase
flow equipment at the procurement stage
would improve the overall performance of
plants in general.
Once in operation, many solids handling
systems take a long time before they
reach their full design capacity, and some
may never attain this. The development
and use of improved design practices can
be expected to improve this situation.
CFD
The UK currently has a strong market
position in CFD but most vendors believe
that UK research and development is in
decline. It appears that, in countries such
as Germany, the Netherlands, Finland,
USA and Australia, more funding is
available for research than in the UK, and
so these countries represent a threat to
the UKs current strong position.
More fundamental work on the
development and verification of detailed
sub-models is needed.
Experimental Verification
There appears to be an overall decline in
the quality and quantity of public sector-
funded experimental work being
undertaken, particularly in the UK. It also
appears that access to public funding for
experimental work is more difficult in the
UK than in some other countries.
More experimental investigation on full-
scale boilers with detailed measurements
of all input data (such as flow and
temperature at each inlet and detailed
fuel characterisation, etc) is needed.
23
 Support for UK MPF Technologies companies and organisations contributed
through personal meetings and
This review has identified several areas correspondence:
where more direct assistance would support
the development and commercialisation of Fluent Inc
multiphase flow technologies in the UK. Computational Dynamics Ltd
These include: CFX Ltd
Cinar Ltd
improving existing, or creating new, Wolfson Centre for Bulk Solids Handling
channels for direct communication Technology
between suppliers of the technologies Redler
and the end-users EPRI, USA
the creation of centres of excellence with Pegasus, Cleveland, USA
adequate resources Council Bluffs Power Station, Nebraska,
establishing tax incentives or grants for USA
R&D by commercial companies; NeuCo, Pennsylvania, USA.
especially to encourage co-operation
between industry, research organisations
and suppliers of equipment or software. REFERENCES

Additionally, the implications of constantly
changing legislation on the future of UK
coal-fired power plant need to be clarified.
An uncertain future seriously limits the level
of investment by plant operators, as they
are uncertain about the levels of any future
revenue. A stable framework for future
operation would help to establish an
industry with a confident future.
[1] Merrow, EW, Phillips, KE, Myers, CW,
Understanding cost growth and
performance shortfalls in pioneer
process plants. The Rand Corp., RAND,
P.O. Box 2138, Santa Monica, CA
90407-2138, 1981.
[2] ETSU/DTI
A strategy on pulverised coal
combustion.
DTI, March, 1997.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS [3] Yan, Y,

The authors wish to acknowledge the
Department of Trade and Industry and its
Cleaner Fossil Fuels Programme for initiating
this review and supporting it financially.
Professor Yong Yan, Greenwich University,
wrote the material on sensors and
suspended flow. Many colleagues at RWE
Innogy contributed in varying degrees. In
particular, George Oluwande wrote most of
the material on tomography, neural
networks and chemometrics, and Lee
Hinder produced many of the illustrations.
The authors would also like to thank
contributors to the survey. The following
Mass flow measurement of bulk solids
in pneumatic pipelines.
Measurement Science and Technology,
7, No 12, 1996.
[4] Earley, D,
On-line measurement of pulverised coal.
www.airmonitor.com/power.htm
[5] Yan, Y,
Guide to the flow measurement of
particulate solids in pipelines. Part 1:
fundamentals and principles.
Powder Handling & Processing, 13,
No 4, 2001.
[6] Yan, Y,
Guide to the flow measurement of

24
 particulate solids in pipelines, Part 2:
utilisation in pneumatic conveying and
emission monitoring.
Powder Handling & Processing, 14,
No 1, 2002.
[7] Eds. Beck MS et al
Process tomography implementation
for industrial processes, 1995
[8] Shinbrot, T. & Muzzino, FJ,
Nonequilibrium patterns in granular
mixing and segregation.
Physics Today, March 2000.
[9] Dietmar Schulze
Fundamentals of bulk solids mechanics.
www.dietmar-schulze.com/grdle1.html
[10] Dietmar Schulze
Stresses in silos.
www.dietmar-schulze.com/fre.html
[11] Ed. Sunil R de Silva
PULVERSKOLEN (Populrvitenskapelig
utdrag fra boken Innfring i
Pulverteknologi: Del 1 Karakterisering,
Lagring og Transport av Partikulre
Materialer)
Tel-tek, department POSTEC, Porsgrunn,
Norge, 1999.
www.tel-tek.no/download/Booklet.pdf
[12] Overview of Particulate Handling.
University of Greenwich.
[13] Pneumatic Conveying of Powders and
Bulk Materials.
University of Greenwich.
[14] Storage and Discharge of Powders and
Bulk Materials.
University of Greenwich.
[15] Product Quality.
University of Greenwich.
[16] Purutyan H, Pittenger BH & Carson JW
Six steps to designing a storage vessel
that really works.
www.jenike.com
[17] Dietmar Schulze
Storage of bulk solids in silos
www.dietmar-schulze.com/fre.html
18 Lockwood FC, Abbas T, Kandamby NH &
Sakthitharan, V,
CFD experience on industrial combustors.
IJAT, Invited paper for special issue on
Computational Reactive Fluid Dynamics:
Modelling, Software Tools and
Applications, 1999.
[19] Klemola, K & Turunen, I,
State of Mathematical Modelling and
Simulation in the Finnish Process
Industry, Universities and Research
Centres.
Technology Review 107/2001, National
Technology Agency, Helsinki, 2001.
[20] Niksa, S & Hurt, RH,
Predicting the complete combustion
histories of individual particles of any
coal type.
Prospects for Coal Science in the 21st
Century 1999.
[21] Lang, T & Hurt, RH,
Char combustion reactivities for a suite
of diverse solid fuels and char-forming
organic model compounds.
28th International Symposium on
Combustion, Edinburgh, 2000.
[22] DTI Cleaner Fossil Fuels Programme
Technology Status Report 014.
Technology status review of PF flow,
measurement and control methods for
utility boilers.
DTI/Pub URN 01/560, 2001.
[23] Hancke, GP & Malan, RA,
A modal analysis technique for the on-
line particle size measurement of
pneumatically conveyed pulverised coal.
IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation
and Measurement, 47, No 1, 1998.
[24] Millen, MJ, Sowerby, BD, Coghill, PJ,
Tickner, JR, Kingsley, R & Grima, C,
Plant tests of an on-line multiple-pipe
pulverised coal mass flow measuring
system.
Flow Measurement and
Instrumentation, 11, No 3, 2000.
25
 [25] www.keksintosaatio.fi/innofin/
Inventionmarket/Energy/Output/
10652_e.html
[26] Barrat, IR, Yan Y & Byrne B,
A parallel-beam radiometric
instrumentation system for the mass
flow measurement of pneumatically
conveyed solids.
Measurement Science and Technology,
12, No 9, 2001.
[27] Mennel, J, Byrne, B & Yan, Y,
Appraisal of radiometric techniques to
determine absolute solids fraction in
pneumatic suspensions of particulate
solids.
Flow Measurement and
Instrumentation, 11, No 3, 2000.
[28] Kersch, JD, Laux, S, Grusha, J & Rosin, T,
ECT on-line coal flow measurement
technology benefits and experience
from three years of operation.
EPRI-EPA Combined Utility Air Pollutant
Control Symposium, Chicago, August
2001.
[29] Yan, Y & Zhang, J,
On-line continuous measurement of
particle size using electrostatic sensors.
Proceedings of IEEE IMTC 2003, Vail,
USA, 2003.
[30] Keech, RP et al
Pulverised fuel meters split control.
DTI Project 102, Final report, 2002.
[31] Pattinson, M & Miller, D,
The future.
IMechE Seminar on Real-Time Analysis
of Bulk Materials in the Power, Mineral
and Cement Industries, London, 29 April
1997.
[32] Carter, RM & Yan, Y,
On-line particle sizing of pulverised and
granular fuels using digital imaging
techniques.
Measurement Science and Technology,
14, No 7, 2003.
26
[33] DTI Cleaner Fossil Fuels Programme,
Project Summary 330
Pulverised fuel measurement with split
controller.
July 2002.
[34] Selves, T,
PhD thesis.
University of Greenwich 1995.
[35] Holmes, T, Bradley, MSA, Selves, TP,
Farnish, RJ, Bridle, I & Reed, AR,
Techniques for control of splitting ratios
of particulate materials at bifurcations in
pneumatic conveying pipelines.
Proceedings IMechE, 214, Part A, 2000.
[36] Zhang et al
Lean phase solids control using pinch
valves and mass flowmeters for
pulverised fuel.
Bulk Solids Handling, 23, No 1, 2003.
[37] www.nottingham.ac.uk/esr21network/
July 2003.
[38] Flowers, PT et al
Application of advanced process control
with neural networks to control power
plant emissions.
ISA, New Orleans, USA, 2002.
[39] Lefebvre, C et al
Application of Process LinkTM real-time
optimisation system to Cajun Electric
Power Cooperatives Big Cajun II
generating station.
PowerGen USA, 1999.
[40] Canning, P,
NOx control for large coal-fired utility
boiler: Selection of the most appropriate
technology.
Australian Coal Review, April 1999.
[41] www.tomoflow.com
[42] www.qpm.org.uk
[43] www.cham.co.uk
[44] www.fluent.com
[45] www.software.aeat.com/cfx
[46] www.cd-adapco.com
[47] www.cinar.co.uk
[48] Stopford, PJ,
Recent applications of CFD modelling in
the power generation and combustion
industries.
Applied Mathematical Modelling, 26,
351-374, 2002.
[49] Stephenson, PL,
DTI collaborative NOx project review
of mathematical modelling.
DTI/R/10/000811, 1998.
[50] DTI Cleaner Fossil Fuels Programme
Project Profile 319
On-line fuel tracking by advanced flame
monitoring.
March 2002.
www.dti.gov.uk/cct
[51] Gera, D, Matur, MP & Freeman, MC,
Moisture & char reactivity modelling in
biomass co-firing boilers.
Fluent News, Spring 01, Supplement:
Focus on CFD in the power generation
industry, Lebanon, USA, 2001.
www.fluent.com
[52] Schmidt, DP & Rutland, CJ,
Reducing grid dependency in droplet
collision modelling.
Proceedings of ASME: Internal
Combustion Engine Division, Chicago,
Fall 2001.

27
Further information on the Cleaner Coal Technology Programme,
and copies of publications, can be obtained from:
Cleaner Coal Technology Programme Helpline, Building 329,
Harwell International Business Centre, Didcot, Oxfordshire OX11 0QJ
Tel: +44 (0)870 190 6343 Fax: +44 (0)870 190 6713
E-mail: helpline@cleanercoal.org.uk
Web: www.dti.gov.uk/cct/

Crown copyright. First printed March 2004.

Printed on paper containing a minimum of 75% post-consumer waste. DTI/Pub URN 04/719