LIFE11 ENV/E/000600 Deliverable.A.

LIFE Project Number

LIFE11 ENV/E/000600

DELIVERABLE A.1.: Study of the current situation of the

management of algae and seaweed deposition wastes from the
coast

SEAMATTER: Revalorization of coastal algae wastes in textile nonwoven

industry with applications in building noise isolation
 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The primary objective of the SEAMATTER-LIFE project is to highlight the untapped

potential of marine plant debris deposited on beaches. This natural resource is usually
treated as waste, a practice that has environmental implications on a local scale and
which could be improved through the incorporation of new coastal zone management
criteria. Exploitation of this material would entail the implementation of a
management model which incorporated new functions related to industrial processes,
implying a reformulation of the same within the framework of sustainability. This
report discusses the problem posed by the accumulation of seaweed and seagrass on
beaches, and addresses the environmental, social, economic, legal and administrative
aspects affecting Spanish municipalities. The results provide an analysis of current
practice as regards treatment of this debris, including collection, transportation,
storage and disposal of the waste. The environmental cost of these practices and the
pertinent legislation is also discussed, and a number of recommendations are
presented for reducing the environmental impact caused by the removal of marine
plant debris.
 CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 3
1.1. The goal of Seamatter .................................................................................................. 4
1.2. The Mediterranean case: Posidonia oceanica meadows. ............................................ 6
2. RESULTS ................................................................................................................ 12
2.1. Technological information related to the collection, transportation and
final use of beach-cast seaweed/marine plant debris. ............................................................ 12
2.2. Laws, ordinances, memoranda and best practice guidelines for waste
collection on European coastlines. ........................................................................................... 35
2.3. Recommendations for marine plant debris management. ........................................ 39
2.4. Environmental cost of using these management systems for the
collection/ transportation of marine plant debris. ................................................................... 41
2.4.1. Introduction and formulation of the problem ........................................................... 41
2.4.2. The role of wrack beds in ensuring beach stability .................................................... 42
2.4.3. The effect on beach sediment dynamics of removing beach-cast wrack .................. 45
2.4.3.1. Efectos en playas arenosas .................................................................................... 45
2.4.3.2. Effects on pebble and gravel beaches ................................................................... 47
2.4.4. Morphological changes on the free surface of sandy beaches .................................. 52
3. CONCLUSIONS ....................................................................................................... 56
4. AGRADECIMIENTOS .............................................................................................. 59
5. BIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................... 60
6. ANNEX ................................................................................................................... 65
6.1. Questionnaire model sent to the coastal Council Government ................................. 65
1. INTRODUCTION

The mounds of seaweed and seagrass found on beaches, known as beach-cast wrack
or wrack beds, are the result of a natural process whereby these plants detach from
the rocky or sandy substrates on which they have grown and are then washed ashore.
Beach-cast wrack is a natural phenomenon that is usually caused by large waves and
storms on the coast, which generally have a beneficial effect on the health of seaweed
and marine plant populations. Wrack beds act as natural barriers against coastal
erosion, form embryonic dunes, provide organic matter and nutrients to the native
flora and represent a source of food for many invertebrates which in turn provide food
for seabirds, insects and juvenile fish, etc.

At present, beach-cast seaweed and marine plants may either be harvested, usually for
industrial purposes (production of agar, carrageenan and alginates, feed for Haliotis
farming, fertilisers, insulators, etc.) and agricultural uses, or simply removed, generally
in response to the demands of tourism and recreational activities. The putrefaction
processes associated with the decomposition of these large mounds of beach-cast
organic matter can adversely affect recreational use of the area as well as possessing
an unattractive appearance and an unpleasant smell. The complaints received from
tourists and beach users, who are unaware of the ecological and environmental
importance of beach-cast wrack, prompt the local authorities responsible for keeping
the beaches clean to remove and transport wrack beds to landfill sites. However, the
sudden and massive nature of wrack deposition on beaches poses serious problems as
regards planning the cleaning operations required for its elimination. In addition,
removal exacerbates the existing environmental problems associated with overloaded
landfill sites at which no protocol or system for the disposal of low-impact wrack beds
has yet been established. Nor does there exist to date a single specific system for
removing beach-cast wrack or a historical record which would facilitate the
development of a plan for harvesting and using this waste. Moreover, existing removal
systems could present a serious threat to beaches, since they can alter coastal
sediment dynamics and natural processes.

Therefore, it is essential to monitor and assess the need for and effect of removal of
beach-cast wrack. Several studies on the natural phenomenon of wrack beds have
demonstrated that they serve as bioindicators of natural seaweed and seagrass
populations, which are under severe threat from urban growth in tourist areas, and as
optimal indicators of coastal environmental quality.
1.1. The goal of Seamatter

The main objective of the SEAMATTER-LIFE project is to demonstrate and validate the
reuse of beach-cast wrack as a raw material in the composite materials industry.
Considered as waste, applications for these natural materials removed from beaches
may be found in the nonwovens industry, by converting the materials derived from
marine biomass into sustainable textile reinforcements suitable for use in the
materials industry, specifically as acoustic panels in buildings, by means of wet-laid
technology.
Beach-cast wrack is often considered an environmental nuisance because it emits an
unpleasant odour; thus, in order to maintain their beaches in optimal conditions for
tourism, local councils in coastal areas normally remove and dispose of it (Figure 1).
However, this process also implies the inadvertent removal of large amounts of sand,
gradually eroding the beaches which must then be regenerated by adding new sand.
Consequently, the most common practice today is to leave wrack beds undisturbed
throughout the winter and to remove them in the summer, when tourists make
massive use of coastal areas.

Figure 1: Inconvenience of Posidonia 's banquettes during tourism high season (Source: Diario
Informacin, Alicante Press).
The process this project aims to apply to beach-cast wrack is that of wet laying, a
modified version of the papermaking process. The difference between the two resides
in the amount of fibres present in a wet nonwoven fabric. The wet laid process consists
of diluting fibres in water to create a suspension which is then deposited on a moving
wire mesh and drained to form a web. After being subjected to further dehydration,
the web is consolidated by pressing between rollers and subsequently dried. The
process also includes impregnation with binders, usually at a later stage. The strength
of the web is similar in all directions in the plane of the fabric. A wide range of natural,
mineral, synthetic and artificial fibres of varying lengths can be used. In the wet-laid
process, different fibres are thoroughly and evenly mixed to yield a specific product
presenting the optimum properties of each type of fibre used. Previous R & D projects
conducted by AITEX have demonstrated that this technology is useful for obtaining
several nonwoven materials from textile waste. However, the aim of the present
project is to innovate through the use of this technology to exploit the potential of
beach-cast wrack.
In summary, the SEAMATTER-LIFE environmental impact assessment project is aimed
at providing a solution to the environmental problem of beach-cast wrack disposal,
whenever such disposal is necessary, and at studying optimal techniques for collection,
transportation, storage and treatment. Consequently, the project goal is to halt or
minimise the current practice of disposing of beach-cast wrack in landfill sites. The
project will thus contribute to the implementation of EC policy and legislation on
waste, in particular the Directive on waste disposal, specifically in the areas of recovery
and reuse, and washing of textiles.
Moreover, this project meets the objectives set out in the Sixth Environmental Action
Plan:
(A) To contribute to the development and demonstration of innovative policy
approaches, technologies, methods and instruments;
(B) To contribute to consolidating the knowledge base for the development,
assessment, monitoring and evaluation of environmental policy and legislation;
(C) To support the design and implementation of approaches to monitoring and
assessment of the state of the environment and the factors, pressures and
responses that impact on it;
(D) To facilitate the implementation of Community environmental policy, with
particular emphasis on implementation at local and regional level. The project
is also aimed at meeting one of the main objectives of LIFE + Environment
Policy and Governance ("Engaging public services in the diffusion of
technologies and/or approaches developed by the projects"). In addition,
implementation of this project will mainly affect priority waste and natural
resources, and will also establish three priority areas for LIFE + Environment
Policy and Governance in Annex II of the LIFE + Water Environment Regulation,
i.e., Soil, Noise and Urban Environment.

This present report forms part of task A1: a study of current beach-cast wrack
management practices, consisting of a preliminary analysis of the present situation as
regards seaweed and marine plant (Posidonia oceanica for example, in the
Mediterranean area) management and removal, from the coast to the final treatment
or destination.
Data on the current state of technology for the collection, transportation, storage and
disposal of beach-cast seaweed and other marine plant debris is of great interest to
the coastal municipalities. Therefore, a large number of local councils were considered
in this study, collecting data on the following aspects:

a) Assessment of beach type (stony, sandy, artificial stone, port).

b) Survey of seaweed abundance.
c) Collection techniques employed.
d) Transportation.
e) Storage methods.
f) Disposal.

The project will also include the following sub-actions:

A.1. Development of a guide document comprising the technological
information related to collection, transportation and end-use of beach-cast
seaweed and marine plant waste.
A.2. Development of a guide document comprising legislation, policies and
plans related to the management of beach-cast wrack.
A.3. Development of a guide document comprising economic information
related to the identified procedures for managing beach-cast wrack.
A.4. Study on the environmental cost of using these management systems for
the collection/transportation of beach-cast wrack.

1.2. The Mediterranean case: Posidonia oceanica meadows.

Posidonia oceanica (L.) Delile is a seagrass endemic to the Mediterranean Sea (Figure
2). It forms extensive underwater meadows along the coastline and is present from
the shallowest waters to depths which vary depending on the limit at which there is
sufficient light intensity for photosynthesis to occur (Pergent et al., 1995). Like all
other flowering plants, it has leaves, roots, a stem or rhizome, flowers and fruits. The
leaves are ribbon-like and distichous, forming a tuft around each of the rhizomes
(Figure 3). They grow from a basal meristem for a length of time which varies between
four and eleven months; after this period, the leaves lose their function, essential
nutrients are returned to the plant and they are shed, although they may remain fixed
to the plant for some time.
 Figure 2: Posidonia oceanica meadow (IEL-J.Guilln).
The intensity with which these processes occur presents a certain level of seasonality,
with leaf renewal mainly occurring in late summer and early autumn (Ott, 1980;
McComb et al., 1981; Orth & Moore, 1986; Kirkman & Cook, 1987; Snchez Lizaso,
1993). Posidonia oceanica meadows constitute one of the most productive marine
ecosystems on the planet, hence their importance; they provide a direct or indirect
source of food since a wide variety of organisms grow on the leaves (Battiato et al.,
1982). In addition, they provide shelter to many animals and a place for spawning and
rearing. The meadows also comprise a major element in the nutrient cycle of coastal
ecosystems and in coastal sediment dynamics.
Figure 3: Parts of the plant seagrass (Source: LIFE + Posidonia Andaluca).

Relationship between Posidonia oceanica meadows and sediment.

Seagrasses are highly productive coastal ecosystems that have strong influence on
sedimentation processes (Boudouresque & Jeudy de Grissac 1983; Jeudy de Grissac &
Boudouresque 1985; Blanc & de Jeudy de Grissac 1989; Madsen et al., 2001). Several
studies have emphasised the role of marine plants in modifying hydrodynamics (Amos
et al., 2004), since they promote the deposition of fine sediments and mitigate the
effects of sediment resuspension (Gambi et al, 1990; Fonseca, 1996; Komatsu, 1996;
Gacia et al., 1999). Seagrasses also supply biogenic carbonate particles to the
substrate and contribute to the production of carbonate sediments. The rate at which
seagrass epiphytes produce biogenic carbonate has been quantified as being in the
range of 0.05 a 7.67 g m-2 day-1 (18 to 2,800 g m-2 year-1) (Gacia et al., 2003) and
0.19 to 0.43 g m-2 day-1, equivalent to 69 - 157 g m-2 year-1 (Canals & Ballesteros,
1997). The rate at which Posidonia oceanica epiphytes produce carbonate is generally
lower than in other tropical seagrass meadows . However, the sediments accumulated
in P. oceanica meadows in different parts of the Mediterranean show high
percentages of biogenic carbonate because of the fauna associated with these
ecosystems (Jeudy de Grissac & Boudouresque 1985; Blanc & Jeudy de Grissac, 1989;
Fornos & Ahr, 1997).
Furthermore, Posidonia oceanica has the capacity to adapt its growth rate and the
angle of its rhizome stems to the rate of sediment deposition (Boudouresque & Jeudy
de Grissac, 1983). Thus, P. oceanica eventually forms platforms, or mats, consisting of
a dense network of roots, rhizomes and trapped sediments, which reduce wave energy
and affect the composition of the bottom sediments, preventing resuspension of fine
sediments (Gacia et al., 1999) and enriching them with biogenic waste (Mateo et al.,
1997).

The sedimentary facies of carbonate mud associated with seagrass meadows develop
in accordance with the rate such mud is produced, generally higher in the tropics than
in temperate and subtropical areas where marine sediments can be dominated by
coarse particles of siliciclastic origin (Perry & Beavington-Penney, 2005). Biogenic
carbonate particles are associated with the sediment sand fraction (De Falco et al.,
2000) and may affect the composition of sediments adjacent to the beach (De Falco et
al., 2003). In this regard, studies of the present-day Balearic Islands coast, which
presents low energy slopes, have confirmed that Posidonia oceanica meadows are
associated with infralittoral sedimentary carbonate facies that are mainly composed of
mollusc fragments (Fornos & Ahr, 1997). This association has been used to interpret
depositional environments of past geological formations (Pomar, 2001). Similar
associations have been recorded in platforms to the south of Sardinia (Lecca et al.,
2005).

Moreover, Posidonia oceanica meadows also colonise areas with sediments of

terrestrial origin (e.g. Ligurian coast, northern Italy, Cavazza et al., 2000) and rocky
substrates (De Falco et al, 2003; Di Carlo et. al., 2005), whereas they are generally
absent in coastal river mouths where fine sediments are deposited (Pasqualini et al.,
1998; De Falco et al., 2006), due to the reduced light penetration caused by high
sedimentation rates and turbidity. Hydrodynamics can be a relevant factor in
controlling sedimentation and the growth dynamics of seagrasses (Bostrm et al.,
2006).

The landscape patterns observed in seagrass habitats are often associated with
hydrodynamic disturbances induced by waves (Koch et al., 2006), and loss of Posidonia
oceanica meadows has been reported in coastal areas characterised by a low water
renewal capacity (Orfila et al., 2005).

1.2.2. Formation of wrack beds.

Part of the foliage which is shed from Posidonia oceanica is recycled within the
meadow community itself, whilst another part is exported, either downward into
deeper waters or towards the coast where it reaches the shore. Mounds of leaves and
debris from P. oceanica are commonly found along the Mediterranean coast, forming
structures on the shoreline which measure from a few centimetres to several metres
thick and are mainly composed of leaves, rhizomes and sediments (Figure 4) (Jeudy de
Grissac, 1984; Jeudy de Grissac & Audoly, 1985; Boudouresque & Meisnesz, 1982).

Figure 4: Schematic operation of the Posidonia oceanica's banquettes stopping coastal erosion
(Source: Boudouresque & Meinesz, 1982).

Although wrack beds have often been cited as playing a role in protecting beaches
against erosion (Mateo et al., 2003; Boudouresque & Jeudy de Grissac, 1983), very few
studies have been published on this subject, and wrack beds are usually removed from
Mediterranean beaches and coves in order to facilitate their use for tourism purposes
(Duarte, 2004). The removal of wrack beds can negatively affect beach
geomorphology and the coastal ecosystem, due to permanent loss of nutrients.

The accumulation of plant debris on beaches is closely associated with wave action.
Mateo et al., (2003) proposed a theoretical sequence of formation and destruction of
wrack beds, describing an initial phase of debris deposition followed by a subsequent
increase in size up to the maximum height. Once deposited, wrack beds are eroded at
the base by wave action, creating a progressively deeper overhang until the beds
eventually collapse. The same authors have also reported that maximum dimensions
are attained during the winter, due to severe storm conditions (Mateo et al., 2003).

According to Simenone (2008), deposition of plant debris and sediment occurs when
wave energy begins to subside. The landward limit of wrack beds marks the maximum
wave run-up, and wrack bed deposition occurs towards the sea following a reduction
in acceleration. Sediment and rhizomes form the heaviest material in this debris, and
these are deposited on the backshore; thus, there is a higher concentration and
biomass of rhizomes on the backshore (82.2 55.7 kg m -3 and 0.15 kg 0.07 kg -1,
respectively) than on the beach (20.3 21.9 kg m -3 and 0.05 0.02 kg kg -1 ,
respectively). Rhizomes are mainly found on high energy beaches, and the loss of
rhizomes from seagrass meadows requires storm conditions (Preen et al., 1995).

According to Simeone (2008), the removal of 1000 m3 of beach-cast wrack also entails
the loss of 19-44 m3 of sediment. Removal is mainly conducted using heavy machinery
unequipped with any kind of screening system that would enable the release of
sediments located at the base of the wrack beds. Thus, the removal of beach-cast
wrack can lead over several years to the concurrent removal from beaches of
significant volumes of sediment, which may substantially disturb the sediment balance,
especially on beaches characterised by low sedimentary input.
2. RESULTS

2.1. Technological information related to the collection, transportation and final

use of beach-cast seaweed/marine plant debris.
2.1.1. Report on the types of European coastline (cliffs, sand, pebbles, etc.)

This report refers solely to the coastal zone, a unique physical and natural space of
considerable economic and productive importance. Coastal areas are characterised by
their enormous dynamism and complex processes, the result of their transitional
nature as an intertidal ecotone. Due to the multiple interactions between phenomena,
a comprehensive analysis is required that takes into account the fragility and
vulnerability of these spaces.

The term "coast" refers to a relatively narrow strip situated on either side of the point
of contact between the land and the sea. The United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP, 1995) defines it spatially as the geographical area where accumulations of
biological debris of plant origin are deposited on the shoreline by external geodynamic
agents. According to a modified version of the UNEP scheme by Barragan (2003), the
following areas can be distinguished: The intertidal area, an area of tidal action which
varies in size depending on location; the coastline, the geographical area used to
define the boundary of the land surface according to specific criteria, normally the
spring high tide; and lastly, the shoreline, an area of land displaying different coastal
geomorphological forms.

An examination of the coastline shows that its given length varies considerably
depending on to the source consulted. Such differences are due to the map scale
used, since cartographic generalisation means that the representation of the coastline
is distorted as the scale decreases. This phenomenon is common to all environments,
although the data are generally less reliable the larger the geographical area covered
since in this case small scales are normally used which present less sinuous outlines,
with the consequent underestimation of length.

The European continent has an extensive and varied coastline as a result of its
geographical location. Albentosa (2003) has suggested that Europe can be described as
an Asian peninsula forming part of a triangle, the base of which is located in the East,
with a series of isthmuses ranging in distance from 2,800 km between the Caspian and
Black seas, to 400 km between the Gulf of Lion and the Bay of Biscay. Thus, there is a
progressive narrowing as latitude decreases, and this reduction in width favours
penetration by the sea, endowing Europe with the most extensive coastline of any
continent; it has been calculated that there is 1 km of coastline for every 260 km2 of
land (Albentosa, 2003). The same author has also indicated that Europe generally
presents emergent coastlines which are low, regular and relatively uniform in the
eastern sector, whereas there is maximum development in the western sector and
greater diversity, resulting in a more indented coastline (Figure 5).

As part of the Eurosion (2005) project, the length of the coastline was calculated in
order to classify stretches of the coastline according to erosion processes and assess
levels of coastline retreat. In 2001, the European coastline
Table I: Erosion by coastal types (Eurosion, 2005).
Figure 5: Types of coast in Europe (EEA, 2005).
The geographical range of European territory means that its coastlines extend through
six major biogeographic regions, namely the Mediterranean, Atlantic, Continental,
Boreal, Alpine and Arctic regions. The application of an abundance index, in this case
the MSA, which compares current composition with a hypothetical original state, is
useful for determining the degree to which the coastline has conserved its natural
state. Expressed as a percentage, where 100% is the optimal state, the Black Sea
region is the best preserved followed by the Mediterranean and the Baltic, and lastly,
the Northeast Atlantic. The Black Sea scores slightly above 50%, while on the opposite
side, the Northeast Atlantic score is close to 40% (Lavalle et al., 2011). Naturalness
serves as an indicator of the pressure exerted by human activity, although other
aspects such as primary productivity or type of marine flora should also be considered;
the present report will focus on the Spanish coastline.

The Spanish coastline is approximately 8,000 km long, of which about 3,000 km belong
to the Canary and Balearic Islands (Spanish Ministry of Public Works, 1989). The
Atlantic Ocean coastline is 4,600 km long, 70% of which is located in only two regions,
the Canary Islands and Galicia. Insularity and the presence of estuaries endow this
coastline with an indented nature which consequently increases its length. Meanwhile,
the Mediterranean coastline is 3,200 km long, of which 40% corresponds to the
Balearic Islands. The Mediterranean is an enclosed sea and thus has a negative water
balance, endowing it with different physical and chemical conditions to the Atlantic
Ocean. The sea meets the ocean at the Strait of Gibraltar, making Andalusia the only
Autonomous Region in Spain with both types of coastline.

The interaction of constructive and destructive morphogenetic processes creates low

or high coastlines depending on whether land-sea contact occurs on flat or steep
areas. The overall shape of the Spanish coastline is mainly influenced by the peripheral
arrangement of the basic relief units and tilting towards the west of the plateau. This
has resulted in a coastline where 51% presents cliffs, 33% is high and the remaining
16% is low, according to data from the Spanish Ministry of Public Works (1989). Low
coastline only accounts for 16% of the total length, while artificial works such as port
infrastructures represent 7%. Beaches make up 25% of the Spanish coastline and are
predominantly composed of sand, in a ratio of 4-1 with respect to those formed by
deposits of shingle (Spanish Ministry of Public Works, 1989) (Figure 6).
Figure 6: Coastal geomorphology in Spain (Barragn, 2004).

There are marked differences in the Iberian Peninsula between the Mediterranean and
Atlantic coasts, primarily due to the lower influence of glacial transgressions on the
Mediterranean marine flora and to the absence of tides. The most important tools for
coastal biodiversity conservation in Spain are Council Directive 92/43/EEC of the 21
May 1992, on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora, and
Directive 2009/147/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of the 30
November 2009, on the conservation of wild birds. The marine habitats identified in
Spain and listed in the Habitats Directive are: sandbanks permanently covered by
shallow sea water (1110), Posidonia oceanica meadows (1120), estuaries (1130),
mudflats and sandflats not covered by sea water at low tide (1140), coastal lagoons
(1150), large shallow inlets and bays (1160), reefs (1170), submarine structures made
by leaking gases (1180), and submerged or partially submerged sea caves (8330).

The Spanish Inventory of Natural Heritage and Biodiversity established by Law

42/2007, of December 13, on Natural Heritage and Biodiversity, requires the Ministry
of Agriculture, Food and the Environment, in collaboration with the Autonomous
Regions and scientific institutions and organisations, to compile and maintain an
updated list of the marine habitats and species present on Spanish coasts. This
inventory is in the process of being compiled, and in March 2013, the first master list
of marine habitats was published, covering zoning into vertical sections and their
biogeographic distribution.

2.1.2. Seaweed abundance survey.

There is no established record of the abundance of seaweeds or marine plant debris

on European coasts, not even on a national scale. All that exists are a few isolated
studies on a specific area over a given period, which usually refer to areas where the
accumulation of seaweed represents an environmental problem, as is the case of the
Baltic and the Adriatic coastlines, or to areas where seaweed is regularly removed in
order to encourage tourist use of the beaches, as is predominantly the case in the
Mediterranean as a result of deposits of Posidonia oceanica.

a) The Baltic
In a study conducted on the Swedish town of Trelleborg, located on the shores of the
Baltic Sea, it was reported that an annual amount of 23,400 tons of seaweed (mostly
fucoids) is deposited along the town's beaches (Detox Biogas AB, 2010).

b) The Canary Islands

The CosCo project ("Regional Development for Coastal Cooperation on the marine
plant cycle and seaweed concentration", co-financed by the Community Initiative
INTERREG IIIC 2004-2007, Portillo, 2008) provides data on the composition, quantity,
causes and management of wrack beds on the Canary Islands, and on the island of
Gran Canaria in particular. According to this report, wrack beds composed of seaweed
and marine plants are common in different parts of the island throughout the year, but
only occur following an episode of very high waves. The magnitude of deposition
usually depends on the strength of the waves, whether similar or stronger events have
occurred previously, the vegetation cover in the affected area at that time of year, and
above all, whether subsequent local oceanographic conditions (currents, wave type,
tides, etc.) mean that the wrack is thrown onto the nearby beaches or is carried into
deeper waters.
The total amount of seaweed and marine plants in the beach-cast wrack removed by
the cleaning services of the different municipalities on the island of Gran Canaria was
1130-2500 t fresh weight per year -1 (equivalent to 2000-4500 t fresh weight per year-
1 when sand, stones and other debris are included).

Only 3% of the total amount of wrack removed corresponded to the once abundant
wrack composed of seagrass from the Island's most important seagrass meadows,
namely Cymodocea nodosa and Zostera marina; 27% corresponded to wrack formed of
Cystoseira spp. from the east and southeast, and the remaining 70% to wrack
composed of a wide variety of seaweeds (Lobophora, Hypnea, Pterocladia, Ulva,
Sargassum, etc.).

The large amount of seaweed and marine plants cast onto different Canary Island
beaches every year plays an important ecological role when not removed, acting as a
natural barrier against wave erosion (McLachIan et al., 1985), forming embryonic
dunes and contributing organic matter and nutrients to the dune plant communities
(Roig & Martin Prieto, 2005), as well as being a source of food for many invertebrates
that in turn provide food for insects, seabirds and juvenile fish, etc. (Lenanton et al.,
1982; Griffiths et al., 1983; Ochieng & Erftermeijer, 1999). Therefore, removal of
beach-cast wrack is only justified when it is essential to ensure optimal sanitary
conditions for the use and enjoyment of beaches. On the Canary Islands, the wrack
beds removed from beaches by the different cleaning services often contain a
substantial percentage of sand; thus removal has a considerable environmental impact
as well as precluding the possibility of reusing any of the organic material present.
Most current removal systems are based on the direct use of unspecialised heavy
machinery (tractors with a standard loader) unequipped with accessories such as a
grapple fork for selective and optimal removal of beach-cast wrack (Portillo, 2008).

c) Coastwatch surveys: Andalusia

The annual surveys conducted by school children and volunteers participating in the
Coastwatch Programme provide information about the presence of seaweed and
seagrass at each of the localities surveyed (Table II). However, these surveys are
skewed and do not cover the entire coastline, and thus the information does not serve
as a uniform reference for the whole of Europe.

Provinces / % presence Seagrasses Algae

Almera 64,00% 60,00%
Cdiz 0,00% 100,00%
Huelva 15,63% 40,63%

Table II: Percentage of presence of algae and seagrasses in different coastal Andalusian
provinces as Coastwatch campaign 2011.
d) Ibiza
Calculations by Roig & Martin (2010) for the Ibiza Island Council indicate an average of
9,899 t year-1 across the island, based on an average for the years 2004 to 2008.
2.1.3. Estimations based on surveys: Spain

As part of the present project, a survey was carried out of Spanish coastal
municipalities, with the aim of determining quantities and management of beach-cast
wrack on Spanish beaches and coastlines. 17 local councils responsible for the
Mediterranean, Atlantic and Canary Island coasts responded, accounting for a total of
236 beaches and 193 km of beach.

Fourteen of these municipalities are located on the Spanish Mediterranean coast

(Formentera, Menorca, Benidorm, El Campello, Orihuela, Pilar de la Horadada, Santa
Pola, Villajoyosa, Jvea, Vinaroz, Xilxes, Torreblanca, Lorca y Torredembarra). One
response was received from the Canary Islands, one from the Galician coast (Arteixo)
and one from the Andalusian Atlantic coast (Punta Umbria). Wrack beds composed of
Posidonia oceanica debris predominated (76.92%) in most Mediterranean
municipalities, compared to those consisting of seaweed (Figure 7) in municipalities
which do not fulfil some of the environmental requirements for the extensive
development of seagrass meadows. In contrast, beach-cast wrack on the Atlantic

Figure 7: Composition of vegetable residues in Spanish's beaches.

coasts analysed primarily consisted of various seaweed species.

One extremely interesting aspect of the data obtained from the survey is that there is
a clear relationship in several Alicante municipalities (El Campello, Pilar de la
Horadada, Villajoyosa and Santa Pola) between storm dynamics and tons of wrack
beds removed. In 2011, there was a higher frequency of storms in the Levante than is
usually recorded in an average year, with an exceptional event in March 2011 when
waves reached 4 metres high. This intensification in marine storm dynamics was
reflected in the responses provided by the municipal authorities.

Figure 8 shows some other results obtained from the survey, such as an analysis of the
final destination of marine plant debris removed from beaches. As can be seen in the
Figure, most of the debris is taken to landfill sites (57%), with only 11% being used for
agricultural purposes (compost, soil improver, etc.) or for livestock farming (16%),
notably as stable bedding, and a mere 9% is used for environmental purposes such as
dune restoration (Fig. 8a). Nevertheless, the majority of municipal officers considered
that this waste played an important ecological role (88.24%), compared to only 11.76%
who felt it had no function whatsoever. Among beach users, 88.24% viewed beach-
cast wrack as rubbish, and only 5.88% considered it to be a natural element. On the
reasons behind the presence of this debris, 60% of users believed that the local
councils were primarily responsible, 6.67% attributed responsibility to tourists, and
only 13.33% responded that ocean currents were the cause of this phenomenon (Fig.
8b).

Despite being an argument commonly used to justify the removal of seaweed, the
survey revealed that the local councils received relatively few complaints; no more
than 10 in 61.5% of cases, and only more than 50 in 7.6% of the municipalities
surveyed (Fig. 8c). This contrasts with the substantial budget allocated by local councils
for the removal and treatment of beach-cast wrack (Fig. 8d), which in some cases
exceeds one million Euros for disposal, although most councils reported annual costs
of less than 25,000 Euros.
Figure 8: a) Destination of Beach's Plant residues; b) Opinion of users about the cause of the
plant bearing wastes on beaches; c) Annual number of complaints from users about the plant
bearing wastes on beaches; d) Annual economic cost of cleaning up plant debris on beaches.

2.1.4. Storage methods

The types of storage or process employed depend primarily on the end use made of
the material collected. Seaweed and seagrass have various applications, including
pharmaceutical, industrial, agricultural, livestock, construction, textile and
environmental uses, or they may simply be transferred to landfill sites.

Below, a description is given of the various treatments applied to Posidonia oceanica

debris, depending on the end use or purpose.

2.1.4.1. Methods of Posidonia oceanica storage

In an initial phase, the wrack is collected from the shoreline by heavy machinery and is
usually stored on the sand for a few days to facilitate aeration and drying. Once it has
drained, it is transferred into skips or directly into trucks for transport. According to
information obtained in the project survey, over half of beach-cast wrack (55%) in
Spain is taken to landfill sites. In this case, debris composed of Posidonia oceanica and
other flowering plants and seaweeds is not subject to any special processing and is
treated in the same way as any other waste. This is a common phenomenon in other
countries with a Mediterranean coastline; for example, beach-cast wrack in Tunisia is
generally disposed of via burying or removal to a landfill site, the main and often only
solution to date. In consequence, vast amounts of P. oceanica and organic matter are
lost (Wahab et al., 2011).

2.1.4.1.1. Storage of Posidonia oceanica debris for compost

In order to obtain compost from Posidonia oceanica waste, several preliminary steps
are required in order to eliminate sand, salts and water, because:
The kind of heavy machinery used to remove Posidonia oceanica and seaweed
from the beach means that large amounts of sand are also collected during
cleaning operations. Thus, treatment of this material must include not only use
of the organic fraction, but also removal of salts and separation of the sand, so
that it can be returned to the beach. Due to the complexity of the process, the
goal should not be to completely remove salt and sand content, but to reduce it
to a concentration that does not interfere with the final composition of the
compost. Thus, in the initial phase, sand content is reduced via mechanical
stirring and sifting.
Salt content must also be reduced. The material collected is washed several
times until the water used presents constant conductivity values. Distilled water
can be used for the final wash. The saline effluent generated by this process is
then suitably treated.
It is also necessary to pulverise and shred the plant debris by mechanical
means, reducing the size and volume of the material in order to obtain the
greatest contact surface with the air.

Once these processes have been carried out, the treated Posidonia oceanica debris is
stacked into ricks in order to facilitate ventilation, since large amounts of oxygen are
necessary if the organic matter is to ferment. This is a natural process and does not
require chemicals or enzymes. Oxygen and water are essential elements in
composting, ensuring decomposition and limiting the formation of anaerobic zones,
which would cause putrefaction and an unpleasant odour. The ricks are periodically
turned to promote mixing of dry and wet zones and thus maintain the fermentation
process.
2.1.4.1.2. Storage of Posidonia oceanica for use in livestock farming

This is a traditional use of this resource, although no longer employed to any great
extent. Posidonia oceanica foliage has been used as fodder for livestock, once the salt
content has been removed. This is achieved by washing several times with fresh water
and then piling the leaves into stacks to aerate and dry.

However, the most widespread use is as livestock bedding, since the plant has
antifungal and antibacterial properties as a result of its content in various herbicidal
substances, such as hydroxybenzoic acid and p-hydroxybenzaldehyde, which have a
biocidal action. In this case, Posidonia oceanica debris is stored in small heaps or
spread out over a wide area in order to dry the leaves and rhizomes. Since washing
with fresh water is not involved, drying is faster because the natural drying process
which commenced on the beach is not interrupted.

2.1.4.1.3. Storage of Posidonia oceanica for industrial uses

Several studies and experiments have been conducted on the use of products obtained
from Posidonia oceanica for the pharmaceutical and textile industries and for water
purification and construction. In most cases, possible applications in these fields are
still at the experimental stage, and therefore large-scale storage of this resource for
subsequent treatment does not yet occur.

Examples include the study by Gokce and Heznedaroglu (2008), who obtained an
extract from the leaves of Posidonia oceanica which showed good antioxidant, anti-
diabetic and vasoprotective properties. First, the epiphytes were extracted from the
leaves and then the foliage was dried at room temperature in a dark room. Since the
study was conducted in a research laboratory, large amounts of P. oceanica were
neither required nor stored for this purpose.

The use of Posidonia oceanica fibres as a precursor of activated carbon for

environmental purposes has also been studied (Ncibi et al., 2008). The fibres were
prepared and characterised through various phases of pyrolysis and temperature
changes. Activated carbons were produced following the application of steam jets for
different periods of activation. These experiments employed the basal part of the
leaves, after washing with distilled water and drying for 48 hours at 40C. The fibres
were extracted manually, indicating the small scale at which the study was conducted.
Consequently, large amounts of P. oceanica were neither required nor stored for this
purpose.

Other studies have investigated the capacity of this plant to purify water from different
sources. In particular, Posidonia oceanica fibres possess a significant capacity for the
adsorption and removal of dissolved phosphorus, with consequent agricultural
applications. The system developed by Wahab et al. (2011) demonstrated good
performance in the removal of soluble phosphorus as a tertiary treatment for
secondary urban effluent. These authors have suggested that their method presents
considerable advantages over applications as a nutrient and fertiliser for compost. As
with the previous examples, this study was also conducted on a small scale, washing
and drying the samples and removing the fibres manually.

2.1.5. Methods of disposal and transportation.

Mounds of seagrass meadow debris are common in many coastal areas, frequently
remaining undisturbed for long periods of time. In the case of Posidonia oceanica, it is
generally claimed that wrack bed formation occurs most frequently after the annual
leaf renewal period (late summer and early autumn). However, debris can be cast
onto the beach throughout the year as a result of strong storms, as illustrated by
Figures 9 and 10 below, which show the same area of Muchavista Beach (El Campello,
Alicante) in two different seasons.
Figure 9: View of Muchavista beach (Alicante) in December 2012, devoid of banquettes.
 Figure 10: Same location as in picture above, after Eastern wind storms in April 2013.

As can be seen, following a series of easterly storms with peak wave heights of 2.2 m
(Alicante buoy, State Ports: see Figure 11), large wrack beds composed of Posidonia
oceanica appeared along this stretch of the Alicante coast. These mounds were
formed in March 2013, during a period which did not therefore coincide with the leaf
renewal cycle, and consisted both of living mats, uprooted by the force of the waves,
and leaves shed several months earlier which had accumulated on the infralittoral
floor near the Posidonia oceanica meadow biotic community.

Figure 11: Wave height significant recorded by the buoy of Alicante. Will reach 2,2 m
on 28 February. Puertos del Estado.
Consequently, removal and transportation may be required throughout the entire
year, and particularly after strong storms, whether or not these coincide with the leaf
renewal cycle.

According to studies conducted by Duarte (2004), for each km of Posidonia oceanica

meadow, about 125 kg of dry matter is deposited annually per km of beach. In the
Mediterranean region, where summer tourism is one of the principle economic
activities, beach-cast mounds of P. oceanica are often removed because they are
believed to reduce the value of the beaches, mainly for aesthetic reasons (Duarte
2004, Mateo et al., 2003). However, removal can have a negative impact on beach
geomorphology, both in terms of the sediment balance and as regards nutrient loss.
Seaweed and seagrass can be harvested for use as biomass (Kirkman & Kendrick 1997;
PIRSA, 2003) or to facilitate recreational use of the beaches for tourism (Ochieng &
Erftmeijer, 1999) in different coastal areas around the world.

2.1.5.1. Stages and machinery involved in cleaning beaches.

The collection of seaweed and seagrass on sandy beaches is usually carried out in
several stages. In the case of large beach-cast mounds of seagrass such as the leaves
and rhizomes of Posidonia oceanica, tractors are used to collect the large piles
together with sand, etc. This material is then unloaded into a skip or directly into the
trailer of an accompanying vehicle.
Figure 12: Machines performing the first banquettes removal.

Figure 13: View of different machines doing the work of banquettes crossover.
The impact of cleaning operations could be reduced by using machinery with grapple
forks that would allow the sediment collected together with the wrack to filter out.
Similarly, use of a grapple fork attached to the loader would improve drainage of
trapped water and its return to the beach. Time spent in cleaning would thus be
optimised by reducing the intervals between stages.

Figure 14: Adapted machinery which has been replaced by a classic blade clamps.
The wrack thus collected is left on another area of the beach for a given period of time
in order to aerate and dry. During this time, it loses water and gradually dries out,
facilitating transport to a landfill site. As the water it contained is released, the wrack
loses weight and volume, saving transport costs and avoiding problems caused by
runoff of materials dissolved in the water.

Figure 15: Accumulation of banquettes for drying process.

 Figure 16: Accumulation of banquettes for drying process.

Once the first stage of wrack bed collection is complete, or when there is only a small
quantity of organic material, tractors equipped with rakes are employed to gather and
pile the waste for subsequent removal.
Figure 17: Tractor equipped for cleaning sand beaches.
Figure 18: Accumulation of Cymodocea nodosa banquettes.
In the third stage, implemented once the largest mounds of beach-cast wrack have
been collected or simply for beach maintenance, screening machines are used in which
power is supplied via a power take-off from the tractor to a drive shaft and from this to
the gear train, which transmits rotary motion to the spiked roller via a system of
pulleys and belts. Another part of the power is transmitted to the roller shaft which
rotates the screen for sieving sand.

Figure 19: Sand sieving machine.

Depending on the moisture content of the sand, these machines can treat a greater or
lesser quantity of sand. In the case of sediments with a high moisture content, the
most powerful machines can treat a surface area of approximately 15,000 m2 beach
per hour. When the sand is dry, up to 30,000 m 2 of beach can be treated per hour,
digging about 30 cm deep, depending on the size of the machinery.

2.2. Laws, ordinances, memoranda and best practice guidelines for waste
collection on European coastlines.

There is no specific legislation pertaining to the removal of waste on beaches, and each
member state of the European Union applies its own country-specific regulations
regarding solid waste collection.
A summary of some of the most important European legislation is given below:
1989 Community Strategy for Waste Management. Council Resolution of May
7, 1990 (R4).
1996 review of the Community Strategy for Waste Management. Council
Resolution of December 11, 1996 (R5). Community Strategy for Waste
Management. Council Resolution of February 24, 1997 (R6).
Directive 75/442/EEC of 15 July 1975 on waste.
Directive 91/156/EEC of 18 March 1991, amending Directive 75/442/EEC on
waste.
Council directive 1999/31/EC of 26 April 1999 on the landfill of waste.
Biological treatment of biodegradable waste. European Commission. Working
Paper. 2001.

By country, the following legislation can be mentioned:

France:
Loi 92-646 de 13 Juillet de 1992 relative llimination des dchets
ainsi quaux installations classes pour la protection de
lenvironnement.
Loi 95-101 de 2 Fvrier de 1995 relative au renforcement de la
protection de lenvironnement.
Germany:
Technical Instructions on Waste from Human Settlements (TA
Siedlungsabfall-TASi). Germany 1993 (R81). Closed Substance Cycle
Waste Management Act of 27th September 1994. Germany 1994
(R82).
Ordinance on Environmentally Compatible Storage of Waste from
Human Settlements and on Biological Waste-Treatment Facilities.
10th February 2001. Germany 2001.
Italy:
DL 22/97: Attuazione delle direttive 91/156/CEE sui rifiuti,
91/689/CEE sui rifiuti pericolosi e 94/62/CE sugli imballaggi e sui
rifiuti di imballaggio.
Circular No. 8123/2006, of 17 March 2006, of the Ministry of the
Environment, Land and Sea on "Management of beach-cast
Posidonia". This circular emphasises the importance of beach-cast
 Posidonia oceanica, both for its ecological role and its contribution
to retaining beach sediments, but also addresses the conflict which
arises between the need to maintain beach-cast P. oceanica from
an ecological point of view and the use of beaches for tourism
purposes, since putrefying wrack beds are unpopular with bathers.
Spain:
Law 10/1998, of 21 April, on waste.
Royal Decree 1481/2001, of 27 December, regulating the disposal of
waste by landfill.

A fundamental criterion established in one of the most important guidelines and

recommendations, the 2013 Guide to Blue Flag Beach Criteria (Spanish Association of
Environmental and Consumer Education, 2013), is that beach-cast seaweed and plant
debris should not be removed unless its accumulation and decay are clearly
problematic and unhealthy, since these materials are considered a natural component
of the marine ecosystem. According to this mandate, coastal zones should be
considered as natural and living environments, and not merely as a local recreational
"asset" which must be kept clean. Therefore, management of beach-cast seaweed and
other plant debris should be sensitive both to the needs of visitors and to the
maintenance of coastal biodiversity. Thus, the guide states that seaweed and other
plant debris are deposited on beaches via natural processes involving tides and waves
and that this is an inevitable phenomenon which should be accepted, wherever it is
not clearly detrimental to beach users. In practice, this means that wrack should not be
allowed to accumulate to the point that it constitutes a danger or represents a health
hazard for the public, but should only be removed when absolutely necessary, and this
must be done in an environmentally friendly manner, for example, by converting it
into compost or fertiliser. This same guide also recommends consulting experts in the
field on the management of these natural elements, wherever possible.

Thus, in some places, seaweed and other marine plant debris are left to dry for
subsequent use as fertiliser, or are used to stabilise the dunes. Since this constitutes
good practice, it should not be discouraged. Nevertheless, there also exists a need to
ensure that no harm is caused to beach users. On large and busy beaches where the
sand is cleaned mechanically, limitations and recommendations concerning the
minimal presence of vehicles on beaches should be observed, and steps should be
taken to progressively raise user awareness about the subject of beach-cast wrack. In
natural areas, however, the use of machinery to clean beaches is not recommended.

According to the Spanish Association of Environmental and Consumer Education

(2013), the waste removed from beaches should be transferred to facilities that
possess the relevant administrative authorisation so as to ensure that the waste
disposal process is carried out in accordance with established legislation.

The National Catalogue of Endangered Species (Royal Decree 139/2011) classifies

Posidonia oceanica as a priority species, and strict enforcement of this decree would
preclude its removal since it is prohibited to remove the remains of priority species or
habitats. However, it is not clear whether the decree applies to the totality of P.
oceanica or solely to plants growing in protected areas listed in the Natura 2000
network. This uncertainty was reflected in the survey results; 76.47% of municipal
officials responded that no legislation existed to prevent the removal of beach-cast
wrack, 11.76% considered that such legislation did exist, and the rest did not know.

In an attempt to address these problems, coastal municipalities have adopted different

approaches, including collection, with high economic costs, and payment of fees for
the disposal of this accumulated biomass in landfill sites. It is difficult to establish a
single management model, since it is necessary to adopt flexible solutions tailored to
the specific location and social and economic context of each case (Bovina et al., 2007).

Leaving beach-cast wrack undisturbed: this is the best solution from an

ecological point of view, and should be adopted wherever it does not conflict
with the requirements of swimming and beach use, and at coastal sites subject
to significant erosion. It is also an appropriate approach for marine protected
areas. Its effectiveness is increased through information and awareness-raising
campaigns. As regards health and hygiene, the scientific data do not indicate
that exposure to beach-cast biomass represents a hazard to human health.
Removing beach-cast wrack: biomass can be stored on land by transporting it
to areas away from the beach for storage, for example on beaches which are
inaccessible or rarely visited by bathers or on the beaches with severe erosion.
Removal may even be seasonal, taking it away in the summer and returning it
to the place of origin during the winter.
 Removal, transportation and disposal: where real incompatibilities exist
between the accumulation of biomass and beach use (putrefaction, plant
debris mixed with waste), wrack beds can be removed and treated as municipal
solid waste in accordance with the legislation.

Other countries, such as the USA or Australia, do have specific legislation concerning
when and how beaches must be cleaned. In the USA, such legislation is above all due
to the need to preserve turtle eggs laid on beaches in Florida and other locations,
where cleaning machinery could destroy the nests. Nevertheless, it also recommends
not removing beach-cast wrack due to its importance for marine ecosystems. Where
cleaning is considered necessary, authorisation must first be obtained from the State
of Florida. However, the most comprehensive beach cleaning legislation in terms of
environmental criteria is without a doubt that of Australia, specifically that of the state
of South Australia (Department of Primary Industries and Resources of South Australia:
PIRSA), which limits the use of heavy machinery to clean beaches and prohibits
cleaning within 4 m from the base of the dunes or in the low tide zone. Any debris
removed must be gathered and left to dry before being reused as fertiliser or soil
improver.

2.3. Recommendations for marine plant debris management.

Figures for Sardinia (Simeone, 2008) show that 80% of the total volume of wrack
removed from beaches is taken to unauthorised plants and 20% is treated as municipal
solid waste. On average, the cost of disposing of municipal solid waste is 100
Euros/ton, implying a total cost of more than 2 million Euros if all the material
removed were to be treated at authorised plants.

Few case studies have been conducted by environmental agencies in the

Mediterranean region regarding management of the sand removed from sandy
beaches in the course of collecting wrack beds composed of Posidonia oceanica.
Examples from other parts of the world have been assessed in order to identify
guidelines related to the management of, for example, emergent sandy beaches or
meadows harvested for biomass in southern Australia (Kirkman & Kendrick, 1997;
PIRSA, 2003). This activity is regulated by the Government of South Australia (PIRSA,
2003) in order to minimise the impact of seaweed and the removal of beach-cast
wrack. In particular, the Government of South Australia has identified the potential
impacts of marine meadow and seaweed extraction as regards altering coastal
geomorphology, disturbing coastal ecosystems and loss of bird habitats (Kirkman &
Kendrick 1997; PIRSA, 2003). Seagrass meadow extraction in southern Australia is
subject to environmental impact assessment and the specific regulations are
summarised in Table III.

Potential impact PIRSA (2003) Study of Sardinia

recommendations (Simeone, 2007)
Coastal Morphodynamic Limits the use of heavy Mainly heavy machinery is
geomorphology changes to beaches machinery, restricting used; vehicle access to
as a result of vehicular beach access to beaches is not regulated.
erosion. established tracks.
Wrack beds are removed
Removal of plant debris from low energy beaches,
limited to a distance of 4 from the shoreline to the
metres from the base of base of the dunes.
dunes, and prohibited
below the low water line.
Beach erosion due Direct extraction of sand is Sediment trapped in the
to the removal of prohibited. wrack beds and sand is
sediments. inadvertently removed.
About 10 cm of seaweed is
left on the beach. All beach-cast Posidonia
oceanica is removed.
Destination of Waste production. Storage of seaweed and 80% of the extracted
the extracted seagrasses in fields to allow material is dumped in
material. decomposition over several unauthorised areas.
years before use as a soil
 improver or garden mulch.

Table III: Environmental effects of the removal of algae on the beaches and comparison
between the cases of South Australia and Sardinia.

The comparison conducted by De Falco et al. between the PIRSA recommendations

and the management procedures implemented in Sardinia (2007) yielded similar
results to those observed in the present study for the Spanish Mediterranean, in that
the recommendations adopted in South Australia are not currently observed on
Mediterranean beaches or along the rest of the European coastline. Although there
are clear differences between Australian and Mediterranean beaches, the general
guidelines proposed by PIRSA (2003) could nevertheless be easily adapted to improve
management of wrack removal in the Mediterranean region and Europe.

In particular, the following measures could be taken in order to minimise the impact
on the coastal zone of removing Posidonia oceanica wrack:
1. Disposal should be avoided during the winter and spring, when storms are most
likely to occur.
2. The use of heavy machinery should be limited and vehicle access should be
regulated. These measures would minimise any impact on beach geomorphology.
3. The material removed should be sieved and a layer of Posidonia oceanica (i.e., 10
cm thick) should be left on the beach in order to limit loss of sand.
4. Rather than dumping Posidonia oceanica debris, it would be preferable to create
temporary sites where it could be stored and left to decompose over several years
until it is suitable for use as a soil improver. The cost of recycling P. oceanica
debris should in part be offset by savings in transport costs and landfill fees at
MSW plants.

Management measures could include the obligation to conduct an environmental

impact study before authorising removal of wrack.

2.4. Environmental cost of using these management systems for the collection/
transportation of marine plant debris.
2.4.1. Introduction and formulation of the problem

Beaches are coastal areas composed of accumulations of sediments of various particle

sizes, originating mainly from river channels, gullies, ravines and streams. They
separate the sea from the land and consequently accumulate deposits from both
sources, prompting the practice of intensive, systematic cleaning of these natural areas
by mechanical means. This is conducted without regard to environmental and
geomorphological management criteria, reducing coastal biodiversity, altering beach
profiles and causing sediment loss.
In order to assess the impact of cleaning systems on beaches, it is first necessary to
gain an understanding of the important environmental functions that wrack fulfils on
beaches. In the sections that follow, a detailed description is given of the role played
by beach-cast wrack composed of Posidonia oceanica.

For several decades, beach management has been heavily influenced by a concern to
meet basic hygiene standards and to install recreational and leisure services for users,
rather than being based on a consideration of these spaces as natural, fragile and
dynamic elements (Roig-Munar, 2004). Beaches are highly profitable; according to
Yepes (2002), Benidorm beach has been calculated to generate 12,000 per year-1 m-
2. This fact often tips the balance towards criteria which favour profitability over
environmental costs. However, the act of conditioning beaches for functional use has
produced severe problems in terms of the conservation and stability of coastal systems
(Roig-Munar, 2003), problems which are evident not only in the medium to long term,
but which can also become apparent on an annual scale.

2.4.2. The role of wrack beds in ensuring beach stability

Although few studies have been conducted on this subject, numerous scientific articles
have attributed an important role to wrack beds as protective elements against beach
erosion (Mateo et al., 2003; Boudouresque & Jeudy 1983), especially during moderate
intensity storms. It therefore follows that beach-cast wrack may affect beach
geomorphology, and that its removal could have a negative impact.

Wrack often forms a wedge-like structure on the shoreline measuring from a few
centimetres to several metres thick, known as wrack beds. Thus, Posidonia oceanica
may protect the beach from erosion; in the submerged part, by the mats formed by
the meadow near its upper limit (Jeudy de Grissac, 1984; Jeudy de Grissac &
Boudouresque, 1985), which raise the seabed and influence the shape of the beach
profile (Basterretxea et al., 2004), and in the exposed part by the wrack beds deposited
on the shoreline.
 The equilibrium profile of the shoreline is the subject of much debate among experts in
the morphodynamics of sandy beaches. Jeudy de Grissac & Boudouresque (1985) and
Basterretxea et al. (2004) have emphasised the role of Posidonia oceanica mats in
influencing beach profiles, and consider that the loss of P. oceanica meadows could
alter the beach profile, causing it to retreat. In turn, this process leads to an increase
in the slope of the seabed, and the beach tends to return to the original slope due to
the local hydrodynamic conditions, causing the coast to retreat. Basterretxea et al.
(2004) attempted to quantify the effect of P. oceanica reefs on beaches and found that
energy is dissipated over the meadows, with the consequence that the loss of seagrass
meadows would result in a redistribution of sediments towards more dispersed forms
and the probable subterranean erosion of the beach area.

Figure 20 depicts the interaction between Posidonia oceanica meadows and beach
dynamics.

Figura 20: Interaction between fields of P. oceanica and beach profile (Simeone, 2008).

In the wrack beds composed of Posidonia oceanica studied in Dnia (Spain), in the
context of a LIFE project on an experimental plant for recycling seaweed and plant
debris conducted in 1998 (IEL, 1998), it was found that the volume of sand found in
fresh wrack was always much less than that of Posidonia oceanica debris. As regards
the quantity of seaweed found in wrack beds, this decreased over time as a result of
decomposition, since the majority of the species consisted of filamentous algae. The
proportion also varied over time depending on storm frequency and intensity and on
whether it was the stormy season. Furthermore, variations were observed not only in
the amount of seaweed present in the wrack, but also in the composition of the
species present. Thus there was a high percentage of Dictyopteris membranacea
present among the algae species found in beach-cast wrack during the summer and
autumn, rendering the wrack suitable for use as compost. The presence of Jania
rubens, Corallina granifera and Pneophyllum lejolisii is also of particular value for this
purpose due to their capacity to provide carbonates.
2.4.3. The effect on beach sediment dynamics of removing beach-cast wrack
2.4.3.1. Efectos en playas arenosas

One of the principal effects of removing beach-cast wrack is the concurrent removal of
beach sediments adhering to the organic matter. Authors such as Simeone (2008) have
calculated that wrack beds composed ofPosidonia oceanica may contain up to 92.8
Kg.m-3 of sediment. In another study conducted off the coast of Ibiza (Roig i Munar, X.
& Martn Prieto J.A., Consell d'Eivissa, 2010), it was reported that the average
sediment content in wrack was 81.8%. Consequently, these authors concluded that the
removal of beach-cast P. oceanica had a very negative impact due to the high volume
of sediment removed. These effects are evidenced in the annual sediment balance,
with estimated losses of 4009 tons of sediment between the years 2004 and 2009.

According to Yepes and Medina (2007), the cleaning operations conducted on sandy
beaches in the Spanish Levante are responsible for the inadvertent removal of an
estimated 500 m3 of sand per kilometre per year. These studies were conducted on
beaches subjected to moderate levels of cleaning and with a relatively well organised
management system.
Figure 21: Sand retained after extraction and stacking of Posidonia oceanica banquettes.
Figure 22: Sand retained after extraction and stacking of Posidonia oceanica and Cymodocea
nodosa banquettes.

On beaches with an absence of sediment input, such as enclosed beaches, cleaning

operations may lead to long term and sustained retreat of the shoreline at an average
rate of about 10 cm/year (Yepes and Medina, 2007). In the short term, the effect is
imperceptible but in the long term, the consequences are significant.

On the basis of figures provided by the Catalonian Environmental Prevention Service,

Servei de Prevenci i Medi Ambient, Ariza et al. (2008) reported that more than 163
tons of sand was removed from the beaches of Barcelona as a result of cleaning
operations conducted between June and September 2005. In some cases, more than
50 kg of sand per hour worked was removed along with the plant debris, accounting
for 80% of the total weight of material collected.

2.4.3.2. Effects on pebble and gravel beaches

Pebble and gravel beaches are often indicative of areas subjected to strong wave
action, where fine materials are washed away. However, many shorelines that were
originally sandy now present a morphological change to an erosive profile, due to
numerous impacts caused by human pressure, including buildings along the coast, the
disappearance of dune ridges, the presence of maritime constructions such as ports,
breakwaters and promenades and the loss seagrass meadows due to sewage
discharge, desalination and the effects of boats being anchored. Many of these
structures modify wave behaviour and sediment dynamics, thus destroying the
protective barrier afforded to beaches by P. oceanica reefs. With the disappearance of
the biotic communities such as seagrass which stabilised sediments, and the lack of
sand, waves hit the shore and cliff bases more easily and with more energy,
accelerating erosion. Without an adequate environmental impact study, the artificial
replacement of sand could harm marine biotic communities, especially seagrass
meadows, since it accelerates sedimentation and the burial of these communities.

Unless particular care is exercised when removing wrack beds from this type of beach,
part of the pebble and gravel base which is so necessary to effectively curb wave
energy and protect the beach may also be removed. The relocation and arbitrary
stacking of beach pebbles and sand adversely affects their distribution and decreases
the beach's natural capacity to check the waves.

Areas where seagrass rhizomes are constantly uprooted due to changes in wave
behaviour present a deficit of sediment on the seabed, and therefore wave energy is
less efficiently absorbed.

The storm-swept debris of spermatophytes such as Posidonia oceanica and

Cymodocea nodosa which accumulates on the land-sea interface protects the beach
from wave action and helps preserve its sand. Wrack beds constitute an efficient
natural mechanism that protects the coast when subjected to intense waves.
Figure 23: The presence of banquettes, about 20 m away from breaking the line of the base of
the cliff, preserving it from erosion.
Figure 24: View previous photo area where can observe how the waves easily reach the base of
the cliff due to the withdrawal of banquettes.
Pebbles and coarse sands provide a strong and stable base for the beach and protect
cliffs from erosion caused by the impact of waves. Under normal, stable conditions,
sand is slowly deposited onto a base of pebbles and stones, which it covers. Under
stormy conditions however, some of the sand is swept from the area and deposited
offshore in the first metres of depth between the coast and the furthest limit for
sediment transportation. Meanwhile, due to their higher density, pebbles remain in
place, ready to perform their function when the next storm arrives. On beaches
subject to intensive cleaning operations, the situation is exacerbated over the years
due to a deficit of sand, with adverse effects on tourism since tourists always prefer
sandy beaches with no stones. Inevitably, when wrack debris is removed, the sand,
pebbles and gravel beneath it are also extracted.

Figure 25: Accumulation of pebbles and gravesl with sand after removal of wrack for cleaning
services.
2.4.4. Morphological changes on the free surface of sandy beaches

Sand is compacted by the machinery used in cleaning operations, changing its natural
texture, eliminating ephemeral landforms (ripples and shadow tongues) and increasing
the wind incidence angle and erosion. Furthermore, sand is arbitrarily piled up and
redistributed during cleaning operations.

Figure 26: Redistributions of sand captured in the upper part of the beach and piled near the
shore.
The probability of removing sand increases in the swash zone, due to its greater
capacity for adherence when moist, while compaction favours the uprush of waves,
increasing erosion. In the upper section of dry beaches, mechanical cleaning
operations destabilise the dune bases and remove their vegetation, thus facilitating
the direct erosive action of the wind. Sand compaction could be reduced if the
machinery employed were to be equipped with suitable tyres.

Figure 27: Appearance of the sand behind the plow machine.

2.4.5. Impacts due to a reduction in natural organic matter

The reduction in natural organic matter provoked by the removal of wrack beds
decreases the growth of microorganisms and interstitial fauna and the quantity of
nutrients necessary for plant communities (Llewellyn & Shackley, 1996; Gheskiere et
al., 2006).

2.4.6. Recommendations for reducing the impact of cleaning operations

Authors such as Yepes & Cardona (2008) have proposed a series of preventive and
corrective measures that should be introduced as requirements in quality standards
and tourist beach management manuals. These include the adoption of reserve areas
in dune systems and of indicators to objectively measure the effectiveness of the
machinery, in order to prevent the excessive removal of sand along with the debris.
This should be supplemented by efforts to raise awareness among users, which would
undoubtedly result in a significant reduction in the waste generated in these natural
areas. The following proposals should be introduced as requirements in quality
standards and tourist beach management manuals:

Mechanical cleaning should only be permitted if the surface (to a depth of 7-10
cm) is dry. Cleaning operations on wet surfaces should focus solely on human-
generated waste.

Mechanical cleaning should be avoided when strong winds are predicted, in

order to reduce wind transport.

Deep ploughing or tilling of the beach should be prohibited.

Protected areas of 3-5 m should be established on beaches with dune systems,

where cleaning operations should be manual and selective.

On beaches composed of coarse particles, caution should be exercised when

cleaning the beach, taking care not to remove the layer of pebbles and sand.
Where this is unavoidable, sand and pebbles should be separated from the
seaweed and seagrass debris and replaced in their original location.

Pebbles and sand should not be relocated in random piles but left to the action
of the waves.

The use of pebbles and sand should be maximised, and they should not be
treated as waste material for disposal in a landfill site.

The pebble base of beaches should be restored and its thickness increased so
as to protect cliff bases and flat beaches.
 Cleaning operations should be monitored to prevent fraud and systematic
extraction of sand for unauthorised use.

In situ tests of mechanical cleaning machinery should be periodically conducted

to measure the volume of sand removed, with the concomitant development
of monitoring indicators. This should constitute a key criterion when
purchasing new equipment.

Cleaning equipment drivers should attend training courses, since their level of
expertise will have a direct and positive influence on reducing the amount of
sand removed.

Restrictions should be placed on the frequency with which natural debris

(Posidonia oceanica) is removed, and it should be deposited within the confines
of the beach itself, for example, in the dunes.

Promenades and beach access ramps should be designed so as to minimise

losses due to wind transport.

Showers and footbaths should be installed on heavily used beaches to remove

sediments adhering to swimmers, since the estimated volume of sand
inadvertently removed by each user (depending on particle size, about 20
gm/swimmer every time they exit the sea) represents a loss of about 10 m 3km-
1
year-1.

As a final recommendation, environmental education activities should be intensified:

Rodriguez-Santos et al. (2005) found that user behaviour affects the amount of
rubbish generated on beaches. This would represent a qualitative measure with a
substantial quantitative effect.
3. CONCLUSIONS

Wrack beds serve an important environmental function on beaches. In addition to

providing nutrients, they contribute very effectively to the beach sediment balance,
especially on those that are subject to erosion. Among the different plant species that
make up these wrack beds, the one which generates most beach-cast debris in the
Mediterranean region is the seagrass Posidonia oceanica.

The social and economic importance of tourism on the Mediterranean coast has led
local councils to remove all wrack beds from their beaches, sometimes even outside
the summer season, incurring substantial economic costs, intensifying erosive
processes and removing large quantities of sand in the process (500 m 3 per kilometre
of beach per year, according to Yepes & Medina, 2007). Furthermore, the use of heavy
machinery compacts the sand, thus decreasing porosity and creating greater
vulnerability to wave erosion.

As regards the fate of the material removed from the beaches, most is deposited and
buried in landfill sites, thus reducing the capacity of these infrastructures and
shortening their life span.

This report highlights the desirability of applying measures and protocols for cleaning
beach-cast wrack. In the light of the experience of other geographic areas, these can
be defined as follows:
Removal should be avoided during the winter and spring, when storms are
most likely to occur.
The use of heavy machinery should be restricted and vehicle access should be
limited to dry beach surfaces. These measures will minimise the impact on
beach geomorphology, as would the adoption of the measures outlined in
section 2.4.7.
Rather than dumping Posidonia oceanica debris, it would be preferable to
create temporary sites where it could be stored and left to decompose over
several years until it is suitable for use as a soil improver. The cost of recycling
of P. oceanica debris should in part be offset by savings in transport costs and
landfill fees at MSW plants.
 It is important to emphasise the need to intensify environmental education
activities, in order to encourage a change in beach users' perceptions of beach-
cast wrack, since the survey has demonstrated that most currently view it as
rubbish.

Figure 28 presents a diagram of the options and priorities to consider in the

management of wrack beds, and as can be seen, the first priority should always be to
preserve beach-cast wrack beds composed of seaweed/Posidonia oceanica. When
tourism uses permit and provided that the beaches do not present problems of
erosion and are cleaned during the high season (spring - summer), the second option
to consider - after separation of human-generated waste such as plastics and
packaging - would be to discharge the wrack back into the sea or to use it for dune
restoration which could be carried out at the original location, in situ (the preferred
option), or in the absence of dunes, on other beaches (ex situ). It could also be used for
the production of compost, and where this is not possible, another option would be to
use it as a raw material in the manufacture of building panels or other products such as
soil retention blankets, as a soil improver in agriculture or for livestock farming
purposes, etc. Disposal in landfill sites is the last option, and should be rejected.

The adoption of these measures would significantly minimise present environmental

impacts whilst at the same time contributing to the sustainable development of
tourism economies by preserving the primary resource: beaches. Furthermore,
significant savings would be achieved as regards the cost of beach cleaning operations.
Figure 28: Schematic summary of the actions and priorities arribazones management on
beaches.
4. AGRADECIMIENTOS

The authors thank the Andalusian Coastwatch Programme for the data provided, and the
volunteers who have contributed to collecting them.

We also thank local council officials from Adeje, Arteixo, Benidorm, El Campello, Jvea, Lorca,
Orihuela, Pilar de la Horadada, Punta Umbra, Santa Pola, Torreblanca, Torredembarra,
Villajoyosa, Vinaroz and Xilxes, and the Island Councils of Formentera and Menorca, for
participating in the survey on the management of beach-cast wrack in their municipalities.
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6. ANNEX

6.1. Questionnaire model sent to the coastal Council Government