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A GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE 2004

An international team of over 40 stratigraphic experts, many

actively involved in the International Commission of Stratig-
raphy (ICS), have helped to build the most up-to-date in-
ternational stratigraphic framework for the Precambrian and
Phanerozoic. This successor to A Geologic Time Scale 1989
by W. Brian Harland et al. (Cambridge, 1989) begins with an
introduction to the theory and methodology behind the con-
struction of the new time scale. The main part of the book is
devoted to the scale itself, systematically presenting the stan-
dard subdivisions at all levels using a variety of correlation
markers. Extensive use is made of stable and unstable isotope
geochronology, geomathematics, and orbital tuning to produce
a standard geologic scale of unprecedented detail and accuracy
with a full error analysis. A wallchart summarizing the whole
time scale, with paleogeographic reconstructions throughout
the Phanerozoic is included in the back of the book. The time
scale will be an invaluable reference source for academic and
professional researchers and students.

F E L I X G R A D S T E I N is currently Professor of Stratig-

raphy and Micropaleontology at the Geological Museum of
the University of Oslo where he leads the offshore relational
stratigraphic database funded by a petroleum consortium. He
is the current chair of the International Commission on Stratig-
raphy, which is working on the formal classication of the global
Precambrian and Phanerozoic rock record and the interna-
tional time scale.

JA M E S O G G is Professor of Stratigraphy at Purdue Uni-

versity, West Lafayette, Indiana, and has research interests
in magnetochronology, cyclostratigraphy, sedimentology, and
stratigraphic databases. He is presently Secretary General of
the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS).

A L A N S M I T H is Reader in Geology at the University of

Cambridge and a Fellow of St. Johns College. His principal
research interests are paleogeographic reconstruction and re-
lated software development.
A Geologic Time Scale 2004
Edited by
Felix M. Gradstein, James G. Ogg, and Alan G. Smith

Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, So Paulo

Cambridge University Press

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge , UK
Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521781428

F. M. Gradstein, J. G. Ogg, and A. G. Smith 2004

This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of

relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place
without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published in print format 2005

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Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of

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Dedication

We dedicate this third edition of the Geologic Time Scale

book to W. B. (Brian) Harland . He was an inspiring leader
in practical stratigraphy, its philosophical roots, and its prime
product: The Geologic Time Scale!

Deceased.
With the acceptance of a reliable time scale, geology will have
gained an invaluable key to further discovery. In every branch
of science its mission will be to unify and correlate, and with
its help a fresh light will be thrown on the more fascinating
problems of the Earth and its Past.

Arthur Holmes, 1913, The Age of the Earth

Contents

List of contributors page xii 5 The geomagnetic polarity time scale 63

Preface xv . . . .
Acknowledgments xvii 5.1 Principles 63
List of abbreviations and acronyms xix 5.2 Late CretaceousCenozoic geomagnetic
polarity time scale 65
5.3 Middle JurassicEarly Cretaceous
PA RT I I N T RO D U C T I O N 1
geomagnetic polarity time scale 74
1 Introduction 3 5.4 Geomagnetic polarity time scale for Middle
. . Jurassic and older rocks 85
1.1 A Geologic Time Scale 2004 3 5.5 Superchrons and polarity bias 86
1.2 How this book is arranged 4 5.6 Summary and conclusions 86
1.3 Conventions and standards 6
6 Radiogenic isotope geochronology 87
1.4 Historical overview of geologic time scales 7
.
2 Chronostratigraphy: linking time and rock 20 6.1 Introduction 87
. . , . . , . . 6.2 Types of uncertainties 87
2.1 Time and rock 20 6.3 Dating methods 88
2.2 Standardization of the chronostratigraphic scale 21 6.4 Summary and conclusions 95
2.3 Case examples of GSSPs 42
2.4 Major subdivisions of the geologic time scale 43 7 Strontium isotope stratigraphy 96
2.5 Examples of stratigraphic charts and tables 45 . . c . .
7.1 Introduction 96
7.2 Materials for strontium isotope stratigraphy 98
PA RT I I C O N C E P T S A N D M E T H O D S 47
7.3 A Geologic Time Scale 2004 (GTS2004) database 98
3 Biostratigraphy: time scales from 7.4 Comments on the LOWESS t 102
graphic and quantitative methods 49
8 Geomathematics 106
. . , . . ,
. .
. .
8.1 History and overview 106
3.1 Introduction 49
8.2 Paleozoic applications 110
3.2 Graphic correlation 49
8.3 Late Cretaceous and Paleogene applications 117
3.3 Constrained optimization 51
8.4 Concluding remarks 124
3.4 Ranking and scaling 52
4 Earths orbital parameters and cycle
PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S 127
stratigraphy 55
. . 9 The Precambrian: the Archean and
4.1 Introduction 55 Proterozoic Eons 129
4.2 Earths orbital parameters 55 . . , . . , . . ,
4.3 Orbitally forced insolation 57 . . , . , .
4.4 Orbital signals in cycle stratigraphy 59 9.1 Introduction 129
4.5 Estimating orbital chronologies 61 9.2 History and recommended subdivision 130

ix
x Contents

9.3 Nomenclature of the subdivisions 132 16 The Permian Period 249

9.4 The Neoproterozoic 132 . . , . ,
9.5 Isotope stratigraphy in the Precambrian 133 . .
9.6 Biostratigraphy in the Neoproterozoic 136 16.1 History and subdivisions 249
9.7 Neoproterozoic ice ages and chronometric 16.2 Regional correlations 256
constraints 139 16.3 Permian stratigraphy 263
9.8 Summary 140 16.4 Permian time scale 264

10 Toward a natural Precambrian 17 The Triassic Period 271

time scale 141 . .
. 17.1 History and subdivisions 271
10.1 Introduction 141 17.2 Triassic stratigraphy 280
10.2 Current Precambrian subdivisions 17.3 Triassic time scale 288
and problems 141 18 The Jurassic Period 307
10.3 A natural Precambrian time scale 142 . .
10.4 Conclusions 146 18.1 History and subdivisions 307
11 The Cambrian Period 147 18.2 Jurassic stratigraphy 326
. . . . 18.3 Jurassic time scale 339
11.1 History and subdivisions 147 19 The Cretaceous Period 344
11.2 Cambrian stratigraphy 157 . . , . . ,
11.3 Cambrian time scale 159 . .
19.1 History and subdivisions 344
12 The Ordovician Period 165
19.2 Cretaceous stratigraphy 365
. . . .
19.3 Cretaceous time scale 371
12.1 History and subdivisions 165
12.2 Previous standard divisions 169 20 The Paleogene Period 384
12.3 Ordovician stratigraphy 171 . . , . . ,
12.4 Ordovician time scale 176 . , . . ,
. . , . , . . ,
13 The Silurian Period 188
. , . , . ,
. . , . . , .
. . 20.1 History and subdivisions 384
13.1 History and subdivisions 188 20.2 Paleogene biostratigraphy 389
13.2 Silurian stratigraphy 193 20.3 Physical stratigraphy 401
13.3 Silurian time scale 198 20.4 Paleogene time scale 403
14 The Devonian Period 202 21 The Neogene Period 409
. . . . . , . , . . ,
14.1 History and subdivisions 202 . , .
14.2 Devonian stratigraphy 208 21.1 History and subdivisions 409
14.3 Devonian time scale 213 21.2 Neogene stratigraphy 419
14.4 Appendix 220 21.3 Toward an astronomically tuned Neogene
time scale (ATNTS) 430
15 The Carboniferous Period 222
. , . . , 22 The Pleistocene and Holocene Epochs 441
. . . .
15.1 History and subdivisions 222 22.1 Pleistocene series 441
15.2 Carboniferous stratigraphy 233 22.2 Terrestrial sequences 443
15.3 Carboniferous time scale 237 22.3 Ocean sediment sequences 448
 Contents xi

22.4 Landsea correlation 449 Appendix 1 Recommended color coding of stages 465
22.5 PleistoceneHolocene boundary 451 . . . .
22.6 Holocene Series 451 Appendix 2 Orbital tuning calibrations and
conversions for the Neogene Period 469
. , . , . . ,
PA RT I V S U M M A RY 453 . , .
23 Construction and summary of the Appendix 3 Geomathematics 485
geologic time scale 455 . .
. . , . . , . . Bibliography 487
23.1 Construction of GTS2004 455 Stratigraphic Index 587
23.2 Future trends in geologic time scales 462 General Index 589
Contributors

.
Geological Museum Permian Research Institute
University of Oslo Boise State University
PO Box 1172 Blindern 1910 University Drive
N-0318 Oslo Boise, ID 83725-1535
Norway USA
felix.gradstein@nhm.uio.no
. Godwin Institute of Quaternary Research
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Department of Geography
Sciences University of Cambridge
550 Stadium Mall Drive Downing Street
Purdue University Cambridge CB2 3EN
West Lafayette, IN 47907-2051 UK
USA .
jogg@purdue.edu Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences
. The Johns Hopkins University
Department of Earth Sciences Baltimore, MD 21218
University of Cambridge USA
Downing Street .
Cambridge CB2 3EQ Department of Geology
UK Southampton Oceanographic Centre
ags1@esc.cam.ac.uk Southampton
. UK
Geological Survey of Canada

601 Booth Street
Faculty of Earth Sciences
Ottawa, Ontario K1A OE8
Department of Geology
Canada
Utrecht University
Budapestlaan 4
Geological Survey of Canada 3508 TA Utrecht
601 Booth Street The Netherlands
Ottawa, Ontario K1A OE8
-
Canada
Institut und Museum fur Geologie und Palaontologie
. Eberhard-Karls Universitat
Geological Time Section Sigwartstrasse 10
Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences D-72076 Tubingen
PO Box 30368 Germany
Lower Hutt

New Zealand Deceased.

xii
 List of contributors xiii

c .
Institute of Geological Sciences Faculty of Earth Sciences
University College London Department of Geology
Gower Street Utrecht University
London WC1E 6BT Budapestlaan 4
UK 3584 CD Utrecht
. The Netherlands
Department of Earth Sciences
St. Francis Xavier University The Natural History Museum, Paleontology
PO Box 5000 Cromwell Road
Antigonish, NS B2G2W5 London SW7 5BD
Canada UK
. .
Economic Geology Research Institute Institute of Geological Sciences
Hugh Allsopp Laboratory University College London
University of the Witwatersrand Gower Street
Private Bag 3, Wits 2050 London WC1E 6BT
South Africa UK
.
La Freunie Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences
Benayes Harvard University
19510 Masseret 24 Oxford Street
France Cambridge, MA 02138
USA
Geological Survey of Canada
601 Booth Street Astronomie et Systemes Dynamiques
Ottawa, ON K1A OE8 Bureau des Longitudes
Canada 77 Av. Denfert-Rochereau
. F-75014 Paris
US Geological Survey France
926A National Center
Reston, VA 20192-0001 Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra
USA Universit`a di Firenze
4, Via La Pira
Department of Earth Sciences I-50121 Firenze
University of Hong Kong Italy
Pokfulam Road
Hong Kong Dinosystems
Peoples Republic of China 105 Albert Road
Richmond
Laboratory of Paleobotany and Palynology Surrey TW10 6DJ
Faculty of Biology UK
Utrecht University .
Budapestlaan 4 PO Box 102
3584 CD Utrecht Hawker, ACT 2614
The Netherlands Australia
xiv List of contributors

.
Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra School of Earth Sciences
Universitario G. DAnnunzio James Cook University
66013 Chieti Scalo Townsville, Old. 4811
Italy Australia


Geowissenschaften Geologisch-Palaontologisches Institut
Universitat Bremen Westfalische Wilhelms-Universitat Munster
PO Box 33 04 40 48149 Munster
D-28334 Bremen Germany
Germany

Department of Earth Sciences OttawaCarleton Geoscience Centre
University of California at Riverside University of Ottawa
Riverside, CA 92521 Ottawa, Ontario K1N 6N5
USA Canada

.
Scripps Institution of Oceanography Faculty of Earth Sciences
University of California at San Diego Utrecht University
La Jolla, CA 92033 Budapestlaan 4
USA 3584 CD Utrecht
The Netherlands
Marine Geology, Earth Science Centre

Goteborg University
Faculty of Archaeology
Box 7064
Leiden University
S-41381 Goteborg
Reuvenplaats 4, 2300 RA Leiden
Sweden
The Netherlands
.
Godwin Laboratory
Department of Earth Sciences Department of Geological Sciences
University of Cambridge University of California
Cambridge CB2 3SA Santa Barbara, CA
UK USA
Preface
This study presents the science community with a new geologic
time scale for circa 3850 million years of Earth history. The
scale encompasses many recent advances in stratigraphy, the
science of the layering of strata on Earth. The new scale closely
links radiometric and astronomical age dating, and provides
comprehensive error analysis on the age of boundaries for a
majority of the geologic divisions of time. Much advantage
in time scale construction is gained by the concept of stage
boundary denition, developed and actively pursued under
the auspices of the International Commission on Stratigraphy
(ICS), that co-sponsors this study.
It was in 1997 that Alan Smith approached two of us
(F.M.G. and J.G.O.) with the request to undertake a new edition
of A Geologic Time Scale 1989 (GTS89) for Cambridge Univer-
sity Press. This was just after the Phanerozoic Time Scale
with the A3 format time scale colour chart as insert, spon-
sored by Saga Petroleum in Norway, had appeared in Episodes.
Although we realized this new request was a tall order, we opti-
mistically accepted. A proposal was formulated and improved
through peer review. As with GTS89, the new edition of the
book would not necessarily give the very latest developments
in any eld, but would present a balanced overview designed
to be educational and useful for advanced university students.
In particular progress with the concept and dening of stage
boundaries had delineated most international geologic stages.
Initially, a rather limited slate of specialists was engaged,
and we optimistically projected completion of a revised GTS89
at the turn of the Millennium. Slightly after, F.M.G. and J.G.O.
became executive ofcers of ICS for the 20002004 term, and
the GTS project was incorporated in ICSs formal objectives.
Creating a new GTS in 2000, 2001, or even 2002, turned out
to be rather optimistic. The more we involved ourselves in the
myriad of challenges in stratigraphy and the Phanerozoic geo-
logic time scale the more we realized that a major overhaul was
in order. Rather than updating and revising chapters of GTS89
we set out to re-write the book from scratch and expand geo-
logic period chapters along a xed, and ambitious format of
text and gures. Advances in time scale methodology involving
cycle stratigraphy, mathematics and statistics, stable isotope
xv
stratigraphy, and the formidable progress in high-resolution
age dating all demanded close attention with data integration
and specialists chapters.
The vast progress in Precambrian and Phanerozoic stratig-
raphy achieved during the last decade required intense involve-
ment of many more geoscientists than initially envisioned. Al-
though the more ambitious scope and bigger team did push
back completion deadlines, we are condent it has enhanced
the consensus value of the new geologic time scale, named
GTS2004. Had we known beforehand that a total of 18 senior
and 22 contributing authors, for a total of 40 geoscience spe-
cialists from 15 different countries, would work on the book
and deal with the new time scale, we might have had second
thoughts about our undertaking. The number of e-mails sent
criss-cross over the globe as part of GTS2004 is in the tens
of thousands. A fundamental difference between multidisci-
plinary studies and geologic time scale studies is that all chap-
ters must align along the arrow of time. To put it simply: the
Carboniferous cannot end at 291 Ma with the Permian start-
ing at 299 Ma. Close agreement on type of data and standards
admitted in actual time scale building is also vital. Hence, the
actual data standardization and time scale calculation for each
chapter was kept to a small team in which Mike Villeneuve,
Frits Agterberg, F.M.G., and J.G.O. played key roles, with other
senior authors as advisors. The new Neogene time scale was
developed by Luc Lourens and his team of tuning specialists.
The fascination in creating a new geologic time scale is
that it evokes images of creating a beautiful carpet, using many
skilled hands. All stitches must conform to a pre-determined
pattern, in this case the pattern of physical, chemical, and bio-
logical events on Earth aligned along the arrow of time. It is
thus that this new scale is a tribute to the truly close cooperation
achieved by this slate of outstanding co-authors. We also con-
sider the new time scale a tribute to the scientic competence
harbored and fostered by ICS.
We are deeply grateful to all co-authors who without reser-
vation accepted the challenge to be part of this dedicated team,
slowly (!) stitching and weaving this carpet of time and its
events that are Earths unique and splendid history.
xvi Preface
It is with deep regret that we learned in mid 2002 that one of
our most valuable scholars in Paleozoic stratigraphy, Professor
Michael House, had passed away, very shortly after submission
of his draft chapter on Devonian stratigraphy. It has been an
honor to complete the task he set himself to create this erudite
chapter of expansive and dramatic Earth history between 416
and 359 Ma. Vascular plants and forests established on Earth,
exceptional high global sea level occurred, ice caps formed
in the south polar region in late Devonian time, and present
continents and shelves assembled on one hemisphere. Old Red
Sandstone is one of the Devonians great continental remnants.
Through the NUNA Conference in Canada in March 2003
on New Frontiers in the Fourth Dimension: Generation, Cal-
ibration and Application of Geologic Timescales the essay
Toward a natural Precambrian time scale by Wouter Bleeker
came to this book. Hence, this period of over 88% of Earth
history is getting some more urgent attention. We thank Mike
Villeneuve and his team for organizing this timely geochronol-
ogy conference.
We are pleased to acknowledge the nancial contribution
of ExxonMobil, Statoil, ChevronTexaco, and BP. With these
vital donations the elaborate graphics became possible. J. G.
O. acknowledges partial support by the US National Science
Foundation under Grant No. 0313524. The Geological Survey
of Canada and the Network of Offshore Records in Geology
and Stratigraphy (NORGES) project at the Geology Museum
of the University of Oslo assisted with design and printing of
the time scale wall chart.
Cambridge University Press patiently awaited the fruits
of our labor, and we are much obliged to Matt Lloyd, Sally
Thomas, and Lesley Thomas for their thorough editorial advice
and assistance.
Figure 1.4 in the Introduction chapter illustrates the 1960
geologic time scale by its pioneer, Arthur Holmes, who intro-
duced period scaling from observed maximum thickness. The
appearance datum of this new opus in mid 2004 is nearly 90
years after Arthur Holmess rst humble geologic time scale
in 1913 in search of the age of the Earth and its remarkable
historic components.
This publication on the International Geologic Time Scale
was produced under the auspices of the International Commis-
sion on Stratigraphy (ICS). Information on ICS, its organiza-
tion, its mandate, and its wide-ranging geoscience program can
be obtained from www.stratigraphy.org.
Felix M. Gradstein
James G. Ogg
Alan G. Smith
Acknowledgments
The authors and co-authors of the 23 chapters in this book
are very pleased to acknowledge the many geoscientists that
actively and generously gave of their time to assist with and
advise on GTS2004.
F.M.G. and J.G.O. thank Frits Agterberg, Sam Bowring,
David Bruton, Pierre Bultynck, Cinzia Cervato, Roger Cooper,
Ferdinand Corfu, Sorin Filipescu, Stan Finney, Rich Lane,
Luc Lourens, John McArthur, Ed de Mulder, Jurgen Remane,
Paul Renne, Otto van Bremen, and Mike Villeneuve for general
advice and/or help over the many years of book gestation.
John McArthur also checked every section dealing with
geochemistry and reviewed and helped update all relevant g-
ures; Luc Lourens assisted with the task to link the complex
and detailed Neogene and Pleistocene chapters; Heiko Palike
offered insight in future trends with regard to orbital tuning
of the steadily improving Paleogene time scale.
GTS2004 would not have been possible without Gabi Oggs
tireless dedication and truly hard and highly creative work with
scientic design, gure and table drafting, and error checking.
Virtually all of the 156 gures came from her drawing table.
We also thank Jane Dolven and Gisli Sigtryggsson for their
contributions with drafting, revising, and printing of some
gures.
F.M.G. and J.G.O. thank the International Union of Geo-
logical Sciences (IUGS) and the Commission for the Geolog-
ical Map of the World (CGMW) for advice and support with
the GTS project.
Linda Hinnov is very grateful to Marie-France Loutre and
Timothy Herbert for taking the time to comment on specic
issues discussed in her chapter on Earths orbital parameters
and cycle stratigraphy.
Mike Villeneuve thanks Richard Stern and Otto van
Bremen for assistance with Chapter 6, Radiogenic isotope
geochronolology.
Frits P. Agterberg, author of Chapter 8, Geomathemat-
ics, expresses thanks to Roger Cooper, Felix Gradstein, Jim
Ogg, Peter Sadler, and Alan Smith for helpful discussions
and information; to Mike Villeneuve for discussions regard-
ing geochronological aspects; to Graeme Bonham-Carter and
xvii
Danny Wright for help with software; and to Gabi Ogg for help
with constructing the many diagrams.
Wouter Bleeker reviewed Chapter 9, The Precambrian: the
Archean and Proterozoic Eons; his valuable comments im-
proved the manuscript. In Chapter 10, Toward a Natural
Precambrian time scale, W. Bleeker discussed some of the ideas
expressed by Euan Nisbet, who together with Preston Cloud
has been a vocal critic of the current Precambrian time scale.
Discussions with Yuri Amelin and Richard Stern helped clarify
the magnitude of the limitations due to uncertainties in the de-
cay constant. He thanks Felix Gradstein and Mike Villeneuve
for their encouragement to formulate this study, and for their
critical comments on an early draft of the manuscript. Chap-
ter 10 is Geological Survey of Canada contribution 2 003 066.
Chapter 11, The Cambrian Period, was reviewed by Soren
Jensen, Graham Shields, and David Bruton; senior chapter
author John Shergold thanks these contributors.
The authors of Chapter 12, The Ordovician Period,
Roger Cooper and Peter Sadler, thank Mike Villeneuve, Sam
Bowring, and Bill Compston for their comments on radioiso-
topic dating methods. However, the choice of dates used for
calibration of the time scale was theirs alone. Frits Agterberg
and Felix Gradstein performed the time scale calculations.
Chapter 13, The Silurian Period, beneted from help-
ful comments and review by David Bruton, and discussions
with Alfred Lenz, Tatiana Koren, David Loydell, Godfrey
Nowlan, Gary Mullins, and John Beck. Mike Villeneuve dis-
cussed radiometric dating methodology with Roger Cooper,
and Frits Agterberg and Felix Gradstein performed age data
standardization and time scale and uncertainty calculations.
Mike Melchin, who is senior author of the chapter, also grate-
fully acknowledges nancial support from the Natural Sciences
and Engineering Research Council of Canada.
Completion of Chapter 14, The Devonian Period, under-
taken by F.M.G. after Professor Michael House sadly passed
away, would not have been possible without the vital help
of Pierre Bultynck, Bernd Kaufmann, and David Bruton,
all of whom provided valuable advice and information; their
comments improved the text and gures. F.M.G. thanks Dr Jim
xviii Acknowledgments
House for his assistance in obtaining gures from the estate
of Professor House, and thanks E. A. Williams for permis-
sion to utilize his illustration of discrepancies between dating
methods. Frits P. Agterberg kindly executed the statistical
mathematical routines.
The Carboniferous Period, Chapter 15, was undertaken by
senior author Vladimir Davydov. He thanks many individuals
for their input toward this chapter on this complex subject. In
particular, Peter Jones, John Groves, Paul Brenckle, and Phil
Heckel reviewed the text and made several signicant sug-
gestions that improved both style and content. The authors
are grateful to E. Trapp and B. Kaufmann for providing new
TIMS dates from Germany, and thank Sam Bowring and Mike
Villeneuve for advice on radiometric dates, Chris Klootwijk for
advice on magnetostratigraphy, Frits Agterberg for help with
the numerical analysis, and Gabi Ogg for drafting the gures.
The senior author of Chapter 16, The Permian Period,
Bruce Wardlaw, thanks Sam Bowring and Frits Agterberg for
advice and assistance, and Gabi Ogg for drafting of the many
gures.
Chapter 17, The Triassic Period, was authored by J.G.O.
He is most grateful to Tim Tozer, Linda Hinnov, Nereo Preto,
John McArthur, and, especially, Mike Orchard for providing
valuable insights into the intricate history and current debates
on Triassic subdivisions and stratigraphy and/or reviewing
earlier versions of this summary. The reviewers cautiously ad-
vise that the Triassic time scale may evolve in unforeseen ways
in the future as GSSPs are formalized and better global corre-
lations are achieved. Josef Palfy, Sam Bowring, Roland Mundil,
and Paul Renne enlightened the author about the constraints
and disagreements with radioisotopic ages. Gabi Ogg drafted
the nal versions of the diagrams.
As author of The Jurassic Period, Chapter 18, J.G.O.
acknowledges the countless Jurassic experts who have con-
tributed their expertise on the intricacies of the Jurassic world.
In particular, he thanks Josef Palfy, Nicol Morton, Angela Coe,
Bill Wimbledon, and Simon Kelly for reviewing drafts of this
chapter; and John McArthur for updating the geochemistry.
Gabi Ogg drafted the nal versions of the diagrams.
Drafts of The Cretaceous Period, Chapter 19, were re-
viewed by Peter Rawson, Stephane Reboullet, Jorg Mutter-
lose, Jurgen Thurow, and Linda Hinnov; and John McArthur
updated the geochemistry. Gabi Ogg drafted the nal versions
of the detailed diagrams. Senior author J.G.O. thanks all these
contributors for their vital assistance in elucidating the stratig-
raphy of the longest period (80 myr) in the Phanerozoic.
The Paleogene Period, Chapter 20, was authored by Hans-
Peter Luterbacher and many contributors. Heiko Palike re-
viewed and advised on the actual time scale, Jan Hardenbol
advised on an early draft of the manuscript, and Frits Agter-
berg performed the scaling and uncertainty calculations.
The Neogene Period, Chapter 21, came to light under the
senior authorship of Luc Lourens; he and his co-authors like
to express their thanks to Hayfaa Abdul-Aziz, Torsten Bickert,
Katharina Billups, Henk Brinkhuis, Peter DeMenocal, Wout
Krijgsman, Klaudia Kuiper, Alan Mix, Heiko Palike, Jamie
Powell, Isabella Raf, Javier Sierro, Ralf Tiedemann, Elena
Turco, Jan Van Dam, Erwin Van der Laan, and Jan-Willem
Zachariasse for their indispensable contributions. The authors
acknowledge Bill Berggren, whose studies inspired them in
writing this chapter. Davide Castradori and Linda Hinnov pro-
vided very helpful and constructive comments on an earlier
version of this manuscript.
A fruitful discussion on the nettlesome Quaternary issue
between F.M.G. and Phil Gibbard during the First Conference
on Future Directions in Stratigraphy in 2002 in Urbino, Italy,
led to Chapter 22, The Pleistocene and Holocene Epochs. Luc
Lourens is thanked for a careful review, and Brad Pillans for
advice. The authors thank Steve Boreham and Gabi Ogg for
help in the compilation of the chart.
Wendy Green and Lawrence Rush helped with getting the
references into EndNote. The GSSP maps were drawn with the
ATLAS program of Cambridge Paleomap Services, written by
Lawrence Rush.
Abbreviations and acronyms

O RG A N I Z AT I O N S JGR94 Journal of Geophysical Research 1994

CGMW Commission for the Geological Map (Gradstein et al., 1994)
of the World SEPM95 Society for Sedimentary Geology 1995
DNAG Decade of North American Geology (Gradstein et al., 1995)
DSDP Deep Sea Drilling Project GO96 Gradstein and Ogg (1996)
GSC Geological Survey of Canada
ICS International Commission of Stratigraphy GEOSCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS
IGC International Geological Congress FAD First appearance datum
IGCP International Geological Correlation Project FCT Fish Canyon Tuff sanidine monitor standard
INQUA International Quaternary Association (in ArAr dating)
IUGS International Union of Geological Sciences GPTS Geomagnetic polarity time scale
ODP Ocean Drilling Project GSSP Global Stratotype Section and Point
SNS Subcommision (of ICS) on Neogene GSSA Global Standard Stratigraphic Age
Stratigraphy (in Precambrian)
SQS Subcommission (of ICS) on Quaternary HRSIMS High-resolution secondary ion mass
Stratigraphy spectrometry (in UPb dating)
SOS Subcommission (of ICS) on Ordovician LAD Last appearance datum
Stratigraphy LA2003 Laskar 2003 numerical solution of orbital
UNESCO United Nations Education, Scientic, periodicities
and Cultural Organization MMhb-1 McClure Mountain hornblende monitor
USGS United States Geological Survey standard (in ArAr dating)
SL13 Sri Lanka 13 monitor zircon standard
(in HRSIMS dating)
T I M E S C A L E P U B L I C AT I O N S ( see References TIMS Thermal ionization mass spectrometry
for details) (in UPb dating)
NDS82 Numerical Dating in Stratigraphy (Odin TCR Taylor Creek Rhyolite Sanidine monitor
et al., 1982) standard (in ArAr dating)
GTS82 A Geologic Time Scale (Harland et al.,
1982) SYMBOLS
DNAG83 Geologic Time Scale, Decade of North ka 103 years ago (kilo annum)
American Geology (Palmer, 1983) kyr 103 years duration
KG85 Kent and Gradstein (1985) Ga 109 years ago (giga annum)
EX88 Exxon 1988 (Haq et al., 1988) Ma 106 years ago (mega annum)
GTS89 A Geologic Time Scale 1989 (Harland myr 106 years duration
et al., 1990) SI Syst`eme Internationale dUnites
OB93 Obradovich (1993) yr year duration

xix
Part I Introduction
1 Introduction
. .

The development of new dating methods and the extension of existing Chronometric Chronostratigraphic
methods has stimulated the need for a comprehensive review of the scale scale
geologic time scale. The construction of geologic time scales evolved
as a result of applying new ideas, methods, and data. Astronomical Absolute Stage
cycles ages Norian

ArAr Carnian

1.1 A GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE 2004 UPb Ladinian

Anisian
The geologic time scale is the framework for deciphering the
history of the Earth. Since the time scale is the tool par ex-
cellence of the geological trade, insight in its construction,
strengths, and limitations greatly enhances its function and its
utility. All earth scientists should understand how the evolving
time scales are constructed and calibrated, rather than merely
using the numbers in them. Calibration
This calibration to linear time of the succession of events
recorded in the rock record has three components:

1. the international stratigraphic divisions and their correla-

tion in the global rock record,
2. the means of measuring linear time or elapsed durations
from the rock record, and
3. the methods of effectively joining the two scales.
For convenience in international communication, the rock
record of Earths history is subdivided into a chronostrati-
graphic scale of standardized global stratigraphic units, such
as Jurassic, Eocene, Harpoceras falciferum ammonite
zone, or polarity Chron C24r. Unlike the continuous tick-
ing clock of the chronometric scale (measured in years before
present), the chronostratigraphic scale is based on relative time
units, in which global reference points at boundary stratotypes
dene the limits of the main formalized units, such as Devo-
nian. The chronostratigraphic scale is an agreed convention,
whereas its calibration to linear time is a matter for discovery
or estimation (Fig. 1.1).
A Geologic Time Scale 2004, eds. Felix M. Gradstein, James G. Ogg, and Alan
G. Smith. Published by Cambridge University Press.
c F. M. Gradstein,
J. G. Ogg, and A. G. Smith 2004.
Geologic time scale
e.g.
GTS2004
Figure 1.1 The construction of a geologic time scale is the merger
of a chronometric scale (measured in years) and a
chronostratigraphic scale (formalized denitions of geologic stages,
biostratigraphic zonation units, magnetic polarity zones, and other
subdivisions of the rock record).
By contrast, Precambrian stratigraphy is formally classi-
ed chronometrically (see Chapter 9), i.e. the base of each
Precambrian eon, era, and period is assigned a numerical age
(Table 1.1).
Continual improvements in data coverage, methodology,
and standardization of chronostratigraphic units imply that
no geologic time scale can be nal. A Geologic Time Scale 2004
(GTS2004) provides an overview of the status of the geological
time scale and is the successor to GTS1989 (Harland et al.,
1990), which in turn was preceded by GTS1982 (Harland et al.,
1982).

3
4 PA RT I I N T RO D U C T I O N

Table 1.1 Current framework for subdividing terrestrial stratigraphy

Eon Era Denition of base Age in (Ma)

Phanerozoic Cenozoic Boundaries dened in rock To be discovered by correlation from

Mesozoic (chronostratigraphically) by GSSPs and dating. Base of
Paleozoic GSSPs Phanerozoic dated at 542 Ma
Proterozoic Neoproterozoic Boundaries dened in time Age of basal Proterozoic dened
Mesoproterozoic (chronometrically) by arbitrary as 2500 Ma
Paleoproterozoic assignment of numerical age
Archean Neoarchean Boundaries dened in time Age of basal Archean not dened
Mesoarchean (chronometrically) by arbitrary
Paleoarchean assignment of numerical age
Eoarchean

Since 1989, there have been several major developments: 1 . 2 H OW T H I S B O O K I S A R R A N G E D

1. Stratigraphic standardization through the work of the In-
ternational Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) has greatly
rened the international chronostratigraphic scale. In some
cases, traditional European-based geological stages have
been replaced with new subdivisions that allow global cor-
relation.
2. New or enhanced methods of extracting linear time from the
rock record have enabled high-precision age assignments.
An abundance of high-resolution radiometric dates have
been generated that has led to improved age assignments of
key geologic stage boundaries. The use of global geochem-
ical variations, Milankovitch climate cycles, and magnetic
reversals have become important calibration tools.
3. Statistical techniques of extrapolating ages and associated
uncertainties to stratigraphic events have evolved to meet
the challenge of more accurate age dates and more pre-
cise zonal assignments. Fossil event databases with multiple
stratigraphic sections through the globe can be integrated
into composite standards.
The compilation of GTS2004 has involved a large num-
ber of specialists, including contributions by past and present
chairs of different subcommissions of ICS, geochemists work-
ing with radiogenic and stable isotopes, stratigraphers using
diverse tools from traditional fossils to astronomical cycles to
database programming, and geomathematicians.
The set of chronostratigraphic units (stages, eras) and
their computed ages which constitute the main framework for
A Geologic Time Scale 2004 are summarized as Fig. 1.2, with
detailed descriptions and stratigraphic scales in appropriate
chapters.
The foundation of the geologic time scale is the standard-
ized system of international stratigraphic units. Chapter 2
summarizes the philosophy of the construction of this inter-
national standard, gives selected examples of dening bound-
aries, and reviews the origin of the main divisions of eons and
eras.
Biostratigraphy, or the use of fossils in the rock record
for assigning relative ages, has merged with mathematical and
statistical methods to enable scaled composites of global suc-
cession of events. Chapter 3 on biostratigraphy summarizes
these quantitative methods, which were used to construct the
primary standard for most of the Paleozoic time scale (from
542 to 251 Ma).
Periodic multi-thousand-year oscillations in the Earths or-
bit and tilt relative to the Sun produce cyclic environmental
changes that are recorded in sediments. Chapter 4 summa-
rizes how these astronomical signals are extracted from the
sediments and used to construct a very high-resolution time
scale that can be tied to the present orbital condition (linear
time) or to measure actual elapsed time. Cycle stratigraphy has
calibrated the time scales for most of the Neogene Period (i.e.
for the past 23 million years), and for portions of the Paleo-
gene Period (from 65 to 23 Ma) and Mesozoic Era (from 251
to 65 Ma).
Reversals of the Earths geomagnetic eld are recorded
by sediments, by volcanic rocks, and by the oceanic crust.
Chapter 5 explains how the oceanic magnetic anomalies are
calibrated with spreading models to produce a powerful corre-
lation tool for sediments deposited during the past 160 million
years. These calibrated C-sequence and M-sequence polarity
time scales enable assignment of ages to stage boundaries and to
 Introduction 5

GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

PHANEROZOIC PRECAMBRIAN
CENOZOIC MESOZOIC PALEOZOIC
AGE Period Epoch Stage AGE AGE Period Epoch Stage AGE AGE Period Epoch Stage AGE AGE Eon Era Period AGE
(Ma) (Ma) (Ma) (Ma) (Ma) (Ma) (Ma) (Ma)
0 Holocene 65.5 Changhsingian 251.0 542
Quaternary

proterozoic
Pleisto- Maastrichtian 255 253.8 600 Ediacaran
cene
Lopingian Wuchiapingian ~630
1.81 70 70.6 260 260.4
Pliocene

Gelasian

Neo-
L 2.59 Guada- Capitanian 700

Permian
Piacenzian 75 265 265.8 Cryogenian
3.60 Wordian
Campanian 270
lupian Roadian 268.0 800
E Zanclean Kungurian
270.6
850
5 5.33 80 275 275.6 900
Messinian Late 83.5 280 Artinskian
Tonian
85 Santonian 85.8 1000
7.25 284.4 1000
Coniacian 285 Cisuralian
L 90 89.3 Sakmarian
290 Stenian

proterozoic
1100
Neogene

Tortonian Turonian
10 93.5 295 294.6
Asselian 1200

Meso-
95 1200
Cretaceous

Cenomanian 300 299.0

Late
Gzhelian

sylvanian
11.61 303.9
99.6 1300 Ectasian
Miocene

Penn-

Proterozoic
100 305 Kasimovian
Serravallian 306.5

Carboniferous
310 Middle Moscovian 1400
M 13.65 105 311.7 1400
Albian 315 Early Bashkirian
15 Langhian 318.1 1500 Calymmian
320

Late
15.97 110
112.0 Serpukhovian
325 1600 1600
115 326.4

Mississippian
330
Burdigalian Statherian

Middle
1700
Aptian 335 Visean
E 120
20 340 1800 1800
20.43 Early

proterozoic
125 125.0 345 345.3
Aquitanian 1900
Barremian Orosirian

Paleo-
350

Early
23.03 130 130.0 Tournaisian 2000
355
Hauterivian 2050
135 360 359.2 2100
25 136.4
L Chattian Valanginian 365 Rhyacian
Oligocene

140 140.2 Famennian 2200

370
Berriasian Late 2300
Devonian

145 375 374.5 2300

28.4 145.5
Tithonian 380 Frasnian 2400 Siderian
30 150 150.8 385 385.3
E Rupelian Late Kimmeridgian 390 Givetian 2500 2500

archean archean
155 155.7 Middle 391.8

Neo-
395 Eifelian 2600
Oxfordian 397.5
160 400
33.9 161.2 Emsian 2700
Callovian 405
35 165 164.7 Early 407.0
L Priabonian Bathonian Pragian
Jurassic

410 2800 2800

167.7 411.2
170
Middle Bajocian 415 Lochkovian
37.2 416.0 2900
Meso-
171.6 Pridoli 418.7
Silurian

Aalenian 420 Ludlow Ludfordian

421.3
Gorstian
Bartonian 175 175.6 Homerian 422.9 3000
425 Wenlock 426.2
Sheinwoodian
40 428.2
40.4 180 Toarcian 430 3100
Telychian
Paleogene

183.0 435 Llandovery 436.0

185 Aeronian 3200 3200
Pliensbachian 440 439.0
M Rhuddanian
Eocene

Early
archean

443.7 3300
445
Paleo-

189.6 Hirnantian
190 445.6
Lutetian
Ordovician

45 Sinemurian 450 3400

Late
Archean

195 455
196.5 455.8
Hettangian 460 3500
200 199.6 460.9
48.6
Rhaetian 465 Middle Darriwilian 3600 3600
203.6 468.1
205 470
50 471.8 3700
475
210 Norian 478.6
480 Early 3800
E Ypresian 215 Late 485 Tremadocian
3900
216.5 488.3
Eoarchean

490
Triassic

220 495 Furongian 4000

55
55.8 Carnian Paibian
500 4100
Cambrian

225 501
L Thanetian 228.0 505
Middle 4200
230
Paleocene

58.7 510
Ladinian 515
513
4300
60 235
M Selandian Middle 237.0 520
4400
61.7 240 525
Anisian Early Lower limit
530 4500
E Danian 245 245.0 is not
535 4600
Early Olenekian defined
65 65.5 250 Induan 249.7 540
251.0 542.0

Figure 1.2 Summary of A Geologic Time Scale 2004.

6 PA RT I I N T RO D U C T I O N
biostratigraphic and other stratigraphic events through much
of that interval.
Chapter 6 on radiogenic isotopes summarizes the evolving
techniques used to acquire high-precision ages from the rock
record. However, high precision does not always imply accu-
racy, and this chapter explains some of the pitfalls induced by
geological distortions or laboratory standards.
Stable isotopes of strontium reveal a wealth of information
about past environmental conditions and geochemical cycling.
Chapter 7 explains the use of trends in the strontium isotope
ratios of past seawater for global correlation and for relative
scaling of stratigraphic events, and presents these trends for
the past 600 million years.
Assembling the array of radiometric, biostratigraphic, cy-
cles, magnetic, and other data into a unied geologic time
scale, and extrapolating the ages and uncertainties on strati-
graphic boundaries is the topic of Chapter 8, Geomathematics.
This chapter also details construction methods and results for
GTS2004.
The Precambrian encompasses the 4 billion years from the
formation of the Earth to the evolution of multicellular life.
In addition to summarizing major geologic and geochemical
trends, the two chapters on the Precambrian highlight the
philosophical difference in establishing chronostratigraphic
subdivisions based on pure linear age versus identifying sig-
nicant global events.
The Phanerozoic (the past 542 million years of Earth
history) is subdivided into 11 periods. Each of the period
chapters has three principal parts: an explanation of the for-
mal subdivision into stages using global boundary stratotypes
associated with primary and secondary correlation markers; a
summary of the biostratigraphy, cycle stratigraphy, magnetic
stratigraphy, and geochemical stratigraphy features that are
applied to construct high-resolution relative time scales; and
the methods of calibration to a linear time framework. Each
period chapter includes a detailed graphic presentation of its
integrated geologic time scale, and these are drawn at a uni-
form scale among all chapters and in the color plates section
to allow visual comparison of rates.
The summary of GTS2004 (Fig. 1.2) in Chapter 23 reviews
the entire geologic time scale, summarizes its construction and
uncertainties, and outlines potentially rewarding directions for
future time scale research.
1 . 3 C O N V E N T I O N S A N D S TA N DA R D S
Ages are given in years before Present (BP). To avoid a con-
stantly changing datum, Present was xed as AD 1950 (as in
14
C determinations), the point in time at which modern isotope
dating research began in laboratories around the world. For
most geologists, this offset of ofcial Present from today
is not important. However, for archeologists and researchers
into events during the Holocene (the past 11500 years), the
current offset (50 years) between the BP convention from
radiometric laboratories and actual total elapsed calendar years
becomes signicant.
For clarity, the linear age in years is abbreviated as a
(for annum), and ages are generally measured in ka or Ma, for
thousands, millions, or billions of years before present. The
elapsed time or duration is abbreviated as yr (for year), and
durations are generally in kyr or myr. Therefore, the Cenozoic
began at 65.5 Ma, and spans 65.5 myr (to the present day).
The uncertainties on computed ages or durations are ex-
pressed as standard deviation (1-sigma or 68% condence) or
2-sigma (95% condence). The uncertainty is indicated by
and will have implied units of thousands or millions of
years as appropriate to the magnitude of the age. Therefore,
an age cited as 124.6 0.3 Ma implies a 0.3 myr uncertainty
(1-sigma, unless specied as 2-sigma) on the 124.6 Ma date.
We present the uncertainties () on summary graphics of the
geologic time scale as 2-sigma (95% condence) values.
Geologic time is measured in years, but the standard unit
for time is the second s. Because the Earths rotation is not uni-
form, this second is not dened as a fraction (1/86 400) of a
solar day, but as the atomic second. The basic principle of the
atomic clock is that electromagnetic waves of a particular fre-
quency are emitted when an atomic transition occurs. In 1967,
the Thirteenth General Conference on Weights and Measures
dened the atomic second as the duration of 9 192 631 770 pe-
riods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between
two hyperne levels of the ground state of cesium-133. This
value was established to agree as closely as possible with the
solar-day second. The frequency of 9 192 631 770 hertz (Hz),
which the denition assigns to cesium radiation was carefully
chosen to make it impossible, by any existing experimental ev-
idence, to distinguish the atomic second from the ephemeris
second based on the Earths motion. The advantage of having
the atomic second as the unit of time in the International Sys-
tem of Units is the relative ease, in theory, for anyone to build
and calibrate an atomic clock with a precision of 1 part per 1011
(or better). In practice, clocks are calibrated against broadcast
time signals, with the frequency oscillations in hertz being the
pendulum of the atomic time keeping device.
1 year is approximately 31.56 mega seconds (1 a = 31.56
Ms).

The Syst`eme Internationale dUnites (SI) conventions at
103 intervals that are relevant for spans of geologic time through
sizes of microfossils are:
109 giga G
106 mega M
103 kilo k
100 unity 1
103 milli m
106 micro
109 nanno n
Although dates assigned in the geologic time scale are measured
in multiples of the atomic second as unit of time (year), there
are two other types of seconds: mean solar second and ephemeris
second.
1.3.1 Universal time
Universal time is utilized in the application of astronomy to
navigation. Measurement of universal time is made directly
from observing the times of transits of stars; since the Earths
rotation is not uniform, corrections are applied to obtain a more
uniform time system. In essence, universal time is the mean
solar time on the Greenwich meridian, reckoned in days of 24
mean solar hours beginning with zero hour at midnight, and
derives from the average rate of the daily motion of the Sun
relative to the meridian of Greenwich. The mean solar second is
1/86 400 of the mean solar day, but because of non-uniformity
this unit is no longer the standard of international time.
1.3.2 Ephemeris time
Ephemeris time (ET) is uniform and obtained from observa-
tion by directly comparing positions of the Sun, Moon, and the
planets with calculated ephemerides of their coordinates. Web-
sters dictionary denes ephemeris as any tabular statement of
the assigned places of a celestial body for regular intervals.
Ephemeris time is based on the ephemeris second dened as
1/31 556 925.9447 of the tropical year for 1900 January 0 day
12 hour ET. The ephemeris day is 86 400 ephemeris seconds,
which unit in 1957 was adopted by the International Astro-
nomical Union as the fundamental invariable unit of time.
1 . 4 H I S T O R I C A L OV E RV I E W O F G E O L O G I C
TIME SCALES
Stitching together the many data points on the loom of
time requires an elaborate combination of Earth science and
Introduction 7
mathematical/statistical methods. Hence, the time and ef-
fort involved in constructing a new geologic time scale and
assembling all relevant information is considerable. Because of
this, and because continuous updating in small measure with
new information is not advantageous to the stability of any
common standard, new geologic time scales spanning the en-
tire Phanerozoic tend to come out sparsely (e.g. Harland et al.,
1982, 1990; Gradstein and Ogg, 1996; Remane, 2000).
In the absence of accepted accurate dates at each stage
boundary, extrapolating the ages of geologic stages is a major
challenge in time scale building and various methods have been
employed by different compilations, including this GTS2004
version. A major challenge in itself is to try to understand the
precision of radiometric ages, including calibrations between
different radiometric methods, now that analytical errors are
greatly reduced.
Figure 1.3 summarizes those and some others in terms of
12 methods applied since 1937. Radiometric age dating, strati-
graphic reasoning, and biostratigraphic/geomagnetic calibra-
tions are three corner stones of time scale building. Strati-
graphic reasoning, although fuzzy, evaluates the complex web
of correlations around stage boundaries or other key levels, and
is paramount in the science of stratigraphy. Geomathematical
methods involve mathematical/statistical routines and inter-
polations that can estimate margins of error on limits of strati-
graphic units; such errors are of two main types, stratigraphic
and analytical (see Chapter 8). Tuning of cyclic sequences to
orbital time scales, either counting back from an anchor level
such as the present, or tuning individual cyclic segments
with orbital periodicities (oating time scale), has the potential
to be the most accurate calibration of the geologic time scale
(see Chapters 4 and 21). Such an orbitally tuned time scale can
also calibrate the standards and decay constants of radiometric
methods.
1.4.1 Arthur Holmes and agethickness interpolations
Arthur Holmes (18901965) was the rst to combine radiomet-
ric ages with geologic formations in order to create a geologic
time scale. His book, The Age of the Earth (1913, 2nd edition
1937), written when he was only 22, had a major impact on those
interested in geochronology. For his pioneering scale, Holmes
carefully plotted four radiometric dates, one in the Eocene
and three in the Paleozoic from radiogenic helium and lead in
uranium minerals, against estimates of the accumulated maxi-
mum thickness of Phanerozoic sediments. If we ignore sizable
error margins, the base of Cambrian interpolates at 600 Ma,
curiously close to modern estimates. The new approach was
8 PA RT I I N T RO D U C T I O N

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Maximum thickness of sediments per time period X X

Equal duration of stages X

Rate of radioactive decay of elements X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Tuning of cyclic sequences to orbital time scale X X X X X X X

Stratigraphic reasoning X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Biostratigraphic/geomagnetic calibration X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Equal duration of (sub) zone to scale stages X X X

Zone duration is proportional to zone thickness X

Constancy of spreading in ocean-floor segments X X X X X X X X

Trends in Sr/Sr stable isotope scale X X X

Geomathematical/statistical interpolations X X X X

Best-fit line of age dates versus strat. assignment X X X

Figure 1.3 Twelve methods in geological time scale building applied since 1937.

a major improvement over a previous hour-glass method extended about 50%, and the Cambrian gains 20 myr at the
that tried to estimate maximum thickness of strata per period expense of the Ordovician.
to determine their relative duration, but had no way of esti-
mating rates of sedimentation independently. As late as 1960,
1.4.2 Phanerozoic radiometric databases, statistical
Holmes, being well aware of limitations, elegantly phrased it
scales, and compilations
thus (p. 184):
W. B. Harland and E. H. Francis as part of a Phanerozoic time
The [now obsolete] 1947 scale was tied to the ve dates
scale symposium coordinated a systematic, numbered radio-
listed. . . . In order to estimate dates for the beginning and
metric database with critical evaluations. Items 1337 in The
end of each period by interpolation, I adopted a modi-
Phanerozoic Time-Scale: A Symposium (Harland et al., 1964)
cation of Samuel Haughtons celebrated principle of 1878
were listed in the order as received by the editors. Supple-
that the proper relative measure of geological periods is
ments of items 338366 were assembled by the Geological So-
the maximum thickness of strata formed during those pe-
cietys Phanerozoic Time-scale Sub-Committee from publica-
riods, and plotted the ve dates against the cumulative
tions omitted from the previous volume or published between
sums of the maximum thicknesses in what were thought to
1964 and 1968, and of items 367404 relating specically to the
be their most probable positions. I am fully aware that this
Pleistocene most were provided by N. J. Shackleton. The com-
method of interpolation has obvious weaknesses, but at least
pilation of these additional items with critical evaluations
it provides an objective standard, and so far as I know, no
was included in The Phanerozoic Time-Scale: A Supplement
one has suggested a better one.
(Harland and Francis, 1971). In 1978, R. L. Armstrong pub-
In 1960, Holmes compiled a revised version of the age- lished a re-evalution and continuation of The Phanerozoic
versus-thickness scale (Fig. 1.4). Compared with the initial Time-Scale database (Armstrong, 1978). This publication did
1913 scale, the projected durations of the Jurassic and Permian not include abstracting and critical commentary. These cata-
are more or less doubled, the Triassic and Carboniferous are logs of items 1404 and of Armstrongs continuation of items
 Introduction 9

25 60 Millions of Years
0 11 40 70 135 180 225 270 305 350 400 440 500 600
6 0
Pliocene
21
Miocene
42
Oligocene 50
60
Thousands of Feet

Eocene

Thousands of Feet
90 Paleocene 100
110
Cretaceous
150
161
Jurassic
205 200
Triassic
235
Permian 250
254
Upper
274 Carboniferous
Lower
300 300
Devonian
330
Silurian 350
372
Ordovician
400
412
Cambrian
452 450
Precambrian 476
675
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Millions of Years
Figure 1.4 Scaling concept employed by Arthur Holmes in the rst selected radiometric dates from volcanic tuffs, glauconites, and
half of the previous century to construct the geologic time scale. The magmatic intrusives along the horizontal linear axis. This version
cumulative sum of maximum thicknesses of strata in thousands of (Holmes, 1960) incorporated an uncertainty envelope from the
feet per stratigraphic unit is plotted along the vertical axis and errors on the radiometric age constraints.

404522 were denoted PTS and A, respectively, in later
publications.
In 1976, the Subcommision on Geochronology recom-
mended an intercalibrated set of decay constants and isotopic
abundances for the UThPb, RbSr, and KAr systems
with the uranium decay constants by Jaffey et al. (1971) as
the mainstay for the standard set (Steiger and Jaeger, 1978).
This new set of decay constants necessitated systematic up-
ward or downward revisions of previous radiometric ages by
12%.
In A Geological Time Scale (Cambridge University Press,
1982), Harland et al. standardized the MesozoicPaleozoic
portion of the previous PTSA series to the new decay con-
stants and included a few additional ages published in Con-
tributions to the Geological Time Scale (Cohee et al., 1978) and
by McKerrow et al. (1985). Simultaneously, G. S. Odin super-
vised a major compilation and critical review of 251 radiometric
dating studies as Part II of Numerical Dating in Stratigraphy
(Odin, 1982). This NDS compilation also re-evaluated many
of the dates included in the previous PTSA series. A volume
of papers on The Chronology of the Geological Record (Snelling,
1985) from a 1982 symposium included re-assessments of the
combined PTSNDS database with additional data for differ-
ent time intervals.
After applying rigorous selection criteria to the PTSA
and NDS databases and incorporating many additional stud-
ies (mainly between 1981 and 1988) in a statistical evaluation,
Harland and co-workers presented A Geological Time Scale
1989 (Cambridge University Press, 1990).
The statistical method of time scale building employed by
GTS82 and rened by GTS89 derived from the marriage of
the chronogram concept with the chron concept, both of which
represented an original path to a more reproducible and ob-
jective scale. Having created a high-temperature radiometric
age data set, the chronogram method was applied that mini-
mizes the mist of stratigraphically inconsistent radiometric
age dates around trial boundary ages to arrive at an estimated
age of stage boundaries. From the error functions a set of
age/stage plots was created (Appendix 4 in GTS89) that depict
the best age estimate for Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic
stage boundaries. Because of wide errors, particularly in Paleo-
zoic and Mesozoic dates, GTS89 plotted the chronogram ages
for stage boundaries against the same stages with relative dura-
tions scaled proportionally to their component chrons. For
convenience, chrons were equated with biostratigraphic zones.
The chron concept in GTS89 implied equal duration of zones
in prominent biozonal schemes, such as a conodont scheme
for the Devonian. In Chapter 8, the chronogram method is
10 PA RT I I N T RO D U C T I O N
discussed in more detail and compared with the maximum
likelihood method of interpolations using all radiometric ages,
not only chronostratigraphically inconsistent ones.
The Bureau de Recherches Geologiques et Mini`eres and
the Societe Geologique de France published a stratigraphic
scale and time scale compiled by Odin and Odin (1990). Of
the more than 90 Phanerozoic stage boundaries, 20 lacked ad-
equate radiometric constraints, the majority of which were in
the Paleozoic.
Three compilations spanning the entire Phanerozoic were
published in the late 1990s. A comprehensive review of the
geologic time scale by Young and Laurie (1996) was oriented
toward correlating Australian strata to international standards,
and is rich in detail, graphics, and zonal charts. Gradstein
and Ogg (1996) assembled a composite Phanerozoic scale from
various published sources, including McKerrow et al. (1985),
Berggren et al. (1995a), Gradstein et al. (1995), Roberts et al.
(1995a), and Tucker and McKerrow (1995). The Interna-
tional Stratigraphic Chart (Remane, 2000) is an important
document for stratigraphic nomenclature (including Precam-
brian), and included a contrast of age estimates for stratigraphic
boundaries modied from Odin and Odin (1990), Odin (1994),
Berggren et al. (1995a), and individual ICS subcommissions.
During the 1990s, a series of developments in integrated
stratigraphy and isotopic methodology enabled relative and lin-
ear geochronology at unprecedented high resolution. Magne-
tostratigraphy provided correlation of biostratigraphic datums
to marine magnetic anomalies for the Late Jurassic through
Cenozoic. Argonargon dating of sanidine crystals and new
techniques of uraniumlead dating of individual zircon crystals
yielded ages for sediment-hosted volcanic ashes with analyti-
cal precessions less than 1%. Comparison of volcanic-derived
ages to those obtained from glauconite grains in sediments in-
dicated that the majority of glauconite grains yielded system-
atically younger ages (e.g. Obradovich, 1998; Gradstein et al.,
1994a), thereby removing a former method of obtaining direct
ages on stratigraphic levels. Pelagic sediments record features
from the regular climate oscillations produced by changes in
the Earths orbit, and recognition of these Milankovitch cy-
cles allowed precise tuning of the associated stratigraphy to
astronomical constants.
Aspects of the GTS89 compilation began a trend in which
different portions of the geologic time scale were calibrated
by different methods. The Paleozoic and early Mesozoic
portions continued to be dominated by renement of inte-
grating biostratigraphy with radiometric tie points, whereas
the late Mesozoic and Cenozoic also utilized oceanic magnetic
anomaly patterns and astronomical tuning.
A listing of the radiometric dates and discussion of specic
methods employed in building GTS 2004 can be found within
individual chapters relating to specic geological periods.
1.4.3 Paleozoic scales
The Paleozoic spans 291 myr between 542 and 251 Ma. Its
estimated duration has decreased about 60 myr since the scales
of Holmes (1960) and Kulp (1961). Selected key Paleozoic
time scales are compared to GTS2004 in Fig. 1.5a,b; historic
changes stand out best when comparing the time scale at the
period level in Fig. 1.5a.
Differences in relative estimated durations of component
period and stages are substantial (e.g. the Ludlow Stage in the
Silurian, or the Emsian Stage in the Devonian). Whereas most
of the Cenozoic and Mesozoic have had relatively stable stage
nomenclature for some decades (Figs. 1.6 and 1.7), the prior
lack of an agreed nomenclature for the Permian, Carboniferous,
Ordovician, and Cambrian periods complicates comparison of
time scales (Fig. 1.5a; see also Chapters 11, 12, 15, and 16).
The 570 through 245 Ma Paleozoic time scale in GTS89
derived from the marriage of the chronogram method with the
chron concept. The chron concept in GTS89 implied equal
duration of zones in prominent biozonal schemes, such as a
conodont scheme for the Devonian, etc. The two-way graphs
for each period in the Paleozoic were interpolated by hand,
weighting tie points subjectively. Error bars on stage bound-
aries calculated with the chronogram method were lost in the
process of drawing the best-t line. The fact that the Paleozoic
suffered both from a lack of data points and relatively large un-
certainties led to poorly constrained age estimates for stages;
this uncertainty is readily noticeable in the chronogram/chron
gures of GTS89.
The 545 through 248 Ma Paleozoic part of the Phanerozoic
time scale of Gradstein and Ogg (1996) is a composite from
various sources, including the well-known scales by McKerrow
et al. (1985), Harland et al. (1990), Roberts et al. (1995a), and
Tucker and McKerrow (1995).
The International Stratigraphic Chart (Remane, 2000) pro-
vides two different sets of ages for part of the Paleozoic stage
boundaries. The column that has ages for most stages appears
to slightly update Odin and Odin (1990), and Odin (1994) and
is shown here.
Modern radiometric techniques that are having signicant
impact for Paleozoic dates include high-precision UPb dates
from magmatic zircon crystals in tuffs (K-bentonites) wedged
in marine strata that supercede older schemes with 40 Ar39 Ar,
RbSr, and KAr dates on minerals like glauconite, and on
Ma Holmes Holmes Kulp NDS82 GTS82 GTS89 Odin Gradstein & Young and Remane GTS2004 Ma
(1937) (1960) (1961) Odin Harland et al. Harland et al. (1994) Ogg (1996) Laurie (1996) (2000)
225 (1982) (1982) (1990) 225
(227) (225) 230

Carboniferous
2455 248 245 245
250 248.2 251 250 251 250

275
2705
280
Permian286
Devonian

29010 290.0 290

295 293 295
300 299 300

313

Carboniferous
Silurian

331

345
350 35010 350
Ordovician

354 354 355

36010 360 360 359
362.5

392
Devonian
400 40010 40010 400
405 408 408.5 410 410 410
4185 417 416

Silurian
Cambrian

425
435 434 435
44010 438 439.0
443 444
450 450

470
Ordovician
490 488
49510 495
500 50015 500 500 500 500
505
510

53010
Cambrian 540 540 542
545 545
550 550

570

590
?
600 60020 600 600
?
Figure 1.5(a) Comparison at the period level of selected Paleozoic time scales with GTS2004.

11
Ma Holmes Holmes Kulp NDS82 GTS82 GTS89 Odin Gradstein & Young and Remane GTS2004 Ma
(1937) (1960) (1961) Odin Harland et al. Harland et al. (1994) Ogg (1996) Laurie (2000)
225 (1982) (1982) (1990) (1996) 225
(225) 230
(227)

L
Permian 2455 245 245
248 Tatarian 250 248.2
250 Carboniferous 251 250 251 250
Tatarian Zechstein Tatarian 252.1
Permian - Changhsing. 254
Ufimian 258 256.1 Kazanian Kazanian 256 Tatarian Lopingian Wuchiapingian
258 Kungurian
260 260

Permian
Kungurian Kungurian
263 263
Permian 265 Artinskian Capitanian 266
Artinskian268 Kazanian 267 Guadalupian Wordian 268
2705 269 Ufimian 270
E Rotliegendes Artinskian 272 Roadian 271
275 Sakmarian 275 Sakmarian Kungurian 274 Kungurian 276
280 -
Sakmarian Artinskian Artinskian
Asselian 282 Cisuralian
286 285 285 284
Asselian
Devonian 29010/5 290.0 290 Sakmarian Sakmarian
Stephanian Gzhelian Asselian 293
296 295.1 295 Gzhelian 296.5 295 295
L Asselian298
300 Kasimovian Asselian 299 300
Kasimovian
303.0 Stephanian 303 Stephanian Gzhelian 304
Carboniferous L 305 305 Penn- Kasimovian 307
Westphalian Moscovian Moscovian
Carboniferous sylvanian Moscovian 312
311.3 Westphalian 311 Westphalian
313 314
Carboniferous 315 315 Bashkir. 318
Bashkirian Bashkirian
Namurian 320
Silurian 322.8 Namurian 323 Serpukhovian
Carboniferous Namurian 325 325 325 326
Serpukhov. 327
Serpukhovian
331 Visean
E 333 332.9
Visean Visean
Visean Mississippian Visean
E Visean 342
345 Visean 344 345 345
350 35010 349.5 350 Tournaisian Tournaisian Tournaisian 350
352 354 354 355 Tournaisian
Tournaisian Tournaisian Tournaisian 359
Ordovician L 36010/5 360 360 Famennian Famennian
362.5 364
Famennian 364.5 Famennian
367 Famennian 367 L Frasnian Frasnian 369 Famennian
Frasnian 370 370
374
Frasnian 375
Devonian Devonian 375 Givetian Givetian Frasnian
Frasnian 375
377
Devonian

Givetian 378 Givetian

M Devonian 380 Givetian 381 M 380 380 Frasnian
Eifelian Eifelian 386 Eifelian 384 385
385 Eifelian
387 Eifelian
Emsian 390 390 Givetian 392
392 Emsian 391 Emsian
394 Pragian Emsian 395
396 Emsian Eifelian 398
E Siegenian 399.5
400 40010 40010/5 401 E 400 Pragian 400
Lochkovian Pragian
Pragian 404.5 - Emsian
405 Gedinnian Lochkovian
408 408.5 Pragian 407
410 Lochkovian 410
Silurian Pridoli 410.7 410 Pragian 411
Pridoli 412
414 Pridoli 415 Lochkovian Pridoli 414 Pridoli 415 Lochkov. 416
Silurian 417
4185/10 Ludlow Ludlow Pridoli 419
Silurian

Silurian 421 Pridoli 419 Ludlow 420

Ludlow Ludlow 423 Ludlow Ludlow 423
425 Wenlock 424.1 Wenlock 425
Cambrian 425 425 Wenlock428
428 Wenlock Wenlock 428
430.4 Wenlock 430 Llandovery Wenlock 430
Llandovery Llandovery Llandovery 435 434 Llandovery 435
Llandovery Llandovery
438 439.0 Ashgill
44010 Ashgill
Ashgill443.1 443 443 444
Ashgill 445 L
448 Ashgill
450 449 450
Caradoc Caradoc L
Caradoc Caradoc 455 Caradoc 455
Ordovician
Ordovician 458 458 459 Darriwilian
Llandeilo 461
M
Ordovician

463.9 - Llandeilo
Llandeilo 464 Llanvirn 465 Darriwilian
Llanvirn 467
Ordovician 468 Llandeilo468.6 Llanvirn M 468
470 470 470
Llanvirn 472
Llanvirn
476.1 Arenig
478 Arenig Arenig E 479
Arenig Arenig 485 485 Tremadocian
486 E 488
488 Tremadoc 490
493 Tremadoc
49510/5 Tremadoc 495 L
L 497.5 Tremadoc
500 Tremadoc 500 L 500 Paibian 501
500 50015 500 500
Tremadoc
505 M L
510 L 509 M
M 513
Merioneth Merioneth
L Cambrian 517.2 M
518
M 520
523
St. David's E
53010 E E
St. David's E E
536.0
540 540 540
Cambrian

542
Cambrian Cambrian 545 545
550 550
Caerfai

Caerfai
570

590
?
600 60020 600 600
?
Figure 1.5(b) Comparison at the stage level of selected Paleozoic stacked together; scales 1, 2, and 3 are more detailed than
time scales with GTS2004. In some columns, epochs and stages are shown.

12
 Introduction 13

GTS82 NDS82 DNAG83 EX88 GTS89 SEPM95

Ma Holmes Holmes Kulp Odin Ma
(1937) (1960) (1961)
Harlandt et Odin Kent & Grad- Haq et al. Harland et
(1994)
Gradstein et GTS2004
60 al. (1982) (1982) stein (1983) (1987) al. (1990) al. (1995) 60

63
65 651.5 66.5 65 65 65 0.1 65.5
66.4
70 70 70 70

80 80

90 90

100 Cretaceous 100

108
110 110

120 120

Jurassic

130 1303 131 130

135 135 135

140 140

145 144 144 144.22.6

145.6 145.5
150 150

160 160

170
Triassic
Jurassic 170

180 180 181 180

190 193 190

200 199.6 200

2044 205 205.74.0

208 208
210 210 210

213

220 220

230
225

230 Triassic 230

240 240

2455 245 245 245

248 248.24.8
250 250 250
251.0

Figure 1.6(a) Comparison at the period level of selected Mesozoic time scales with GTS2004.
 GTS82 NDS82 DNAG83 EX88 GTS89 SEPM95
Ma Holmes Holmes Kulp Odin Ma
(1937) (1960) (1961)
Harland et Odin Kent and Grad- Haq et al. Harland et
(1994)
Gradstein et GTS2004
60 al. (1982) (1982) stein (1983) (1987) al. (1990) al. (1995) 60

63
65 651.5 65 65 65 0.1
66.5 65.5
66.4
Maastricht.
Maastricht. Maastricht. Maastricht. Maastricht.
70 70 70 Maastricht. Maastricht. Maastricht. 71.30.5 70.6 70
72 72
73
74.5 74 74
Campanian
-Campanian Late CampanianCampanian Campanian
80 CampanianCampanian Campanian 80
Santonian Cretaceous
83 83 83 83.50.5 83.5
84 84 84

Cretaceous Coniacian Santonian

-
Santonian Santonian Santonian 86.6
Santonian Sant.85.80.5 Santon.85.8
87
88 Coniacian Coniac.
87.5 87.5 88 Coniac. 88.5
Turonian Coniacian 88.5 Coniacian 88.5
Coniacian 89
Coniacian
890.5 89.3
90 90 Turonian Turonian 91 Turonian Turon. 90.4 Turonian 91 90
91 Turonian Turonian
92
93.50.2 93.5
Cenoman. 951 Cenoman. Cenoman. Cenoman. Cenoman.
96 96 Cenoman.
Cretaceous 97.5 97.5 97 Cenoman.
98.90.6
100 Cenoman. 99.6 100
Albian Albian
Albian
Albian Albian Albian
108 108
Albian
108
110 110 110
Early Aptian 112 Aptian 112.21.1 112.0
113 113 113
Cretaceous 114
Albian Barremian Barrem.116
Aptian Aptian 116.5 Aptian
119 119 Hauterivian Aptian
120 120 Hauterivian Aptian 120
121 1211.4
Barremian Barremian 122
Aptian 124 124.5 Barremian
Jurassic 125 Valanginian 125.0
- 1271.6
Hauterivian 128 Valanginian Barremian
Hauterivian Barremian
Neocomian Ryazanian 130 Hauterivian
Tithonian Berr.

130 1303 130.0 130

131 131 131
131.8 1321.9

135 135 Valanginian Valanginian Volgian Hauterivian Berriasian

135
Valanginian Hauterivian
135
Late 136 1372.2 136.4
138
Jurassic 138 Valanginian Tithonian Valanginian
140 140
140.7 141 Berriasian 140.2
Berriasian Berriasian Kim.
144 144 Berriasian Kim. 144.22.6 Berriasian
145 145 145.6 145.5
146
Tithonian Tithonian
Tithonian Oxfordian Tithonian Tithonian
150 150 1503 Oxfordian 150.73.0 150.8 150
152 152 152.1
Kim.
Kim. Kim. Kim.154.7 154 154.13.2 Kimmeridg.
Callovian 155.7
156 156
157 Oxford.157.1 Callovian Oxfordian
Jurassic Jurassic 159.43.6 Oxfordian
160 Oxfordian Oxfordian Callovian 160 160
161.3 161.2
163 163 Bathonian Callovian
Middle Callovian
165 Bathonian Bathonian
Triassic 164.43.8
Bath.166 Jurassic 164.7
166.1
Callovian Callovian 167 Bathonian Bathonian
Bajoc. 167.7
169 169 Bajocian 169.24.0
170
171 Bajocian Bajocian 170

Bathonian Bajocian 171.6

Bathonian 173.5 Bajocian
175 Aalenian Aalenian
176 Aalenian 176 176.54.0 175.6
Bajocian 1784
179
178 Aalenian Aalenian
180 180
181
Bajocian 180 180.14.0
Toarcian 180
181
183
Toarcian Toarcian 183.0
Toarcian Toarcian
Aalenian Aalenian 186
188
187 187 187 Pliensbach.
Early 189.64.0 189.6
Toarcian Pliensbach.Pliensbach.Pliensbach.
190 190
193
Toarcian Jurassic 193 Pliensbach.
194 194 194.5 194 Sinemurian
195.33.9
Pliensbach. 196.5
Pliensbach. 198 Sinemurian SinemurianSinemurian Hettangian
200 200
Sinemurian 199.6 200
201 201
Triassic Sinemurian 201.93.9 Rhaetian
Triassic Sinemur. 2044 204 203.5 Hettangian Hettangian 203.6
205
Hettangian Hettangian Hettangian
206 205.74.0
208 208 Rhaet. Rhaetian
Rhaet. 209.5 209.64.1
210 Hettangian 210 210
Norian
213
Rhaetian Norian
Late Norian
Rhaetian 215/217 Norian Norian 216.5
219
Triassic
220
Norian 220 220.74.4 220
Norian 223 223.4
Carnian Carnian
225 225 225
Carnian
Carnian Carnian 227.44.5
228.0
Carnian 2295 Carnian
230 230 230 230 230
231 231 Ladinian
Middle Ladinian Ladinian Ladinian Ladinian
234.34.6
Ladinian Triassic 235
236
235 235

238 Anisian Anisian Ladinian Anisian Anisian

237.0
2395 239.5
240 240 240 240 240
Anisian Early Anisian 241.1
241.74.7
243 Triassic Scythian Olenekian
Spathian 241.9
Nammalian 243.4 Scythian Olenekian Anisian
Spathian 2455 245 245 Griesbachian 245 245 244.84.8
245.0
- Induan
Scythian
248 Induan 248.24.8 Olenekian
250 250 249.7 250
Induan 251.0

Figure 1.6(b) Comparison at the stage level of selected Mesozoic time scales with GTS2004.

14

whole-rock samples. A good review in this respect for the De-
vonian is found in Williams et al. (2000), whose study points out
that it is clearly desirable to combine high analytical precision
with narrow biostratigraphic control to provide the most useful
points for time scale calibration. These authors make a case that
the CarboniferousDevonian boundary is near 362 Ma instead
of near 354 Ma or even younger, as shown in more recent scales
of Fig. 1.5. The same authors point out the considerable varia-
tion in the estimated age for the SilurianDevonian boundary
from 418 to 410 Ma, and some exceptional short estimates for
stage durations, such as 1 myr for the Pridoli Stage (Tucker
et al., 1998) and 0.9 myr for the Pragian Stage (Compston,
2000b). The latter conicts with the analysis of cyclicity in
the limestones in the classical Devonian sections of the Bar-
randian (Czech Republic), which suggests the Pragian Stage
is not much shorter than the underlying Lochkovian Stage
(Chlupac, 2000).
Because of the relative scarcity of reliable dates with
high stratigraphic precision, geomathematical/statistical tech-
niques for direct estimation of stage boundaries are not eas-
ily applicable in the Paleozoic, and various best-t line tech-
niques are utilized. Tucker and McKerrow (1995, their Fig. 1)
plotted selected age dates for CambrianDevonian from well-
established stratigraphic levels against their fossil age in an
iterative manner, juggling radiometric dates of selected sam-
ples against their stratigraphic age determined by fossils such
that a straight t was created relative to the adjusted stage
boundaries.
An improved version of this graphical method was em-
ployed by Tucker et al. (1998) to arrive at a time line for the
Devonian. First, they used graphical correlation plus biostrati-
graphic intuition to scale the seven Devonian stages. Then, a
suite of UPb zircon ages using the TIMS method for six vol-
canic ashes closely tied to biostratigraphic zones were used
to adjust and calibrate this scaling. The Devonian scale in
GTS2004 uses a modied version of their biostratigraphic
scaling with a calibration from additional age dates (see Chap-
ter 14). A similar technique is applied to the Carboniferous
and Permian in GTS2004.
Cooper and Sadler added a new tool to the arsenal of time
scale methodology, as applied to the Early Paleozoic time scale
(see Chapters 12 and 13). Using detailed graptolite sequences
from over 200 sections from oceanic and slope environment
basins, a robust composite fossil sequence was calculated using
the constrained optimization method of compositing. The Or-
dovician is taken to be 44.6 myr in duration, and lasted from
488.3 to 443.7 Ma; the Silurian lasted for 27.7 myr from 443.7
to 416 Ma. Calculated uncertainties are relatively small.
Introduction 15
1.4.4 Mesozoic scales
The Mesozoic time scale spans an interval of 186 myr, from
251 to 65.5 Ma, which is a decrease of 60 myr since Holmes
(1937) and of 35 myr compared to the scales of Holmes (1960)
and Kulp (1961). Selected key Mesozoic time scales are com-
pared to GTS2004 in Figs. 1.6a,b. The geologic time scale
for the Mesozoic has undergone various improvements during
the last two decades. The Larson and Hildes (1975) marine
magnetic anomaly prole displayed by the Hawaiian spreading
lineation was adapted for scaling of the Oxfordian through Ap-
tian Stages in KG85 and SEPM95 to compensate for a paucity
of isotope dates. Databases of radiometric ages have been sta-
tistically analyzed with various best-t methods to estimate
ages of stage boundaries (GTS89 and SEPM95). Neverthe-
less, there have been substantial differences in the estimated
ages and durations of stages and periods among scales con-
structed in the last two decades. For example, GTS1989 and
SEPM95 estimated the Barremian Stage to be over 6 myr long,
whereas EX88 and Odin and Odin (1993) suggested a duration
of 2 myr.
Age differences are particularly obvious for the Jurassic
Cretaceous transition: the TithonianBerriasian boundary
(which lacks an international denition) is 130 Ma in NDS82,
135 Ma in Remane (2000), but 145 Ma in GTS89 and
SEPM95, both of which excluded glauconite dates.
The Jurassic scales of van Hinte (1976), NDS82, KG85,
EX88, Westermann (1988), and SEPM95 relied on biochronol-
ogy to interpolate the duration of stages. As a rst approxima-
tion, it was assumed that the numerous ammonite zones and/or
subzones of the Jurassic have approximately equal mean du-
ration between adjacent stages. Toarcian and Bajocian Stages
have double the number of ammonite subzones compared to
the Aalenian, so are assumed to span twice as much time. The
limited age control on the duration of the entire Jurassic in-
dicates that the average duration of each zone is 1 myr and
each subzone is 0.45 myr (e.g. Westermann, 1988). KG85
and SEPM95 also took into account some intra-Jurassic age
control points to constrain the proportional scaling of the
component stages. A smoothing spline t was applied by F. P.
Agterberg in SEPM95 that incorporates the error limits of the
isotope age dates. At the individual subzone or zonal level,
this equal-duration assumption is known to be incorrect. For
example, McArthur et al. (2000) observed a dramatic vari-
ability in Pliensbachian and Toarcian ammonite zones when
scaled to a linear trend in the 87 Sr/86 Sr ratio of the oceans
(see Chapter 18). However, the average of the durations is not
much off. Westermanns (1988) estimate, and application of
16 PA RT I I N T RO D U C T I O N
a combined strontium trend and cycle stratigraphy to Lower
Jurassic stages (Weedon et al., 1999) yielded relative durations
for the Hettangian, Sinemurian, and Pliensbachian that are
within error limits of those of SEPM95.
The advent of 40Ar/39Ar radiometric age dates on ben-
tonites in local ammonite zones in a large part of the US West-
ern Interior Cretaceous was a signicant improvement for Late
Cretaceous chronology. With this method Obradovich (1993)
calibrated a Late Cretaceous time scale. He rejected all ages
derived from biotites in bentonites as too young, and consid-
ered all his previous KAr ages on sanidines to be obsolete.
The monitor standards for 40Ar/39Ar dating have undergone
revisions during the late 1990s (see detailed discussion in
Chapter 6). The text of Obradovich (1993) implies that all
ages were normalized to a value of 520.4 Ma for the McLure
Mountain hornblende monitor MMhb-1, thereby requiring
signicant recalculation to the current recommendation of
523.1 (0.5 myr older for Late Cretaceous ages). But in fact,
Obradovich used the Taylor Creek (TC) rhyolite as an internal
monitor standard with a value of 28.32 Ma ( J. Obradovich,
pers. comm. 1999), hence recalculation to the currently rec-
ommended TC monitor value of 28.34 Ma is only on the
order of 0.05 myr. Correlation of the North American am-
monite zonation and Obradovichs associated linear scale to
Upper Cretaceous European stages and zones was partially
achieved through rare interchanges of ammonite and other
marine macrofauna (reviewed in Cobban, 1993) and stron-
tium isotope curves for portions of the Campanian and Maas-
trichtian (e.g. McArthur et al., 1993, 1994). Gradstein et al.
(1994a, 1995) incorporated the high-precision 40Ar/39Ar data
of Obradovich (1993); the authors applied a cubic-spline t to
the data set. An even more rened version of this analysis is the
basis for the GTS2004 scale for Late Cretaceous (see Chap-
ters 8 and 19). Unfortunately, except for the basal-Turonian,
it is difcult to associate the ammonite zones calibrated by
Obradovich (1993) with the international denitions of Late
Cretaceous stage boundaries.
In 2000, Palfy et al. summarized 14 UPb TIMS dates
from the Lower and Middle Jurassic of Western Canada, cal-
ibrated to regional ammonites stratigraphy. Complex UPb
systematics made it difcult to obtain precise ages for some
of the samples, and additional uncertainties enter when cali-
brating the regional biostratigraphy to the European standard
ammonite zonation, but this data set provides the most impor-
tant constraint on the basal-Jurassic through Toarcian stages
(see Chapter 18).
Cycle stratigraphy, which has become the primary method
of scaling the Cenozoic time scale, has been applied to portions
of the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous time scales (reviewed in
Chapters 1719). As an example, Herbert et al. (1995) summa-
rized orbitally tuned cycle counts using geochemical and color
data from outcrop and core studies in northern and central Italy
to estimate the duration of the Cenomanian as 6.0 0.5 myr,
the Albian as 11.92 0.2 myr, and Aptian as 10.6 0.2 myr.
The Cenomanian and Albian cycle-scaling results have been
veried by additional studies in Italy by Fiet et al. (2001) and
Grippo et al. (2004) using other proxies and methods of spectral
analysis, and are within the error bars of results derived from
statistical ts to the limited radiometric data (e.g. SEPM95).
The main differences seem to be in the choice of the pin age
for hanging the cycle series from the base-Turonian or base-
Cenomanian, the selected marker for the yet-to-be-dened
stage and substage boundaries within the Albian and Aptian,
and which orbital frequency is for tuning. This cycle scaling
of the Albian events, but incorporating a potential nannofossil
marker for the AlbianAptian boundary, is used in GTS2004
(see Chapter 19).
1.4.5 Cenozoic scales
The Cenozoic time scale, from 65 Ma to Recent contains stages
that vary in duration from almost 8 myr for the Lutetian to less
than 1 myr for the Gelasian, and with the Holocene Epoch of
only 11 500 yr.
Although the Cenozoic Era is known in most detail, stan-
dardization of stage boundaries with consensus denitions and
GSSPs has been slow. In the Paleocene Period, only the epoch
boundaries are formally dened: base-Paleocene, base-Eocene,
and base-Oligocene. All Cenozoic standard stages are originally
based on European stratotypes, with the Neogene Mediter-
ranean ones more difcult to correlate world-wide as a func-
tion of increasing provincialism and diachronism in faunal and
oral events in the face of higher latitude climatic cooling. Se-
lected key Cenozoic time scales are compared to GTS2004 in
Figs. 1.7a,b.
Since 1964, when B. F. Funnel presented the rst, relatively
detailed and accurate Cenozoic time scale with radiometric age
estimates, many marine time scales have been erected with a
progressive enhancement of scaling methods. Berggren (1972)
and NDS82 combined radiometric age dating, stratigraphic
reasoning, and biostratigraphic/geomagnetic calibrations.
Hardenbol and Berggren (1978), GTS82, DNAG83, and EX88
added marine magnetic reversal calibrations.
Whereas the Paleozoic and Mesozoic time scales gener-
ally lack a unifying interpolation method, the marine mag-
netic reversals prole provides a powerful interpolator for the
 Introduction 17

Holmes Holmes Kulp Berggren Hardenbol & GTS82 NDS1982 DNAG83 EX88 GTS89 Berggren et GTS
Ma (1937) (1960) (1961) (1972) Berggren Harland et Odin Berggren et Haq et al. Harland et al. (1995a) 2004 Ma
0 (1978) al. (1982) (1982) al. (1985a) (1987) al. (1990) 0
1 1 1 Pleistocene
1.8 2
1.6 1.65 1.6 1.85 1.81

5
Pliocene 5 5.1 5.3
Pliocene
5.2 5.2 5.32 5.33 5

10 10
11

13

15
16
Miocene 15

20 20

22.5
23 23.3 23.03
24 23.6 23.8
24.6
25 25 25 25.2 25

30

32
Oligocene 30

33.7 33.9
34
35 35.4 35
36 36
36.5
37
37.5
38

40 40 40

45

48
Eocene 45

50 50

53
53.5 53.5
54
54.5
55 54.9 55
55.8
56.5
57.7
58

60 60

63
Paleocene 60

65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65
65.5
66.5 66.5
68

70 70 70 70

Figure 1.7(a) Comparison at the period level of selected Cenozoic time scales with GTS2004.
18 PA RT I I N T RO D U C T I O N

Holmes Holmes Kulp Berggren Hardenbol & GTS82 NDS82 DNAG83 EX88 GTS89 Berggren et GTS
Ma (1937) (1960) (1961) (1972) Berggren Harland et Odin Berggren et Haq et al. Harland et al. (1995a) 2004 Ma
0 (1978) al. (1982) (1982) al. (1985a) (1987) al. (1990) 0

Pliocene Pleist.
Quaternary1 1 1 1 Holocene
Calabrian 1.8 Pleistocene 1.6 Calabrian1.65 1.6 1.85 1.81
2
Astian Piacenzian Piacenzian PiacenzianPiacenzian Gelasian 2.6 Gelas. 2.59
Pia- - 3.4 3.5 3.4 Piacenz. 3.5 Piacenz.3.60
cenzian 4
Zanclean 5 Zanclean Zanclean Zanclean Zanclean Zanclean Zanclean
5 5.1 5.3 5.2 5.2 5.32 5.33 5
Pliocene
Messinian Messinian Messin.6.5 Messin.6.3 Messinian Messinian Messinian
Pliocene ~7 6.7
7.12 7.25
Pliocene
Tortonian Tortonian Tortonian Tortonian Tortonian
Tortonian Tortonian
10 10.2 10.4 10
11 10.5 10.6
Serravallian 11.2 11.60
Miocene

13 Serravallian Serravallian Serravallian

Serravallian Serravallian Serravallian
Langhian 13.65
14.4 14.2
15 15 14.8 Langhian 15
15.5 15.2 Langhian
16 Langhian Langh.16.2 Langhian 15.97
Langhian
16.5 16.6 16.3 16.4
Miocene Burdigalian Burdigalian Burdigalian Burdigalian
Miocene Burdigalian Burdigalian
20 20 Burdigalian 20 20
20.5 20.5 20.43
Aquitanian
22.5 Aquitanian 22 Aquitanian Aquitanian Aquitanian
23 Aquitanian Aquitanian 23.3 23.03
Miocene 23.6 23.8
24
24.6
25 25 25 Chattian 25.2 25
Chattian Chattian Chattian Chattian
27
Chattian Chattian
28.5
Oligocene

Chattian Chattian Rupelian 28.4

29.3
30 Oligocene 30 30 30 30
Rupelian
32 Oligocene 32 Rupelian
Rupelian 32.8 Lattorfian Rupelian
Rupelian Rupelian 33.7
34 33.9
35 35 Rupelian 35.4 35
Rupelian 36 Priabonian Priabonian
36 36.5
Lattorfian 37 Bartonian
Priabonian 37 37.2
37.5
38
Priabonian Priabonian 38.6
Barton. Priabonian 39
Oligocene 39.8 39.4 Bartonian Bartonian
40 40 40 Priabonian 40.4 40
Bartonian Bartonian 41.3
Bartonian 42 Bartonian 42 42.1
Priabonian Lutetian
L. 43 43.5
44 Bartonian
Eocene

45 45 45 Lutetian Lutetian 45
Lutetian Lutetian Lutetian
Eocene Lutetian
48 M. Lutetian
Ypresian Lutetian 49 49 48.6
49 49
50 Eocene 50 50
50.5
Ypresian Ypresian 52
Ypresian
52 Ypresian
Ypresian 53 Ypresian
Ypresian
53.5 53.5
54
54.5
55 54.9 55
Ypresian 55.8
E. 56.5 Thanetian
Thanetian Thanetian Thanetian Thanetian
57.7 Thanetian
Paleocene

Eocene 58 57.9 Thanetian

59 Thanetian 58.7
60 60 60 60 60.2
Selandian 60
60.2 Selandian 60.5
Paleocene 60.9 Selandian
61.7
Danian Danian Danian Danian 62.4
63 Danian Danian
Danian Danian
65 65 65 65 65 Danian 65 65 65
Paleocene 65.5
66.5 66.5
68
Paleocene
70 70 70 70

Figure 1.7(b) Comparison at the stage level of selected Cenozoic time scales with GTS2004.

Cenozoic time scale. The large number of geomagnetic eld
reversals since Late Santonian time, coupled with a wealth of
seaoor magnetic proles, and detailed knowledge of the ra-
diometric age of selected magnetic polarity reversals in lavas
and sediments provide a nely spaced scale. These are com-
bined with a line t or cubic spline to produce spreading-rate
models for ocean basins and an associated magnetic polarity
time scale (see Chapter 5). An excellent account of the method
and its early applications is given by A. V. Cox in Harland et al.
(1982).
The method itself dates back to Heirtzler et al. (1968),
who selected a detailed prole in the Southern Atlantic from
anomalies 2 through 32. The only calibrated tie point was mag-
netic anomaly 2A at 3.4 Ma, based on the radiometrically dated
magnetic reversal scale of Cox et al. (1964) in Pliocene through
Pleistocene lavas. Assuming that ocean-oor spreading had an
invariant spreading rate of 1.9 cm/103 yr through the Cam-
panian (80 Ma), ages were assigned to the main Campanian
through Pleistocene polarity chrons. This ambitious extrap-
olation has turned out to be within 10% of later interpo-
lations using a more detailed composite seaoor prole, and
an improved array of age-calibrated tie points (Hardenbol and
Berggren, 1978, DNAG83, EX88, and GTS89).
Cande and Kent (1992a,b, 1995) constructed a new ge-
omagnetic reversals time scale using a composite of marine
magnetic anomalies from the South Atlantic with short splices
Introduction 19
from fast-spreading Pacic and Indian Ocean segments, better
estimates of anomaly width, nine age tie points, and a cubic-
spline smoothing. Using an array of biomagnetostratigraphic
correlations with the Cande and Kent spreading model,
Berggren et al. (1995a) compiled a comprehensive Cenozoic
time scale.
Orbital tuning has become the dominant method for con-
structing detailed Neogene time scales (e.g. Shackleton et al.,
1990, 1999, 2000; Hilgen, 1991a; Hilgen et al., 1995, 1997),
and is making inroads in the Paleogene. These Milankovitch
cycles of climate oscillations are recorded in nearly all oceanic
and continental deposits, and have become a requirement for
placement of stage-boundary stratotypes within the Neogene
(see Chapter 21). Among a long list of differences we men-
tion that the OligoceneMiocene boundary appears 800 kyr
younger, but the TortonianMessinian boundary is 120 kyr
older than in Berggren et al. (1995a). In general, the Cande
and Kent (1995) geomagnetic polarity time scale for the Late
Neogene is slightly too young.
Cycle tuning relative to the well-dated base-Paleogene has
enabled scaling of Paleocene magnetic chrons (Rohl et al., 2001)
and rened estimates of spreading rates for the South Atlantic
prole (see Chapter 5). If the current pace of cycle stratig-
raphy applications continues, it is quite likely that tuning to
astronomical cycles will enable detailed scaling of many more
segments of the geologic time scale within the next decade.
2 Chronostratigraphy: linking time and rock
. . , . . , . .

Geologic stages and other international subdivisions of the Phanero- Table 2.1 Duality of some principle geochronologic (time) and
zoic portion of the geologic scale are dened by their lower boundaries chronostratigraphic (timerock) unitsa
at Global Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSPs). The main crite-
ria for a GSSP are that primary and secondary markers provide the Time units Chronostratigraphic units
means for global correlation. GSSP theory and criteria are outlined,
Geologic time scale intervals
the status of ratied GSSPs provided, and three examples discussed Eon Eonothem
of prominent GSSPs. Subdivisions of the International Stratigraphic Era Erathem
Chart are summarized and illustrated. Period System
Epoch Series
Age Stage
2 . 1 T I M E A N D RO C K Non-hierarchal interval
Geologic time and the observed rock record are separate Chron Zone (or chronozone)

but related concepts. A geologic time unit (geochronologic Geomagnetic intervals

Polarity chron Polarity zone (or polarity
unit) is an abstract concept measured from the rock record
chronozone)
by radioactive decay, Milankovitch cycles, or other means.
Biostratigraphy intervals
A rock-time or chronostratigraphic unit consists of the
Biochron Biozone
total rocks formed globally during a specied interval of (range zone, interval
geologic time. The chronostratigraphic units are grouped zone, etc.)
into a hierarchy to subdivide the geologic record on Earth
a Modied from International Stratigraphic Guide, 2nd edition, Salvador,
progressively. This chronostratigraphic scale was originally
1994.
established from a combination of regional lithologic units
(e.g. the Chalk of England dened the Cretaceous, and the
discontinuous, and these stratotype-based chronostratigraphic
Triassic was assigned to a trio of distinctive formations in
units are an imperfect record of the continuum of geologic time
Germany) and of unique, non-recurring events provided by
(e.g. Paleogene stratotypes in Fig. 2.1). Therefore, a distinc-
biological evolution.
tion between a hierarchy of material chronostratigraphic units
These fragmentary chapters in the history of life and re-
(rock-time) and abstract geochronologic units (Earth time)
gional sediment facies gave rise to the succession of the stan-
units was required, and a dual nomenclature system was codi-
dard geologic periods and the subdivision of periods into stages
ed (Table 2.1). The divisions of geologic time range from an
that form the chronostratigraphic time scale. In its classic us-
eon to the shortest formal unit of age.
age, each geological stage was delimited at a stratotype to
The two concepts of geochronologic and chronostrati-
indicate the idealized extent and fossil content. The historical
graphic scales are now united by formally establishing mark-
development of stratigraphy utilized former marginal marine
ers within continuous intervals of the stratigraphic record to
to pelagic successions that are now uplifted in Europe, and
these quasi-regional units still provide the basic nomencla-
Note: To avoid misleading readers by using the term age to refer to a
ture of most geological stages. However, the geologic record is
time span (as in the current International Stratigraphic Guide) instead of
to a numerical date, we will generally use the term stage in this book to
refer to both the time interval and the rocks deposited during that time
A Geologic Time Scale 2004, eds. Felix M. Gradstein, James G. Ogg, and Alan interval. The practice of using the term stage for both time and for rock
G. Smith. Published by Cambridge University Press.
c F. M. Gradstein, has the advantage of simplifying stratigraphy (as will be explained below)
J. G. Ogg, and A. G. Smith 2004. and liberating age for general use.

20

dene the beginnings both of each successive chronostrati-
graphic unit and of the associated geochronologic unit. This
concept of a Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) to
dene each stage has replaced the earlier use of stage strato-
types, and has enabled compilation of an international strati-
graphic chart for the geologic time scale. In some respects, the
concept of the beginning of each chronostratigraphic unit be-
ing bound by an isochronous surface dened at a GSSP has
made the dual nomenclature unnecessary for the units of the
geologic time scale (e.g. Walsh, 2001, 2003; Remane, 2003), as
discussed later.
Prior to the evolution of metazoan life, the biological record
is not generally suitable for a detailed subdivision of Precam-
brian time. Thus, Precambrian time is currently subdivided
by the articial assignment of numerical ages to stratigraphic
boundaries. The Precambrian time scale is therefore a chrono-
metric rather than a chronostratigraphic scale. However, it may
become possible to apply the GSSP concept to some intervals
of the Precambrian (see Chapter 10).
2 . 2 S TA N DA R D I Z AT I O N O F T H E
C H RO N O S T R AT I G R A P H I C S C A L E
2.2.1 History of geologic stratigraphic
standardization
The prodigious stratigraphic labors of the nineteenth century
resulted in innumerable competing stratigraphic schemes. To
impose some order, the rst International Geological Congress
(IGC) in Paris in 1878 set as its objective the production of a
standard stratigraphic scale. Suggestions were made for stan-
dard colors (Anon., 1882, pp. 7082), uniformity of geologic
nomenclature (pp. 824), and the adoption of uniform subdi-
visions (pp. 857). There was also a review of several regional
stratigraphic problems. In the succeeding congress at Bologna
in 1881, many of the above suggestions were taken substantially
further, i.e. the international geological maps were planned
with standard colors for stratigraphic periods and rock types
(e.g. Anon., 1882, pp. 297411), and annexes contained na-
tional contributions toward standardization of stratigraphic
classication, etc. (pp. 429658).
In spite of this promising start, the IGCs did not have
the continuing organization to carry these proposals through,
except for the commissions established to produce interna-
tional maps. The latter is now the Commission for the Geo-
logic Map of the World (CGMW; see www.cgmw.org). Guides
This section is updated from Harland et al., 1990, p. 2.
Chronostratigraphy: linking time and rock 21
setting out the stratigraphic principles, terminology, and clas-
sicatory procedures were prepared by the International Com-
mission on Stratigraphic Terminology, created in 1952 by
the 19th IGC in Algiers, and now the International Sub-
commission on Stratigraphic Classication (ISSC) under the
International Commission of Stratigraphy (ICS) of the Inter-
national Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS). The Interna-
tional Stratigraphic Guide was published in 1976 (Hedberg,
1976), and is now in its second edition (Salvador, 1994; Mur-
phy and Salvador, 1999).
It was not until the establishment of the International
Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) around 1960 that the
goal of establishing an international chronostratigraphic scale
had a means of fulllment, through the IUGSs International
Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) and its many subcommis-
sions. Guidelines for dening global chronostratigraphic units
were established (e.g. Cowie et al., 1986; enhanced by Remane
et al., 1996). At the occasion of the 28th IGC, the ICS pub-
lished the rst Global Stratigraphic Chart that reects much
current stratigraphic use. At the 31st IGC in Rio de Janeiro,
a new edition of that chart indicated the current international
standardization, and included abbreviations and colors of the
stratigraphic units as adopted by the CGMW (Remane, 2000;
see also Appendix 1).
2.2.2 Global boundary Stratotype Section and
Point (GSSP)
How can one standardize such fragmentary and disparate ma-
terial as the stratigraphic record?
Even by the rst IGC in 1878, the belief that the strati-
graphic systems and other divisions being described in any one
place were natural chapters of Earth history was fading, and the
need to adopt some conventions was widely recognized. Even
so, the practice continued of treating strata divisions largely as
biostratigraphic units, and even today it is an article of faith
for many Earth scientists that divisions of the developing inter-
national stratigraphic scale are dened by the fossil content of
the rocks. To follow this through, however, leads to difculties:
boundaries may change with new fossil discoveries; boundaries
dened by particular fossils will tend to be diachronous; there
will be disagreement as to which taxa shall be denitive.
As elaborated by one of the major champions of prac-
tical and rational thinking in stratigraphic standardization
(Hedberg, 1976, p. 35):
In my opinion, the rst and most urgent task in connection
with our present international geochronology scale is to
22 PA RT I I N T RO D U C T I O N

Nannopl.
Foram.
Plankt.
Polarity

Radio-
AGE Epoch Stage

Calc.

laria
(Ma) Chron

Neogene C6B M1 NN1 RP22

23.03
C7
25 C7A P22
NP25
L Chattian
Oligocene

C8
RP21
C9 b
P21
28.45

Chattian
C10 NP24
a
30 C11 P20
Rupelian

Rupelian
E P19 NP23 RP20
C12
P18 NP22

Priabonian
33.90 P17 NP21
C13 RP19
35 P16 NP20
C15 -
L Priabonian NP19 RP18
C16
P15 NP18
RP17
37.20 C17 Bartonian
RP16
NP17
Bartonian P14 RP15
C18 P13
40
40.40 RP14
C19 P12 NP16

RP13
Eocene

M
C20
P11
Lutetian NP15
45 RP12
Lutetian

C21 P10
RP11
NP14
RP10
48.60
P9 RP9
50 C22 NP13
Ypresian

P8

C23 P7 RP8
NP12
E Ypresian
b NP11
P6
NP10
C24 a
55
RP7
55.80 P5 NP9
Thanetian

c
L Thanetian C25 b NP8
Paleocene

P4 NP7 c
58.70 a NP6
RP6

b
60 Selandian C26 NP5
M b a
P3
a
61.70 P2 NP4
unzoned

C27
c
Danian
Danian

E C28 P1 NP3
b NP2
65 a NP1
65.50
Cretaceous C30
 Chronostratigraphy: linking time and rock 23

achieve a better denition of its units and horizons so that
each will have a standard xed-time signicance, and the
same time signicance for all geologists everywhere. Most of
the named international chronostratigraphic (geochronol-
ogy) units still lack precise globally accepted denitions and
consequently their limits are controversial and variably in-
terpreted by different workers. This is a serious and wholly
unnecessary impediment to progress in global stratigraphy.
What we need is simply a single permanently xed and
globally accepted standard denition for each named unit
or horizon, and this is where the concept of stratotype stan-
dards (particularly boundary stratotypes and other horizon
stratotypes) provides a satisfactory answer.
The standardization advocated by Hedberg and other
stratigraphers has been the major task of ICS through applica-
tion of the principle of boundary stratotypes; the current status
of this application is actively maintained in the ofcial website
of ICS. The traditional stratigraphic scale using stage strato-
types has evolved into a standard chronostratigraphic scale in
which the basal boundary of each stage is standardized at a
point in a single reference section within an interval exhibit-
ing continuous sedimentation. This precise reference point for
each boundary is known as the Global Stratotype Section and
Point (GSSP), and represents the point in time when that part
of the rock succession began. The global chronostratigraphic
scale is ultimately dened by a sequence of GSSPs.
It is now over 25 years since the rst boundary stratotype
or GSSP golden spike was dened. It xed the lower limit
of the Lochkovian Stage, the oldest stage of the Devonian, at a
precise level in an outcrop with the appropriate name of Klonk
in the Czech Republic (Martinsson, 1977). Paleontologically,
the base of the Lochkovian Stage coincides with the rst oc-
currence of the Devonian graptolite Monograptus uniformis in
bed No. 20 of the Klonk Section, northeast of the village of Su-
chomasty (Chlupa c, 1993). However, once the golden spike has
been agreed, the discovery, say, of Monograptus uniformis below
the GSSP does not require a re-denition of its position, but
simply an acknowledgement that the initial level chosen was not
in fact at the lowest occurrence of the particular graptolite. For
this reason, multiple secondary correlation markers, including
non-biostratigraphic methods, are desirable within each GSSP
section.
Each GSSP must meet certain requirements and secondary
desirable characteristics (Remane et al., 1996; Table 2.2). The
main considerations are: (1) that the boundary is recognizable
outside the GSSP locality, therefore it must be tied to other
events in Earth history that are documented in sediments else-
where; and (2) the reference GSSP section is well exposed
with the GSSP level within an interval of apparent continuous
sedimentation.
The choice of an appropriate boundary level is of para-
mount importance. Before formally dening a geochronologic
boundary by a GSSP, its practical value i.e. its correlation
potential has to be thoroughly tested. In this sense, correlation
precedes denition (Remane, 2003). Without correlation, strati-
graphic units and their constituent boundaries are of not much
use, and devoid of meaning for Earth history. Most GSSPs
coincide with a single primary marker, which is generally
a biostratigraphic event, but other stratigraphic events with
widespread correlation potential should coincide or bracket
the GSSP level. The choice of the criteria for an international
stage boundary can be a contentious issue (e.g. Fig. 2.2). Most
primary markers for GSSPs have been biostratigraphic events,
but some have utilized other global stratigraphic episodes (e.g.
the iridium spike at the base-Cenozoic, the carbon isotope
anomaly at the base-Eocene, base of magnetic polarity Chron
C6Cn.2n at base-Neogene, a specic Milankovitch cycle for
base-Pleistocene, etc.).
The requirement for continuous sedimentation across the
GSSP level and the bracketing correlation markers is to avoid
assigning a boundary to a known gap in the geologic record.
This requirement has generally eliminated most historical stra-
totypes for stages, which were commonly delimited by ood-
ing or exposure surfaces and formally represent synthems. As
a result, the scope of classical stages is modied, and either the
traditional nomenclature is abandoned (e.g. the revised stage
nomenclature for the Ordovician and Cambrian Periods), or
an historical name is given a slightly new meaning to update
its practical usage.

Figure 2.1 Stratigraphic range of historical stratotypes of some Paleogene stages. The left-hand columns include the microfossil zones and
polarity chrons that span the complete Paleogene according to coring of marine sediments (see Chapter 20; Martini, 1971; Martini and Muller,
1971; Roth, 1970; Roth et al., 1971). The stratotypes span less than half of Paleogene time; some are simply facies equivalents rather than
chronostratigraphically distinct units. Only a few of these competing stage concepts were preserved in the nomenclature of the present
Paleogene geologic time scale. International stages for the Paleogene are dened at boundary stratotypes at which the basal boundary of the
stage is positioned relative to primary and secondary biostratigraphic, geochemical, or magnetic polarity events for global correlation (modied
from Hardenbol and Berggren, 1978).
24 PA RT I I N T RO D U C T I O N

Table 2.2 Requirements for establishing a global stratotype section and point (GSSP)a

1. Name and stratigraphic rank of the boundary

Including concise statement of GSSP denition
2. GSSP geographic and physical geology
Geographic location, including map coordinates
Geologic setting (lithostratigraphy, sedimentology, paleobathymetry, post-depositional tectonics, etc.)
Precise location and stratigraphic position of GSSP level and specic point
Stratigraphic completeness across the GSSP level
Adequate thickness and stratigraphic extent of section above and below
Accessibility, including logistics, national politics, and property rights
Provisions for conservation and protection
3. Primary and secondary markers
Principal correlation event (marker) at GSSP level
Other primary and secondary markers biostratigraphy, magnetostratigraphy, chemical stratigraphy, sequence stratigraphy, cycle stratigraphy,
other event stratigraphy, marineland correlation potential
Potential age dating from volcanic ashes and/or orbital tuning
Demonstration of regional and global correlation
4. Summary of selection process
Relation of the GSSP to historical usage; references to historical background and adjacent (stage) units; selected publications
Other candidates and reasons for rejection; summary of votes and received comments
Other useful reference sections
5. Official publication
Summary documentation in IUGS journal Episodes
Full publication in journal Lethaia (ICSs ofcial publication channel)

a Revised from Remane et al. (1996) according to current procedures and recommendations of the IUGS International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS).

Difculties in identifying global correlation criteria, prob-

Figure 2.2 One reason that decisions on international boundaries
of stages are difcult. Two experts with different paleontological
specialties arguing over the suitable primary marker based on
different biostratigraphic criteria. Modied from Episodes 8: 89,
Fig. 6, 1985 (based on Birkelund et al., 1983).
lems introduced by biogeographic provincialism, and the oc-
casional need to abandon stage concepts based on historical
regional usage have slowed assignment of GSSPs in some
periods, as will be elaborated in Chapters 1122. Suitable
GSSPs with full documentation are proposed by stratigraphic
subcommissions or working groups under ICS; undergo ap-
proval voting through ICS and ratication by IUGS; and then
are published in Lethaia (journal ofcially dedicated to ICS
science), with summary documentation being published in
Episodes (ofcial journal of IUGS).
As of January 2004, over half of the stages have been dened
by boundary stratotypes, and the criteria for most primary
markers to be associated with GSSPs for other stages have been
decided (Table 2.3, Figs. 2.3 and 2.4). The great majority of
dened and probable GSSPs are in western Europe (Fig. 2.5).
This distribution mostly reects the historical accident that
stratigraphic studies rst developed in western Europe, but is
also due to tectonic processes that kept western Europe in low-
latitude shallow-sea environments for much of the Phanerozoic
Eon and have subsequently exposed the richly fossiliferous
sections that were the basis of the historical compilations of
the chronostratigraphic scale.
 Chronostratigraphy: linking time and rock 25

Mesozoic - Cenozoic Stratigraphic Chart and GSSPs

Period
Series/
Era

Stage GSSPs
Epoch
Holocene
Pleistocene GSSP Vrica, Calabria, Italy
Gelasian
GSSP Monte San Nicola, Sicily, Italy
Neogene

Pliocene Piacenzian
GSSP Punta Picola, Sicily, Italy
Zanclean GSSP Eraclea Minoa, Sicily, Italy
Messinian GSSP Oued Akrech, Rabbat, Morocco
Cenozoic

Tortonian GSSP Monte dei Corvi Beach, Ancona, Italy

Serravallian
Miocene Langhian
Burdigalian
Aquitanian GSSP Lemme-Carrosio, N. Italy
Chattian
Oligocene Rupelian
Paleogene

GSSP Massignano, Ancona, Italy

Priabonian
Bartonian
Eocene Lutetian
Ypresian
Thanetian GSSP Dababiya, Luxor, Egypt
Paleocene Selandian
Danian GSSP El Kef, Tunisia
Maastrichtian GSSP Tercis-les-Bains, Landes, SW. France
Campanian
Santonian
Late
Cretaceous

Coniacian
Turonian GSSP Rock Canyon, Pueblo, Colorado, USA
Cenomanian
Albian GSSP Mont Risou, Rosans, Haute-Alpes, France
Aptian
Barremian
Early Hauterivian
Valanginian
Mesozoic

Berriasian
Tithonian
Late Kimmeridgian
Oxfordian
Jurassic

Callovian
Bathonian
Middle Bajocian GSSP Cabo Mondego, W. Portugal
Aalenian
Toarcian GSSP Fuentelsalz, Spain
Pliensbachian
Early Sinemurian
GSSP Robin Hood's Bay, Yorkshire, UK
GSSP East Quantox Head, West Somerset, GB
Hettangian
Rhaetian
Late Norian
Triassic

Carnian
Ladinian
Middle Anisian
Olenekian
Early Induan GSSP Meishan, Zhejiang, China

Figure 2.3 Distribution of ratied GSSPs in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic Eras (status in December, 2004). The International Stratigraphic
Chart for the Precambrian and Phanerozoic with ratied GSSPs is presented in the special color section of this book. Updated versions of the
color chart are available from the website of the International Commission on Stratigraphy (www.stratigraphy.org) and can be downloaded in
the colors of either the Commission for the Geologic Map of the World (CGMW) or the United States Geological Survey (USGS).
26 PA RT I I N T RO D U C T I O N

Paleozoic Stratigraphic Chart and GSSPs

Period

Series/
Era

Stage GSSPs
Epoch
Lopingian Changhsingian
Wuchiapingian GSSP Penglaitan, Guangxi Province, China
Permian

Capitanian
GSSP Nipple Hill, Guadalupe Mountains, TX, USA
Guadalupian Wordian GSSP Guadalupe Mountains, TX, USA
Roadian
Kungurian GSSP Stratotype Canyon, Guadalupe Mountains,
Artinskian TX, USA
Cisuralian Sakmarian
Asselian
Gzhelian GSSP Aidaralash, Ural Mountains, Kazakhstan
Devonian Carboniferous

Penn- Kasimovian
sylvanian Moscovian
Bashkirian
Serpukhovian GSSP Arrow Canyon, Nevada, USA
Missis- Visean
sippian Tournaisian
Famennian GSSP La Serre, Montagne Noir, France
Late GSSP Coumiac, Cessenon, Montagne Noir, France
Paleo zoic

Frasnian
GSSP Col du Puech, Montagne Noir, France
Givetian
Middle Eifelian
GSSP Jebel Mech Irdane, Tafilalt, Morocco
GSSP Wetteldorf Richtschnitt, Eifel Hills, Germany
Emsian
GSSP Zinzil'ban Gorge, Uzbekistan
Early Pragian GSSP Velka Chuchle, SW Prague, Czech Rep.
Lochkovian
GSSP Klonk, SW of Prague, Czech Republic
Pridoli
Ludfordian GSSP Pozary, Prague, Czech Republic
Ludlow GSSP Sunnyhill, Ludlow, UK
Silurian

Gorstian
GSSP Pitch Coppice, Ludlow, UK
Homerian GSSP
Wenlock Sheinwoodian Whitwell Coppice, Homer, UK
GSSP Hughley Brook, Apedale, UK
Telychian
GSSP Cefn Cerig, Llandovery, UK
Llandovery Aeronian GSSP Trefawr, Llandovery, UK
Rhuddanian
GSSP Dob's Linn, Moffat, UK
Hirnantian
Cambrian Ordovician

Late
GSSP Fagelsang, Scania, Sweden
Darriwilian
Middle GSSP Huangnitang, Zhejiang Province, China

Early Tremadocian GSSP Diasbasbrottet, Hunneberg, Sweden

GSSP Green Point Newfoundland, Canada
Furongian Paibian
GSSP Paibi, Hunan Province, China
Middle
Early GSSP Fortune Head, Newfoundland, Canada

Figure 2.4 Distribution of ratied GSSPs in the Paleozoic Era (status in December 2004).

Each chapter of this book devoted to the Phanerozoic be-
gins with a global reconstruction (Mollweide) map that displays
the distribution of the GSSPs for that period. The reconstruc-
tions have been compiled from published global databases of
ocean-oor spreading and paleomagnetic poles linked to tec-
tonics (Smith, 2001).
2.2.3 Global Standard Stratigraphic Age (GSSA)
Due to the fact that most Proterozoic and Archean rocks lack
adequate fossils for correlation, a different type of boundary
denition was applied for subdividing these eons into eras
and periods (see Chapter 9). For these two eons, the assigned
boundary, called a Global Standard Stratigraphic Age (GSSA),
is a chronometric boundary and is not represented by a GSSP
in rocks, nor can it ever be. However, although there appears to
be consensus that the division into eras is possible, the ner pe-
riod subdivisions often contain no dateable rocks, which make
their assignment difcult. An alternative Precambrian classi-
cation based on stages in planetary evolution with, in most
cases, possible associated GSSPs is presented by W. Bleeker in
Chapter 10.

Area used
to calibrate
M-sequence
Area used
to calibrate
C-sequence
Figure 2.5 Geographic distribution of ratied (diamonds) and
candidate (squares) GSSPs on a present-day (0 Ma) map (status in
January 2004; see Table 2.3). Most of the GSSPs are in western
Europe, where the clustering has overlapped many additional
2.2.4 Other considerations for choosing a GSSP
The basic requirements for a GSSP are that it is located in a
stratigraphically continuous section; that it should be readily
accessible and well exposed; and that it should ideally contain
multiple markers suitable for global correlation. A GSSP is the
precise denition of the base of a stratigraphic boundary in a
rock sequence, but that boundary is dened only at one point on
Earth. Assignment of the chronostratigraphic boundary within
other stratigraphic sections requires correlation to the GSSP.
The ideal GSSP would be in a low-latitude highly fossil-
iferous marine section (for global biostratigraphic correlation)
that contains cyclic sediments or interbedded volcanic ash or
lava beds (for isotopic dating or measurement of durations),
unambiguous magnetic polarity changes (for high-precision
global correlation), and one or more geochemical signatures (to
provide additional high-precision global correlation markers).
Surprisingly perhaps, GSSPs located in sections that have
an abundant fauna may also introduce unknown correla-
tion errors, particularly if they are in shallow-water shelf
environments likely to give rise to an hiatus (Sadler, 1981;
Sadler and Strauss, 1990). It is unclear what contribution such
an hiatus makes to the overall global correlation uncertainties,
as opposed to those of purely evolutionary origin, such as the
presence or absence of a given fossil or fossils.
GSSPs are necessarily part of an outcrop exposed by
uplift and erosion, and most are in relatively undistorted
strata. However, some GSSPs, such as the Late Devonian
GSSPs at the Montagne Noir of southeastern France and base-
Chronostratigraphy: linking time and rock 27
GSSPs. The approximate oceanic areas used to calibrate the C- and
M-sequences of the magnetic polarity time scale are indicated by
large rectangles (for details see Chapter 5).
Maastrichtian GSSP, are tightly folded and may no longer
retain magnetostratigraphic, geochemical, or other secondary
markers for global correlation.
Absence of precise global markers for high-precision time
scale work is a key problem that was glossed over in some GSSP
decisions. If the GSSP is dened in purely biostratigraphic or
lithostratigraphic terms and there are no accompanying high-
precision secondary markers, such as is the case for some of
the Silurian GSSPs, then the likely correlation errors are at
least 0.5 myr and in some cases perhaps as high as 5 myr. Such
GSSPs are unsatisfactory and will eventually need reconsider-
ation (e.g. by working groups of the Silurian Subcommission
of ICS established in 2002).
The ideal GSSP is at a horizon amenable to radiometric
and/or astronomical cycle calibration or is bracketed by date-
able horizons. This coincidence has been achieved for only a
few GSSP placements (e.g. bases of all Pliocene and Upper
Miocene stages, the base of the Turonian Stage of the Creta-
ceous, the base of the Triassic). If such a horizon is absent, it is
essential to be able to correlate to dateable horizons elsewhere
using precise global correlation markers.
The stratigraphic advances made by ocean drilling (e.g. the
Deep Sea Drilling Project or the Ocean Drilling Program)
was from multidisciplinary teams utilizing a wide array of
shipboard and down-hole investigations. By contrast, GSSP
golden spikes are most commonly placed in well-exposed con-
tinental sections where the excellence of the outcrop seems
28 PA RT I I N T RO D U C T I O N

Table 2.3 Status of dening Global boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSPs) for stage boundaries (Status in January 2004;
updated tables are available from the ICS website www.stratigraphy.org)

EON, Era, System, Age (Ma) Est.

Series, Stage GTS2004 myr Principal correlative events GSSP and location Status Publication

PHANEROZOIC
Cenozoic Era
Neogene System Quaternary is traditionally Ogg (2004);
considered to be the interval of Pillans (2004);
oscillating climatic extremes Pillans and
(glacial and interglacial Naish (2004)
episodes) that was initiated at
about 2.6 Ma, therefore
encompasses the Holocene,
Pleistocene, and uppermost
Pliocene. A formal decision on
its chronostratigraphic rank is
pending

Holocene Series
base Holocene 11.5 ka 0.00 Exactly 10 000 carbon-14 years a
(i.e. 11.5 ka calendar years BP)
at the end of the Younger
Dryas cold spell

Pleistocene Series
base Upper 0.126 0.00 Base of the Eemian interglacial Potentially, within a
Pleistocene subseries stage (base of marine isotope sediment core under the
stage 5e) before nal glacial Netherlands (Eemian
episode of Pleistocene type area)
base Middle 0.781 0.00 BrunhesMatuyama magnetic a
Pleistocene subseries reversal
base Pleistocene 1.806 0.00 Just above top of magnetic Top of sapropel layer 1985b Episodes 8(2):
Series polarity chronozone C2n e, Vrica section, 11620, 1985
(Olduvai) and the extinction Calabria, Italy
level of calcareous nannofossil
Discoaster brouweri (base Zone
CN13). Above are lowest
occurrence of calcareous
nannofossil medium
Gephyrocapsa spp. and
extinction level of planktonic
foraminifera Globigerinoides
extremus

Pliocene Series
base Gelasian Stage 2.588 0.00 Isotopic stage 103, base of Midpoint of sapropelic 1996b Episodes 21(2):
magnetic polarity chronozone Nicola Bed (A5), 827, 1998
C2r (Matuyama). Above are Monte San Nicola,
extinction levels of calcareous Gela, Sicily, Italy
nannofossil Discoaster
pentaradiatus and D. surculus
(base Zone CN12c)
 Chronostratigraphy: linking time and rock 29

Table 2.3 (cont.)

EON, Era, System, Age (Ma) Est.

Series, Stage GTS2004 myr Principal correlative events GSSP and location Status Publication

base Piacenzian 3.600 0.00 Base of magnetic polarity Base of beige layer of 1997b Episodes 21(2):
Stage chronozone C2An (Gauss); carbonate cycle 77, 8893, 1998
extinction levels of planktonic Punta Piccola, Sicily,
foraminifera Globorotalia Italy
margaritae (base Zone PL3)
and Pulleniatina primalis
base Zanclean Stage, 5.332 0.00 Top of magnetic polarity Base of Trubi Fm (base 2000b Episodes 23(3):
base Pliocene Series chronozone C3r, 100 kyr of carbonate cycle 1), 17987, 2000
before Thvera Eraclea Minoa, Sicily,
normal-polarity Italy
subchronozone (C3n.4n).
Calcareous nannofossilsnear
extinction level of
Triquetrorhabdulus rugosus
(base Zone CN10b) and the
lowest occurrence of
Ceratolithus acutus

Miocene Series
base Messinian Stage 7.246 0.00 Astrochronology age of 7.246 Base of red layer of 2000b Episodes 23(3):
Ma; middle of magnetic carbonate cycle 15, 1728, 2000
polarity chronozone C3Br.1r; Oued Akrech, Rabat,
lowest regular occurrence of Morocco
the Globorotalia conomiozea
planktonic foraminifera group
base Tortonian Stage 11.608 0.00 Last common occurrences of Midpoint of sapropel 2003b Episodes in
the calcareous nannofossil 76, Monte dei Corvi prep.
Discoaster kugleri and the beach section, Ancona,
planktonic foraminifera Italy
Globigerinoides subquadratus.
Associated with the short
normal-polarity subchron
C5r.2n
base Serravillian 13.65 0.00 Near lowest occurrence of 2004c
Stage nannofossil Sphenolithus
heteromorphus, and within
magnetic polarity chronozone
C5ABr
base Langhian Stage 15.97 0.0 Near rst occurrence of 2004c
planktonic foraminifera
Praeorbulina glomerosa and top
of magnetic polarity
chronozone C5Cn.1n
base Burdigalian 20.43 0.0 Near lowest occurrence of d
Stage planktonic foraminifera
Globigerinoides altiaperturus or
near top of magnetic polarity
chronozone C6An
(cont.)
30 PA RT I I N T RO D U C T I O N

Table 2.3 (cont.)

EON, Era, System, Age (Ma) Est.

Series, Stage GTS2004 myr Principal correlative events GSSP and location Status Publication

base Aquitanian 23.03 0.0 Base of magnetic polarity 35 m from top of 1996b Episodes 20(1):
Stage, base Miocene chronozone C6Cn.2n; lowest LemmeCarrosio 238, 1997
Series, base Neogene occurrence of planktonic section, Carrosio
System foraminifera Paragloborotalia village, north of Genoa,
kugleri; near extinction of Italy
calcareous nannofossil
Reticulofenestra bisecta (base
Zone NN1)

Paleogene System
Oligocene Series
base Chattian Stage 28.4 0.1 Planktonic foraminifera, Probably in 2004c
extinction of Chiloguembelina UmbriaMarche region
(base Zone P21b) of Italy
base Rupelian Stage, 33.9 0.1 Planktonic foraminifera, Base of marl bed at 19 m 1992b Episodes 16(3):
base Oligocene extinction of Hantkenina above base of 37982, 1993
Series Massignano quarry,
Ancona, Italy

Eocene Series
base Priabonian 37.2 0.1 Near lowest occurrence of Probably in
Stage calcareous nannofossil UmbriaMarche region
Chiasmolithus oamaruensis (base of Italy
Zone NP18)
base Bartonian Stage 40.4 0.2 Near extinction of calcareous
nannofossil Reticulofenestra
reticulata
base Lutetian Stage 48.6 0.2 Planktonic foraminifera, lowest Leading candidate is 2004c
occurrence of Hantkenina Fortuna section, Murcia
province, Betic
Cordilleras, Spain
base Ypresian Stage, 55.8 0.2 Base of negative carbon isotope Dababiya section near 2003b Episodes in
base Eocene Series excursion Luxor, Egypt prep.

Paleocene Series
base Thanetian 58.7 0.2 Magnetic polarity chronozone, Leading candidate is d
Stage base of C26n, is a temporary Zumaya section,
assignment northern Spain
base Selandian Stage 61.7 0.2 Boundary task group is Leading candidate is d
considering a higher levelbase Zumaya section,
of calcareous nannofossil zone northern Spain
NP5which would be 1 myr
younger
base Danian Stage, 65.5 0.3 Iridium geochemical anomaly. Base of boundary clay, 1991b
base Paleogene Associated with a major El Kef, Tunisia (but
System, base extinction horizon deterioration may require
Cenozoic (foraminifera, calcareous assigning a replacement
nannofossils, dinosaurs, etc.) section)
 Chronostratigraphy: linking time and rock 31

Table 2.3 (cont.)

EON, Era, System, Age (Ma) Est.

Series, Stage GTS2004 myr Principal correlative events GSSP and location Status Publication

Mesozoic Era
Cretaceous System Most substages of Cretaceous also
have recommended GSSP
criteria

Upper
base Maastrichtian 70.6 0.6 Mean of 12 biostratigraphic 115.2 m level in Grande 2001b Episodes 24(4):
Stage criteria of equal importance. Carri`ere quarry, 22938, 2001;
Closely above is lowest Tercis-les-Bains, Odin (ed.)
occurrence of ammonite Landes province, IUGS Spec.
Pachydiscus neubergicus. Boreal southwest France Publ. Series,
proxy is lowest occurrence of V. 36, Elsevier,
belemnite Belemnella lanceolata 910 pp.
base Campanian 83.5 0.7 Crinoid, extinction of Leading candidates are
Stage Marsupites testudinarius in southern England
and in Texas
base Santonian Stage 85.8 0.7 Inoceramid bivalve, lowest Leading candidates are
occurrence of Cladoceramus in Spain, England and
undulatoplicatus Texas
base Coniacian Stage 89.3 1.0 Inoceramid bivalve, lowest Base of Bed MK47, 2004c
occurrence of Cremnoceramus SalzgitterSalder
rotundatus (sensu Troger non Quarry, SW of
Fiege) Hannover, Lower
Saxony, northern
Germany
base Turonian Stage 93.5 0.8 Ammonite, lowest occurrence Base of Bed 86, Rock 2003b Episodes in
of Watinoceras devonense Canyon Anticline, east prep.
of Pueblo, Colorado,
westcentral USA
base Cenomanian 99.6 0.9 Planktonic foraminifera, 36 m below top of 2002b Episodes 27(1):
Stage lowest occurrence of Marnes Bleues 2132, 2004
Rotalipora globotruncanoides Formation, Mont
Risou, Rosans, Haute-
Alpes, southeast France

Lower
base Albian Stage 112.0 1.0 Calcareous nannofossil, lowest d
occurrence of Praediscosphaera
columnata (= P. cretacea of
some earlier studies) is one
potential marker
base Aptian Stage 125.0 1.0 Magnetic polarity chronozone, Leading candidate is
base of M0r Gorgo
a Cerbara, Piobbico,
UmbriaMarche,
central Italy
base Barremian 130.0 1.5 Ammonite, lowest occurrence Leading candidate is
Stage of Spitidiscus hugii Spitidiscus Ro Argos near
vandeckii group Caravaca, Murcia
province, Spain
(cont.)
32 PA RT I I N T RO D U C T I O N

Table 2.3 (cont.)

EON, Era, System, Age (Ma) Est.

Series, Stage GTS2004 myr Principal correlative events GSSP and location Status Publication

base Hauterivian 136.4 2.0 Ammonite, lowest occurrence Leading candidate is La

Stage of genus Acanthodiscus Charce village, Drome
(especially A. radiatus) province, southeast
France
base Valanginian 140.2 3.0 Calpionellid, lowest Leading candidate is
Stage occurrence of Calpionellites near
darderi (base of Calpionellid Montbrun-les-Bains,
Zone E); followed by the Drome province,
lowest occurrence of ammonite southeast France
Thurmanniceras pertransiens
base Berriasian 145.5 4.0 Maybe near lowest occurrence d
Stage, base of ammonite Berriasella jacobi
Cretaceous System

Jurassic System
Upper
base Tithonian Stage 150.8 4.0 Near base of Hybonoticeras d
hybonotum ammonite zone and
lowest occurrence of Gravesia
genus, and the base of magnetic
polarity chronozone M22An
base Kimmeridgian 155.7 4.0 Ammonite, near base of Leading candidates are 2004c
Stage Pictonia baylei ammonite zone in Scotland, southeast
of Boreal realm France, and Poland
base Oxfordian Stage 161.2 4.0 Ammonite, Brightia Leading candidates are 2004c
thuouxensis Horizon at base of in southeast France and
the Cardioceras scarburgense southern England
subzone (Quenstedtoceras
mariae Zone)

Middle
base Callovian Stage 164.7 4.0 Ammonite, lowest occurrence Leading candidate is 2004c
of the genus Kepplerites Pfefngen, Swabian
(Kosmoceratidae) (denes base Alb, southwest
of Macrocephalites herveyi Germany
Zone in sub-Boreal province of
Great Britain to southwest
Germany)
base Bathonian 167.7 3.5 Ammonite, lowest occurrence
Stage of Parkinsonia (G.) convergens
(denes base of Zigzagiceras
zigzag Zone)
base Bajocian Stage 171.6 3.0 Ammonite, lowest occurrence Base of Bed AB11, 77.8 1996b Episodes 20(1):
of the genus Hyperlioceras m above base of 1622, 1997
(denes base of the Murtinheira section,
Hyperlioceras discites Zone) Cabo Mondego, western
Portugal
base Aalenian Stage 175.6 2.0 Ammonite, lowest occurrence Base of Bed FZ107, 2000b Episodes 24(3):
of Leioceras genus Fuentelsalz, central 16675, 2001
Spain
 Chronostratigraphy: linking time and rock 33

Table 2.3 (cont.)

EON, Era, System, Age (Ma) Est.

Series, Stage GTS2004 myr Principal correlative events GSSP and location Status Publication

Lower
base Toarcian Stage 183.0 1.5 Ammonite, near lowest d
occurrence of a diversied
Eodactylites ammonite fauna;
correlates with the northwest
European Paltus horizon
base Pliensbachian 189.6 1.5 Ammonite, lowest occurrences Wine Haven section, 2004c
Stage of Bifericeras donovani and of Robin Hoods Bay,
genera Apoderoceras and Yorkshire, England
Gleviceras
base Sinemurian 196.5 1.0 Ammonite, lowest occurrence 0.9 m above base of Bed 2000b Episodes 25(1):
Stage of arietitid genera Vermiceras 145, East Quantoxhead, 226, 2002
and Metophioceras Watchet, West
Somerset, southwest
England
base Hettangian 199.6 0.6 Near lowest occurrence of d
Stage, base Jurassic smooth Psiloceras planorbis
System ammonite group

Triassic System
Upper
base Rhaetian Stage 203.3 1.5 Near lowest occurrence of
ammonite Cochlocera,
conodonts Misikella spp. and
Epigondolella mosheri, and
radiolarian Proparvicingula
moniliformis
base Norian Stage 216.5 2.0 Base of Klamathites
macrolobatus or Stikinoceras
kerri ammonoid zones and the
Metapolygnathus communisti or
M. primitius conodont zones
base Carnian Stage 228.0 2.0 Near rst occurrence of the
ammonoids Daxatina or
Trachyceras, and of the
conodont Metapolygnathus
polygnathiformis
Key sections in Austria, d
British Columbia
(Canada), and Turkey
Leading candidates are d
in British Columbia
(Canada), Sicily (Italy),
and possibly Slovakia,
Turkey (Antalya
Taurus), and Oman
Candidate section at d
Prati di Stuores,
Dolomites, northern
Italy. Important
reference sections in
Spiti (India) and New
Pass, Nevada

Middle
base Ladinian Stage 237.0 2.0 Alternate levels are near base Leading candidates are d
of Reitzi, Secedensis, or Curionii Bagolino (Italy) and
ammonite zone; near rst Felsoons (Hungary).
occurrence of the conodont Important reference
genus Budurovignathus sections in the
Humboldt Range,
Nevada
(cont.)
34 PA RT I I N T RO D U C T I O N

Table 2.3 (cont.)

EON, Era, System, Age (Ma) Est.

Series, Stage GTS2004 myr Principal correlative events GSSP and location Status Publication

base Anisian Stage 245.0 1.5 Ammonite, near lowest
occurrences of genera
Japonites, Paradanubites, and
Paracrochordiceras; and of the
conodont Chiosella timorensis
Candidate section 2004c
probable at Desli Caira,
Dobrogea, Romania;
signicant sections in
Guizhou Province
(China)

Lower
base Olenekian Stage 249.7 0.7 Near lowest occurrence of Candidate sections in d
Hedenstroemia or Meekoceras Siberia (Russia) and
gracilitatis ammonites, and of probably Chaohu,
the conodont Neospathodus Anhui Province, China.
waageni Important sections also
in Spiti
base Induan Stage, 251.0 0.4 Conodont, lowest occurrence Base of Bed 27c, 2001b Episodes 24(2):
base Triassic of Hindeodus parvus; Meishan, Zhejiang, 10214, 2001
System, base termination of major negative China
Mesozoic carbon isotope excursion.
About 1 myr after peak of Late
Permian extinctions

Paleozoic Era
Permian System
Lopingian Series
base Changhsingian 253.8 0.7 Conodont, lowest occurrence Leading candidates are
Stage of conodont Clarkina wangi in China
base Wuchiapingian 260.4 0.7 Conodont, near lowest Base of Bed 6K/115, 2004b Lethaia, in
Stage occurrence of conodont Penglaitan section, 20 prep.
Clarkina postbitteri km southeast of Laibin,
Guangxi Province,
China

Guadalupian Series
base Capitanian 265.8 0.7 Conodont, lowest occurrence 4.5 m above base of 2001b Episodes in
Stage of Jinogondolella postserrata Pinery Limestone prep.
Member, Nipple Hill,
southeast Guadalupe
Mountains, Texas
base Wordian Stage 268.0 0.7 Conodont, lowest occurrence 7.6 m above base of 2001b Episodes in
of Jinogondolella aserrata Getaway Ledge outcrop, prep.
Guadalupe Pass,
southeast Guadalupe
Mountains, Texas
base Roadian Stage 270.6 0.7 Conodont, lowest occurrence 42.7 m above base of 2001b Episodes in
of Jinogondolella nanginkensis Cutoff Formation, prep.
Stratotype Canyon,
southern Guadalupe
Mountains, Texas
 Chronostratigraphy: linking time and rock 35

Table 2.3 (cont.)

EON, Era, System, Age (Ma) Est.

Series, Stage GTS2004 myr Principal correlative events GSSP and location Status Publication

Cisuralian Series
base Kungurian 275.6 0.7 Conodont, near lowest Leading candidates are
Stage occurrence of conodont in southern Ural
Neostreptognathus pneviN. Mountains
exculptu
base Artinskian 284.4 0.7 Conodont, lowest occurrence Leading candidates are
Stage of conodont Sweetognathus in southern Ural
whitei Mountains
base Sakmarian 294.6 0.8 Conodont, near lowest Leading candidate is at
Stage occurrence of conodont Kondurovsky,
Sweetognathus merrilli Orenburg Province,
Russia
base Asselian Stage, 299.0 0.8 Conodont, lowest occurrence 27 m above base of Bed 1996b Episodes 21(1):
base Permian of Streptognathodus isolatus 19, Aidaralash Creek, 1118, 1998
System within the S. wabaunsensis Aktobe, southern Ural
conodont chronocline. 6 m Mountains, northern
higher is lowest fusilinid Kazakhstan
foraminifera
Sphaeroschwagerina vulgaris
aktjubensis

Carboniferous System
Pennsylvanian Series classication approved in
Subsystem 2004
base Gzhelian Stage 303.9 0.9 Near lowest occurrences of the d
fusulinids Daixina, Jigulites,
and Rugosofusulina
base Kasimovian 306.5 1.0 Near base of Obsoletes obsoletes d
Stage, base Upper and Protriticites
Pennsylvanian Series pseudomontiparus fusulinid
zone, or lowest occurrence of
Parashumardites ammonoid
base Moscovian 311.7 1.1 Near lowest occurrences of d
Stage, base Middle Declinognathodus donetzianus
Pennsylvanian Series and/or Idiognathoides
postsulcatus conodont species,
and fusulinid species
Aljutovella aljutovica
base Bashkirian 318.1 1.3 Conodont, lowest occurrence 82.9 m above top of 1996b ,e Episodes 22(4):
Stage, base of Declinognathodus nodiliferus Battleship Wash Fm., 27283, 1999
Pennsylvanian s.l. Arrow Canyon,
Subsystem southern Nevada

Mississippian Series classication approved in

Subsystem 2004
base Serpukhovian, 326.4 1.6 Near lowest occurrence of d
base Upper conodont, Lochriea crusiformis
Mississippian Series or L. Ziegleri
(cont.)
36 PA RT I I N T RO D U C T I O N

Table 2.3 (cont.)

EON, Era, System, Age (Ma) Est.

Series, Stage GTS2004 myr Principal correlative events GSSP and location Status Publication

base Visean, base 345.3 2.1 Foraminifera, lineage Leading candidate is

Middle Eoparastaffella simplex Pengchong, south China
Mississippian Series morphotype 1/ morphotype 2
base Tournaisian, 359.2 2.5 Conodont, above lowest Base of Bed 89, La 1990b Episodes 14(4):
base Mississippian occurrence of Siphonodella Serre, Montagne Noir, 3316, 1991
Subsystem, base sulcata Cabri`eres, southern
Carboniferous France
System

Devonian System
Upper
base Famennian 374.5 2.6 Just above major extinction Base of Bed 32a, upper 1993b Episodes 16(4):
Stage horizon (Upper Kellwasser Coumiac quarry, 43341, 1993
Event), including conodonts Cessenon, Montagne
Ancyrodella and Ozarkodina Noir, southern France
and goniatites of
Gephuroceratidae and
Beloceratidae
base Frasnian Stage 385.3 2.6 Conodont, lowest occurrence Base of Bed 42a, Col du 1986b Episodes 10(2):
of Ancyrodella rotundiloba Puech de la Suque 97101, 1987
(denes base of Lower section, St. Nazaire-de-
Polygnathus asymmetricus Ladarez, southeast
conodont zone) Montagne Noir,
southern France

Middle
base Givetian Stage 391.8 2.7 Conodont, lowest occurrence Base of Bed 123, Jebel 1994b Episodes 18(3):
of Polygnathus hemiansatus, Mech Irdane ridge, 10715, 1995
near base of goniatite Talalt, Morocco
Maenioceras Stufe
base Eifelian Stage 397.5 2.7 Conodont, lowest occurrence Base unit WP30, trench 1985b Episodes 8(2):
of Polygnathus costatus partitus; at Wetteldorf 1049, 1985
major faunal turnover Richtschnitt,
Schonecken-Wetteldorf,
Eifel Hills, western
Germany

Lower
base Emsian Stage 407.0 2.8 Conodont, lowest occurrence Base of Bed 9/5, 1995b Episodes 20(4):
of Polygnathus kitabicus (= Po. Zinzilban Gorge, SE of 23540, 1997
dehiscens) Samarkand, Uzbekistan
base Pragian Stage 411.2 2.8 Conodont, lowest occurrence Base of Bed 12, Velka 1989b Episodes 12(2):
of Eognathodus sulcatus Chuchle quarry, 10913, 1989
southwest part of
Prague city, Czech
Republic
base Lochkovian 416.0 2.8 Graptolite, lowest occurrence Within Bed 20, Klonk, 1972 Martinsson
Stage, base of Monograptus uniformis Barrandian area, (1977)
Devonian System southwest of Prague,
Czech Republic
 Chronostratigraphy: linking time and rock 37

Table 2.3 (cont.)

EON, Era, System, Age (Ma) Est.

Series, Stage GTS2004 myr Principal correlative events GSSP and location Status Publication

Silurian System
Holland and
Bassett (1989)

Pridoli Series
base Pridoli Series 418.7 2.7 Graptolite, lowest occurrence Within Bed 96, Pozary 1984b Episodes 8(2):
(not subdivided in of Monograptus parultimus section near Reporje, 1013, 1985
stages) Barrandian area,
Prague, Czech Republic

Ludlow Series 2.6

base Ludfordian 421.3 2.6 Imprecise. May be near base of Base of lithological unit 1980b Lethaia 14:
Stage Saetograptus leintwardinensis C, Sunnyhill Quarry, 168, 1981;
graptolite zone Ludlow, Shropshire, Episodes 5(3):
southwest England 213, 1982
base Gorstian Stage 422.9 2.5 Imprecise. Just below base of Base of lithological unit 1980b Lethaia 14:
local acritarch Leptobrachion F, Pitch Coppice quarry, 168, 1981;
longhopense range zone. May be Ludlow, Shropshire, Episodes 5(3):
near base of Neodiversograptus southwest England 213, 1982
nilssoni graptolite zone

Wenlock Series
base Homerian Stage 426.2 2.4 Graptolite, lowest occurrence Graptolite biozone 1980b Lethaia 14:
of Cyrtograptus lundgreni intersection in stream 168, 1981;
(denes base of C. lundgreni section in Whitwell Episodes 5(3):
graptolite zone) Coppice, Homer, 213, 1982
Shropshire, southwest
England
base Sheinwoodian 428.2 2.3 Imprecise. Between the base of Base of lithological unit 1980b Lethaia 14:
Stage acritarch biozone 5 and G, Hughley Brook, 168, 1981;
extinction of conodont Apedale, Shropshire, Episodes 5(3):
Pterospathodus southwest England 213, 1982
amorphognathoides. May be
near base of Cyrtograptus
centrifugus graptolite
zone

Llandovery Series
base Telychian Stage 436.0
base Aeronian Stage 439.0
1.9 Brachiopods, just above Locality 162 in transect 1984b Episodes 8(2):
extinction of Eocoelia d, Cefn Cerig Road, 1013, 1985
intermedia and below lowest Llandovery area,
succeeding species Eocoelia south-central Wales
curtisi. Near base of
Monograptus turriculatus
graptolite zone
1.8 Graptolite, lowest occurrence Base of locality 72 in 1984b Episodes 8(2):
of Monograptus austerus sequens transect h, Trefawr 1013, 1985
(denes base of Monograptus forestry road, north of
triangulatus graptolite zone) Cwm-coed-Aeron
Farm, Llandovery area,
south-central Wales
(cont.)
38 PA RT I I N T RO D U C T I O N

Table 2.3 (cont.)

EON, Era, System, Age (Ma) Est.

Series, Stage GTS2004 myr Principal correlative events GSSP and location Status Publication

base Rhuddanian 443.7 1.5 Graptolites, lowest 1.6 m above base of 1984b Episodes 8(2):
Stage, base Silurian occurrences of Parakidograptus Birkhill Shale Fm., 98100, 1985
System acuminatus and Akidograptus Dobs Linn, Moffat,
ascensus Scotland

Ordovician System
Upper
base Hirnantian 445.6 1.5 Potentially at base of the Candidate section is
Stage Normalograptus Wangjiawan, China
extraordinariusN oisuensis
graptolite biozone
base of sixth stage 455.8 1.6 Potentially near rst Candidate sections ae
(not yet named ) appearance of the graptolite Black Knob Ridge
Dicellograptus caudatus (Oklahoma) and
Hartfell Spa
(southern Scotland)
base of fth stage 460.9 1.6 Graptolite, lowest occurrence 1.4 m below 2002b Episodes 23(2):
(not yet named ) of Nemagraptus gracilis phosphorite in E14a 1029, 2000
outcrop, Fagelsang, (proposal;
Scane, southern Sweden formal GSSP
publication in
preparation)

Middle
base Darriwilian 468.1 1.6 Graptolite, lowest occurrence Base of Bed AEP184, 22 1997b Episodes 20(3):
Stage of Undulograptus austrodentatus m below top of Ningkuo 15866, 1997
Fm., Huangnitang,
Changshan, Zhejiang
province, southeast
China
base of third stage 471.8 1.6 Conodont, potentially lowest Candidate sections at
(not yet named ) occurrence of Protoprioniodus Niquivil (Argentina)
aranda or of Baltoniodus and Huanghuachang
triangularis (China)

Lower
base of second stage 478.6 1.7 Graptolite, lowest occurrence Just above E bed, 2002b Episodes in
(not yet named ) of Tetragraptus approximatus Diabasbrottet quarry, prep.
Vastergotland, southern
Sweden
base of Tremadocian 488.3 1.7 Conodont, lowest occurrence Within Bed 23 at the 2000b Episodes 24(1):
Stage, base of Iapetognathus uctivagus; 101.8 m level, Green 1928,
Ordovician System just above base of Cordylodus Point, western
lindstromi conodont Zone. Just Newfoundland, Canada
below lowest occurrence of
planktonic graptolites.
Currently dated around
489 Ma
 Chronostratigraphy: linking time and rock 39

Table 2.3 (cont.)

EON, Era, System, Age (Ma) Est.

Series, Stage GTS2004 myr Principal correlative events GSSP and location Status Publication

Cambrian System Potential GSSP correlation Overview of

levels include Cordylodus potential
proavus, Glyptagnostus subdivisions in
reticulatus, Ptychagnostus Episodes 23(3):
punctuosus, Acidusus atavus, 18895, 2000
and Oryctocephalus indicus

Upper (Furongian)
Series
upper stage(s) in Potential GSSP levels in upper
Furongian Cambrian are based on trilobites
and condonts
base Paibian Stage, 501.0 2.0 Trilobite, lowest occurrence of 369.06 m above base of 2003b Episodes in
base Furongian agnostoid Glyptagnostus Huaqiao Fm., Paibi prep.
Series reticulatus. Coincides with base section, NW Hunan
of large positive carbon isotope province, south China
excursion

Middle 513.0 2.0 Potential GSSP levels in

Middle Cambrian are based
mainly on trilobites

Lower Potential GSSP levels in

Lower Cambrian are based on
archaeocyatha, small shelly
fossils, and to a lesser extent,
trilobites
base Cambrian 542.0 1.0 Trace fossil, lowest occurrence 2.4 m above base of 1992b Episodes
System, base of Treptichnus (Phycodes) Member 2 of Chapel 17(1&2): 38,
Paleozoic, base pedum. Near base of negative Island Fm., Fortune 1994
PHANEROZOIC carbon isotope excursion Head, Burin Peninsula,
southeast
Newfoundland, Canada

PROTEROZOIC PreCambrian eras and systems

below Ediacaran are dened by
absolute ages, rather than
stratigraphic points

Neoproterozoic Era
base Ediacaran 630 Termination of Varanger (or Base of the Nuccaleena f Lethaia, in
System Marinoan) glaciation Formation cap prep.
carbonate, immediately
above the Elatina
diamictite in the
Enorama Creek section,
Flinders Ranges, South
Australia
(cont.)
40 PA RT I I N T RO D U C T I O N

Table 2.3 (cont.)

EON, Era, System, Age (Ma) Est.

Series, Stage GTS2004 myr Principal correlative events GSSP and location Status Publication

Cryogenian System 850 Base = 850 Ma

Tonian System 1000 Base = 1000 Ma 1990b Episodes 14(2):
13940, 1991

Mesoproterozoic Era
Stenian System 1200 Base = 1200 Ma 1990b Episodes 14(2):
13940, 1991
Ectasian System 1400 Base = 1400 Ma 1990b Episodes 14(2):
13940, 1991
Calymmian System 1600 Base = 1600 Ma 1990b Episodes 14(2):
13940, 1991

Paleoproterozoic Era
Statherian System 1800 Base = 1800 Ma 1990b Episodes 14(2):
13940, 1991
Orosirian System 2050 Base = 2050 Ma 1990b Episodes 14(2):
13940, 1991
Rhyacian System 2300 Base = 2300 Ma 1990b Episodes 14(2):
13940, 1991
Siderian System 2500 Base = 2500 Ma 1990b Episodes 14(2):
13940, 1991

ARCHEAN
Neoarchean Era 2800 Base = 2800 Ma Informally in
Episodes 15(2):
1223, 1992
Mesoarchean Era 3200 Base = 3200 Ma Informally in
Episodes 15(2):
1223, 1992
Paleoarchean Era 3600 Base = 3600 Ma Informally in
Episodes 15(2):
1223, 1992
Eoarchean Era

a Informal working denition.

b Year GSSP ratied.
c Year in which ratication of GSSP anticipated.
d Guide event undecided.
e Subsytem rank of Mississippian and Pennsylvanian names ratied 2000.
f Age denition (650 Ma) ratied 1990; replaced by Australian GSSP 2004.

to preclude the need for more expensive methods of sampling
such as coring. Coring and multimethod analysis of GSSP sec-
tions could provide a wealth of data for high-precision time
scale work as well as providing secondary correlation mark-
ers. Previously unsuspected events, such as an hiatus or subtle
rhythmic sedimentary patterns that cannot easily be detected
by outcrop sampling, might also be revealed. For example, mag-
netic susceptibility has been fundamental for correlating Late
Pleistocene sediments over a wide area of the northeast Atlantic
(Robinson et al., 1995) and for correlating and identifying the
orbital components in latest TriassicJurassic successions in
England (Weedon et al., 1999).
2.2.5 Subdividing long stages
The emphasis on dening and dating stage boundaries tends to
overlook that some Paleozoic and Mesozoic stages are rather
long in duration. Ten such stages, all over 10 myr long are:

Lower Cambrian (not a stage, but a subsystem), Frasnian,
Famennian, Tournaisian, Visean (almost 20 myr long),
Carnian, Norian, Aptian, Albian, and Campanian. Their in-
ternal middle and upper boundaries should be subject to for-
mal denition and GSSP standardization, just like their lower
boundaries.
2.2.6 Do GSSP boundary stratotypes simplify
stratigraphic classication?
Since the global chronostratigraphic scale is ultimately dened
by a complete sequence of GSSPs, the limits of chronostrati-
graphic units (stages) are fully dened in time. Harland et al.
(1990, p. 21) realized that the GSSP concept leads to the redun-
dancy of a separate set of hierarchical terms for the time-rock
domain:
The terms system, series, etc. are commonly referred to as
time-rock units. It is argued here that they are now redun-
dant and even confusing, being better replaced by reference
to time divisions or rock units, as the meaning requires.
It is commonly assumed that the time-rock couplets era
erathem, periodsystem, epochseries, and agestage, as
well as earlylower, midmiddle, and lateupper, are pre-
cisely equivalent and should be selected only according to
context in sentence. It is simpler for the chronostratigraphic
scale to apply only the rst term in each couplet. This is
being recommended as being convenient for both thought
and expression. Some others adopt the opposite simplica-
tion, i.e. Lower and Upper for time as well as rock. On that
basis Lower Cambrian time (for example) may be expanded
to the time in which all Lower Cambrian rock formed (as
well as intervening time not represented by rock) falling
within the Early Cambrian time interval which in turn is
dened by the two (initial and terminal) GSSPs in rock, each
point representing an event in time. The use of time-rock
terms (e.g. Lower Cambrian) predates the standardization
of time terms, so it is an understandable perpetuation of an
old habit that it is now nevertheless timely to replace. By
referring to Early Cambrian rather than Lower Cambrian,
the denition (and concept) is more direct. Early Cam-
brian rocks are any rocks formed in Early Cambrian time.
The geologic period is dened by the initial and terminal
events represented by the GSSP. The system is the rock
estimated to have formed in that interval. It [the system]
cannot dene the period because the system boundaries are
unknowable except at unconformities where the boundary
rocks of uncertain age are missing. This work eliminates
Chronostratigraphy: linking time and rock 41
the use of time-rock terms such as system, without loss of
meaning.
The same redundancy was elaborated by Walsh (2001).
Zalasiewicz and colleagues of the Stratigraphic Commission
of the Geological Society of London phrased it elegantly, by
stating ( J. Zalasiewicz, pers. comm., 2000):
We consider that the practice of Chronostratigraphy today
denes the time framework of Geochronology, because in-
tervals of geological time are now being precisely dened
within rock successions by GSSPs. The effect of this is
that Chronostratigraphy and Geochronology should be-
come one and the same discipline, as Harland et al. (1990)
realized. For this one discipline we propose to keep the name
Chronostratigraphy, which is the denition and applica-
tion of a hierarchy of Eons, Eras, Periods, Epochs, Stages
and Chrons. The formal terms Eonothem, Erathem, Sys-
tem, Series, Age and Chronozone thus become redundant.
We include here the use of Stage (rather than Age
of the standard geochronologic scale), which, as Harland
et al., 1990 argued, liberates Age for general use. The
time units dened by Chronostratigraphy may be qualied
by Early/Mid/Late, but not by Lower/Middle/Upper.
As an example, one would not speak of Lower January
or Upper July. The qualiers Lower/Middle/Upper
continue to be applicable to the rock bodies of lithostratig-
raphy. The time units dened by Chronostratigraphy are
founded within strata, but encompass all rocks on Earth.
The term Geochronology reverts to its original use of re-
ferring to obtaining numerical estimates of time, through
radiometric dating, the counting of Milankovitch cycles and
so on.
The practice of using the term stage for both time and
for rock has the advantage of simplifying stratigraphy, lib-
erating age for general use, and avoids some ambiguity and
confusion. The preferred hierarchy would be eon, era, period,
epoch, and stage. One speaks of the beginning and end of a
stage, or epoch or period in a time sense, and when speak-
ing about the lower part of a stage refers to the rocks of that
stage age and uses lithostratigraphic classication. However,
not all co-authors of this time scale book adhere to this sug-
gested practice, and a common new terminology has not been
pursued. More philosophical discussion on the challenging
issue of simplifying stratigraphy without stage stratotypes that
embody time and rock as correlative units is desirable (e.g.
Walsh, 2001).
42 PA RT I I N T RO D U C T I O N
2.3 CASE EXAMPLES OF GSSPs
2.3.1 PliocenePleistocene boundary
The rst example of a prominent GSSP highlights that differ-
ent arguments lead to different preferences.
The main criterion used to place the boundary between the
Pleistocene and Pliocene is changes in marine fauna, prefer-
ably in Italy since it is a classic area for marine and continental
Pleistocene deposits. The base-Pleistocene GSSP ratied in
1985 is the base of sapropel layer e at the Vrica section in
Calabria, Italy (Episodes 8: 11620, 1985). It is just above top
of magnetic polarity Chron C2n (Olduvai) and the extinc-
tion level of calcareous nannofossil Discoaster brouweri (base of
nannofossil Zone CN13). Milankovitch cyclicity of the Vrica
section enables assignment of an age of 1.806 Ma.
However, after ratication of the GSSP, some stratigra-
phers proposed that the boundary be lowered to 2.5 Ma near
the GaussMatuyama polarity chron boundary at the approx-
imate onset of the rapid climate cycles that characterize the
Pleistocene (or traditional Quaternary). Both in northwest
Europe and in New Zealand this boundary is prominent in
the continental rock record. The intense debate culminated
in a formal vote among representatives from ICS and the
International Quaternary Association (INQUA), which re-
tained the GSSP at Vrica (Remane and Michelsen, 1999).
From a practical point of view, both boundaries are ac-
ceptable. Both can be tied to the magnetic polarity scale and
linked to Milankovitch cycles to give highly precise dates for ei-
ther denition. One argument for retaining the original GSSP
was to promote a degree of stability in dening international
chronostratigraphic units, rather than instate a new round of
shifting standards.
As outlined in Chapter 21, complex historical arguments
on the stratigraphic bracketing of the terms Neogene and
Quaternary and its historic rock content continue to avor
post-ratication discussions. A young level as base for the
Pleistocene near 900 ka can also thus be argued.
2.3.2 EoceneOligocene boundary
The second example of discussion surrounding a GSSP and
its stages involves the GSSP for the base of the Oligocene that
should (but appears not quite to) correspond to the boundary
between the Priabonian and Rupelian Stages, accepted inter-
national stages for the Late Eocene and Early Oligocene sub-
epochs, respectively.
One of the outcomes of the IGCP Project 174, Termi-
nal Eocene Events, was to recommend and accept the extinc-
tion level of the low- to mid-latitude planktonic foraminiferal
group of the Hantkeninidae for biostratigraphic recognition
of the EoceneOligocene boundary. Hence, Odin and Monta-
nari (1988) proposed that the primary marker for the Eocene
Oligocene boundary would be the extinction level of the genus
Hantkenina (base of foraminiferal Zone P18), and that a GSSP
should be placed at the base of a marl bed located 19 m above the
base of Massignano quarry, Ancona, Italy. This GSSP was rat-
ied in 1992 (Episodes 16: 37982, 1993) and is in the younger
portion of polarity Chron C13r. An age of 33.7 0.5 Ma is
indicated for the events. It should be mentioned in this context
that the EoceneOligocene boundary study only made passing
reference to the stages adjoining the boundary, with a comment
that more study would be desirable to relate to the shallow- to
marginal-marine type Priabonian, Upper Eocene.
Dinoagellate cyst correlations, in particular the boundary
between the Achomosphaera alicornu Zone and the Glaphy-
rocysta semitecta Zone, now indicates that the GSSP for the
lower limit of Oligocene at Massignano correlates to the mid-
dle part of the sequence of shallow- to marginal-marine lithos-
tratigraphic units assigned to the Upper Eocene Priabonian
Stage in northeast Italy (Brinkhuis and Visscher, 1995). A se-
quence stratigraphic approach suggests that the very top of
the Priabonian in the type section corresponds to the base of
the typical Rupelian, i.e. the base of the Oligocene in Belgium.
A palynological study undertaken by Stover and Hardenbol
(1993) determined that the base of beds considered Rupelian
in its type area in Belgium is one dinoagellate zone above the
GSSP in Massignano; however, the Rupelian base itself is an
hiatus, the result of relative sea-level fall and tectonic uplift.
Thus, although formal acceptance of the EoceneOligocene
boundary in Massignano appears to overlap slightly with Pri-
abonian beds in a shallow- to marginal- marine facies, it appears
to leave a short gap to the immediately overlying Rupelian
Stage. A practical solution would be to extend the Rupelian
slightly downward, at the expense of some marginal-marine
Priabonian strata that have only local correlative signicance.
Hence, this GSSP implicitly assigns revised denitions to the
historical Rupelian and the Priabonian Stages that are suitable
for global correlation.
2.3.3 PermianTriassic boundary
The third example of GSSP selection involves the Permian
Triassic boundary (Yin, 1996; Yin et al., 1996). For this im-
portant boundary between the Paleozoic and the Mesozoic, a
golden spike was nally hammered in early August 2001, af-
ter 18 years of study and debate by the ICS working group

on this subject (19811999). The GSSP is at the base of Bed
27c at Meishan section D in the Zhejiang Province of China
(Fig. 2.3; Yin et al., 2001). The State Council of China approved
this boundary type section as an open region to all visitors with
a valid visa; free access for eld study being one of the criteria
of a GSSP.
For over 100 years, beds with the ammonite genus Oto-
ceras, rst found in the Himalayas, were widely considered
to represent lowest Triassic strata. The genus is also widely
known through the Arctic, but appears limited to the Permian
Triassic temperate and non-tropical realm. Generally, it was
accepted that beds with Otoceras should be taken to dene the
base of the Triassic, and the base of the Griesbachian Stage.
Particularly in the Arctic, Otoceras bearing beds may attain a
thickness of over 70 m, versus only a few meters in Asia. In
the Himalayas, the main phase of mass extinction of Paleozoic
fauna and ora lies immediately below the level with Otoceras,
with the latter representing a major transgressive phase.
In contrast, key PermianTriassic boundary sections in
China, Kashmir, and Tibet were found to be stratigraph-
ically continuous, or most likely so, and have a particular
good record of condodonts, a microfossil group of choice for
near-global marine correlations. The species Hindeodus parvus,
in an evolutionary lineage of several related forms, is found
in China, Kashmir, Salt Range, Caucasus, Iran, Italy, Aus-
tria, Hungary, western USA, and British Columbia, Canada,
and is considered to have a pan-Tethyan and circum-Pacic
distribution in shallow-marine to occasionally deep-marine
facies. After extensive debate and many publications, well
summarized in Yin (1996), the Meishan section in Zhejiang
Province of China was accepted as a GSSP, with the onset of
H. parvus the bounding criteria for the PaleozoicMesozoic
Era boundary, the PermianTriassic Period boundary, and
the boundary between the Changhsingian and Induan Stages
(Fig. 2.6).
Important also is the sharp negative excursion of 13 C
just below the FO of H. parvus in Meishan and many sec-
tions world-wide, considered to reect a considerable loss in
microplankton productivity and biomass coincident with the
end-Permian mass extinction (see Chapter 17). Thus, this sta-
ble isotope event is an excellent global auxiliary marker virtually
at this important boundary.
Volcanic ashes yield radiometric ages bracketing the GSSP
in Meishan. It appears that the base-Triassic, as dened
by the GSSP, is signicantly younger than the peak of the
end-Permian mass extinctions, and re-assigns some basal-
Triassic ammonite beds in the Arctic and Himalayas to the
Permian Period.
Chronostratigraphy: linking time and rock 43
2.4 MAJOR SUBDIVISIONS OF THE
GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
The development of the subdivisions of geologic time is a fas-
cinating topic lled with philosophical concepts, dramatic per-
sonal disputes, and perceptive geological thinking (e.g. see the
lively historical compilation by Berry, 1987). Several historical
aspects still linger in informal stratigraphic divisions (e.g. the
Tertiary was introduced by Giovanni Arduino circa 1759
(see also second color plate), a mining inspector in Tuscany,
in a letter to a professor at the University of Padua about the
relative age of low hills in Italy in which the sediments were
commonly derived from secondary layered rocks; and sim-
ilarly the Dogger was introduced from a clay-rich interval
with concretions within the Jurassic of Britain). The prolif-
eration of regional subdivisions eventually culminated in the
recognition that international standardization is required, and
the status of dening global intervals of geologic time is one of
the main topics of this book.
Earths history has been subdivided into three eons: the
Archean, the Proterozoic, and the Phanerozoic (Fig. 2.7).
The rst two eons are grouped into an informal chronostrati-
graphic unit called the Precambrian. The Phanerozoic Eon
is subdivided into three eras: the Paleozoic, the Mesozoic, and
the Cenozoic. Subdivisions of the Precambrian eons and the
Phanerozoic eras are discussed in detail in Chapters 922, and
only a brief outline is given here.
2.4.1 Archean and Proterozoic Eons (Precambrian)
Precambrian is an informal stratigraphic term that encom-
passes all geologic time and rock prior to the Cambrian Period.
It was originally known as the pre-Cambrian and originated
from the attempts of Adam Sedgwick and Roderick Murchi-
son to subdivide the grauwacke strata of Wales into correlat-
able systems. Initially, the Cambrian System was applied by
Sedgwick to non-fossiliferous strata below Murchisons fossil-
bearing Silurian (Sedgwick and Murchison, 1835), but after
suffering a contentious history, it was reinstated by Charles
Lapworth (1879a) as the period with the earliest animal life
forms. Thereafter, any older non-fossiliferous strata, schists,
and crystalline rocks were referred to as pre-Cambrian.
The Precambrian is currently formally divided into an older
Archean Eon and a younger Proterozoic Eon, using the nomen-
clature suggested by the Royal Society of Canada (Alcock,
1934). The boundary between the two eons is dened chrono-
metrically at 2500 Ma. The Archean and Proterozoic Eons are
divided into four and three eras, respectively. The eras of the
Proterozoic are subdivided into periods (see Chapter 9). An
44 PA RT I I N T RO D U C T I O N

Brachiopoda
Foraminifera
Meishan Section D Conodontophoridea Ammonoidea Bivalvia

Pseudoclaraia
ophiceratids

wangi
Griesbachian
Lower Triassic

Yinkeng Formation

30

Hindeodus typicalis

Claraia griesbachi
Isarcicella isarcica
Clarkina changxingensis

Clarkina meishanensis
b
29

Hindeodus latidentatus
Clarkina deflecta
a

Clarkina planata
28 isarcica Zone

Clarkina subcarinata
d
c parvus Zone Permian
27 Triassic
b

Hindeodus parvus
typicalis fauna boundary
a Eventostratigraphic
26 latidentatus boundary
Black clay

Hypophiceras spp.

Peribositra
meishanensis

Tompophiceras
Otoceras sp.?
25 White clay
fauna Lithostratigraphic
changxingensis boundary
e
deflectasub-
Naowellerella pseudoutah
Crurithyris flabelliformis
Upper Permian

carinata fauna
Changxingian
Changxing Formation

si

d
foraminifera (Nodosaria, etc.)

Pseudogastrioceras
si
50 cm 24
Pleuronodoceras mirificus
Clarkina carinata

si
Rotodiscoceras

c
Palaeofusulina

b
si

a
0 cm si

Figure 2.6 Details of the Paleozoic-Mesozoic (Permian-Triassic) boundary at the Meishan GSSP section, China.

historical review of Precambrian subdivisions is compiled in Silurian Period, and ending at the base of the Old Red Sand-
Harland et al. (1990, pp. 1418). There is no dened older stone (Devonian). John Phillips (1841) extended the Paleozoic
limit to the Archean Eon, but the term Hadean has been (meaning ancient animal life) to also include the Old Red
suggested for the interval from the Earths formation to the Sandstone through the Permian. The international convention
oldest geological record (hence from 4600 to 3850 Ma) and is to drop the a from ae in Palaeo, hence it is now spelled
is reviewed in Chapters 9 and 10. as Paleozoic Era. The Paleozoic is divided into six peri-
ods, from the Cambrian at the base, through the Ordovician,
2.4.2 Phanerozoic Eon Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, and Permian.

In an abstract, Chadwick (1930) proposed grouping geologic

time into two eons: the Phanerozoic to encompass the Pa- THE MESOZOIC ERA
leozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic Eras; and Cryptozoic for
Phillips (1841) introduced the term Mesozoic (meaning mid-
the pre-Cambrian. Only the term Phanerozoic is currently in
dle animal life) in a brief article in The Penny Cyclopaedia of
general use.
the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge to follow the
Paleozoic, and later proposed that the Mesozoic would span
T H E PA L E O Z O I C E R A
the New Red Formation (the lower part was later determined
The Palaeozoic Series was proposed by Adam Sedgwick to be the Permian) through the Cretaceous Chalk (Phillips,
(1838) in a presentation to the Geological Society of London 1841). The Mesozoic Era is divided into the Triassic, Jurassic,
to encompass his Cambrian Period and Roderick Murchisons and Cretaceous Periods.

Figure 2.7 Main divisions of Earth history into eons and eras.
Chronostratigraphy: linking time and rock 45
THE CENOZOIC (CAINOZOIC) ERA
The name Kainozoic (from the Greek word kainos meaning
recent) was coined by Phillips (1841), and later spelled by
him as Cainozoic, to apply to British strata younger than the
Chalk (Cretaceous). It is now known as Cenozoic (see the
linguistic history discussion in Harland et al., 1990, p. 31).
The Cenozoic is divided into Paleogene and Neogene
Periods. We refrain from using the informal terms Tertiary
and Quaternary, remnants of a classication that included Pri-
mary and Secondary (e.g. by Arduino, 1760b; see also second
color plate), but their origins and history are well described in
Harland et al. (1990) and Berggren (1998). The changing con-
cept of the term Quaternary is summarized in Chapter 21.
2 . 5 E X A M P L E S O F S T R AT I G R A P H I C
C H A RT S A N D TA B L E S
The plethora of names for time and time-rock units in local
regions lends itself to the production of wall charts and strati-
graphic lexicons to summarize the regional schemes and links
to a standard scale. The international standard is developed by
the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS), and is
formally published in conjunction with the International Geo-
logical Congress (e.g. Remane, 2000; and an edition to appear
in Episodes in mid 2004). The updated charts in PDF format are
freely available from the ICS website at www.stratigraphy.org.
Nearly all nations, states, and/or continents have compiled
regional chronostratigraphic charts or lexicons of regional
stratigraphy. Some selected examples of recent compilations
are mentioned below.
In 2002, the Stratigraphic Table of Germany 2002 (German
Stratigraphic Commission, 2002) saw the light. The wall chart
is well laid out and documents the interrelation of regional Ger-
man rock units through Precambrian and Phanerozoic time.
Chronostratigraphic units of the standard reference scale have
the sufx -ium (in English -ian, and in French -ien); this is
elegant and deserves consideration in other Germanic, in-
cluding Nordic, languages where orthographic principles have
occasionally muddied stage, series, and system nomencla-
ture. Linear time scale modications for parts of Paleozoic
and Mesozoic are documented summarily. The discrepancy
between UPb TIMS and HRSIMS dates in the Devonian
Carboniferous is resolved by taking the youngest possible es-
timate of age dates with the former method and the oldest
possible estimate of age dates with the latter one. Essentially,
a regression line is forced through the opposite extremes of
error bar values for successive age dates to interpolate stages.
46 PA RT I I N T RO D U C T I O N
An Australian Phanerozoic Timescale (Young and Laurie,
1996) is an erudite and well-illustrated standard work for that
part of the world. Detailed explanatory notes make this study
a valuable compendium of bio-, magneto-, and chronostrati-
graphic information. Particularly, there is a wealth of data on
Australian biostratigraphy, well documented in many detailed
charts and a wall chart linking local and standard zonations in
one scheme.
The detailed New Zealand Geologic Time Scale study will
go to press in 2004 (R. Cooper and J. Crampton, pers. comm.,
2003). Considerable progress has been made with typifying
the previously biostratigraphically dened regional stages.
The spectacular Neogene record of the Wanganui Basin in
New Zealand is important to understand the relations between
global sequences and orbital cycles in shallow marine settings.
For European basins, there is the compilation by Harden-
bol et al. (1998) of eight Mesozoic and Cenozoic biomagneto
chronostratigraphic charts, linked to the standard time scale
anno 1995 and a sequence stratigraphic framework. The de-
tailed calibrations of fossil events and zonal units is particularly
valuable, since it involves many classical localities, classical taxa,
and classical zones.
Part II Concepts and
methods
3 Biostratigraphy: time scales from graphic and quantitative methods
. . , . . , . .
Semi-quantitative and quantitative biostratigraphy methods are as-
sisting with scaling of stages, as exemplied in the Ordovician
Silurian and CarboniferousPermian segments of GTS2004. This
chapter focuses on some theory and practical considerations.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The larger part of the Phanerozoic time scale in this book
relies on a construction where stages are rst scaled geo-
logically with biostratigraphic compositing techniques, and
than stretched in linear time using key radiometric dates. The
advent of versatile and clever semi-quantitative and quanti-
tative biostratigraphy methods is assisting with this geological
scaling. The methods also add a new dimension to the con-
struction of local or standard biochronologies, and its time
scale derivatives.
In particular, three methods, each with their own PC-based
programs, merit attention when it comes to scaling biostrati-
graphic data for standard or regional time scales:
r graphic correlation,
r constrained optimization
r ranking and scaling.
Each of these three methods aims at a particular segment of
time scale building and its application, using complex and/or
large microfossil data les. Constrained optimization is directly
utilized in building the early Paleozoic segment of GTS2004,
and graphic correlation plays a key role in building the bio-
stratigraphic composite for the late Paleozoic. Ranking and
scaling has been used in construction of local biochronologies.
In this chapter more general examples will be given of the
approaches; a summary of the numerical and graphic methods
is presented in Table 3.1.
A Geologic Time Scale 2004, eds. Felix M. Gradstein, James G. Ogg, and Alan
G. Smith. Published by Cambridge University Press.
c F. M. Gradstein, J. G.
Ogg, and A. G. Smith 2004.
49
3 . 2 G R A P H I C C O R R E L AT I O N
Rates of sediment accumulation have been used to derive time
scales. The simplest methods average fossil zone thickness in
several sections and assume that thickness is directly propor-
tional to duration (e.g. Carter et al., 1980). However, because
zone boundaries are dened by the stratigraphic ranges of one,
or a few species, only a very small subset of the total bio-
stratigraphic information is used in the exercise. Worse is that
sedimentation rarely is constant (linear) through time, making
the assumption tenuous.
Graphic correlation (Shaw, 1964; Edwards, 1984; Mann
and Lane, 1995; Gradstein, 1996; see also Table 3.1) is a method
that makes better use of the biostratigraphic information in
sections, and is thus used for time scale construction. Graphic
correlation proceeds by the pair-wise correlation of all sections
to build up a composite stratigraphic section. With each suc-
cessive round of correlation, biostratigraphic range-end events
missing from the composite are interpolated into it via a line of
correlation (LOC). At the same time, the stratigraphic ranges
of taxa are extended to accommodate the highest range-tops
and lowest range-bases recorded in any of the sections used in
the analysis. This procedure is based on the assumption that,
because of incomplete sampling, non-preservation, unsuitable
facies, and other reasons, local sections will underestimate the
true stratigraphic range of species. Isotopic dates, and other
physical events can also be interpolated (Prell et al., 1986).
The composite section thus becomes a hypothetical section
that contains all stratigraphic correlation events, and in which
local taxon ranges are extended to approximate their true range
in time, as recorded among all the sections.
When the composite section is based on a relatively large
number of individual stratigraphic sections, it has been re-
garded as a good approximation of a relative time scale it-
self (Sweet, 1984, 1988, 1995; Kleffner, 1989; Fordham, 1992).
These workers have used conodont-bearing carbonate sections
to build graphic correlation time scales for the Ordovician and
Silurian. It is assumed that variations in sediment accumula-
tion rate are evened out in the composite, during the process of
 Table 3.1 Summary of graphic and numerical methods in biostratigraphy, used to assist with construction of geologic time scales
Graphic correlation
Programs GRAPHCOR, STRATCOR
Deterministic method graphic correlation in bivariate
plots. Program STRATCOR can also simulate probabilistic
solutions
Uses event order and thickness spacing; works best with data
sets having both rst and last occurrences of taxa
Best suited for small data sets; can also operate on larger data
sets
An initial standard section is selected, after which section
after section is composited in the relative standard to arrive
at a nal standard composite
Line of correlation (LOC) tting in section-by-section plots;
50
technique can be partially automated
Attempts to nd maximum stratigraphic range of taxa
among the sections
Builds a composite of events by interpolation of missing
events in successive section-by-section plots, via the LOC
Relative spacing of events is a composite of original event
spacing in meters in the sections
No automatic correlation of sections; composite standard
can be converted in time scale
No error analysis; sensitive to geological reworking and other
stratigraphic noise, and sensitive to order in which
sections are composited during analysis
Interactive operation under DOS; graphic displays of
scattergrams and best-t lines
Constrained optimization
Program CONOP
Mostly a deterministic method, but can also simulate
probabilistic solutions. Constrained optimization with
simulated annealing and penalty score.
Uses event order, event cross-over, and thickness spacing;
data sets best have both rst and last occurrences of taxa
Processes medium to large data sets
Treats all sections and events simultaneously (operates a bit
like multidimensional graphic correlation)
Multidimensional LOC; automated tting; can generate
several different composites depending
on run options
Attempts to nd maximum or most common stratigraphic
ranges of taxa
Uses simulated annealing to nd either the best or a good
multidimensional LOC and composite sequence of events
Relative spacing of events in the composite is derived from
original event spacing in meters or sample levels
Correlates sections automatically; zonal composite can be
converted to time scale
Numerous numerical tests and graphical analysis of
stratigraphic results; nds best break points for assemblage
zones
Batch operation under Windows; color graphics display
shows progress of run
Ranking and scaling
Programs RASC and CASC
Probabilistic method ranking, scaling normality testing, and
most likely correlation of events; error analysis
Uses event order, and scores of cross-over from well to well for
all event pairs in the ranked optimum sequence
Processes large data sets fast; has data input and multi-well data
bookkeeper
Treats all sections and events simultaneously
Automated execution; generates several scaled optimum
sequences per data set depending on run parameters, and tests
to omit bad sections or bad events
Finds average stratigraphic position of rst and/or last
occurrence events
Uses scores of event order relationships to nd their most likely
order, which represents the stratigraphic order found on average
among the sections
Relative spacing of events in the scaled optimum sequence
derives from z-transformation of cross-over frequencies
Optimum sequence can be scaled to linear time; automated
correlation of sections using isochrones
Three tests of stratigraphic normality of sections and events;
calculates standard deviation of each event as a function of its
stratigraphic scatter in wells
Button operated under Windows, fast batch runs; color
graphics of output and options for interactive graphics editing

LOC tting and extension of stratigraphic ranges. The com-
posite units by which the composite section is scaled are as-
sumed to be of approximately equal duration (Sweet, 1988),
and therefore are time units of unspecied duration (standard
time units). Finally, the relative scale can be calibrated with
radioisotopic dates that are tied to the biostratigraphic scale.
The assumptions, and some of the problems with this method,
are summarized by Smith (1993).
In a variation on the method, Cooper (1992) used
graphic correlation of long-ranging, deep-water, Ordovician
graptolite-bearing shale sections to test for uniformity (steadi-
ness) of depositional rate. A regional composite for Scandi-
navia was plotted against a composite for Newfoundland and
gave a reasonable approximation to a rectilinear t. The same
two sections were then plotted against an exceptionally long-
ranging section for western Canada, with the same result, and
were taken to indicate that sediment accumulation rates in
the three regions were approximately constant with time. The
thickness scale for the Scandinavian composite (the most fos-
siliferous one) was then taken as a reasonable proxy for a rel-
ative time scale. This scale was then adjusted as necessary
to t the relatively sparse isotopic dates (Cooper, 1992) to
give a calibration of Early Ordovician graptolite zones and
stages.
For GTS2004, graphic correlation was applied for the Car-
boniferous and Permian time scale segment (Section 15.3.3),
involving about 40 Carboniferous and 20 Permian sections,
using all available fossil groups.
3 . 3 C O N S T R A I N E D O P T I M I Z AT I O N
A major disadvantage of the graphic correlation method is
the limited number of sections and taxa that can be used in
the analysis, for practical reasons. Another disadvantage is the
requirement for one of the sections to be adopted as the starting
standard section, the stratigraphic thickness measurements
of which become the composite units in the composite section.
Third, assumptions about relative accumulation rates may bias
the sequence of events in the composite. These problems are
avoided by automating correlation procedure as a constrained
optimization (CONOP software, Kemple et al., 1995; Sadler,
1999).
Like graphic correlation, several of the options in CONOP
seek the maximum stratigraphic ranges of taxa as represented
in the sections and build a composite (Sadler and Cooper,
2004). Unlike graphic correlation, the method readily enables
a large number of sections and species to be used and pro-
cesses all taxa and all sections simultaneously. Thus, it resem-
Biostratigraphy 51
bles a multidimensional graphical correlation in the sense that
it considers all the local stratigraphic sections. It differs, how-
ever, in treating all sections simultaneously. A closer analogy
exists between CONOP and algorithms that search for the most
parsimonious cladogram.
Over 230 measured stratigraphic sections in graptolite-
bearing deep-water shales from around the world and con-
taining 1400 species were compiled in a data set. The Ordovi-
cian part alone includes 119 sections, containing 669 taxa with
ranges wholly or partly in the Ordovician. The total data set
was used to derive a global composite section for the Ordovician
and Silurian (discussed in more detail in Chapter 12). Since
graptolite specimens are rarely, if ever, found reworked, such
stratigraphic noise is readily avoided.
The impressive graptolite composite was built in two steps.
In the rst step, the order of events was established by mini-
mizing mist between the composite and each of the individual
sections in turn. The method operates heuristically, searching
and discovering, in what can be a very large number of op-
erations, which composite is best. Mist was gauged by the
net distance that range-ends had to be extended among all
sections, as measured by the number of correlative biostrati-
graphic event levels, rather than stratigraphic thickness (as
in graphic correlation). The composite is only an ordinal se-
quence of events. The spacing is undetermined and, unlike
graphic correlation, assumptions about accumulation rate do
not inuence the sequence.
In the second step, the spacing of every pair of adjacent
events in the composite was determined from the average of
the rescaled spacing of events in the sections. The observed
ranges in the individual sections were rst extended to match
the composite sequence. The thickness of each section was
rescaled according to the number of events that it spanned in
the composite sequence. The scaling of the composite is there-
fore derived from all of the sections, rather than from an initial
standard section as in graphic correlation, and it is the ratio
of the thicknesses between events that is used, not the abso-
lute thickness. The inuence of aberrant sections, incomplete
preservation, and non-uniform depositional rates is thus min-
imized. Graptolite zone boundaries and stage boundaries were
then located in the composite, producing a relative time scale
for the Ordovician and Silurian.
Twenty-two UPb zircon dates that were reliably tied to the
graptolite sequence and included in the compositing process
were plotted against the relative time scale, and the resulting
near-rectilinear t demonstrates the reliability of the method
(Fig. 3.1). These dates were then used to calibrate the relative
scale, which was adjusted accordingly.
52 PA RT I I C O N C E P T S A N D M E T H O D S
Figure 3.1 Calibration of the CONOP relative time scale in
composite units by zircon isotopic dates in the Ordovician and
Silurian (Sadler and Cooper, 2003, 2004). The extent to which the
best t is linear is the extent to which the CONOP relative
biostratigraphic scale is linear.
The result is a nely calibrated time scale. The method is
applicable to any part of the time scale with suitable pelagic fos-
sil groups, and is most suitable where isotopic dates are scarce.
It provides a method for estimating the age of biostratigraphic
and chronostratigraphic boundaries and events that lie strati-
graphically between radiometric calibration points. Its under-
lying assumptions, methodology, and limitations are outlined
by Sadler and Cooper (2004b). These authors demonstrate the
method on the Ordovician and Silurian time scale.
In Chapters 12 and 13, the linear scaling of the CONOP
graptolite composite is further rened through the use of
mathematical and statistical techniques, incorporating error
analysis.
3.4 RANKING AND SCALING
Both the graphic correlation and some options in the CONOP
methods belong in the category of deterministic stratigraphy
methods, and contrast with probabilistic methods. Determin-
istic methods seek the total or maximum stratigraphic range of
taxa, whereas probabilistic methods estimate the most probable
or average range (Fig. 3.2), to be accompanied by an estimate
of stratigraphic uncertainty. Deterministic methods assume
that inconsistencies in the stratigraphic range of a taxon from
section to section or well to well are due to missing data. On the
other hand, probabilistic methods assume that the inconsisten-
Figure 3.2 Theoretical illustration of the difference between
average and maximum ranges of a species (taxon A) in eight
stratigraphic sections. Probabilistic methods seek the average
stratigraphic range, deterministic methods seek the total range (after
Cooper et al., 2001).
cies are the result of random deviations from a most commonly
occurring or average stratigraphic range. Or, to say it in terms
of youngest occurrence events of taxa (or tops in exploration
micropaleontology jargon): deterministic methods assume that
there is a true order of events, and that inconsistencies in the
relative order of tops from well to well are due to missing data.
Probabilistic methods on the other hand consider such incon-
sistencies to be the result of random deviations from a most
likely or optimum sequence of tops.
The most probable order of stratigraphic events in a sedi-
mentary basin, with an estimate of uncertainty in event posi-
tion, best predicts what order of events to expect in a new well
or section. Calculation of the true order on the other hand
would be most comparable to conventional, subjective results
in range charts.
The principal method of probabilistic biostratigraphy, op-
erating completely different from CONOP, is called RASC
(Agterberg and Gradstein, 1999; Gradstein et al., 1999). RASC
is an acronym for ranking and scaling of biostratigraphic events;
its sister method CASC stands for correlation and standard
error calculation. Data sets may vary from a few (e.g. 4) to
many (25 or many more) wells or outcrop sections, and thou-
sands of records, depending on requirement. For error analysis
to have meaning, more wells are better than few.

Figure 3.3 By using CASC interpolation, RASC biochronology
ischrons can be correlated through the wells, as shown for the
subjective (solid line) and most likely (dashed) depths of Cretaceous
Unlike graphic correlation, the RASC method considers
the stratigraphic order of all (pairs of ) fossil events in all wells
simultaneously. It scores all order relationships of all event
pairs in a matrix, and, using various modications of trino-
mial set theory, calculates the most likely order of events. In
this optimum sequence, each event position is an average of
all individual positions encountered in the wells. Standard de-
viations of the event positions in the most likely (optimum)
sequence are proportional to the amount of their stratigraphic
scatter in all wells or outcrop sections.
Scaling of the optimum sequence in relative time is a func-
tion of the frequency with which events in each pair in the op-
timum sequence cross over their relative positions (observed
records) from well to well; the more often two events cross
over from well to well, the smaller their inter-fossil distance.
Using a statistical model for the frequencies of cross-overs,
these estimates are converted to z values of the normal distri-
bution. Final distance estimates are expressed in dendrogram
format, where tightness of clustering is a measure of near-
ness of events along a stratigraphic scale. The scaled version
of the optimum sequence features time successive clusters,
each of which bundles distinctive events. Individual bundles
Biostratigraphy 53
isochrons in northern Grand Banks wells (after Williamson, 1987).
The automation of this process makes the method suitable for
subsurface contouring using computer workstations.
of events are assigned zonal status. The process of zone as-
signment in the scaled optimum sequence is subjective, as
guided by the stratigraphic experience of the users. Large inter-
fossil distances between successive dendrogram clusters agree
with zonal boundaries, reecting breaks in the fossil record
due to average grouping of event extinctions. Such extinc-
tions occur for a variety of reasons, and may reect sequence
boundaries. From a practical point of view, it sufces to say
that taxa in a zone, on average, top close together in relative
time.
The CASC method and program takes the RASC zona-
tion, and calculates the most likely correlation of all events
in the zonation over all wells. Interpolated event positions
have error bars attached, and are compared to observed event
positions in the wells examined. Since 1982, RASC and
CASC have has wide stratigraphic application to a variety
of microfossils, including dinoagellate cysts, pollen/spores,
diatoms, radiolarians, benthic and planktonic foraminifera,
and also physical log markers inserted in zonations. A majority
of applications involve well data sets from industry and from
scientic ocean drilling. Published literature on the method
and its uses is extensive.
54 PA RT I I C O N C E P T S A N D M E T H O D S
Since the RASC optimum sequence has a numerical and
linear scale, it may be converted to a time scale. A prerequisite
is that, for an appropriate set of events in this scaled opti-
mum sequence, absolute age estimates are available (e.g. from
planktonic foraminiferal or nannofossil events in standard
zonations). The more events in the scaled optimum sequence,
the better the stratigraphic resolution, shrinking the gap be-
tween unevenly spaced events in estimated linear time. Next,
the conversion of the RASC scaled optimum sequence to a local
biochronology enables the stratigrapher familiar with CASC
to trace isochrons in the same way as zones are traced. Exam-
ples of such exercises are presented in Gradstein et al. (1985),
in Agterberg and Gradstein (1988) for the Cenozoic, offshore
Labrador and Newfoundland, and in Williamson (1987) for
the JurassicCretaceous, offshore Newfoundland.
Figure 3.3 shows a close t of subjective and likely traces
of Lower Cretaceous isochrons in some Grand Banks of
Newfoundland wells applying the CASC methodology on a
most likely RASC zonation in 13 wells, using hundreds of fos-
sil events. The dashed lines are based on the CASC method,
and the solid lines are a subjective interpretation. An advan-
tage of the CASC-type interpolation is that it can be used
for isochron cross-sections at, for example, 1 myr intervals.
Such cross-sections as constructed by Williamson (1987; see
also Agterberg, 1990 and Fig. 9.22 therein) have realistic geo-
logical properties, and can be used to convert seismic cross-
sections quickly into geologic time sections such as Wheeler
diagrams, and thus to detect an hiatus in wells. This type of ap-
plication enhances the role of biochronology in regional basin
studies.
4 Earths orbital parameters and cycle stratigraphy
. .
The Milankovitch theory that quasi-periodic oscillations in the Sun-
Earth position have induced signicant 104 106 -year-scale variations
in the Earths stratigraphic record of climate is widely acknowledged.
This chapter discusses the Earths orbital parameters, the nature
of orbitally forced incoming solar radiation, fossil orbital signals in
Phanerozoic stratigraphy, and the use of these orbital signals in cali-
brating geologic time.
4 . 1 I N T RO D U C T I O N
Over the past century, paleoclimatological research has led
to wide acceptance that quasi-periodic oscillations in the
SunEarth position have induced signicant variations in the
Earths past climate. These orbitally forced variations inu-
enced climate-sensitive sedimentation, and thereby came to be
fossilized in the Earths cyclic stratigraphic record. The de-
tection of orbital variations in Earths cycle stratigraphy was
progressively facilitated by advancements in celestial mechan-
ics, which have provided more accurate models of the Earths
orbitalrotational behavior through geological time, and by
improvements in data collection and analysis.
A principal outcome of the research has been the recog-
nition that cycle stratigraphy, when shown to carry the sig-
nal specic to Earths orbital behavior, serves as a power-
ful geochronometer. High-quality data collected over the past
decade, in particular, have proven to have faithfully recorded all
of the orbital cycles predicted by modern celestial mechanics
over 023 Ma. Consequently, for the rst time, the entire Neo-
gene Period has been astronomically calibrated, and is reported
in Chapter 21 as the Astronomically Tuned Neogene Time
Scale 2004 (ATNTS2004). Cycle stratigraphy from more re-
mote geological ages has not yet been calibrated directly to the
orbital cycles, because of model limitations and greater un-
certainties in determining stratigraphic age. Nonetheless, in
numerous instances signal components analogous to those of
A Geologic Time Scale 2004, eds. Felix M. Gradstein, James G. Ogg, and Alan
G. Smith. Published by Cambridge University Press.
c F. M. Gradstein,
J. G. Ogg, and A. G. Smith 2004.
55
the orbital variations have been detected in cycle stratigraphy,
prompting the development of oating time scales that are
calibrated to the average value of one or several model orbital
frequencies. In Chapters 1719, orbitally calibrated oating
time scales are presented for intervals that extend through en-
tire stages of the Mesozoic periods.
This chapter provides an introduction to the Earths orbital
parameters, the nature of the orbitally forced incoming solar
radiation (insolation), and the discovery of orbitally forced in-
solation signals in cycle stratigraphy. The chapter concludes
with remarks on the precision and accuracy that can be ex-
pected from orbitally calibrated cycle stratigraphy.
4 . 2 E A RT H S O R B I TA L PA R A M E T E R S
The Earth undergoes quasi-periodic changes in its orientation
relative to the Sun as a consequence of interactions between the
Earths axial precession and variable orbit induced by motions
of the other planets. These changes are described in terms of
the Earths orbital parameters (Fig. 4.1). Quantication of the
orbital parameters has been carried out numerous times in the
past with analytical approximations of the planetary motions
(e.g. Milankovitch, 1941; Bretagnon, 1974; Berger, 1977a,b;
Berger et al., 1989; Laskar, 1990). Today, orbital models are
performed largely by computerized numerical integration, and
while they continue to share many of the features contained in
the earlier ones, important new variables have been included,
e.g. relativitistic effects, Earths tidal braking, dynamical ellip-
ticity, climate friction, Suns oblateness, etc. For example, the
model of Laskar et al. (1993) is reported as La93(CMAR,FGAM) ,
where CMAR is input for the tidal effect of the Moon and
FGAM is the input for the dynamical ellipticity of the Earth.
The nominal model La93(0,1) assumes no tidal friction and
present-day ellipticity; La93(1,1) builds in the tidal effect of
Quinn et al. (1991). La93 provides an accurate ephemeris for
the past 16 million years; uncertainties in the models initial
conditions and indications for chaotic motions of the planets
impose an absolute accuracy limit at about 32 myr BP (Laskar,
1999).
56 PA RT I I C O N C E P T S A N D M E T H O D S
n NP
Earth
ECLIPTIC OF DATE
a N
REFERENCE
Earth's
FIXED path
f1
b line of
intersection
ECLIPTIC
I Sun
f2
Figure 4.1 The Earths orbital parameters seen from a view above
the Earths geographic North Pole (NP) in a conguration of
northern summer solstice (NP pointed toward the Sun). The Earths
orbit is elliptical with (invariant) semi-major axis a and semi-minor
axis b dening eccentricity e. The Sun occupies one of the two foci
( f1 , f2 ). Variables e, , I and are orbital elements, where
= + . The plane of the Earths orbit (the ecliptic of date) is
inclined an angle I relative to a xed reference ecliptic, and intersects
this plane at a longitude at point N, the ascending node, relative
to xed vernal point 0 . (In this depiction, I is greatly exaggerated
from its actual magnitude of only 1 to 2 .) The orbital perihelion
point P is measured relative to 0 as the longitude of perihelion ,
According to La93(0,1) , over the past 10 million years the
Earths orbital eccentricity varied from 0 to 7% (Fig. 4.2a)
with principal modes at 95, 99, 124, 131, 404, and 2360 kyr
(Fig. 4.3a), caused by gravitational perturbations from motions
of the other planets acting on Earths orbital elements and e
(Fig. 4.1). The obliquity variation has involved changes in the
Earths axial tilt between 22 and 24 (Fig. 4.2b), with a principal
mode at 41 kyr, and lesser ones at 39, 54, and 29 kyr (Fig. 4.3b),
due to planetary motions acting mainly on orbital elements I
and (Fig. 4.1). The precession index represents the combined
effects of orbital eccentricity and the Earths axial precession on
the SunEarth distance (Fig. 4.2c), and has principal modes at
24, 22, 19, and 17 kyr (Fig. 4.3c). Long-period modulations of
the obliquity and precession index (Figs. 4.2b,c) can be traced
to the secular motions of individual planets (e.g. Berger and
Loutre, 1990); frequency components of these modulations
are summarized in Hinnov (2000).
Over geological time, dissipation of tidal energy is thought
to have slowed the Earths rotation rate (e.g. Berger et al.,
1989). This deceleration, accompanied by lunar recession, a
declining Earth ellipticity and axial precession rate, would have
resulted in a progressive lengthening of the obliquity and pre-
cession index modes toward the present (Berger et al., 1992).
and moves slowly anticlockwise. The Earths gure is tilted with
respect to the ecliptic of date normal n at obliquity angle . Earths
rotation is anticlockwise; gravitational forces along the ecliptic of
date from the Moon and Sun act on the Earths equatorial bulge and
cause a clockwise precession of the rotation axis. This precession
causes the vernal equinox point to migrate clockwise along the
Earths orbit, shifting the seasons relative to the orbits eccentric
shape; this motion constitutes the precession of the equinoxes.
The angle between and P is the moving longitude of perihelion
and is used in the precession index esin to track EarthSun
distance. Variations of e, , and esin are shown in Fig. 4.2.
Table 4.1 presents model predictions for the shortening of
the major obliquity and precession index modes over the past
500 Ma, indicating signicant changes over the Phanerozoic
Eon. In addition, climate friction, i.e. episodic glacial load-
ing of the Earths crust, may result in obliquityoblateness
feedback and possibly signicant deviations in the average
obliquity angle (e.g. Bills, 1994; Rubincam, 1995). In con-
trast, orbital eccentricity is independent of geodynamical ef-
fects, and, although chaotic motions of some of the planets
could destabilize some of the eccentricity modes from their
current values, others, in particular the 404 kyr mode, may
have remained relatively stable over much of Phanerozoic time
(Laskar, 1999).
A newly updated orbital model, La2003(CMAR,FGAM,CLIM)
exploits recent advances in numerical integration techniques
and promises high-precision computations of the orbital pa-
rameters over geological times up to 40 Ma. This new model
also provides a third parameter, CLIM, to include the afore-
mentioned climate friction effect (CLIM = 0 assumes no ef-
fect). Differences between La93 and La2003 are noticeable at
times previous to 20 Ma, and are discussed further in Chapter
21, where the ATNTS-2004 is calibrated to La2003(1,1,0) back
to the OligoceneMiocene boundary (23.03 Ma).
 Earths orbital parameters and cycle stratigraphy 57

Orbital eccentricity (%)

10
8
6
4
2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
(a)
Time (Ma)
26
Obliquity ()

25
24
23
22
21
0 2 4 6 8 10
(b) Time (Ma)
0.1
Precession

0.05
0

0.05
0.1
0 2 4 6 8 10
(c) Time (Ma)
Figure 4.2 Variation of the Earths orbital parameters over the past (Paillard et al., 1996), which calculates La90( = La93(0,1) ). A
10 million years according to La93(0,1) , assuming Earths present-day FORTRAN code to calculate adjustable models La93(CMAR, FGAM)
ellipticity and rotation rate. (a) Orbital eccentricity, in percent; (b) can be downloaded from http://xml.gsfc.nasa.gov/archive/
obliquity variation, in degrees of axial tilt; (c) precession index, in catalogs/616063/index long.html.
standardized units (dimensionless). All values are from Analyseries

4 . 3 O R B I TA L LY F O RC E D I N S O L AT I O N orbital parameters to the inter-annual insolation (e.g. Berger

The orbital parameters affect changes in the intensity and tim-
ing of the incoming solar radiation, or insolation, at all points on
the Earth. These insolation changes comprise the well-known
Milankovitch cycles (Milankovitch, 1941; re-issued in En-
glish in 1998). Geographical location, time of year, and even
the time of day all determine the relative contributions of the
et al., 1993). For example, the insolation curves in Fig. 4.4
depict the globally available spectral power of orbitally forced
daily insolation at the top of the atmosphere on June 21 (sol-
stice) and March 21 (equinox). These curves are idealized in
the sense that it is unlikely that climate responds to insolation
only on one day of the year, but integrates insolation over cer-
tain times of the year and collectively over specic geographic
58 PA RT I I C O N C E P T S A N D M E T H O D S

1.4

2360

404
Orbital eccentricity (%)

1.2
667 1000
1.0

95
124
0.8

99
202

131
0.6
488
345

77
0.4
179
220

83

56
88
0.2

63
0.0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02
(a) Frequency (Cycles/kyr)
0.8
41.0

0.6
Obliquity ()

39.6 40.2

0.4
53.6

29.9

0.2
28.9

0
0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04
(b) Frequency (Cycles/kyr)
0.025
23.67
22.37

0.020
19.10
18.96
Precession

0.015
24.18

0.010
23.12

16.47

0.005
0

0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08

(c) Frequency (Cycles/kyr)
Figure 4.3 Harmonic analysis of the Earths orbital parameters
depicted in Fig. 4.2. All labels identify periodic components in
thousands of years that pass the F-ratio test of Thomson (1982) for
signicant lines above the 95% level, using 4 multi-tapers.
(a) Orbital eccentricity, (b) obliquity variation, (c) precession index.
(Note: Due to the quasi-periodic nature of the parameters, the
signicance, periodicity, and amplitude of the labeled signal
components will change for analyses over different time segments.)
 Earths orbital parameters and cycle stratigraphy 59

Table 4.1 Model of changes in the main periods of the Earths obliquity variation and precession indexa

Time (Ma) 41-kyr mode 39-kyr mode 54-kyr mode 29-kyr mode

OBLIQUITY VARIATION
0 41 057 39 663 53 805 28 929
72 39 333 38 052 50 883 28 062
270 34 820 33 812 43 577 25 687
298 34 203 33 231 42 615 25 350
380 32 426 31 550 39 891 24 360
440 31 168 30 358 38 003 23 643
500 29 916 29 169 36 158 22 916

Time (Ma) 24-kyr mode 22-kyr mode 19-kyr mode 16.5-kyr mode

PRECESSION INDEX
0 23 708 22 394 18 966 16 470
72 23 123 21 871 18 590 16 188
270 21 485 20 401 17 517 15 368
298 21 249 20 188 17 359 15 247
380 20 549 19 555 16 889 14 884
440 20 037 19 090 16 542 14 612
500 19 512 18 613 16 182 14 332

a Asin Hinnov (2000), based on Berger and Loutre (1994, their Table 2, Model 2). Values are in thousands of years.
(Note: The precessional 16.5-kyr mode was calculated using g = 1/(45 865 yr), from Laskar (1990).)

areas, possibly different areas at different times. This climatic
ltering serves to alter the relative contributions of the orbital
parameters to the total output climate response, this even prior
to internal climate system responses to the insolation. Thus, it
is left to the discretion of the paleoclimatologist to determine
which time(s) of the year and at which location(s) a prevailing
climate responded to insolation; this can require considerable
insight into the innite number of ways that one can sample
insolation in spacetime (Rubincam, 1994).
4 . 4 O R B I TA L S I G NA L S I N C YC L E
S T R AT I G R A P H Y
The prospect that orbital variations exerted large-scale climatic
changes that could be detected in the geologic record was al-
ready being debated in the nineteenth century (e.g. Herschel,
1830; Adhemar, 1842; Lyell, 1867; Croll, 1875). Gilbert (1895)
was the rst to attribute the origin of limestone/shale cyclic
strata of the Cretaceous Niobrara chalks (Colorado, USA) to as-
tronomical forcing. Bradley (1929) counted varves in the lacus-
trine oil-shalemarl cycles of the Eocene Green River Forma-
tion (Utah, USA) estimating an average 21 630-year time scale
for the cycles, and pointing to the precession of the equinoxes as
a potential cause. Milankovitch (1941) was the rst to attempt
a quantitative correlation between astronomically calculated
insolation minima and Late Quaternary Ice Age deposits of the
Alps. However, later radiocarbon studies of glaciation timings
in North America did not clearly corroborate Milankovitchs
insolation calculations, and the orbital theory fell into disfavor
(see the review in Imbrie and Imbrie, 1979; see also the update
in Broecker and Denton, 1989).
At the same time, signicant progress was made in un-
derstanding the origins of the prevalent rhythmic stratica-
tion of Mesozoic Alpine limestones (e.g. Schwarzacher, 1947,
1954). This research culminated in the seminal work of Fis-
cher (1964), who found that the meter-scale beds (the Lofer
cyclothems) of the Triassic Dachstein Limestone contained
vertically repeating facies indicative of shallow marine envi-
ronments exposed to oscillating sea levels, with an 40 kyr
timing. However, glaciations were unknown for the Triassic,
raising doubts about the mechanisms by which such sea-level
oscillations could have occurred; the origin of the Lofer cy-
clothems continues to be debated today (e.g. Schwarzacher,
1993; Enos and Samankassou, 1998).
It was not until investigation of the Late Quaternary deep-
sea sedimentary record was undertaken that Milankovitchs
theory of climate change was rmly validated. Emiliani (1955,
1966) explained oxygen isotope fractionation in marine calcare-
ous microfauna as a function of ocean temperature and salinity;
subsequently, Dansgaard and Tauber (1969) demonstrated that
60 PA RT I I C O N C E P T S A N D M E T H O D S

24 signal, now encompassing the entire Brunhes chron (from 0 to

22
41 0.78 Ma), was present in all of the major oceans (Imbrie et al.,
19
39
1984). Finally, calibration of this proxy for global ocean volume
2400 404 98 54
128 to geological evidence for large sea-level changes (Chappell
25 17 and Shackleton, 1986) established, albeit indirectly, the con-
Insolation (W/m2)

20
90N
nection between the Quaternary Ice Ages and Milankovitch
15
60N cycles. Later research into polar ice stratigraphy uncovered
10
30N other isotope signals with strong orbital frequencies, provid-
5

)
0

e (
0 ing additional, overwhelming support for the orbital forcing

itud
30S
0.0 theory (Petit et al., 1999).

Lat
0.01 0.02 60S
0.03 0.04 These milestone studies touched off multiple initiatives
Frequen
cy (Cyc 0.05 0.06 90S
les/kyr) 0.07 0.08
(a) to search for orbital cycles in stratigraphy back through geo-
404 128 98 24
22 logic time using isotopes as well as other climate proxies, in-
25 19
17 cluding facies stratigraphy, percent carbonate, biogenic silica,
Insolation (W/m2)

20
90N magnetic susceptibility, wireline logs, and grayscale scans (see
15
60N Table 4.2). Continental PlioPleistocene sediments recovered
10
30N
5 from Lake Baikal revealed a strong biogenic silica signal closely
)
e (

0
0 mimicking that of the marine isotope record (Williams et al.,
itud

30S
0.0 1997; Prokopenko et al., 2001). Additional deep-sea drilling
Lat

0.01 0.02 60S

Frequen0.03 0.04 0.05
(b) cy (Cyc 90S
les/kyr) 0.06 0.07
0.08
Figure 4.4 Frequency distribution of inter-annual insolation
(Laskar, 1990) over 05 million years ago, sampled at 1-kyr intervals
and displayed as amplitude spectra with respect to geographic
latitude. (a) Daily mean insolation on June 21 (solstice). Latitudes
south of 66 S receive no insolation on this day. Maximum daily
insolation occurs in the northern polar region, which experiences
24-hour exposure. The phase of the eccentricity and obliquity
remains constant at all latitudes; for the precession phase shifts
progressively from 0 to 180 from month to month (not depicted).
(b) Daily mean insolation on March 21 (equinox). Insolation
strength is a function of local solar altitude, highest at the Equator
on this day of equal-time exposure everywhere. Contributions from
the obliquity variation are absent. The phase of the eccentricity is
constant at all latitudes; for the precession phase shifts progressively
from 0 to 180 from pole to pole (not depicted). (Additional notes:
(i) Insolation for the December 21 solstice similar to a, but with
reversed latitudes; and the September 21 equinox is practically
identical to b. (ii) The precession component of variation in a is at all
locations 90 out of phase with the precession component in b.
Additional examples are given in Berger et al., 1993.)
the majority of changes in the marine oxygen isotope fraction-
ation were linked to ocean volume. This result was followed by
the landmark study of Hays et al. (1976) in which the oxygen
isotope record was quantitatively linked to the Milankovitch
cycles. Bolstered by the advent of global paleomagnetic stratig-
raphy, it was subsequently discovered that the same isotope
yielded a continuous oxygen isotope signal spanning 06 Ma
(Shackleton, 1995), and today, there is near-continuous Mi-
lankovitch coverage back through the Eocene from combina-
tions of various marine climate proxies from both deep-sea
drilling and outcrop studies (see Chapters 20 and 21). Evidence
for orbital forcing has also been found in Cretaceous pelagic
stratigraphy (see Chapter 19) and in Jurassic formations (see
Chapter 18). The thick Upper Triassic continental lacustrine
deposits of eastern North America contain a nearly perfect
eccentricity signal that modulates facies successions linked to
wettingdrying climate cycles at precessional time scales (see
Chapter 17). It should be noted that cycle stratigraphy much
older than 20 Ma may never successfully be correlated di-
rectly to the orbital cycles, but only indirectly though compar-
ison of average signal characteristics between data and orbital
theory.
For geologic times prior to the Late Triassic, evidence for
orbitally forced stratigraphy is less clear. One reason is that
pre-Jurassic oceanic sediments are not composed of the abun-
dant, continuous rain of pelagic oozes as are post-Jurassic
ones. Therefore research has focused largely on the more
prolic shallow-marine record, for which the primary evi-
dence of Milankovitch forcing is systematic interruption
rather than a continuous recording (Fischer, 1995). Deni-
tive evidence for orbital signals in the Paleozoic is still weaker.
The Permian Castile Formation, a marine evaporite sequence,
shows a strong, but apparently short-lived Milankovitch signal
(Anderson, 1982). The spectacular shelf carbonate cycles

Table 4.2 Commonly measured sedimentary parameters that have been linked to orbitally forced climate change, and inferred
climate conditions
Sedimentary parameter
EXTRINSICa Oxygen isotopes
(independent of Carbon isotopes
sedimentation rate) Clay assemblages
Microfossil assemblages
INTRINSICb Percent CaCO3 , Si, Corg
(directly related to Magnetic susceptibility
and/or inuenced by Microfossil abundance
sedimentation rate) Clay/dust abundance
Lithofacies
Sediment color
Grain size
a Extrinsic parameters vary independently from sediment supply.
b Intrinsic parameters are directly related to sediment supply, and their signals tend to be more dramatically inuenced (distorted) by changes in sedimentation
rate (Herbert, 1994).
of the Pennsylvanian Paradox Basin (Utah, USA) indicate
high-frequency sea-level oscillations with some orbital sig-
nal characteristics (Goldhammer et al., 1994). The clas-
sic transgressiveregressive cyclothems of mid-continental
USA (e.g. Heckel, 1986) and the rhythmic Mississippian
hemipelagic limestones of Ireland (Schwarzacher, 1993) appear
to express the dominant 404-kyr eccentricity cycle. There are
at present only a few reports of orbital-scale cycles in Devonian
formations (e.g. Elrick, 1995; Yang et al., 1995; Bai, 1995; Crick
et al., 2001) and fewer still for the Silurian (Crick et al., 2001;
Nestor et al., 2001). The thick CambrianOrdovician cyclic
carbonate banks found world-wide, on the other hand, show
some evidence of Milankovitch forcing (Bond et al., 1991;
Bazykin and Hinnov, 2002); however, the origins of the vast
majority of these high-frequency eustatic signal proxies remain
uninvestigated (e.g. Osleger, 1995).
4 . 5 E S T I M AT I N G O R B I TA L
C H RO N O L O G I E S
Early on, the time predictability of the Earths orbital pa-
rameters led to the practice of using orbitally forced cycle
stratigraphy as a high-resolution geochronometer. While this
application had already been considered by Gilbert (1895) and
Barrell (1917), it was Milankovitch (1941) who rst calibrated
theoretical orbital insolation directly to the geologic record,
adjusting approximately known ages of the Late Quaternary
Alpine Ice Ages to the insolation minima of his calculated
Earths orbital parameters and cycle stratigraphy 61
Associated climate conditions
Temperature/salinity/precipitation/eustasy
Productivity/C-sequestration/redox conditions Surface
hydrology
Salinity/temperature
Productivity
Sedimentation rate
Productivity
Surface hydrology/atmospheric circulation
Depositional environment
Productivity/redox conditions
Erosion intensity/hydrodynamics
curves. The most signicant advances in orbital chronology
took place during the latter half of the twentieth century with
the development of a high-resolution global marine oxygen iso-
tope stratigraphy and magnetostratigraphy for the Pleistocene
Epoch (see the review in Kent, 1999).
True orbital time calibration is possible only for cycle
stratigraphy that can be connected to the canonical orbital
variations, i.e. those quantitatively predicted by orbital the-
ory. In GTS2004, this involves cycle stratigraphy back to the
MioceneOligocene boundary only (023.03 Ma). Calibration
of a sequence of cyclic strata begins with the assumption of
a target orbital curve. This may take the form of an orbitally
forced insolation signal, which most likely affected climate and
was subsequently recorded by sedimentation (e.g. the 65 N
summer insolation), or it can be as simple as the sum of the
standardized orbital parameters (e.g. the ETP curve of Imbrie
et al., 1984). This initial assumption, however, introduces a
basic source of error, because the true nature of the orbital
forcing of the sediment is not known exactly. To account for
this, Hilgen et al. (2000a), for example, calibrated (tuned)
their Miocene marlclay deep-sea cycles to two possible target
curves, the 65 N summer insolation and the precession index,
correlating the mid points of the marls to the centers of the
insolation maxima and precession minima. These two calibra-
tions produced chronologies that differed from cycle to cycle
by several thousand years; this was taken as a fair represen-
tation of the uncertainty of the chronology. Questions remain
about which model produces the most accurate orbital cycles
62 PA RT I I C O N C E P T S A N D M E T H O D S

back through time, insofar as contributions from Earths tidal

20 dissipation and dynamical ellipticity have been only partially
Precession (%)

explored and only in PlioPleistocene data (see further dis-

15 cussion in Chapter 21 relating to potential timing errors in
ATNTS2004).
10 Floating orbital time scales (i.e. time scales that are discon-
nected from canonical orbital variations) are based upon the as-
5 sumption that frequency components observed in cycle stratig-
raphy can be related to one or several frequencies predicted
(a) 0 by orbital theory. This requires an additional, provisional as-
sumption that planetary motions were stable back to the geo-
Obliquity (%)

15 logical time represented by the data, and that current models of

10
5 remains largely untested for times prior to the Oligocene, al-
0 between Earths data and the current orbital models appear to
(b) 0 20 40 60 80
No. cycles counted
Figure 4.5 Estimated error in measuring time in using orbitally
forced cycle stratigraphy when assuming that each cycle represents
a duration equal to the average period of the orbital parameter that
forced its formation (the metronome approach discussed in
Herbert et al., 1995). (a) Precession index (average period 21 kyr),
(b) obliquity variation (average period 41 kyr). The curves indicate
substantial reductions in potential error for longer time
measurements over extended numbers of sequential cycles. The
gray envelopes indicate the dispersion (1-sigma level) of this error to
account for the high quasi-periodicity of these two orbital
parameters (based upon La93(0,1) ) over short time spans.
tidal dissipation and dynamical ellipticity which predict pro-
gressively shorter orbital periodicities back through time (e.g.
Berger et al., 1992) are accurate. This assumption, however,
though some studies have shown that numerous key similarities
100 have existed during geological times as remote as the Triassic
(e.g. Olsen and Kent, 1999). Herbert et al. (1995) suggested
that in some cases it may be possible to lock on to individual
frequency components of the precession, for example, to obtain
high-resolution orbitally calibrated time scales. Such calibra-
tions are typically limited to counting stratigraphic cycles by
visual inspection and assume an average orbital cycle period,
e.g. 21 kyr for precession, for each cycle. Nevertheless, even
this approach, if conducted on perfectly recorded sequences
of orbitally forced cycles, can result in highly accurate oating
time scales (Fig. 4.5), with uncertainties at only a few percent
for only a few tens of cycles counted.
5 The geomagnetic polarity time scale
. . . .
The patterns of marine magnetic anomalies for the Late Cretaceous
through Neogene (C-sequence) and Late Jurassic through Early Cre-
taceous (M-sequence) have been calibrated by magnetostratigraphic
studies to biostratigraphy, cyclostratigraphy, and a few radiometri-
cally dated levels. The geomagnetic polarity time scale for the past
160 myr has been constructed by tting these constraints and a
selected model for spreading rates. The status of the geomagnetic
polarity time scale for each geological period is summarized in
Chapters 1122 as appropriate.
5.1 PRINCIPLES
5.1.1 Magnetic eld reversals and
magnetostratigraphy
The principal goal of magnetostratigraphy is to document and
calibrate the global geomagnetic polarity sequence in strati-
ed rocks and to apply this geomagnetic polarity time scale for
high-resolution correlation of marine magnetic anomalies and
of polarity zones in other sections. The basis of magnetostratig-
raphy is the retention by rocks of a magnetic imprint acquired
in the geomagnetic eld that existed when the sedimentary
rock was deposited or the igneous rock underwent cooling. The
imprint most useful for paleomagnetic directions and magne-
tostratigraphy is recorded by particles of iron oxide minerals.
Most of the material in this chapter is updated from sum-
maries in Harland et al. (1990) and Ogg (1995). Excellent
reviews are given in Opdyke and Channell (1996) for mag-
netostratigraphy and McElhinny and McFadden (2000) for
general paleomagnetism.
A dynamo capable of generating a magnetic eld appears
to be a general property of planets and stars that possess a rel-
atively large electrically conducting region that is rotating and
convecting (Merrill et al., 1996). Fluid motions in the Earths
outer core generate a global magnetic eld that approximates
a dipole eld. This dipole has an irregular drift or secular
A Geologic Time Scale 2004, eds. Felix M. Gradstein, James G. Ogg, and Alan
G. Smith. Published by Cambridge University Press.
c F. M. Gradstein,
J. G. Ogg, and A. G. Smith 2004.
63
variation about the Earths rotational axis such that the time-
averaged eld of about 10 000 years roughly coincides with the
Earths rotational poles. For reasons that are still not well un-
derstood, at irregular times the currents owing in the core
reverse their direction, producing a reversal in the polarity of
the dipole magnetic eld.
By convention, in paleomagnetism, present-day polarity is
normal: lines of magnetic force at the Earths surface are di-
rected in toward the North magnetic pole and the N-seeking
pole of a compass-needle points North (its declination). The in-
clination of the magnetic eld dips progressively steeper down-
ward with increasing latitude in the northern hemisphere and
dips upward in the southern hemisphere. When the polarity is
reversed, the lines of force are directed in the opposite direction
and a compass needle would point to the South. The sign of
the inclination is then reversed in both hemispheres.
Reversals of the polarity of the main geomagnetic dipole
eld are geologically rapid events, typically less than 5000 years
in duration, which occur at random intervals. The average fre-
quency of geomagnetic reversals during the Cenozoic is about
two or three per million years; and the most recent reversal was
about 780 000 years ago. To a good approximation, geomag-
netic reversals reect a random process with durations inde-
pendent of previous polarity changes. The lengths of polarity
intervals vary from as little as 30 kyr to several tens of millions
of years. Because polarity reversals are potentially recorded si-
multaneously in rocks all over the world, these magnetostrati-
graphic divisions, unlike lithostratigraphic and biostrati-
graphic divisions, are not time-transgressive. Thus, the pattern
of polarity reversals provides a unique global bar-code for
correlating polarity reversals recorded in rock strata, a usage
rst suggested by Khramov (1958). Therefore, magnetostratig-
raphy enables the correlation of rock strata among diverse de-
positional and faunal realms and the assignment of geologic
ages to anomalies of marine magnetic intensities. Considering
that the polarity reversal transition spans only about 5000 years,
then paleomagnetic correlation is the most precise method
available for global correlation in virtually all stratied rocks
of all ages, but only directly at the recorded reversal boundary.
64 PA RT I I C O N C E P T S A N D M E T H O D S

In practice, secondary magnetizations are acquired by sedi- Polarity

ments or lavas upon compaction, lithication, diagenesis, long- Notation Observations Declination
term exposure to other magnetic eld directions, and other Normal

N
S 180

90
Classification Reversed
processes. Therefore, various methods of demagnetization are

0
Transition
required to separate the later secondary components from the
primary magnetization directions, if such an unambiguous

Transition
resolution is possible.

zone
Marine magnetic anomalies are produced when oceanic

Normal polarity chron

crust cools, and are typically observed by shipboard magne-
tometers as an enhanced magnetic eld intensity over normal-
polarity anomalies and a partially cancelled magnetic eld
intensity over reversed-polarity anomalies. The correlation of 1

Excursion
the patterns of these marine magnetic anomalies was the initial
evidence for the theory of seaoor spreading, which was later
veried by drilling and dating of the oceanic basalt crust.

105 years
The geomagnetic polarity time scale is constructed from
paleomagnetic analyses of various sedimentary sections having
detailed biostratigraphy and by correlations to marine mag- 2

Reversed polarity chron

netic anomaly patterns. For Late Jurassic to Recent strata, the

Transition
subchron
Normal
ocean-oor magnetic anomalies with their calibrations to bio-

zone
3
stratigraphy serve as a template against which the polarity re-
versals in stratigraphic sections, either on land or in deep-sea
or other cores, can be identied. It is essential to have some bio-
stratigraphic constraints on the polarity zone pattern resolved 4
Time

from any given section in order to propose a non-ambiguous

correlation to the reference geomagnetic polarity time scale.

5.1.2 Polarity intervals, zones, and chrons

The time interval that elapses between two successive rever-

sals in the polarity of the geomagnetic dynamo is generally
referred to as a polarity interval (Cox, 1968); it describes a phys-
ical phenomenon, not a chronostratigraphic unit. This usage
accords with the statement in the International Stratigraphic
Guide that interval may refer to either time or space inter-
vals and therefore should be used as a general term and not as
a formal stratigraphic unit or division (Hedberg, 1976, p. 15).
Polarity chrons are intervals of geological time having a con-
stant magnetic eld polarity delimited by reversals (Interna-
tional Subcommission on Stratigraphic Classication, 1979).
A polarity zone is the corresponding interval in a stratigraphic
section deposited during the polarity chron. The chron or zone
is called normal if the geomagnetic eld orientation is similar
to the present dipole polarity, and reversed if it is opposite
in orientation (Fig. 5.1). Some publications refer to a polarity
chron as merely a chron. Although chron in the Inter-
national Stratigraphic Guide designates a formal subdivision of
a geological stage (e.g. Planula Chron within the Oxfordian
Stage), it is usually clear from the context whether a chron
Figure 5.1 Polarity chrons, polarity subchrons, transition zones,
and excursions from Harland et al., 1982, their Fig. 4.1.
refers to a magnetic polarity interval. Possible ambiguities can
be avoided by retaining the prex polarity.
A hierarchical system for grouping polarity intervals to-
gether for successively longer time intervals (International
Subcommission on Stratigraphic Classication, 1979) was
modied by McElhinny and McFadden (2000) and further
modied here (Table 5.1). Cande and Kent (1992b) suggest
that anomalies with a time span of <30 kyr should be named
cryptochrons, which makes redundant the rarely used term
of microchron. However, the distinction between chron,
subchron, or cryptochron varies signicantly among
workers, including the current chronsubchron designations
for subdivisions of the Cenozoic C-sequence geomagnetic po-
larity time scale (e.g. Cande and Kent, 1992a; our Table 5.2).
In the course of paleomagnetic research, each new dis-
covery of a short polarity interval changes the local polarity

Table 5.1 Suggested hierarchical scheme for magnetostratigraphic
(rock) and polarity chron (time) units a
Magnetostratigraphic Geochronologic
polarity units unit (time Approximate
(rock record) equivalent) duration (year)
Polarity megazone Megachron 108 109
Polarity superzone Superchron 107 108
Polarity zone Chron 106 107
Polarity subzone Subchron 105 106
Polarity cryptozone Cryptochron <3104
a Modied from McElhinny and McFadden, 2000, their Table 4.3.
structure. This may be seen in Fig. 5.1, where prior to the
discovery of the short polarity interval labeled 3 , only one re-
versed interval would have been recognized spanning the inter-
vals 2 , 3 , and 4 . Therefore in naming or numbering polarity
intervals for stratigraphic purposes, a hierarchical set of names
is needed that does not change drastically with the discovery
of additional short polarity intervals. Figure 5.1 demonstrates
that a scheme of simply numbering polarity intervals in the
sequence of their occurrence does not provide such a system.
5.1.3 Events, excursions, magnetic anomaly wiggles,
and cryptochrons
Magnetostratigraphic studies commonly reveal short-lived
polarity reversals of unknown extent or duration. These are
referred to by the informal term event. Events have several
origins; among them are excursions of the geomagnetic eld,
paleointensity variations, and short-lived polarity reversals.
Even when the dipole eld has a steady polarity, it under-
goes swings in direction with typical amplitudes of 15 and
periods of 102 104 years. This geomagnetic secular variation is
generally too small to be mistaken for the 180 changes in eld
direction that characterize polarity reversals. Occasionally the
eld appears to undergo an excursion characterized by a large
change in direction that may approach 180 . Since excursions
are thought to have durations of about 1000 years, they offer
the potential of providing very precise, but rarely observable,
stratigraphic markers. At least eight excursions have been iden-
tied in the past 0.78 myr, making it likely that they are a
common feature of the eld.
Detailed studies of magnetic anomalies from fast-spreading
ridges show several tiny wiggles that clearly reect changes
in the paleomagnetic eld (Cande and Kent, 1992a,b). Larger
amplitude wiggles are probably subchrons representing short-
lived eld reversals, some of which are known independently
from magnetostratigraphic studies. However, most of the small
The geomagnetic polarity time scale 65
amplitude wiggles are not known from magnetostratigraphic
work. As noted above, anomalies with a time span of <30 kyr
are named cryptochrons. Cande and Kent (1992a) suggest that
anomalies with a time span of >30 kyr are well characterized
and are probably true polarity reversals. Those with a duration
of <30 kyr could be either very short-lived polarity reversals,
longer period variations in the intensity of the eld, or geo-
magnetic eld excursions (Cande and Kent, 1992b).
5 . 2 L AT E C R E TAC E O U S C E N O Z O I C
G E O M AG N E T I C P O L A R I T Y T I M E S C A L E
5.2.1 C-sequence of marine magnetic anomalies
and associated chron nomenclature
The four youngest polarity chrons Brunhes, Matuyama,
Gauss, and Gilbert span the past 6 myr, and are named
for the scientists who were important in founding the eld
of geomagnetism. The existence of these polarity chrons was
established largely through dating lava ows on land. After
the discovery of ocean-oor spreading, the marine magnetic
anomaly sequence of a long traverse in the South Atlantic was
taken as a marine standard for the polarity pattern spanning
the latest Cretaceous through Cenozoic. The anomalies of this
Cenozoic or C-sequence were numbered from 1 to 34 (old-
est). Renements of this C-sequence led to insertion of many
additional anomalies with a complex letternumber system,
and the deletion of anomaly 14.
The corresponding pair of polarity chrons (time) and po-
larity zones (stratigraphy) are prefaced by the letter C for
Cenozoic before the named magnetic anomaly, with a sufx
n denoting the younger normal polarity interval or r denoting
the older reversed polarity interval, for instance Chron C15r
(e.g. Tauxe et al., 1984; Cande and Kent, 1992a). When a major
numbered polarity chron is further subdivided, the resulting
subchrons are denoted by a sufx of a corresponding num-
bered polarity chron. For example, C8n.2n is the second-
oldest normal-polarity subchron comprising normal-polarity
Chron C8n. For the younger part of the time scale (Pliocene
Pleistocene), the traditional names are often used to refer to
the chrons and subchrons (e.g. Brunhes = C1n, Matuyama =
C1r, Jaramillo subchron = C1r.1n, etc.).
Cryptochrons are designated by appending to a chron
or subchron name the designation of -1 (youngest), -2
(next older), etc. For example, the youngest cryptochron, the
Emperor cryptochron, is in C1n and designated C1n-1.
The relative timing (position) of an event (level) within a
polarity chron (zone) is dened as the relative position in time
or distance between the younger and older chronal boundaries
66 PA RT I I C O N C E P T S A N D M E T H O D S

Table 5.2 C-sequence marine magnetic anomaly distances and age calibration a

Distance (km) from South

Geologic time scale Atlantic spreading center Age calibration (orbital
(CK92) tuning or spline t)
Age of top
Period, of stage Young Old Width Top Base Duration
Epoch (stage) (Ma) Polarity chron end end (km) Ma Ma (myr) Comments

NEOGENE
HOLOCENE 0.00
PLEISTOCENE 11.5 ka C1 C1n 0.00 12.14 12.14 0 0.781 0.781
(Brunhes)
Middle 0.126 C1r.1r 12.14 15.37 3.23 0.781 0.988 0.207
(Matuyama)
Early 0.78 C1r.1n 15.37 16.39 1.02 0.988 1.072 0.084 Base of Middle
(Jaramillo) Pleistocene =
base of Brunhes
Chron
C1r.2r 1.072 1.173 0.101
C1r.2n 1.173 1.185 0.012 Cobb Mountain
(Cobb cryptochron is
Mountain) within early part
of Matuyama
(C1r) Chron
C1r.3r 16.39 27.80 11.41 1.185 1.778 0.593
C2 C2n 27.80 31.51 3.71 1.778 1.945 0.167
(Olduvai)

PLIOCENE 1.81
Late (Gelasian) C2r.1r 31.51 35.04 3.53 1.945 2.128 0.183
C2r.1n 35.04 35.57 0.53 2.128 2.148 0.020
(Reunion)
C2r.2r 35.57 41.75 6.18 2.148 2.581 0.433
(Matuyama)
C2A C2An.1n 41.75 49.44 7.69 2.581 3.032 0.451 Gauss Normal
(Gauss) Chron (C2An)
contains two
reversed
intervals
Kaena (2An.1r)
and Mammoth
(2An.2r)
(Piacenzian) 2.59
C2An.1r 49.44 50.70 1.26 3.032 3.116 0.084
(Kaena)
C2An.2n 50.70 52.31 1.61 3.116 3.207 0.091
C2An.2r 52.31 54.10 1.79 3.207 3.330 0.123
(Mam-
moth)
C2An.3n 54.10 58.03 3.93 3.330 3.596 0.266
(Gauss)
 The geomagnetic polarity time scale 67

Table 5.2 (cont.)

Distance (km) from South

Geologic time scale Atlantic spreading center Age calibration (orbital
(CK92) tuning or spline t)
Age of top
Period, of stage Young Old Width Top Base Duration
Epoch (stage) (Ma) Polarity chron end end (km) Ma Ma (myr) Comments

Early 3.60
(Zanclean)
C2Ar 58.03 66.44 8.41 3.596 4.187 0.591 Gilbert
(Gilbert) Reversed
Chron spans
Chrons C2Ar
through C3r
C3 C3n.1n 66.44 68.23 1.79 4.187 4.300 0.113
(Cochiti)
C3n.1r 68.23 70.56 2.33 4.300 4.493 0.193
C3n.2n 70.56 73.56 3.00 4.493 4.631 0.138
(Nunivak)
C3n.2r 73.56 76.76 3.20 4.631 4.799 0.168
C3n.3n 76.76 78.26 1.50 4.799 4.896 0.097
(Sidufjall)
C3n.3r 78.26 80.40 2.14 4.896 4.997 0.101
C3n.4n 80.40 84.68 4.28 4.997 5.235 0.238
(Thvera)
C3r 84.68 96.87 12.19 5.235 6.033 0.798
(Gilbert)

MIOCENE 5.33
Late C3A C3An.1n 96.87 101.42 4.55 6.033 6.252 0.219
(Messinian)
C3An.1r 101.42 103.92 2.50 6.252 6.436 0.184
C3An.2n 103.92 109.60 5.68 6.436 6.733 0.297
C3Ar 109.60 116.70 7.10 6.733 7.140 0.407
C3B C3Bn 116.70 119.74 3.04 7.140 7.212 0.072
C3Br.1r 119.74 120.62 0.88 7.212 7.251 0.039
(Tortonian) 7.25
C3Br.1n 120.62 121.30 0.68 7.251 7.285 0.034
C3Br.2r 121.30 124.68 3.38 7.285 7.454 0.169
C3Br.2n 124.68 125.35 0.67 7.454 7.489 0.035
C3Br.3r 125.35 126.48 1.13 7.489 7.528 0.039
C4 C4n.1n 126.48 129.08 2.60 7.528 7.642 0.114
C4n.1r 129.08 130.83 1.75 7.642 7.695 0.053
C4n.2n 130.83 139.37 8.54 7.695 8.108 0.413
C4r.1r 139.37 142.49 3.12 8.108 8.254 0.146
C4r.1n 142.49 143.15 0.66 8.254 8.300 0.046
C4r.2r 143.15 152.32 9.17 8.300 8.769 0.469
C4r.2r - 1 8.661 8.699 0.037 Cryptochron
within C4r.2r
C4A C4An 152.32 159.16 6.84 8.769 9.098 0.329
C4Ar.1r 159.16 163.49 4.33 9.098 9.312 0.214
C4Ar.1n 163.49 165.16 1.67 9.312 9.409 0.097
(cont.)
68 PA RT I I C O N C E P T S A N D M E T H O D S

Table 5.2 (cont.)

Distance (km) from South

Geologic time scale Atlantic spreading center Age calibration (orbital
(CK92) tuning or spline t)
Age of top
Period, of stage Young Old Width Top Base Duration
Epoch (stage) (Ma) Polarity chron end end (km) Ma Ma (myr) Comments

C4Ar.2r 165.16 171.00 5.84 9.409 9.656 0.247

C4Ar.2n 171.00 172.34 1.34 9.656 9.717 0.060
C4Ar.3r 172.34 174.47 2.13 9.717 9.779 0.063
C5 C5n.1n 174.47 177.49 3.02 9.779 9.934 0.155
C5n.1r 177.49 178.38 0.89 9.934 9.987 0.053
C5n.2n 178.38 201.13 22.75 9.987 11.040 1.053
C5r.1r 201.13 203.44 2.31 11.040 11.118 0.078
C5r.1n 203.44 204.51 1.07 11.118 11.154 0.036
C5r.2r 204.51 213.04 8.53 11.154 11.554 0.400
C5r.2r -1 11.267 11.298 0.031 Cryptochron
within C5r.2r
C5r.2n 213.04 214.28 1.24 11.554 11.614 0.060
Middle 11.60
(Serravallian)
C5r.3r 214.28 223.52 9.24 11.614 12.014 0.400
C5A C5An.1n 223.52 226.81 3.29 12.014 12.116 0.102
C5An.1r 226.81 229.23 2.42 12.116 12.207 0.091
C5An.2n 229.23 234.25 5.02 12.207 12.415 0.208
C5Ar.1r 234.25 240.65 6.40 12.415 12.730 0.315
C5Ar.1n 240.65 241.35 0.70 12.730 12.765 0.035
C5Ar.2r 241.35 242.90 1.55 12.765 12.820 0.055
C5Ar.2n 242.90 243.94 1.04 12.820 12.878 0.058
C5Ar.3r 243.94 247.92 3.98 12.878 13.015 0.137
C5AA C5AAn 247.92 251.38 3.46 13.015 13.183 0.168
C5AAr 251.38 255.19 3.81 13.183 13.369 0.186
C5AB C5ABn 255.19 260.03 4.84 13.369 13.605 0.236
C5ABr 260.03 264.53 4.50 13.605 13.734 0.129
(Langhian) 13.65
C5AC C5ACn 264.53 273.28 8.75 13.734 14.095 0.361
C5ACr 273.28 275.66 2.38 14.095 14.194 0.099
C5AD C5ADn 275.66 285.80 10.14 14.194 14.581 0.387
C5ADr 285.80 290.17 4.37 14.581 14.784 0.203
C5B C5Bn.1n 290.17 292.24 2.07 14.784 14.877 0.093
C5Bn.1r 292.24 295.63 3.39 14.877 15.032 0.155
C5Bn.2n 295.63 298.45 2.82 15.032 15.160 0.128
C5Br 298.45 318.39 19.94 15.160 15.974 0.814
Early 15.97 Base of
(Burdigalian) Langhian =
base of Chron
C5Br
C5C C5Cn.1n 318.39 324.87 6.48 15.974 16.268 0.293
C5Cn.1r 324.87 325.65 0.78 16.268 16.303 0.035
C5Cn.2n 325.65 329.38 3.73 16.303 16.472 0.169
C5Cn.2r 329.38 330.95 1.57 16.472 16.543 0.071
C5Cn.3n 330.95 334.88 3.93 16.543 16.721 0.178
C5Cr 334.88 347.64 12.76 16.721 17.235 0.514
 The geomagnetic polarity time scale 69

Table 5.2 (cont.)

Distance (km) from South

Geologic time scale Atlantic spreading center Age calibration (orbital
(CK92) tuning or spline t)
Age of top
Period, of stage Young Old Width Top Base Duration
Epoch (stage) (Ma) Polarity chron end end (km) Ma Ma (myr) Comments

C5D C5Dn 347.64 355.45 7.81 17.235 17.533 0.298

C5Dr 355.45 360.88 5.43 17.533 17.717 0.184
C5Dr.1n 360.88 361.55 0.68 17.717 17.740 0.023
C5Dr.2r 361.55 370.87 9.32 17.740 18.056 0.316
C5E C5En 370.87 382.45 11.58 18.056 18.524 0.468
C5Er 382.45 388.64 6.19 18.524 18.748 0.224
C6n 388.64 413.88 25.24 18.748 19.722 0.974
C6r 413.88 422.93 9.05 19.722 20.040 0.318
C6A C6An.1n 422.93 427.81 4.88 20.040 20.213 0.173
C6An.1r 427.81 434.18 6.37 20.213 20.439 0.226
(Aquitanian) 20.43
C6An.2n 434.18 441.85 7.67 20.439 20.709 0.270
C6Ar 441.85 452.46 10.61 20.709 21.083 0.374
C6AA C6AAn 452.46 454.63 2.17 21.083 21.159 0.076
C6AAr.1r 454.63 461.59 6.96 21.159 21.403 0.244
C6AAr.1n 461.59 463.92 2.33 21.403 21.483 0.080
C6AAr.2r 463.92 468.97 5.05 21.483 21.659 0.176
C6AAr.2n 468.97 469.79 0.82 21.659 21.688 0.029
C6AAr.3r 469.79 472.08 2.29 21.688 21.767 0.079
C6B C6Bn.1n 472.08 475.99 3.91 21.767 21.936 0.169
C6Bn.1r 475.99 477.29 1.30 21.936 21.992 0.056
C6Bn.2n 477.29 483.70 6.41 21.992 22.268 0.276
C6Br 483.70 490.61 6.91 22.268 22.564 0.296
C6C C6Cn.1n 490.61 495.05 4.44 22.564 22.754 0.190
C6Cn.1r 495.05 498.54 3.49 22.754 22.902 0.148
C6Cn.2n 498.54 501.55 3.01 22.902 23.030 0.128

PALEOGENE

OLIGOCENE 23.03 Base of Miocene

= base of Chron
C6Cn.2n
Late (Chattian) C6Cn.2r 501.55 506.47 4.92 23.030 23.249 0.219
C6Cn.3n 506.47 509.41 2.94 23.249 23.375 0.125
C6Cr 509.41 524.64 15.23 23.375 24.044 0.670
C7 C7n.1n 524.64 525.92 1.28 24.044 24.102 0.057
C7n.1r 525.92 527.29 1.37 24.102 24.163 0.061
C7n.2n 527.29 536.04 8.75 24.163 24.556 0.393
C7r 536.04 543.97 7.93 24.556 24.915 0.359
C7A C7An 543.97 547.82 3.85 24.915 25.091 0.175
C7Ar 547.82 552.30 4.48 25.091 25.295 0.204
C8 C8n.1n 552.30 555.55 3.25 25.295 25.444 0.149
C8n.1r 555.55 556.60 1.05 25.444 25.492 0.048
C8n.2n 556.60 571.04 14.44 25.492 26.154 0.662
C8r 571.04 583.30 12.26 26.154 26.714 0.561
(cont.)
70 PA RT I I C O N C E P T S A N D M E T H O D S

Table 5.2 (cont.)

Distance (km) from South

Geologic time scale Atlantic spreading center Age calibration (orbital
(CK92) tuning or spline t)
Age of top
Period, of stage Young Old Width Top Base Duration
Epoch (stage) (Ma) Polarity chron end end (km) Ma Ma (myr) Comments

C9 C9n 583.30 607.96 24.66 26.714 27.826 1.112

C9r 607.96 616.12 8.16 27.826 28.186 0.360
C10n.1n 616.12 622.16 6.04 28.186 28.450 0.264
Early 28.45 Base of Chattian
(Rupelian) assigned here as
base of Chron
C10n.1n
C10n.1r 622.16 623.90 1.74 28.450 28.525 0.075
C10n.2n 623.90 628.29 4.39 28.525 28.715 0.190
C10r 628.29 645.65 17.36 28.715 29.451 0.736
C11n.1n 645.65 652.56 6.91 29.451 29.740 0.288
C11n.1r 652.56 655.31 2.75 29.740 29.853 0.114
C11n.2n 655.31 664.15 8.84 29.853 30.217 0.364
C11r 664.15 674.26 10.11 30.217 30.627 0.409
C12n 674.26 686.50 12.24 30.627 31.116 0.489
C12r 686.50 742.63 56.13 31.116 33.266 2.150
C13 C13n 742.63 755.44 12.81 33.266 33.738 0.472
C13r 755.44 784.40 28.96 33.738 34.782 1.044

EOCENE 33.9 C14 does not

exist
Late C15 C15n 784.40 791.78 7.38 34.782 35.043 0.260
(Priabonian)
C15r 791.78 802.15 10.37 35.043 35.404 0.361
C16 C16n.1n 802.15 806.87 4.72 35.404 35.567 0.163
C16n.1r 806.87 810.93 4.06 35.567 35.707 0.140
C16n.2n 810.93 827.67 16.74 35.707 36.276 0.569
C16r 827.67 834.68 7.01 36.276 36.512 0.237
C17 C17n.1n 834.68 856.19 21.51 36.512 37.235 0.723
Middle 37.2 Base of
(Bartonian) Priabonian
assigned here as
base of Chron
C17n.1n
C17n.1r 856.19 859.46 3.27 37.235 37.345 0.110
C17n.2n 859.46 865.54 6.08 37.345 37.549 0.204
C17n.2r 865.54 867.33 1.79 37.549 37.610 0.060
C17n.3n 867.33 872.10 4.77 37.610 37.771 0.161
C17r 872.10 879.83 7.73 37.771 38.032 0.261
C18 C18n.1n 879.83 907.31 27.48 38.032 38.975 0.943
C18n.1r 907.31 909.21 1.90 38.975 39.041 0.066
C18n.2n 909.21 921.21 12.00 39.041 39.464 0.424
C18r 921.21 947.96 26.75 39.464 40.439 0.975
(cont.)
 The geomagnetic polarity time scale 71

Table 5.2 (cont.)

Distance (km) from South

Geologic time scale Atlantic spreading center Age calibration (orbital
(CK92) tuning or spline t)
Age of top
Period, of stage Young Old Width Top Base Duration
Epoch (stage) (Ma) Polarity chron end end (km) Ma Ma (myr) Comments

(Lutetian) 40.4 Base of

Bartonian
assigned here as
base of Chron
C18r
C19 C19n 947.96 954.12 6.16 40.439 40.671 0.232
C19r 954.12 977.65 23.53 40.671 41.590 0.918
C20 C20n 977.65 1006.06 28.41 41.590 42.774 1.185
C20r 1006.06 1060.24 54.18 42.774 45.346 2.571
C21 C21n 1060.24 1094.71 34.47 45.346 47.235 1.889
C21r 1094.71 1117.55 22.84 47.235 48.599 1.364
Early Eocene 48.6 Base of Lutetian
(Ypresian) assigned here as
base of Chron
C21r
C22 C22n 1117.55 1130.78 13.23 48.599 49.427 0.828
C22r 1130.78 1150.83 20.05 49.427 50.730 1.303
C23 C23n.1n 1150.83 1153.90 3.07 50.730 50.932 0.203
C23n.1r 1153.90 1155.75 1.85 50.932 51.057 0.125
C23n.2n 1155.75 1168.20 12.45 51.057 51.901 0.844
C23r 1168.20 1178.96 10.76 51.901 52.648 0.747
C24 C24n.1n 1178.96 1184.03 5.07 52.648 53.004 0.355
C24n.1r 1184.03 1185.61 1.58 53.004 53.116 0.112
C24n.2n 1185.61 1186.34 0.73 53.116 53.167 0.052
C24n.2r 1186.34 1188.05 1.71 53.167 53.286 0.119
C24n.3n 1188.05 1195.35 7.30 53.286 53.808 0.521
C24r 1195.35 1234.51 39.16 53.808 56.665 2.858

PALEOCENE 55.8 Base of Eocene

is 0.98 myr
above top of
C25n according
to cycle
stratigraphy
Late C25 C25n 1234.51 1241.50 6.99 56.665 57.180 0.515
(Thanetian)
C25r 1241.50 1257.81 16.31 57.180 58.379 1.199
C26 C26n 1257.81 1262.74 4.93 58.379 58.737 0.359
Selandian 58.7 Base of
Thanetian is
assigned as base
of Chron C26n,
as in Berggren
et al. (1995a)
C26r 1262.74 1303.81 41.07 58.737 61.650 2.913
72 PA RT I I C O N C E P T S A N D M E T H O D S

Table 5.2 (cont.)

Distance (km) from South

Geologic time scale Atlantic spreading center Age calibration (orbital
(CK92) tuning or spline t)
Age of top
Period, of stage Young Old Width Top Base Duration
Epoch (stage) (Ma) Polarity chron end end (km) Ma Ma (myr) Comments

Early 61.7 Base of Selandian

(Danian) assigned here as
Chron
C27n(0.9), as in
Berggren et al.
(1995a)
C27 C27n 1303.81 1308.70 4.89 61.650 61.983 0.333
C27r 1308.70 1325.71 17.01 61.983 63.104 1.121
C28 C28n 1325.71 1341.99 16.28 63.104 64.128 1.024
C28r 1341.99 1347.03 5.04 64.128 64.432 0.304
C29 C29n 1347.03 1358.66 11.63 64.432 65.118 0.685
C29r 1358.66 1371.84 13.18 65.118 65.861 0.743

CRETACEOUS

MAAS- 65.5 Mesozoic

TRICHTIAN Cenozoic
boundary event
is midway in
Chron C29r
Late C30 C30n 1371.84 1407.22 35.38 65.861 67.696 1.835 Ages of
pre-Cenozoic
portion of
C-sequence are
less well
constrained by
spreading models
C30r 1407.22 1409.56 2.34 67.696 67.809 0.113
C31 C31n 1409.56 1429.14 19.58 67.809 68.732 0.923 Base of Chron
C31n
constrained by
ArAr ages to
69.0 0.5 Ma
(2-sigma)
Early 69.3 C31r 1429.14 1481.12 51.98 68.732 70.961 2.229 Base of Chron
C31r constrained
by ArAr ages to
70.45 0.65
Ma (2-sigma)

CAMPANIAN 70.60 C32 C32n.1n 1481.12 1487.68 6.56 70.961 71.225 0.264
Late C32n.1r 1487.68 1493.94 6.26 71.225 71.474 0.249
C32n.2n 1493.94 1531.81 37.87 71.474 72.929 1.456
C32r.1r 1531.81 1539.94 8.13 72.929 73.231 0.301
C32r.1n 1539.94 1542.32 2.38 73.231 73.318 0.087
C32r.2r 1542.32 1549.41 7.09 73.318 73.577 0.259
 The geomagnetic polarity time scale 73

Table 5.2 (cont.)

Distance (km) from South

Geologic time scale Atlantic spreading center Age calibration (orbital
(CK92) tuning or spline t)
Age of top
Period, of stage Young Old Width Top Base Duration
Epoch (stage) (Ma) Polarity chron end end (km) Ma Ma (myr) Comments

Middle 76.4 C33 C33n 1549.41 1723.76 174.35 73.577 79.543 5.965 Base of C33n
constrained by
ArAr ages to
79.3 0.5 Ma
(2-sigma)
Early 80.8 C33r 1723.76 1862.32 138.56 79.543 84 4.457

SANTONIAN 83.50 C34 C34n 1862.32 84 Base of Chron

C33r is near the
top of Santonian
stage

a The Late Cretaceous through Neogene C-sequence of marine magnetic anomalies is a synthetic ow prole for the South Atlantic with relative distances from
the spreading axis as compiled by Cande and Kent (1992a). Distances are tabulated to two decimal points for preserving the relative widths of subchrons and
cryptochrons and for applying spreading-rate models, but the actual accuracy is much less tables of relative uncertainties on this anomaly series are in Cande
and Kent (1992a).
The age model for converting the marine magnetic anomaly pattern to absolute ages is a combination of astronomical orbital tuning and spreading-rate
model derived from a spline t to selected radiometric ages. Details and references for the assigned ages are given in Chapters 20 and 21. The associated geologic
time scale framework is derived from biostratigraphic correlations to C-sequence polarity chrons or independent ages obtained by astronomical or radiometric
dating of stage boundaries or zonal datums (see Chapters 20 and 21). Some Paleogene stage boundaries have not yet been dened by a GSSP or an accepted
primary marker, therefore they are assigned an age according to a possible placement with respect to the C-sequence time scale (see Chapter 20). The composite
biostratigraphic and geomagnetic polarity time scales for the Neogene, Paleogene, and Cretaceous are illustrated in Chapters 1921.

(system of Hallam et al., 1985, p. 126). In this proportional
stratigraphic convention, the location of the Cretaceous
Paleogene boundary at Gubbio (Alvarez et al., 1977) occurs
at C29r(0.75), indicating that 75% of reversed-polarity zone
C29r is below the boundary event. For clarity, the decimal
fraction is best placed after the polarity chron name enclosed
in parentheses (Cande and Kent, 1992a). It should be noted
that Cande and Kent (1992a) recommended an inverted strati-
graphic placement relative to present; therefore, C29r(0.3) in
their notation indicated that 30% of reversed-polarity Chron
C29r followed the event. Their suggested system mirrors the
convention of measuring geological time and the numbering of
magnetic anomalies backwards from the present.
5.2.2 Calibration and ages of the Late
CretaceousCenozoic geomagnetic polarity time scale
A composite C-sequence magnetic anomaly pattern for the
latest Cretaceous and Cenozoic was assembled by Cande and
Kent (1992a, 1995) from a composite of South Atlantic pro-
les with additional resolution from selected Pacic surveys.
An absolute age model for this synthetic CK92 magnetic
anomaly pattern was calculated by applying a cubic-spline t
to selected radiometric age controls (Cande and Kent, 1992a,b,
1995; Fig. 5.2). Berggren et al. (1995a) calibrated a vast array of
biostratigraphic and chronostratigraphic events to a revision
(CK95) of this geomagnetic polarity time scale to construct
a detailed Cenozoic chronostratigraphic time scale.
Potassiumargon ages of lava ows whose polarity was
known initially dated the youngest chrons, C1C3. This
method has been superseded by relating polarity reversals
to Milankovitch cycles, thereby yielding absolute orbital-
cycle ages with very high precision (see Chapters 20 and 21
for details). Cycle stratigraphy will eventually calibrate all the
C-sequence polarity chrons to the astronomical orbital time
scale and assign absolute durations to polarity chrons through-
out the Phanerozoic.
We have recalibrated the CK92 marine magnetic
anomaly pattern using an array of astronomical tuning, both
to the Neogene absolute-age orbital solution and to esti-
mated durations from Paleogene Milankovitch cycles, and a
suite of additional or revised radiometric age calibrations to
C-sequence polarity chrons (e.g. Tables 5.2, 20.2, 20.3 and
A2.1). The Late Cretaceous portion of the M-sequence is also
constrained by several radiometric ages (Hicks et al., 1995,
1999; Hicks and Obradovich, 1995). In the revised model of
74 PA RT I I C O N C E P T S A N D M E T H O D S
90
= Radiometric
age control 32
75
30
60 25
Age (Ma)
22
20
45
15 30 = selected
10 magnetic anomalies
30
6 Slower
5C
5A Spreading
15 5
3A rate
0 ported, especially within drilling cores of deep-sea sediments,
0 400 800 1200 1600
Distance (km)
Figure 5.2 Age calibration of Cenozoic through Campanian marine
magnetic anomaly pattern. Age versus relative distance from the
spreading axis of a synthetic ow prole for the South Atlantic as
compiled by Cande and Kent (1992a).
GTS2004, spreading rates along the synthetic South Atlantic
prole decelerated smoothly through the Campanian to Da-
nian to reach a minimum of about 13 km/myr at about 55 Ma
(Rohl et al., 2001), accelerated again through the Eocene to
an Oligocene plateau at about 25 km/myr, and progressively
slowed through the Neogene (Fig. 5.3). The apparent oscilla-
tions in spreading rates during the Oligocene may be artifacts
of the spline-tting methodology (see Chapter 8) combined
with the relatively young base-Miocene age (23.0 Ma) assigned
from cyclostratigraphy that requires an elevated spreading rate
in Early Miocene following a slower rate in Late Oligocene.
Similar to the procedure used by Berggren et al. (1995a),
the calibration of geological time scale boundaries and bios-
tratigraphic datums to this geomagnetic polarity time scale
generates the absolute time scale for the Paleogene and for
the early part of the Neogene. The geomagnetic polarity time
scale also constrains age estimates for the latest Cretaceous
(Campanian and Maastrichtian stages).
5 . 3 M I D D L E J U R A S S I C E A R LY
C R E TAC E O U S G E O M AG N E T I C
POLARITY TIME SCALE
5.3.1 M-sequence of marine magnetic anomalies
An extended 35 myr interval of normal polarity, the Cre-
taceous long normal-polarity Chron or polarity Superchron
C34n, extends from the Early Aptian to approximately the
SantonianCampanian boundary. Oceanic crust of late-Middle
Maastr.Camp.
33r Jurassic through earliest Aptian age displays a second series of
magnetic anomalies, which were named the M for Meso-
zoic series. The M-sequence for anomalies and correspond-
ing chrons of M0r through M25r was derived from a block
EocPaleoc.
model of the Hawaiian lineations by Larson and Hilde (1975)
and has undergone relatively minor renements (e.g. Tamaki
and Larson, 1988). To confuse nomenclature somewhat, the
M anomalies start at M0 (not M1) and the younger set of M1,
Oligo.
M2, M3, M4, M5 designate marine anomalies of alternating
polarity (Table 5.3).
Neogene
Faster
After the M-sequence was numbered, three events or clus-
ters of brief reversed-polarity excursions or subzones were re-
2000
from the AptianAlbian portion of Chron C34n. Ryan et al.
(1978) summarized these events and suggested an upward,
hence negative numbering continuation to the M-sequence
younger than polarity Chron M0r: (1) Chron M-1r in Late
Aptian, with an alternate designation as the ISEA event
(Tarduno, 1990); (2) Chron M-2r set of Middle Albian
events; and (3) Chron M-3r set in Late Albian. Further
details of this enigmatic negative-numbered set are given in
Chapter 19.
Additional marine magnetic surveys in the Pacic extended
the M-sequence (e.g. Cande et al., 1978; Handschumacher
et al., 1988; Sager et al., 1998). At the time of our writing, the
oldest numbered M-sequence anomaly is M41 of Bathonian
age (Table 5.3).
5.3.2 Constructing a composite M-sequence
Magnetostratigraphic studies in combination with constraints
from drilling of oceanic crust have calibrated much of the M-
sequence to ammonite and microfossil datums, and are summa-
rized in Chapters 18 and 19. We derived a geomagnetic polarity
time scale for this time interval using the same methodology
as was applied to the C-sequence (Cande and Kent, 1992a,
1995; Berggren et al., 1995). First, we compiled a synthetic
M-sequence prole that was scaled to a single spreading cen-
ter (the Hawaiian ridge in the Pacic). Second, we applied a
spreading-rate model constrained by cycle stratigraphy and a
suite of radiometric ages to this synthetic M-sequence prole to
construct an absolute age scale for the M-sequence anomalies
and associated chrons. Finally, we projected this geomagnetic
polarity time scale onto estimated calibrations of biostrati-
graphic datums and zonal boundaries to M-sequence chrons
to assign absolute ages to the Late JurassicEarly Cretaceous
subdivisions and events.

35
30
Spreading rate (km/myr)
25
20
15
Pleist.
Plio. Miocene Oligocene
10
0 10 20
Figure 5.3 Spreading history of the South Atlantic. Variation in
spreading rates (km/myr) for marine magnetic anomalies along a
synthetic ow prole for the South Atlantic. The dashed line is the
spreading model of Cande and Kent (1992a,b, 1995) to calibrate the
Late Cretaceous through recent magnetic polarity time scale. The
solid line is the GTS2004 estimates from Neogene and Paleocene
cycle-stratigraphy calibration of magnetic polarity chrons and
additional radiometric ages (Oligocene, Late Eocene,
MaastrichtianCampanian). A rapid slowing of spreading rates
A dearth of reliable high-resolution radiometric dates im-
plies that the estimated absolute time scale and duration of
ammonite zones for a disproportionately long interval of the
geologic time scale, the OxfordianBarremian stages, or about
35 myr, depends on the calibration of the M-sequence mag-
netic polarity time scale. Therefore, the details of this process
are elaborated below.
A N O M A L I E S M 0 R ( BA S E - A P T I A N ) T O M 2 5 N
( BA S E - K I M M E R I D G I A N )
The M-sequence pattern is best documented at the trio of ex-
panding spreading centers that created the current Pacic plate
(e.g. Larson and Hilde, 1975). Channell et al. (1995b) devel-
oped a composite scaling of marine magnetic anomaly block
models from approximately M0r through M29r from the in-
dividual Pacic spreading centers. This composite CENT
scaling is a more robust estimate of the M-sequence pattern
than the splicing of selected proles on the Hawaiian lineations
by Larson and Hilde (1975; Roger Larson, pers. comm. to Jim
Ogg, 1997). However, the CENT composite did not resolve
some of the ne-scale features in individual proles that are
The geomagnetic polarity time scale 75
GTS 2004
CandeKent
Eocene Paleocene Late Cretaceous
30 40 50 60 70 80
Age (Ma)
during Campanianmid-Paleocene, a major surge during
EarlyMiddle Eocene, and a progressive decline through the
Neogene is indicated by both the original model and later
independent estimates. The Neogene portion has been simplied,
because the combination of cycle-tuning of individual
short-duration polarity chrons and of uncertainties in the
corresponding magnetic anomaly widths in the South Atlantic
synthetic prole results in artifacts of spurious high-amplitude
oscillations in apparent spreading rates.
also documented by magnetostratigraphy and lacks adequate
resolution for anomalies older than approximately M22r. Fol-
lowing the CENT procedure, a series of synthetic kilometer-
distances were added to replicate the ne-scale structure of the
LarsonHilde block model for several intervals and for the re-
vised relative durations of subchrons in M11An observed from
magnetostratigraphic studies (Channell et al., 1995b, p. 60).
Anomalies from M22r through M25n were proportioned ac-
cording to the Hawaiian-lineation pattern of Larson and Hilde
(1975) into the base-M22r to base-M25n distance of the CENT
composite. The base of Chron M0r is the proposed GSSP pri-
mary marker of the Aptian Stage. For simplicity in computing
pre-M25 magnetic anomalies, the Hawaiian-lineation kilome-
ter scale of Channell et al. (1995b) was inverted to indicate
distances relative to the old end (base) of anomaly M0r (upper
portion of Table 5.3).
A N O M A L I E S M 2 5 R ( BA S E - K I M M E R I D G I A N )
T O M 4 1 ( BAT H O N I A N )
The continuation of the M-sequence into older oceanic crust
than M25n is best documented in the magnetic anomaly
76 PA RT I I C O N C E P T S A N D M E T H O D S

Table 5.3 M-sequence marine magnetic anomaly distances and age calibration a

Geologic time scale

Distance (km) from Age calibration
Age of (spreading-rate model)
Hawaiian spreading center
top of
Period, substage Young Old Width Top Base Duration
Stage, Substage (Ma) Polarity chron end end (km) Ma Ma (myr) Comments

Early
CRETACEOUS
ALBIAN 99.6
Middle 106.5 within M-3r 102 not known Not fully
C34n veried, and
may be multiple
excursions; age
is projected
from reported
coincidence with
foraminifera
Early 109.0 M-2r 108 not known Not fully
veried, and
may be multiple
excursions; age
is projected
from reported
coincidence with
foraminifera

APTIAN 112.0
Middle 115 M-1r, or 118.5 0.10 Age is projected
ISEA from reported
coincidence with
foraminifera
Early 121 M0 M0r 9.808 0.000 9.808 124.61 125.00 0.39 Duration of M0r
is 380 kyr from
cycle
stratigraphy

BARREMIAN 125.0 Base of Aptian =

Base of Chron
M0r
Late M1n 0.000 53.607 53.607 125.00 127.24 2.24 Duration of
Barremian stage
is 5 myr from
cycle
stratigraphy
M1 M1r 53.607 62.439 8.832 127.24 127.61 0.37
(or M1)
M3 M3n 62.439 74.613 12.174 127.61 128.11 0.51
(or M2,)
Early 128.3 M3r 74.613 114.185 39.572 128.11 129.76 1.65 Base of U.
(or M3) Barrem = upper
Chron M3r
M5 M5n 114.185 136.295 22.110 129.76 130.80 1.03
(or M4)
 The geomagnetic polarity time scale 77

Table 5.3 (cont.)

Geologic time scale

Distance (km) from Age calibration
Age of (spreading-rate model)
Hawaiian spreading center
top of
Period, substage Young Old Width Top Base Duration
Stage, Substage (Ma) Polarity chron end end (km) Ma Ma (myr) Comments

HAUTERIVIAN 130.0 Base of

Barremian
assigned here as
Chron M5n(0.8)
Late M5r (or 136.295 144.678 8.383 130.80 131.19 0.39 Duration of
M5) combined
Hauterivian and
Valanginian
stages are 11
myr from cycle
stratigraphy
M6 M6n 144.678 149.412 4.734 131.19 131.41 0.22
M6r 149.412 152.557 3.145 131.41 131.56 0.15
M7 M7n 152.557 158.782 6.225 131.56 131.85 0.29
M7r 158.782 166.232 7.450 131.85 132.20 0.35
M8 M8n 166.232 173.095 6.863 132.20 132.52 0.32
M8r 173.095 179.674 6.579 132.52 132.83 0.31
M9 M9n 179.674 186.405 6.731 132.83 133.14 0.31
M9r 186.405 194.062 7.657 133.14 133.50 0.36
Early 133.8 M10 M10n 194.062 202.040 7.978 133.50 133.87 0.37
M10r 202.040 211.178 9.138 133.87 134.30 0.43
M10N M10Nn.1n 211.178 218.137 6.959 134.30 134.62 0.33 The N of
M10N was in
recognition of
Fred Naugle by
Larson and
Hilde (1975)
M10Nn.1r 218.137 219.117 0.980 134.62 134.67 0.05
M10Nn.2n 219.117 225.737 6.620 134.67 134.98 0.31
M10Nn.2r 225.737 226.217 0.480 134.98 135.00 0.02
M10Nn.3n 226.217 232.213 5.996 135.00 135.28 0.28
M10Nr 232.213 240.878 8.665 135.28 135.69 0.40
M11 M11n 240.878 257.083 16.205 135.69 136.44 0.76

VALANGINIAN 136.4 Base of

Hauterivian
assigned here as
base of Chron
M11n
Late M11r.1r 257.083 262.217 5.134 136.44 136.68 0.24
M11r.1n 262.217 262.717 0.500 136.68 136.71 0.02
M11r.2r 262.717 266.946 4.229 136.71 136.90 0.19
M11A M11An.1n 266.946 277.897 10.951 136.90 137.39 0.49
M11An.1r 277.897 279.117 1.220 137.39 137.44 0.05
M11An.2n 279.117 280.817 1.700 137.44 137.51 0.07
M11Ar 280.817 282.787 1.970 137.51 137.60 0.09
(cont.)
78 PA RT I I C O N C E P T S A N D M E T H O D S

Table 5.3 (cont.)

Geologic time scale

Distance (km) from Age calibration
Age of (spreading-rate model)
Hawaiian spreading center
top of
Period, substage Young Old Width Top Base Duration
Stage, Substage (Ma) Polarity chron end end (km) Ma Ma (myr) Comments

M12 M12n 282.787 287.797 5.010 137.60 137.82 0.22

M12r.1r 287.797 306.148 18.351 137.82 138.56 0.74
M12r.1n 306.148 307.997 1.849 138.56 138.63 0.07
M12r.2r 307.997 311.677 3.680 138.63 138.78 0.15
M12A M12An 311.677 318.047 6.370 138.78 139.03 0.25
Early 139 M12Ar 318.047 320.247 2.200 139.03 139.12 0.09
M13 M13n 320.247 324.815 4.568 139.12 139.29 0.18
M13r 324.815 331.276 6.461 139.29 139.53 0.24
M14 M14n 331.276 338.168 6.892 139.53 139.77 0.24
M14r 338.168 356.584 18.416 139.77 140.36 0.59

BERRIASIAN 140.0 Base of

Valanginian
assigned here as
Chron
M14r(0.3)
Late M15n 356.584 366.264 9.680 140.36 140.66 0.29
M15 M15r 366.264 379.164 12.900 140.66 141.05 0.39
M16 M16n 379.164 412.472 33.308 141.05 142.06 1.01
Early 142.3 M16r 412.472 428.465 15.993 142.06 142.55 0.49
M17 M17n 428.465 437.933 9.468 142.55 142.84 0.29
M17r 437.933 477.493 39.560 142.84 144.04 1.20
M18 M18n 477.493 494.915 17.422 144.04 144.57 0.53
M18r 494.915 505.139 10.224 144.57 144.88 0.31
M19 M19n.1n 505.139 508.767 3.628 144.88 144.99 0.11
M19n.1r 508.767 511.217 2.450 144.99 145.06 0.07
M19n.2n 511.217 540.261 29.044 145.06 145.95 0.88

Late JURASSIC

TITHONIAN 145.5 Base of

Cretaceous (base
of Berriasian)
assigned here as
Chron
M19n.2n(0.55)
Late M19r 540.261 547.398 7.137 145.95 146.16 0.22
M20 M20n.1n 547.398 557.487 10.089 146.16 146.47 0.31
M20n.1r 557.487 559.197 1.710 146.47 146.52 0.05
M20n.2n 559.197 580.172 20.975 146.52 147.16 0.64
Early 147.2 M20r 580.172 600.286 20.114 147.16 147.77 0.61
M21 M21n 600.286 625.619 25.333 147.77 148.54 0.77
M21r 625.619 638.098 12.479 148.54 148.92 0.38
M22 M22n.1n 638.098 675.017 36.919 148.92 150.05 1.12
M22n.1r 675.017 676.237 1.220 150.05 150.08 0.04
M22n.2n 676.237 677.467 1.230 150.08 150.12 0.04
 The geomagnetic polarity time scale 79

Table 5.3 (cont.)

Geologic time scale

Distance (km) from Age calibration
Age of (spreading-rate model)
Hawaiian spreading center
top of
Period, substage Young Old Width Top Base Duration
Stage, Substage (Ma) Polarity chron end end (km) Ma Ma (myr) Comments

M22n.2r 677.467 678.677 1.210 150.12 150.16 0.04

M22n.3n 678.677 680.415 1.738 150.16 150.21 0.05
M22r 680.415 697.476 17.061 150.21 150.73 0.52
M22A M22An 697.476 701.268 3.792 150.73 150.84 0.12

KIMMERID- 150.8 Base of

GIAN Tithonian
assigned here as
base of Chron
M22An
M22Ar 701.268 706.577 5.309 150.84 151.01 0.16
M23n 706.577 717.448 10.871 151.01 151.34 0.33
M23 M23r.1r 717.448 725.791 8.343 151.34 151.62 0.28
M23r.1n 725.791 726.549 0.758 151.62 151.64 0.03
M23r.2r 726.549 745.004 18.455 151.64 152.26 0.62
M24 M24n 745.004 752.069 7.065 152.26 152.50 0.24
M24r.1r 752.069 765.735 13.666 152.50 152.96 0.46
M24r.1n 765.735 766.493 0.758 152.96 152.98 0.03
M24r.2r 766.493 772.561 6.067 152.98 153.18 0.20
M24A M24An 772.561 776.353 3.792 153.18 153.31 0.13
M24Ar 776.353 784.190 7.837 153.31 153.58 0.26
M24B M24Bn 784.190 794.808 10.618 153.58 153.93 0.36
M24Br 794.808 799.358 4.551 153.93 154.08 0.15
M25 M25n 799.358 807.954 8.596 154.08 154.37 0.29 Marine
magnetic
anomaly series
from M25n to
M27n are
rescaled from
Handschu-
macher et al.
(1988)
M25r 807.954 813.273 5.319 154.37 154.55 0.18

OXFORDIAN 154.6 Base of

(Tethyan) Kimmeridgian
(as used in
Tethyan
ammonite
stratigraphy)
assigned here as
base of Chron
M25r
Late M25A M25An.1n 813.273 816.818 3.545 154.55 154.67 0.12
M25An.1r 816.818 818.506 1.688 154.67 154.73 0.06
M25An.2n 818.506 820.870 2.364 154.73 154.81 0.08
(cont.)
80 PA RT I I C O N C E P T S A N D M E T H O D S

Table 5.3 (cont.)

Geologic time scale

Distance (km) from Age calibration
Age of (spreading-rate model)
Hawaiian spreading center
top of
Period, substage Young Old Width Top Base Duration
Stage, Substage (Ma) Polarity chron end end (km) Ma Ma (myr) Comments

M25An.2r 820.870 822.558 1.688 154.81 154.86 0.06

M25An.3n 822.558 825.766 3.208 154.86 154.97 0.11
M25Ar 825.766 828.129 2.364 154.97 155.05 0.08
M26 M26n.1n 828.129 830.493 2.364 155.05 155.13 0.08
M26n.1r 830.493 832.181 1.688 155.13 155.18 0.06
M26n.2n 832.181 833.869 1.688 155.18 155.24 0.06
M26n.2r 833.869 835.558 1.688 155.24 155.30 0.06 ODP Site 761
drilled on
middle of
anomaly M26n
yielded Ar/Ar
age of 155.3 Ma
( 3.4 myr;
1-sigma)
M26n.3n 835.558 837.246 1.688 155.30 155.35 0.06
M26n.3r 837.246 838.428 1.182 155.35 155.39 0.04
M26n.4n 838.428 842.648 4.221 155.39 155.54 0.14
Oxfordian 155.7 Base of
(Boreal) Kimmeridgian
(as used in
Boreal
ammonite
stratigraphy)
assigned here as
Chron
M26r(0.2)
M26r 842.648 847.713 5.065 155.54 155.71 0.17
M27 M27n 847.713 851.934 4.221 155.71 155.85 0.14
M27r 851.934 856.642 4.708 155.85 156.01 0.16 Marine
magnetic
anomaly series
from M27r to
M41r are
rescaled from
deep-tow survey
of Sager et al.
(1998) on
Japanese
lineations
M28 M28n 856.642 865.256 8.614 156.01 156.29 0.29
M28r 865.256 869.563 4.307 156.29 156.44 0.14
M28An 869.563 872.417 2.855 156.44 156.53 0.10
M28Ar 872.417 879.128 6.711 156.53 156.76 0.23
M28Bn 879.128 880.581 1.452 156.76 156.81 0.05
M28Br 880.581 883.085 2.504 156.81 156.89 0.08
M28Cn 883.085 886.140 3.055 156.89 156.99 0.10
 The geomagnetic polarity time scale 81

Table 5.3 (cont.)

Geologic time scale

Distance (km) from Age calibration
Age of (spreading-rate model)
Hawaiian spreading center
top of
Period, substage Young Old Width Top Base Duration
Stage, Substage (Ma) Polarity chron end end (km) Ma Ma (myr) Comments

M28Cr 886.140 888.744 2.604 156.99 157.08 0.09

M28Dn 888.744 891.048 2.304 157.08 157.16 0.08
M28Dr 891.048 894.203 3.155 157.16 157.26 0.11
M29 M29n.1n 894.203 898.660 4.457 157.26 157.41 0.15
Middle 157.40 M29n.1r 898.660 899.512 0.851 157.41 157.44 0.03
M29n.2n 899.512 901.415 1.903 157.44 157.51 0.06
M29r 901.415 908.176 6.761 157.51 157.73 0.23
M29An 908.176 909.578 1.402 157.73 157.78 0.05
M29Ar 909.578 911.481 1.903 157.78 157.84 0.06
M30 M30n 911.481 915.037 3.556 157.84 157.96 0.12
M30r 915.037 919.645 4.608 157.96 158.12 0.15
M30An 919.645 922.499 2.855 158.12 158.21 0.10
M30Ar 922.499 923.401 0.901 158.21 158.24 0.03
M31 M31n.1n 923.401 927.858 4.457 158.24 158.39 0.15
M31n.1r 927.858 930.212 2.354 158.39 158.47 0.08
M31n.2n 930.212 931.013 0.801 158.47 158.50 0.03
M31n.2r 931.013 932.215 1.202 158.50 158.54 0.04
M31n.3n 932.215 933.467 1.252 158.54 158.58 0.04
M31r 933.467 935.020 1.553 158.58 158.63 0.05
M32 M32n.1n 935.020 935.671 0.651 158.63 158.66 0.02
M32n.1r 935.671 936.522 0.851 158.66 158.68 0.03
M32n.2n 936.522 939.327 2.805 158.68 158.78 0.09
M32n.2r 939.327 940.829 1.502 158.78 158.83 0.05
M32n.3n 940.829 941.681 0.851 158.83 158.86 0.03
M32r 941.681 944.084 2.404 158.86 158.94 0.08
M33 M33n 944.084 952.598 8.514 158.94 159.22 0.29
M33r 952.598 956.405 3.806 159.22 159.35 0.13
M33An 956.405 958.658 2.254 159.35 159.43 0.08
M33Ar 958.658 960.662 2.003 159.43 159.49 0.07
Early 159.50 M33Bn 960.662 962.615 1.953 159.49 159.56 0.07
M33Br 962.615 965.870 3.255 159.56 159.67 0.11
M33Cn.1n 965.870 966.972 1.102 159.67 159.71 0.04
M33Cn.1r 966.972 968.474 1.502 159.71 159.76 0.05
M33Cn.2n 968.474 971.980 3.506 159.76 159.87 0.12
M33Cr 971.980 977.840 5.860 159.87 160.07 0.20
M34 M34n.1n 977.840 980.294 2.454 160.07 160.15 0.08
M34n.1r 980.294 982.347 2.053 160.15 160.22 0.07
M34n.2n 982.347 983.699 1.352 160.22 160.27 0.05
M34n.2r 983.699 984.801 1.102 160.27 160.30 0.04
M34n.3n 984.801 985.702 0.901 160.30 160.33 0.03
M34n.3r 985.702 987.155 1.452 160.33 160.38 0.05
M34An 987.155 987.806 0.651 160.38 160.40 0.02
M34Ar 987.806 991.812 4.007 160.40 160.54 0.13
M34Bn.1n 991.812 994.567 2.754 160.54 160.63 0.09
M34Bn.1r 994.567 995.619 1.052 160.63 160.67 0.04
M34Bn.2n 995.619 996.320 0.701 160.67 160.69 0.02
(cont.)
82 PA RT I I C O N C E P T S A N D M E T H O D S

Table 5.3 (cont.)

Geologic time scale

Distance (km) from Age calibration
Age of (spreading-rate model)
Hawaiian spreading center
top of
Period, substage Young Old Width Top Base Duration
Stage, Substage (Ma) Polarity chron end end (km) Ma Ma (myr) Comments

M34Br 996.320 997.572 1.252 160.69 160.73 0.04

M35 M35n 997.572 1000.076 2.504 160.73 160.82 0.08
M35r 1000.076 1005.385 5.309 160.82 160.99 0.18
M36 M36n.1n 1005.385 1008.490 3.105 160.99 161.10 0.10
M36n.1r 1008.490 1010.543 2.053 161.10 161.17 0.07
M36An 1010.543 1011.795 1.252 161.17 161.21 0.04

Middle
JURASSIC

CALLOVIAN 161.2 Base of Oxfordian

is assigned here as
base of Chron
M36An
Late M36Ar 1011.795 1012.396 0.601 161.21 161.23 0.02
M36Bn 1012.396 1013.247 0.851 161.23 161.26 0.03
M36Br 1013.247 1017.304 4.057 161.26 161.39 0.14
M36Cn 1017.304 1019.307 2.003 161.39 161.46 0.07
M36Cr 1019.307 1022.863 3.556 161.46 161.58 0.12
M37 M37n.1n 1022.863 1029.824 6.961 161.58 161.81 0.23
M37n.1r 1029.824 1033.130 3.305 161.81 161.92 0.11
M37n.2n 1033.130 1036.636 3.506 161.92 162.04 0.12
M37r 1036.636 1040.542 3.906 162.04 162.17 0.13
M38 M38n.1n 1040.542 1043.697 3.155 162.17 162.28 0.11
M38n.1r 1043.697 1045.300 1.603 162.28 162.33 0.05
M38n.2n 1045.300 1048.054 2.754 162.33 162.43 0.09
M38n.2r 1048.054 1049.106 1.052 162.43 162.46 0.04
Middle 162.5 M38n.3n 1049.106 1051.410 2.304 162.46 162.54 0.08
M38n.3r 1051.410 1054.465 3.055 162.54 162.64 0.10
M38n.4n 1054.465 1061.326 6.861 162.64 162.87 0.23
M38n.4r 1061.326 1063.229 1.903 162.87 162.93 0.06
M38n.5n 1063.229 1067.436 4.207 162.93 163.08 0.14
M38r 1067.436 1069.940 2.504 163.08 163.16 0.08
Early 163.2 M39 M39n.1n 1069.940 1074.497 4.557 163.16 163.31 0.15
M39n.1r 1074.497 1078.103 3.606 163.31 163.43 0.12
M39n.2n 1078.103 1081.559 3.456 163.43 163.55 0.12
M39n.2r 1081.559 1084.263 2.704 163.55 163.64 0.09
M39n.3n 1084.263 1088.070 3.806 163.64 163.77 0.13
M39n.3r 1088.070 1090.724 2.654 163.77 163.86 0.09
M39n.4n 1090.724 1097.235 6.511 163.86 164.07 0.22
M39n.4r 1097.235 1101.291 4.057 164.07 164.21 0.14
M39n.5n 1101.291 1103.996 2.704 164.21 164.30 0.09
M39n.5r 1103.996 1107.351 3.355 164.30 164.41 0.11
M39n.6n 1107.351 1109.755 2.404 164.41 164.49 0.08
M39n.6r 1109.755 1113.161 3.406 164.49 164.61 0.11
M39n.7n 1113.161 1115.164 2.003 164.61 164.68 0.07
M39n.7r 1115.164 1117.518 2.354 164.68 164.76 0.08
 The geomagnetic polarity time scale 83

Table 5.3 (cont.)

Geologic time scale

Distance (km) from Age calibration
Age of (spreading-rate model)
Hawaiian spreading center
top of
Period, substage Young Old Width Top Base Duration
Stage, Substage (Ma) Polarity chron end end (km) Ma Ma (myr) Comments

BATHONIAN 164.7 Base of

Callovian is from
proportional
scaling of
ammonite
subzones, and is
not yet tied to
magnetic
stratigraphy
Late M39n.8n 1117.518 1120.472 2.955 164.76 164.85 0.10
M39r 1120.472 1123.027 2.554 164.85 164.94 0.09
M40 M40n.1n 1123.027 1124.880 1.853 164.94 165.00 0.06
M40n.1r 1124.880 1126.983 2.103 165.00 165.07 0.07
M40n.2n 1126.983 1130.639 3.656 165.07 165.20 0.12
M40n.2r 1130.639 1132.091 1.452 165.20 165.24 0.05
M40n.3n 1132.091 1133.444 1.352 165.24 165.29 0.05
M40n.3r 1133.444 1136.799 3.355 165.29 165.40 0.11
M40n.4n 1136.799 1138.201 1.402 165.40 165.45 0.05
M40r 1138.201 1141.106 2.905 165.45 165.55 0.10
M41 M41n 1141.106 1143.009 1.903 165.55 165.61 0.06
Early 166.0 M41r
Interval to 1143.009 1183.075 40.065 165.61 166.95 1.34 ODP Site 801 is
ODP Site about 100 km
801 beyond M41r on
Japanese
lineations and
yielded an
ArAr age of
167.7 Ma (1.4
myr; 2-sigma)
BAJOCIAN 167.7 Base of Bajocian
is from
proportional
scaling of
ammonite
subzones, and is
not yet tied to
magnetic
stratigraphy

a The Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous M-sequence of marine magnetic anomalies is a synthetic ow prole for the Hawaiian spreading center of the Pacic.
Distances are tabulated to three decimal points for preserving the relative widths of subchrons and for applying spreading-rate models, but the actual accuracy
is much less.
The age model for converting the marine magnetic anomaly pattern to absolute ages is a combination of astronomical orbital tuning and a spreading-rate model
derived from selected radiometric ages. The associated geological time scale framework is derived from biostratigraphic correlations to M-sequence polarity
chrons. The composite biostratigraphic and geomagnetic polarity time scales for the Cretaceous and Jurassic are illustrated in Chapters 18 and 19.
84 PA RT I I C O N C E P T S A N D M E T H O D S
lineations created by the Japanese spreading center, which
were apparently formed at a more rapid spreading rate than
the Hawaiian set. These must be rescaled to t the Hawaiian
CENT model for the composite pattern. Cande et al. (1978)
identied a series of Jurassic magnetic anomalies in the western
Pacic and named these M26 through M29. Handschumacher
et al. (1988) modeled a complex series of magnetic anomalies
recorded by an aeromagnetic survey to rene the M26M29
pattern and to extend the M-sequence scale to M38. The
portion of their magnetic anomaly scale older than M27r
was further rened by later deep-tow magnetometer surveys,
and their general M25r through M27n pattern appears to
be supported by magnetostratigraphic studies in British and
French outcrops (e.g. Ogg and Coe, 1997). Therefore, the
succession from the base of M25n to the base of M27n of
Handschumacher et al. (1988) was proportionally scaled to
be consistent with the composite CENT model of the total
Hawaiian anomaly distance between these endpoints.
Sager et al. (1998) obtained a high-resolution deep-tow sur-
vey of the Japanese lineations older than M27n and proposed
both an enhanced subdivision of M27r through M29r of Hand-
schumacher et al. (1988) and extended the scale in a complex
pattern to M41. We proportionally scaled the widths of these
oldest Japanese lineations observed by Sager et al. (1998) to t
the Hawaiian lineation scale of Channell et al. (1995b) by com-
paring the kilometers between the middle of M27r and M29r.
This implies that the Japanese suite was formed at a spreading
rate of approximately 2.5 times faster than the Hawaiian suite.
Both the primary anomaly pattern from the deep-tow survey
and a computed upward-projection to the sea surface by Sager
et al. (1998) were transformed to Hawaiian-distances, but
only the deep-tow pattern is shown in Table 5.3. Of course,
this method of projecting pre-M29r marine magnetic anoma-
lies of the Japanese-kilometer block model onto the synthetic
Hawaiian-kilometer pattern implicitly assumes that there were
no relative changes in spreading rates between these ridges dur-
ing the formation of this pre-M29r crust.
The synthetic prole of the full suite of M-sequence ma-
rine magnetic anomalies scaled to the relative distances in the
Hawaiian lineation composite is given in Table 5.3.
5.3.3 Calibration and ages of the Middle
JurassicEarly Cretaceous geomagnetic
polarity time scale
AG E C O N S T R A I N T S O N M - S E Q U E N C E S C A L I N G
A spreading-rate model is required to transform the composite
Hawaiian anomaly distances to absolute ages. This spreading-
rate model is constrained by a very small set of radiometric
ages and by durations of clusters of polarity chrons derived
from cycle stratigraphy.
There are only three direct radiometric age constraints on
the M-sequence the top of Chron M0r, the middle of Chron
M26n, and the oceanic crust older than Chron M41 but all
three have potential problems or controversial interpretations.
The top of Chron M0r is dated as 124.6 0.2 Ma (Pringle
and Duncan, 1995; 1-sigma; with their published ArAr age of
122.8 0.2 Ma from plagioclase separates recomputed to a TC
sanidine monitor standard of 28.34 Ma). The dated levels are
close to the top of a magnetic reversal in the basaltic edice of
MIT Guyot, for other stratigraphic evidence is most consistent
with the assignment to polarity Chron M0r (e.g. Pringle et al.,
2003, and in prep.), as is summarized in Chapter 19.
The middle of Chron M26n is dated as 155.3 3.4 Ma
(Ludden, 1992; 1-sigma). This KAr age was obtained from a
celadonite vein in basalts at ODP Site 765 drilled on mag-
netic anomaly M26n to the northwest of Australia. Chron
M26n spans about 0.5 myr, therefore this age was arbitrar-
ily assigned to the middle of the anomaly (or to the base of
subchron M26n.2r in the block model of Handschumacher
et al., 1988). An additional ArAr (incremental heating) anal-
ysis of basalt did not yield a plateau age, but gave a total fusion
age of 155 6 Ma (2-sigma), which Palfy et al. (2000c, p. 930)
consider disputable. Even though each determination can be
questioned, the coincidence of these two methods on different
materials suggests that the 155 Ma age is acceptable for scaling
the Late Jurassic M-sequence.
ODP Site 801 is about 100 km beyond anomaly M41 in the
Japanese lineations on the deep-tow magnetic prole trending
toward this site (Sager et al., 1998), or an equivalent of about
40 km beyond M41 when projected to the composite Hawaiian
M-sequence pattern. Tholeiitic basalts dated by the ArAr
method as 167.7 1.4 Ma (2-sigma; Koppers et al., 2003, who
enhanced similar results from higher ows obtained by Pringle,
1992) are overlain by alkaline off-ridge basalt with an ArAr age
of 157.4 0.5 Ma (Pringle, 1992), in turn overlain or intruded
into radiolarian claystone with a disputed age assignment (see
Section 18.2.2.4).
Cycle stratigraphy studies provide constraints on mini-
mum time spans of clusters of polarity zones within the Early
Cretaceous, and are reviewed in Chapter 19. Polarity zone M0r
of the basal-Aptian spans 380 kyr (hence, the base of the Aptian
Stage is 125.0 Ma), and the interval from the base of the Early
Barremian polarity zone M3r to the base of M0r has a duration
of 4.85.4 myr (Herbert, 1992). The combined Valanginian
and Hauterivian stages, which encompass approximately
Chrons M14r to upper M5n, span a minimum of 10.5 myr

in southeastern France using modern Milankovitch-cycle pe-
riods or 10 myr using estimated orbital periods during Early
Cretaceous (Huang et al., 1993, with independent corrobora-
tion by Giraud, 1995, and Giraud et al., 1995).
When merged with the 125 Ma age for the base of the
Aptian, the suite of cycle stratigraphy studies project an age
of 140.5 Ma or older for the base of the Valanginian Stage.
This estimate cannot be reconciled with a UPb age of 137.1
0.6 Ma (1-sigma) from a tuff from the Great Valley sequence
of California with a nannofossil assemblage of latest Berri-
asian or earliest Valanginian (Bralower et al., 1990). However,
Palfy et al. (2000a) suggest that many zircons from Juras-
sic to Cretaceous rocks in tectonically disturbed regions of
California had potential Pb loss, and hence yield minimum
ages.
S P R E A D I N G M O D E L A N D AG E S O F M - S E Q U E N C E
P O L A R I T Y C H RO N S
This suite of radiometric and cycle stratigraphy constraints
on the ages of the Hawaiian lineations can be t using vari-
able spreading rates. The ages of Site 801 and Chron M0r
imply an average spreading rate for the entire M-sequence of
28 km/myr; and the constraints from cycle stratigraphy im-
ply that the average Early Cretaceous rates must about 25%
slower than the average rate during the MiddleLate Juras-
sic. We opted for a minimalist model in which four extended
intervals of constant-spreading rate are separated by small-
amplitude jumps or ramped changes. Relative to the long-term
average rate, we t the array of constraints and estimated un-
certainties by applying a factor of 1.07 to the M-sequence
older than Chron M23n (mid-Kimmeridgian), a factor of
1.18 to Chrons M23nM15n (late Berriasian) followed by a
ramped slowing during the Valanginian to a factor of 0.77 for
Chrons M11nM5n (end-Hauterivian), then 0.86 for Chrons
M3rM0r (base-Aptian).
There is a continuum of other spreading-rate models to t
these few constraints, and segments of the pre-Hauterivian M-
sequence can be systematically shifted to younger or older ages
by over 1 myr. Future Mesozoic time scale research should
have an emphasis on obtaining precise radiometric ages on
M-sequence polarity chrons or on biostratigraphic levels
which can be unambiguously correlated to the M-sequence
pattern. Until additional constraints are available, then our age
model (Table 5.3) and the associated array of projected ages on
biostratigraphic datums and stage boundaries (see Chapters 18
and 19) should be considered as a schematic of the relative age
relationships for Middle JurassicEarly Cretaceous chronos-
tratigraphy.
The geomagnetic polarity time scale 85
Most Late Jurassic (OxfordianTithonian) and Early Cre-
taceous (BerriasianBarremian) ammonite zones within the
Tethyan faunal realm and several ammonite zones within
the Boreal faunal realm have been directly calibrated to M-
sequence chrons, thereby enabling agemodel projections to
be placed on possible stage and substage boundaries (indicated
in Table 5.3, and reviewed and illustrated in Chapters 18 and
19). Many microfossil (dinoagellate, calpionellid) and calcare-
ous nannofossil datums have also been calibrated for this time
interval.
5 . 4 G E O M AG N E T I C P O L A R I T Y T I M E
SCALE FOR MIDDLE JURASSIC
A N D O L D E R RO C K S
5.4.1 Paleozoic to Middle Jurassic
The oldest M-polarity chron from the ocean oor is of Mid-
dle Jurassic age. The geomagnetic polarity time scale for the
remaining 96% of geological time has to be derived entirely by
a progressive assembly and verication of the magnetostratig-
raphy from overlapping and coeval stratigraphic sections. The
status of the geomagnetic polarity time scale for each individual
period is summarized in Chapters 1122.
Pre-Late Jurassic polarity chrons do not have a correspond-
ing marine magnetic anomaly sequence to provide an inde-
pendent nomenclature system. Some published magnetostrati-
graphic sections have designated the individual polarity zones
by a stratigraphic numbering or lettering (upward or down-
ward). For example, an E series derived from cyclic lacustrine
deposits in eastern USA spans the Upper Triassic. A system-
atic nomenclature of polarity chrons could be developed by
consensus when the completeness of these polarity sequences
has been veried and unambiguously correlated to biostratig-
raphy. One option for a future user-friendly nomenclature
would be a numbering of the major events from oldest to
youngest within each individual stage e.g. polarity chron
Toarcian-3n (or Toar.3n) would indicate the third major
normal-polarity chron from the base of the Toarcian Stage.
A version of this type of stagelevel nomenclature was devel-
oped for a preliminary compilation of polarity patterns by Ogg
(1995). However, as with the C-sequence and M-sequence,
it remains somewhat subjective in designating chrons ver-
sus subchrons within a pattern that is essentially a random
series.
High-resolution magnetostratigraphic studies on Paleo-
zoic sections have mainly concentrated on compiling po-
larity patterns associated with major stratigraphic bound-
aries. Khramov and Rodionov (1981) published a composite
86 PA RT I I C O N C E P T S A N D M E T H O D S
Paleozoic scale primarily based upon Russian outcrops, but
the majority of the component magnetostratigraphic sections
and their biostratigraphy have not been published in western
literature. This generalized Russian scale agrees in its broad as-
pects with other magnetostratigraphic studies, but the details
are commonly in disagreement. High-resolution studies and
the predominance of reversed polarity suggest possible partial
remagnetization of Paleozoic strata during the Carboniferous
Permian.
At a larger scale, some paleomagnetists, especially Rus-
sian workers, have proposed a series of Paleozoic superzones
or hyperzones characterized by a dominant magnetic po-
larity or frequency of reversals (Irving and Pullaiah, 1976;
Khramov and Rodionov, 1981; Algeo, 1996). In particular,
the Late CarboniferousLate Permian has a reversed-polarity
Kiaman superzone followed by a mixed-polarity Illawarra
superzone. Other suggested rst-order polarity features
include a Burskan reversed-polarity-bias superzone span-
ning Middle CambrianMiddle Ordovician, and a Nepan
normal-polarity-bias superzone spanning Late Ordovician
Late Silurian (Algeo, 1996).
5.4.2 Precambrian
Paleomagnetic reversals are observed in rocks as old as Archean
(Layer et al., 1996). Although there are many magnetostrati-
graphic studies of Precambrian basins, it is premature to at-
tempt to construct a polarity reversal scale from them. One
of the major problems of Precambrian correlation is the gen-
eral absence of fossils and of dateable rocks. However, varia-
tions in the isotopes of strontium, carbon, and sulfur have been
used to set up inter-continental correlations between Australia
and North America for the 840 Ma to basal-Cambrian interval
(Walter et al., 2000). Such projects provide a basic chronologi-
cal framework for future detailed magnetostratigraphic corre-
lation and dating.
5 . 5 S U P E RC H RO N S A N D P O L A R I T Y B I A S
The short subchrons within the C1r (Matuyama) reversed
chron suggests that during the Matuyama polarity chron the
polarity was biased to a reverse polarity with occasional short-
lived normal subchrons that were uncharacteristic of the chron.
This and other examples gave rise to the notion of polarity bias
(McElhinny and McFadden, 2000) in which the eld alternated
between states of predominantly normal polarity followed by
predominantly reversed polarity. During the normal-polarity
interval the eld was biased toward normal polarity with infre-
quent reversed episodes and conversely for the reverse-polarity
interval. The apparent predominance of normal polarity in
the Proterozoic of North America or of an apparent global
tendency for the dominance of the reversed state for the past
1700 Ma, discussed above, supports polarity bias.
But polarity bias is at odds with the fundamental equations
of dynamo theory because the equations are symmetric for the
magnetic eld and imply that the statistical properties of the
normal and reverse polarities are identical.
It appears that the geodynamo has two states: a revers-
ing state and a non-reversing state (McElhinny and McFad-
den, 2000). When the dynamo changes from the non-reversing
state to the reversing state then normal and reverse chrons are
produced randomly, with a gradual increase in the reversal
rate over periods of tens of millions of years. As the dynamo
approaches the non-reversing state again, the reversal rate de-
creases until reversals cease altogether. Then there follows a
long interval of constant polarity a superchron that ter-
minates only when the reversing state is re-established. Since
superchrons are not regarded as part of the reversing state and
this state is the only one for which polarity bias is being con-
sidered here, it follows that superchrons are not relevant to the
question of polarity bias. Superchrons represent a different
state of the geodynamo.
5 . 6 S U M M A RY A N D C O N C LU S I O N S
r The geomagnetic polarity time scale associated with the C-
and M-sequences of marine magnetic anomalies of Late
JurassicNeogene age is known in detail and calibrated to
an array of biostratigraphic datums.
r Astronomical dating by means of Milankovitch cycles pro-
vides high-precision ages or chron durations for about half
of the polarity time scale of the Cenozoic and for portions
of the Cretaceous.
r Ages for the remainder of the C-sequence and for most of
the M-sequence are derived from spreading-rate models
for synthetic marine magnetic anomaly composites (South
Atlantic for C-sequence, Hawaiian spreading ridge in
Pacic for M-sequence).
r Many Phanerozoic polarity patterns from pre-Late Juras-
sic strata are calibrated to biostratigraphic scales, but most
of these sequences require additional verication and com-
plete coverage of geological stages before a systematic
nomenclature can be proposed.
r Partial Precambrian polarity sequences are known from
Precambrian basins; a few can be correlated across conti-
nents, but most of the Precambrian polarity sequence is
poorly known and poorly dated.
6 Radiogenic isotope geochronology
.
The isotopic systems used for the chronometric calibration of the
time scale are reviewed. Multiply concordant analyses based on U
Pb dates from the Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometric (TIMS)
method are regarded as the most robust and accurate measure of age
for the Mesozoic and Paleozoic, followed by dates that imply only
minor episodic Pb loss or inheritance of pre-existing material. For
the Mesozoic and Cenozoic, 40 Ar/39 Ar mineral analyses of biotite,
sanidine, and hornblende from volcanic rocks that show no evidence
for thermal alteration or of excess 40 Ar also provide excellent material
for time scale calibration.
6 . 1 I N T RO D U C T I O N
The chronometric calibration of stratigraphic boundaries
underpins the geologic time scale. It was the discovery of
radioactive decay and the recognition that its measurement
in minerals gave temporal information (Holmes, 1937, 1947)
that provided the impetus for the development of time scales
calibrated in millions of years. Updated time scales were
published as new calibration points slowly, but regularly,
appeared (Holmes, 1947, 1960; Kulp, 1961; Armstrong, 1978;
Harland et al., 1982; Palmer, 1983).
The last quarter of a century has witnessed an explosive
growth in data, an increased precision of measurement, the
inter-laboratory standardization of decay constants (Steiger
and Jager, 1978) and a better understanding of the isotope sys-
tematics of analyzed materials. All have resulted in substantial
changes to the database of ages used in time scale development.
In particular, there is now a heavy reliance on results from the
analytically precise 40 Ar/39 Ar and UPb methods at the ex-
pense of KAr and RbSr dates, which were the mainstay of
older time scales.
6 . 2 T Y P E S O F U N C E RTA I N T I E S
Internal uncertainties are representative of a laboratorys re-
producibility of analysis and are typically reported with the
A Geologic Time Scale 2004, eds. Felix M. Gradstein, James G. Ogg, and Alan
G. Smith. Published by Cambridge University Press.
c F. M. Gradstein,
J. G. Ogg, and A. G. Smith 2004.
87
age. External uncertainties represent the reproducibility of the
analysis between laboratories, the values obtained by different
methods or the values obtained against absolute time. Analyti-
cal precision has steadily increased to the point that an accurate
comparison of ages now requires a careful assessment of the
magnitude and sources of external uncertainty, rather than
the traditionally reported internal ones. In addition to inter-
laboratory reproducibility, the main sources for the external
uncertainties associated with a given date are (i) the uncer-
tainties within a given isotopic system and between different
isotopic systems, (ii) the calibration of standards, and (iii) the
effects of geological processes.
6.2.1 Decay constants, isotopic ratios, and comparison
between 40 Ar/39 Ar and UPb systems
Because the decay constant (or equivalently, the half-life) de-
termines the absolute time (years) obtained from isotopic mea-
surements, uncertainties or errors in the constant directly affect
the calculated age. For example, until 1977, two major sets of
constants were in widespread use in KAr geochronology, re-
ferred to colloquially as western and Russian, giving rise
to two different sets of ages for the same material (Harland
et al., 1982).
In 1976, the International Union of Geological Sciences
(IUGS) formed a Subcommission on Geochronology that ar-
rived at a convention for inter-laboratory standardization of
these constants (Steiger and Jager, 1978). The recommenda-
tions were quickly and universally accepted and remain to this
day a prime underpinning in any age determination. Uncer-
tainties in these constants can be ignored when comparing
ages derived within a single isotopic system because the uncer-
tainty represents a systematic error that affects all ages equiva-
lently. Thus analytical precision and accuracy become the sole
determinants of age equivalence between samples when the
same isotopic ratios are analyzed. However, the nature of this
error changes when comparisons are made between isotopic
systems. As highlighted by numerous authors (Mattinson,
1994a,b; Ludwig, 1998; Min et al., 1998, 2000; Ludwig et al.,
88 PA RT I I C O N C E P T S A N D M E T H O D S
1999; Renne et al., 1998a,c), uncertainties on the accepted val-
ues need to be considered when the result is a comparison
to absolute time. Furthermore, the IUGS Subcommission on
Geochronology clearly stated that the selected values are open
and should be the subjects of continuing critical scrutinizing
a process which has only recently been suggested for KAr
decay constants (Kwon et al., 2002) and more generally, for all
decay constants (Begemann et al., 2001).
Now that 40 Ar/39 Ar and UPb systems are effectively the
only isotopic systems providing geochronologic data, inter-
calibration between 40 Ar/39 Ar and UPb (and ultimately
absolute chronologies) becomes paramount so that all reported
data represent equivalence of ages unbiased by analytical
methodology (Renne et al., 1998a, 1999, 2000; Min et al., 2000;
Villeneuve et al., 2000; Begemann et al., 2001).
6.2.2 Calibration of reference materials
The second source of external uncertainty concerns the cali-
bration of reference materials in the 40 Ar/39 Ar and the High-
ResolutionSecondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (HRSIMS)
UPb methods of geochronology. Because both techniques rely
on comparisons with a naturally occurring standard, any bias
in the apparent age of a standard propagates through to the
nal age determination. Some commonly used standards are
homogenous at the multigrain level but exhibit substantial het-
erogeneities at the level of micro-scale studies. For example,
MMhb-1, originally interpreted as 520.4 1.4 Ma (Samson
and Alexander, 1987), was demonstrated to be homogenous
only at sample sizes greater than 15 mg (Baksi et al., 1996).
These effects may cause the nal errors to be severely under-
estimated or the ages to be biased, depending on the number
of individual standards contained in an irradiation.
6.2.3 Changes induced by geological processes
A third type of uncertainty is due to geological processes that
lead to post-crystallization changes in the isotopic ratios. In an
assessment of data, it is important to know whether the stated
uncertainties for ages are due to analytical uncertainty alone.
That is, the derived value should be reproducible within error
limits if exactly the same analytical conditions and data ltering
criteria are followed. But, as noted by Ludwig et al. (1999),
reproducibility of a value is not itself evidence for veracity.
It is important to understand the mechanisms that dis-
rupt isotopic ratios and the geological processes that may drive
them. For example, dateable units should be selected so that
thermal overprinting is absent. Such selection is as important
as precision of the laboratory analysis. An example of this last is
reected by two high-precision studies of the PermianTriassic
boundary. Bowring et al. (1998), through UPb TIMS dating
of eleven tuff horizons, each with multiply concordant anal-
yses, placed the boundary at 251.4 0.3 Ma; the same age
was arrived at in a distant Chinese locality containing correla-
tive boundary tuffs. However, re-analysis of many of the same
units in one of Bowrings sections by Mundil et al. (2001a,b)
suggested an age of 253 0.3 Ma due to the presence of unrec-
ognized Pb loss in the multigrain zircon data. The two dates
are clearly distinct at the quoted uncertainties. Which value
is correct depends to a great extent on the interpretation of
the underlying isotope systematics (see also Chapter 17). To
resolve this problem, samples that do not contain evidence of
thermal overprinting need to be targeted.
One purpose of GTS2004 is to ensure that dates deter-
mined through different methodologies (almost exclusively
UPb and 40 Ar/39 Ar) have been similarly evaluated and an-
other is to assign reasonable uncertainties to the data. In this
way, overprecise data will not unduly inuence the position of
spline-t curves, nor the overall errors assigned to time scale
boundaries.
6 . 3 DAT I N G M E T H O D S
Below is a review of geochronometric calibration methods, with
attention paid to UPb and KAr (40 Ar/39 Ar) and their appli-
cation. All uncertainties are quoted at 1-sigma level.
6.3.1 UPb
Numerous articles review the UPb system and analytical tech-
niques (e.g. Faure, 1986; Heaman and Parrish, 1991; Dickin,
1997). Uraniumlead decay is, in reality, two systems (235 U
decaying to 207 Pb and 238 U decaying to 206 Pb). Any open-
system behavior becomes evident by non-concordance of the
two derived ages. Decay constants adopted by Steiger and Jager
(1977) are well determined, with uncertainties for both isotopes
known to better than 0.07% ( Jaffey et al., 1971). As highlighted
by numerous authors (Mattinson, 1994a,b; Ludwig et al.,
1999; Ludwig, 1998; Min et al., 1998, 2000; Renne et al.,
1998a,c), the decay constant uncertainties are not traditionally
propagated into the nal age, but, in practice, should be when
dates derived in more than one isotopic system are compared
with one another. This also holds true for 207 Pb/206 Pb dates
because of the explicit use of the two decay schemes in deriving
the age. Although calculation of external uncertainty is com-
plex for the UPb system (cf. Ludwig, 1998), for 206 Pb/238 U

or 207 Pb/235 U ages, the decay constant uncertainty can be
approximated as propagating in a linear fashion (as percent-
age error) into the nal age and therefore generally repre-
sents the lowermost level of uncertainty that can be realized.
For 207 Pb/206 Pb dates, the absolute uncertainty from decay
constants is relatively unchanged at approximately 2.5 myr
throughout the Phanerozoic (Renne et al., 1998a, 2000), and
rises but slowly in the Precambrian.
The UPb method is unique in that it readily displays
post-crystallization disruption of the isotope systematics as
discordance between the two derived ages. The two most no-
table types of disruption are inheritance of older components
(especially in zircon) and post-crystallization Pb loss. If the
discordance is brought about by either inheritance of material
with a single age, or by episodic Pb loss, then the result can
be interpreted in terms of simple mixture models and a linear
regression can be carried out to arrive at the crystallization
age for the mineral. Discordance and the use of 207 Pb/206 Pb
ages results in complexities in the error analysis because of the
low angle of intersection of the discordia line with concordia,
which itself contains an error envelope due to decay constant
uncertainty (Ludwig, 1998). As such, the most robust data con-
sist of multiply concordant or nearly concordant data that are
used to determine an age. In this way, assumptions surround-
ing the cause (e.g. single Pb-loss event) of post-crystallization
disruption and the effects of decay constant uncertainty intro-
duced by extrapolating data points to concordia are minimized.
However, it is worth noting that there remain UPb determi-
nations that use a linear regression of discordant data arrays
and therefore some interpretation of the isotope systematics is
required (e.g. Tucker and McKerrow, 1995; Palfy et al., 2000a).
Although the resultant age picks used for time scale calibration
are generally robust, it is important to remember that alterna-
tive interpretations may somewhat change the determined age
or error. In general, almost all age information in the Phanero-
zoic (and, most certainly, in rocks younger than Mesozoic) is
contained in the 206 Pb/238 U age alone. Thus, reliance on un-
derlying assumptions regarding Pb loss or inheritance becomes
more signicant at these ages, where the parallelism of concor-
dia with Pb loss trajectories makes it increasingly difcult to
tell discordant from concordant results.
Most modern studies follow well-established techniques
(Krogh, 1982a,b) that can minimize the effects of both Pb
loss and inheritance in the nal analyses. There has been a
recent trend, especially at key time scale boundaries such as the
PermianTriassic, to produce and select only the best-quality
results as exemplied by overlapping concordant analyses that
can be interpreted in terms of undisturbed isotope systematics.
Radiogenic isotope geochronology 89
Material used for time scale calibration is almost exclusively
from well-exposed and widespread volcanic horizons that
bracket biostratigraphically calibrated sedimentary sections
(Tucker and McKerrow, 1995; Bowring et al., 1998; Tucker
et al., 1998; Mundil et al., 1999, 2001c; Compston, 2000a,b;
Palfy et al., 2000c). For this reason, the mineral most used for
geochronological purposes is zircon because of its ubiquitous
presence in these rocks, its highly refractory nature, and a crys-
tal structure that supports trace amounts of U, but almost no
Pb, upon crystallization. Corrections for any initial Pb incor-
porated in the crystal structure are generally minor. Diffusive
Pb loss is considered slow, even at magmatic temperatures, as
long as there is no radiation damage to the crystal structure.
Concordance is enhanced by selection of best-quality grains
by magnetic separation techniques (Krogh, 1982b) and hand
picking under binocular microscope, as well as abrasion of the
outer portion of crystals that are most subject to Pb loss (Krogh,
1982a).
However, the refractory nature of zircon can lead to new
zircon nucleating around undissolved crystals in the magma,
resulting in the presence of xenocrystic cores that may bias
results to an older age. If the extent of this bias is large enough,
the discordance displayed may be sufcient to indicate disrup-
tion of isotopic systematics and a linear array of data leading
toward older ages. Similarly, the early crystallizing nature of
zircon means that it may be subject to residence in the magma
prior to nal emplacement. Thus, the age may not correlate
with eruption of a volcanic horizon, but rather predate it. This
effect has been one of the suggested sources of the discordance
between 40 Ar/39 Ar ages and UPb TIMS ages in the Fish
Canyon Tuff, although recent evidence presented by Schmitz
and Bowring (2001) suggests that the age difference may be
sourced in errors of the 40 K decay constant.
Other minerals commonly dated (but not generally rep-
resented in time scale calibration studies) include monazite,
titanite, and allanite. Monazite, with a sub-magmatic closure
temperature between 725 (Heaman and Parrish, 1991) and
825 C (Bingen and van Breemen, 1998), is generally re-
stricted to peraluminous magmas. The lack of inheritance
and generally high U content make monazite an ideal mineral
for analytical purposes. However, the well-known presence of
disequilibrium effects (Scharer, 1984; Parrish, 1990) by the
incorporation of 230 Th (an intermediate daughter product in
the 238 U/206 Pb decay chain) means that age determinations
must be based on 207 Pb/235 U ages alone. Titanite, with a yet
lower closure temperature of 650 C (Heaman and Parrish,
1991) generally contains low U contents and a signicant pro-
portion of common Pb in its structure. As such, high-resolution
90 PA RT I I C O N C E P T S A N D M E T H O D S
geochronology is highly dependent on the accurate correction
of the latter, usually by measuring coexisting K-feldspar Pb
composition and assuming identical isotopic ratios for com-
mon Pb correction within the titanite (Schmitz and Bowring,
2001).
T H E R M A L I O N I Z AT I O N M A S S S P E C T RO M E T R I C
(TIMS) METHODS
The early 1980s saw the advent of new microanalytical tech-
niques for UPb zircon geochronology (Krogh, 1979, 1982a,b;
Parrish, 1987; Parrish and Krogh, 1987; Roddick et al., 1987).
Concomitant with these developments, data reduction and er-
ror analysis techniques were signicantly improved (Ludwig,
1980, 1984, 1993; Davis, 1982; Roddick, 1987, 1996). They fo-
cused work on minimizing the major sources of error with the
effect of greatly improving both the efciency and precision
of analysis. Furthermore, new reference materials prepared by
National Institute for Standards and Technology greatly im-
proved standards calibration.
Inter-laboratory calibration studies of standard mineral
suites are rare, but published results (Wiedenbeck et al., 1995)
show a high degree of agreement between laboratories. If
uncertainties in decay constants and geological effects are
excluded, the analytical precision for UPb ages derived by
Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometric (TIMS) analysis now
routinely attains precision levels of less than 0.02% for rocks
older than Late Paleozoic and less than 0.1% for the Phanero-
zoic. It should be noted that in order to attain these levels of
precision in the Phanerozoic, bulk zircon fractions consist-
ing of 1050 crystals are needed, thereby increasing the odds
of skewing data to older ages through inheritance or to younger
ages through Pb loss (Ludwig et al., 1999).
H I G H - R E S O LU T I O N S E C O N DA RY I O N M A S S
S P E C T RO M E T RY ( H R S I M S )
Within the last 20 years the use of ion microbeam techniques
has developed to the point where the analytical results may be
of use in time scale calibration (Compston et al., 1984). High-
ResolutionSecondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (HRSIMS,
also known as SHRIMP) allows targeting of 2030 2 m
portions of zircon crystals with analytical precision one to
two orders of magnitude less than TIMS methodology. Be-
cause of the small amount of material analyzed, HRSIMS
geochronometry is nearly non-destructive and polished min-
erals, either mounted in epoxy or in situ within polished thin
sections, provide source material for analysis. Cathodolumines-
cence and backscattered images can detect xenocrystic cores or
metamict areas areas whose structure has been damaged by
radiation that are unsuitable for analysis, thereby enhancing
the likelihood that the material is pristine. The ability to mea-
sure trace element concentrations within zircon and monazite
crystals also allows for delineation of zones marked by chemical
discontinuities that may also be problem areas.
The production of U and Pb ions in the mass spectrome-
ter by the energetic primary oxygen beam is highly dependent
on mineral-specic matrix effects, with Pb ionization typically
enhanced by twove orders of magnitude relative to U. This
means that derivation of the 206 Pb/238 U ratio, key to deter-
mining ages in the Phanerozoic, is highly dependent on the
accurate measurement of 206 Pb/238 U in a naturally occurring
standard. Furthermore, this standard must be isotopically ho-
mogenous to better than 1% on a micrometer scale, and pos-
sibly to better than 0.3% in order to meet a desired 1.0% un-
certainty of an unknown (Stern and Amelin, 2001). Although
high-precision measurement of this ratio in the standard can be
achieved through analysis by TIMS methodologies (thereby al-
lowing calibration of primary ratios by a technique with inher-
ently better precision), micrometer-scale heterogeneities are
evened out by the larger sample sizes required. Thus, key zir-
con standards have had these ratios updated; most notably SL3,
which had its 206 Pb/238 U age shifted by 1% (Roddick and van
Breemen, 1994), and SL13, which had previously undetected
micrometer-scale heterogeneities ascribed to it (Compston,
2000a).
Finally, data reduction and error analysis methodologies
are still undergoing review because of the relatively small
number of HRSIMS installations. All measurements of the
206
Pb/238 U ratio depend primarily on counting statistics, in
addition to an estimate of errors related to the scatter about
the PbU calibration line. It is uncertain whether calibration
can be accurately determined using statistical error analysis on
measurements (e.g. Claoue-Long et al., 1995), or if inherent
intra-analysis instrumental drift limits the available precision
to 1%, as a study by Stern and Amelin (2003) suggests. Re-
cently, much work has gone into nding and categorizing im-
proved zircon standards through cross-calibration with high-
precision TIMS data (Stern, 2001) or recharacterizing older
standards (Compston, 2000a). Currently available HRSIMS
time scale data have uncertain status because there is a system-
atic difference between HRSIMS and TIMS dates, with the
HRSIMS dates being generally younger, as highlighted in the
1.5% difference noted for the Ordovician time scale (Tucker
and McKerrow, 1995; Compston, 2000a). Because of ques-
tions surrounding use of older standards (especially SL13),

coupled with those surrounding the relative magnitude con-
tributed by instrumental bias, minimum attainable uncertainty
on unknowns is herein estimated at approximately 1.0%.
However, this value will rapidly diminish in the near future
because of the current world-wide effort being placed on cali-
bration of these standards that is beginning to produce better
consistency between the HRSIMS and TIMS data.
Perhaps one area where HRSIMS has the potential to
redene time scale calibration radically is related to its ability
to measure mineral grains in situ. Xenotime ((Y, REE)PO4 )
forms as overgrowths around detrital zircon during diagenesis
of siliciclastic rocks (McNaughton et al., 1999; England et al.,
2001). Xenotime provides good material for dating because, like
zircon, it has a high initial U and low common Pb content and,
with a 700 C closure temperature, it is relatively resistant to
later thermal resetting. Because these fragile overgrowths are
usually less than 25 m thick, HRSIMS is the only method
potentially capable of directly dating them. Dating diagenesis
directly may therefore be possible in the near future. If the
diagenesis is close in time to sedimentation, then the results
may augment the more normal technique of dating sedimentary
horizons that are bracketed by volcanic layers.
6.3.2 KAr and 40 Ar/39 Ar
Good overviews of both the KAr method (Dalrymple and
Lanphere, 1969) and the more modern 40 Ar/39 Ar variant (Mc-
Dougall and Harrison, 1999) are available. Approximately 10%
of 40 K decays by electron capture to the daughter product 40 Ar,
with the remainder decaying by electron emission to 40 Ca, thus
necessitating the use of two (in actuality, three, because of an ad-
ditional minor positron decay to 40 Ar) decay constants. The de-
cay constants currently accepted by the geological community
represent an amalgam of a sub set of available measurements
that were combined to give the values currently (Beckinsale
and Gale, 1969) preferred by geochronologists. Uncertainty in
the overall decay constant value of 5.543 1010 a1 is approx-
imately 0.18%, but the uncertainty associated with decay by
electron capture constant of 0.572 1010 a1 is 0.69%.
In addition, using the same primary data set, cosmologists ar-
rived at a value for the decay constant of 40 K that differs by
close to 2% (Endt, 1990), although recent studies suggest a
value intermediate between the two (Min et al., 1998, 2000;
Renne et al., 1998b,c; Begemann et al., 2001; Kwon et al.,
2002). As outlined below in the section on 40 Ar/39 Ar analy-
sis, some of this built in-bias and uncertainty can be removed
by calibrating externally to the KAr system. Derivation
of 40 K, whether for traditional KAr analysis or 40 Ar/39 Ar is
Radiogenic isotope geochronology 91
dependent on measurement of total K and the use of an ac-
cepted isotopic composition (Garner et al., 1975; Steiger and
Jager, 1977). Although well calibrated, uncertainty in these
ratios are traditionally not propagated into the nal age.
One advantage of the KAr isotopic system is the ubiquity
of potassium in almost all igneous rocks. Minerals such as sani-
dine, micas, or hornblende make dating possible for both felsic
and mac volcanic rocks. High-temperature K-feldspar (sani-
dine) is one of the most useful minerals because K contents of
up to 10 wt. % result in production of measurable daughter Ar,
well into the Cenozoic, and the ability to measure single phe-
nocrysts with laser-based instrumentation. However, not all Ar
may be degassed from sanidine (McDowell, 1983; McDougall,
1985), a prerequisite correct age determination. Muscovite, bi-
otite, and phlogopite yield the most reliable ages, although they
may incorporate excess 40 Ar within their crystal structure, giv-
ing rise to old dates (Roddick et al., 1980). Hornblende, with
a high Ca/K ratio, presents difculty in correcting for inter-
fering isotopes that are produced by Ca during the sample
irradiation needed for 40 Ar/39 Ar analysis. These corrections
become larger at younger ages. In addition, the low K con-
tent of hornblende, together with its common contamination
by intergrowths of biotite and feldspar, limits the ability to
obtain meaningful ages. The low K content also results in an
increased proportion of atmospheric Ar contamination that is
directly reected in lower precision of the age.
Of these minerals, hornblende has the highest apparent
closure temperatures at 500 C (Harrison, 1981) followed by
muscovite at 300 C (Purdy and Jager, 1976), and biotite at
250 C (Harrison et al., 1985). It should be noted that these
values may vary with composition and cooling rates. Horn-
blende, biotite, and muscovite are hydrous minerals susceptible
to decrepitation the violent break-up of the mineral in the
high-vacuum, anhydrous environment of most instruments.
Decrepitation interferes with the measurement of diffusion
parameters needed to model and interpret Ar concentration
gradients within crystals. For these reasons, most time scale
studies use unmetamorphosed volcanic rocks to minimize the
effects of post-crystallization changes in isotopic ratios, the re-
sulting mineral dates then reect the instantaneous cooling that
allows the date age to be equated with magmatic emplacement.
Empirical evidence collected over three decades demon-
strates that unaltered micro- and cryptocrystalline volcanic
rocks give reliable and interpretable results using either KAr
or 40 Ar/39 Ar methods. Rocks consisting of, or containing, in-
terstitial glass may give ages that are too low, possibly as a result
of hydration and devitrication processes (Mankinen and
Dalrymple, 1972; McDougall and Harrison, 1999). Similarly,
92 PA RT I I C O N C E P T S A N D M E T H O D S
hydrothermal alteration may preferentially target the main K-
bearing phases such as plagioclase, resulting in new mineral
growth and partial or complete loss of radiogenic 40 Ar. In gen-
eral, the older the volcanic rock, the more likely that it has
been exposed to thermal or hydrothermal alteration. Mineral
dates, rather than whole-rock dates, are therefore preferred
for rocks older than Cenozoic. The 40 Ar/39 Ar method is even
more strongly recommended because of its ability to detect
post-crystallization disruption of the isotope systems.
Glauconies are mixtures of the mineral glauconite with
other minor clay components. Glauconies have a potentially
high, though variable, K content (up to 6.5%) and form by dia-
genesis in marine sediments (Odin, 1982) and would be appear
to be ideal for time scale calibration. However, it appears that
along with its formation at temperatures as low as 100 C,
the green pellets comprising macroscopic glaucony are actually
comprised of mats of small, 0.15 m akes (Smith et al., 1993), disruption of the isotopes.
resulting in Ar diffusion at very low temperatures and resultant
low apparent KAr ages when compared to samples analyzed
using higher temperature minerals (Gradstein et al., 1994a).
Smith et al. (1998) suggest that glaucony formation takes place
over periods of up to 5 myr and propose that the age of the
sediment is given by the oldest glauconies, typically 13 myr
older than corresponding KAr ages. Argon-40/argon-39 dat-
ing requires specialized sample handling (Smith et al., 1993)
because reactor-induced recoil effects on the small akes cause
39
Ar (i.e. the proxy for 40 K) to move out of the minerals, giv-
ing apparent ages that are too old. Encapsulation in evacuated
sealed glass tubes and subsequent measurement of total 40 Ar
and 39 Ar can give an age equivalent to that derived from KAr,
but no glaucony dates are used for time scale calibration in
GTS2004.
Finally, there are recent reports of 40 Ar/39 Ar dating of
diagenetic pyrite, although the K may reside in microscopic
inclusions trapped within the pyrite crystals, rather than within
the pyrite crystal structure itself (Smith et al., 2001).
KAr METHODS
In 1989, KAr was the primary method used for geochrono-
metric calibration purposes, representing over 90% of the ages
used in Harland et al. (1990). Any systematic bias caused by the
values of decay constants could generally be ignored and was
further swamped by the relatively low analytical precision in-
herent in the method. KAr analysis requires separate analy-
sis of K and 40 Ar, meaning that a large amount of material
(typically 10100 mg) is needed to provide splits for each an-
alytical stream. Impure or inhomogeneous starting material
can affect the nal age. In addition, as sample size decreases
there is increasing difculty in precisely measuring the ever
more-miniscule amounts of 38 Ar gas used to spike the Ar
analysis.
Even recently determined KAr results do not surpass
0.5% analytical precision (Renne et al., 1998c; Lanphere and
Baadsgaard, 2001) and neglect the need to include the uncer-
tainties on 40 K decay constants. These uncertainties propagate
directly into the age equation, placing a lower limit of 0.7%
on Phanerozoic dates, a value regarded as the minimum un-
certainty attainable for KAr ages. In addition, the method is
generally sensitive to the correction for contamination by atmo-
spheric Ar. Moreover, the presence of excess 40 Ar is common
and cannot be agged or corrected for by the KAr method.
Furthermore, bulk measurement of K and Ar always results in
a ratio that may reect a value modied by post-crystallization
Analytical indicators of post-crystallization disturbance
to the KAr isotopic system are limited to an unreasonably
high atmospheric content or unreasonably low K content.
In general, only samples with radiogenic 40 Ar greater than
90% should be used for time scale calibration because of the
dramatic increase in calculated uncertainty below that level.
Potassiumargon dates should be viewed as a last resort for
time scale work because 40 Ar/39 Ar dates are more stringently
calibrated, far-more precise, and more readily interpretable.
However, currently the standards used for 40 Ar/39 Ar dating
require calibration by the KAr method (see below).
40 A r / 39 A r METHODS
The development of the 40 Ar/39 Ar method (Merrihue and
Turner, 1966; Mitchell, 1968; Dalrymple and Lanphere, 1971)
has led to greater exibility of analysis, decreased sample
size, and better indicators of isotopic disturbance. In this
method, some 39 K is transformed to 39 Ar by bombardment
with fast neutrons in a nuclear reactor (for detailed descrip-
tion of methodology see McDougall and Harrison, 1999).
By comparing with a standard placed in the same neutron
ux, the 40 Ar /40 K ratio in the sample can be found and a
date determined. Separate analyses of K and Ar are unneces-
sary, thereby dispensing with potential inhomogeneity between
sample splits, decreasing needed sample amounts, and utiliz-
ing the ability of mass spectrometers to measure isotopic ra-
tios. Theoretical models for the distribution and movement
of Ar within minerals (Turner et al., 1966; Dodson, 1973;
Lovera et al., 1989) have allowed for the determination of
dates on partially disturbed samples, although in some cases
 Radiogenic isotope geochronology 93

the methods are contentious (Parsons et al., 1999). The step- Table 6.1 Preferred apparent ages for standards used in
40
heating method, using a temperature-calibrated furnace, rep- Ar/39 Ar geochronology
resents application of diffusion modeling to isotopic ratios
within mineral grains, but poor sensitivity and resolution of Standard Apparent
name agea (Ma) Reference
rst-generation mass spectrometers inhibited the ultimate an-
alytical precision of many of the dates produced. FCT-SAN, 28.02 Renne et al. (1994,
The development of a new generation of noble gas mass FCT-3 1998b), Villeneuve et al.
(2000), Baksi et al. (1996)
spectrometers in the late 1980s has led to a twothree order of
MMhb-1 523.1 2.6 Renne et al. (1998b)c
magnitude decrease in sample size and hence the application
Hb3grb 1072 1 Roddick (1983), Turner
of laser microbeam sampling techniques. Infrared (e.g. CO2 ) et al. (1971)
lasers excel at qualitatively mimicking traditional step-heating TCR 28.34 0.16 Renne et al. (1998b)d
analysis and can simultaneously heat entire grains or groups GA-1550 98.79 0.1 Renne et al. (1998b)e
of grains, but at the expense of spatial resolution. Ultravio- Alder Ck. 1.194 .007 Renne et al. (1998b)
GHC-305 105.2 0.7 Renne et al. (1998b)
let (UV) lasers (e.g. wavelength-quadrupled NdYAG lasers)
LP-6 128.4 0.3 Baksi et al. (1996)
have poor thermal control but give spatial resolution down to
Bern 4 Mu 18.56 0.07 Baksi et al. (1996)
tens of micrometers, allowing direct measurement of isotopic Bern 4 Bi 17.25 0.06 Baksi et al. (1996)
gradients within individual crystals. Key to the efcacy of both
laser types is their ability to couple with most silicate minerals a All ages are referenced to Fish Canyon Tuff sanidine (FCT-SAN) =
28.02 Ma.
(Kelley, 1995). b Hb3gr based upon primary calibration of (Turner et al., 1971) and data
Although use of 40 Ar/39 Ar analytical techniques now al- reported in Roddick (1983).
c Standard is non-reproducible for laser-scale work.
lows for measurement of isotope ratios to less than 0.1%, there d Baksi et al. (1996) get 28.07 Ma when corrected to FC = 28.02 Ma.
is still an ultimate reliance on calibration to a natural min- e Baksi et al. (1996) get 98.04 Ma when corrected to FC = 28.02 Ma.
eral standard with a precisely known 40 Ar*/40 K ratio (Berger,
1975; Renne et al., 1998c). Part of the difculty in assessing propagated into the age of the unknown (Karner et al., 1995;
40
Ar/39 Ar standards comes about because, unlike SHRIMP, Renne et al., 1998c). Fortunately, very few standards remain
the initial calibration of these standards requires analysis by the that are more than one step removed from the primary
KAr method, which is inherently less precise than the method standard. Table 6.1 lists the apparent age of standards used to
relying on the standard. As noted above, even the best KAr intercalibrate 40 Ar/39 Ar data in this publication.
analyses cannot achieve precision levels much below 0.5% (e.g. It is worth noting that sample homogeneity is as important
Renne et al., 1998c). This difculty in calibrating standards for 40 Ar/39 Ar analysis as it is for HRSIMS. Although most
results in determinations of conicting apparent ages for stan- monitors listed in Table 6.1 have been found to be relatively
dards. Fish Canyon Tuff (FCT) is the main exemplar of this homogenous at individual grain levels, one of the most com-
problem, with apparent KAr ages that differ by over 2% (cf. monly used ux monitors, MMhb-1 (Samson and Alexander,
summary in Daze et al., 2003). The result is that an age deter- 1987), proves to have poor reproducibility when used for laser-
mination on a sample of unknown age is biased relative to the scale work. At least three studies (Baksi et al., 1996; Renne
apparent 40 Ar*/40 K chosen for the standard. et al., 1998c; McDougall and Harrison, 1999) have found
Thus, in order to compare relative ages of two unknowns an inherent 0.5% grain-to-grain uncertainty. In general, the
one must ensure the equivalence of the apparent age between J-factor, a measure of neutron ux and the value used to restore
the reference ux monitors. However, this process is further measured 40 Ar/39 Ar values to the needed 40 Ar*/40 K ratio, is
compounded by the proliferation of standards commonly calculated by reference to a best-t curve. Some studies rely
used for 40 Ar/39 Ar analysis. Fortunately, a number of studies on regression techniques to dene the reference line, and
(Roddick, 1983; Baksi et al., 1996; Renne et al., 1998c) have effectively apply a standard mean error to scattered data,
used the ability to measure 39 Ar/40 Ar ratios of standards thereby incorrectly diminishing J-factor uncertainty below the
precisely relative to one another at a less than 0.1% level to pro- level warranted by the natural variation present in MMhb-1.
vide tight integration. Ignoring grain-to-grain reproducibility, However, this standard remains in popular usage, although it
this allows one monitor to be substituted for another using is clear that 0.5% represents the minimum attainable uncer-
standard intercalibration factors, although uncertainty intro- tainty for any unknown relying on MMhb-1 as a standard.
duced by the use of secondary or tertiary standards needs to be Even when the J-factor has been correctly assessed, it should
94 PA RT I I C O N C E P T S A N D M E T H O D S

be treated as an uncertainty applied after averaging of analyt- Table 6.2 Estimate of typically attainable lower limits on
ical data. Therefore, when replicate analyses of co-irradiated precision of ages by methodology
samples is carried out, J-factor uncertainty should be applied
to the derived data after averaging of the analyses. In certain Isotopic system Precision limita Limiting factors
cases, it appears that J-factor uncertainty is applied to individ- TIMS
ual analyses and then results combined, resulting in overprecise 207
Pb/206 Pb 2.5 Ma Decay constant uncertainty
determinations of age uncertainty due to the averaging effect.
206
Pb/238 U 0.1% Decay constant, analytical
precision
Reference of 40 Ar/39 Ar data to a common standard assures
HRSIMS
that relative ages can be assigned within the KAr isotopic sys- 207
Pb/206 Pb less than 0.3% Counting statistics,
tem. However, the decay constant uncertainties would domi- dependent on age
nate derived ages when making comparisons to absolute ages 206
Pb/238 U 1% Analytical precision
(Min et al., 1998, 2000; Renne et al., 1998b,c; Villeneuve et al., KAr 0.7% Analytical methodology,
2000; Begemann et al., 2001; Kwon et al., 2002). This remains decay constant
40
Ar/39 Ar 0.3% External calibration,
true if primary calibration of the monitor is based upon KAr
dependent on ux monitor
analysis, a method that is self-limiting because of the large an-
characteristics
alytical uncertainty inherent in the methodology. In this case,
overall age precision can be substantially degraded, as exem- a Estimates based on criteria outlined in text. Specialized sample handling
plied by the increased uncertainty of dates from the end- and analytical protocols may warrant lower limits and are ascertained on a
case-by-case basis. All uncertainties listed to 1-sigma.
Cretaceous (KT) boundary to the 1.0% level when uncer-
tainties of decay constants and calibration of the ux monitor
attainable precision of 40 Ar/39 Ar ages. Coupled with intercali-
are propagated into the determined age (Renne et al., 1998c).
bration factors and limitation on derivation of the J-factor, it is
An alternative approach depends on arriving at an appar-
estimated that a minimum uncertainty of 0.3% is applied to
ent age for the standard based upon, for example, UPb dates. 40
Ar/39 Ar results (Roddick, 1988; Scaillet, 2000) in the absence
The 40 Ar /40 K of the standard is then calculated by use of
of specialized analytical protocols. For samples using MMhb-1
IUGS decay constants (Villeneuve et al., 2000), resulting in
as ux monitor, higher uncertainty limits are likely warranted.
an apparent age that is shifted to incorporate some of the sys-
Table 6.2 lists the lower limits of precision estimates typically
tematic bias introduced by the potential use of incorrect decay
attainable on ages, organized by methodology, as discussed in
constant values. Although imperfect, the method minimizes
this and previous sections.
the uncertainties in decay constants and KAr calibration. For
this reason, we have chosen to use FCT sanidine (FCT-SAN)
6.3.3 Other methods
= 28.02 Ma as our primary standard.
This value was chosen because it has been consistently ar- Few other methods can attain the accuracy or precision of the
40
rived at (within error) by separate calibrations resulting in ages Ar/39 Ar and UPb TIMS methods and, for this reason, key
of 28.04 0.23 Ma (Renne et al., 1997) and 28.05 Ma (Min chronostratic calibrations now depend almost exclusively upon
et al., 2000) against absolute time, 28.03 0.09 Ma (Renne them, with minor inll from KAr. RubidiumStrontium (Rb
et al., 1994) and 28.15 0.19 Ma (Hilgen et al., 1997) by or- Sr) decay was once widespread in its use for geochronological
bital tuning, and 27.98 0.15 Ma by measurement against purposes, but recognition of the mobility of both Rb and Sr in
207
Pb/235 U (Villeneuve et al., 2000). Furthermore, FCT- the presence of aqueous uids or thermal disturbances has led
SAN is well represented in 40 Ar/39 Ar intercalibration studies, to the method falling into disfavor as a precision chronometric
thereby allowing secondary standards to be corrected. In this tool. Although it is possible to date high-Rb phases such as mi-
way it is anticipated that accurate and precise intercalibration of cas or K-feldspar, these minerals can often be more efciently
40
Ar/39 Ar, UPb, and absolute time can be accomplished. For and accurately dated by 40 Ar/39 Ar. SamariumNeodymium
example, while completing this chapter, new single-grained (SmNd) decay is of limited applicability because of relatively
sanidine datings from the Mdelilla Basin in Morocco suggest low distribution coefcients between the parent and daugh-
an astronomically derived age of 28.24 00.1 Ma for the FCT- ter atoms during crustal processes, resulting in relatively little
SAN (Section 21.5.1), potentially adding further precision. control on generation of isochrons.
In general, even external calibration results in uncertain- One isotopic system that displays great potential is
ties ranging from 0.3 to 0.8%, providing a lower limit on the RheniumOsmium (ReOs). Work on measurement of ages

of sulde minerals, notably molybdenite (Selby et al., 2000),
shows that high-precision (0.2%) results can be achieved
on samples consisting of a few grains. However, development
of techniques for analysis of ReOs ages from organic-rich
ne-grained strata has the potential of providing direct ages of
sedimentation. Deposition of black shales in reducing environ-
ments leads to concentration of both Re and Os into these rocks,
almost all derived from seawater at the time of deposition (Rav-
izza and Turekian, 1989; Creaser et al., 2002). Although initial
studies suggested a link between hydrocarbon maturation level
(Cohen et al., 1999) and degree of age concordance and preci-
sion, recent work by Creaser et al. (2002) suggests that us-
ing samples with a consistent 187 Os/188 Os ratio may yield
more precise ages. Currently, analytical precision is limited to
around 12%, making results of limited use in time scale cali-
bration. However, continued advances in both analytical tech-
niques and the understanding of the geochemistry of Re and
Os hold much promise for application of this technique in the
future.
6 . 4 S U M M A RY A N D C O N C LU S I O N S
As outlined above, quoted uncertainties can be used as a proxy
for analytical quality, but do not necessarily reect where ex-
ternal uncertainty begins to outweigh analytical uncertainty.
This time scale uses the following approaches to ensure that
quoted ages approximate not only the absolute time reference
frame, but also uncertainties surrounding the ages.
UPb TIMS results consisting of multiply concordant
analyses (e.g. Tucker and McKerrow, 1995; Bowring and Er-
win, 1998; Bowring et al., 1998; Landing et al., 1998; Palfy et al.,
2000c; Mundil et al., 2001c) are viewed as the most robust and
accurate measure of age for the Mesozoic and Paleozoic. This
is followed by linearly discordant data arrays that can be readily
interpreted in terms of minor episodic Pb loss or inheritance
Radiogenic isotope geochronology 95
of pre-existing material with uniform age. For the Mesozoic
and Cenozoic, 40 Ar/39 Ar mineral analyses of biotite, sanidine,
and hornblende from volcanic rocks are viewed as generally
robust, especially if step-wise heating was done to check on
the absence of thermal alteration and of excess 40 Ar (Roddick
et al., 1980). Analysis of holocrystalline volcanic rock by this
method is anticipated to be relatively robust, but is more prone
to disruption of isotopic systematics. Glaucony is generally not
suitable for analysis by 40 Ar/39 Ar methodology without under-
taking special analytical and data reduction procedures (Smith
et al., 1993) because it is prone to resetting. Finally, because
of its inability to detect subtle disruption in isotopic system-
atics, the KAr method is used only if no other analyses are
available and the samples have appropriate K content and low
atmospheric contamination.
In order to equate 40 Ar/39 Ar ages with UPb TIMS and
absolute chronologies, all uence monitor corrections are lev-
eled to FCT sanidine (FCT-SAN) = 28.02 Ma. This value
was chosen because of the consistency of this age in external
calibration (Renne et al., 1994, 1997; Villeneuve et al., 2000)
and the independence from decay constant and rst princi-
ples calibration uncertainities that degrade precision (Renne
et al., 1998c; Villeneuve et al., 2000). All other apparent ages of
monitors derive from high-precision intercalibration studies,
as listed in Table 6.1. As outlined above and listed in Table 6.2,
estimates of minimum errors have been assigned. These error
levels are approximations based upon what could reasonably
be expected during routine analysis and through propagation
of external uncertainties. If the authors detail specialized pro-
tocols of analysis or error handling, their quoted error limits
may be substituted.
Disparate results were not simply averaged. From a sta-
tistical standpoint, such an approach is unwarranted, unless
results pass Students t-test, indicating a high probability that
they represent the same population.
7 Strontium isotope stratigraphy
. . . .

0.7095

0.7090

0.7085
Sr
86
Sr /

0.7080
87

0.7075

0.7070

Cen Cretaceous Jura Trias Perm Carb Dev Sil Ord C

0.7065
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500

Numerical age (Ma)

Figure 7.1 Variation of 87 Sr/86 Sr through Phanerozoic time. LOWESS t to data sources in Table7.1.

The 87 Sr/86 Sr value of Sr dissolved in the worlds oceans has varied
though time, which allows one to date and correlate sediments. This
variation and its stratigraphic resolution is discussed and graphically
displayed.
7 . 1 I N T RO D U C T I O N
The ability to date and correlate sediments using Sr isotopes
relies on the fact that the 87 Sr/86 Sr value of Sr dissolved in the
worlds oceans has varied though time. In Fig. 7.1, we show this
variation, plotted according to the time scale presented in this
volume. More detail is given in Fig. 7.2, on which we plot both
the curve of 87 Sr/86 Sr through time and the data used to de-
rive it. Comparison of the measured 87 Sr/86 Sr of Sr in a marine
mineral with a detailed curve of 87 Sr/86 Sr through time can
A Geologic Time Scale 2004, eds. Felix M. Gradstein, James G. Ogg, and Alan
G. Smith. Published by Cambridge University Press.
c F. M. Gradstein,
J. G. Ogg, and A. G. Smith 2004.
yield a numerical age for the mineral. Alternatively, 87 Sr/86 Sr
can be used to correlate between stratigraphic sections and
sequences by comparison of the 87 Sr/86 Sr values in minerals
from each (Fig. 7.3). Such correlation does not require a de-
tailed knowledge of the trend through time of 87 Sr/86 Sr, but
it is useful to know the general trend in order to avoid possible
confusion in correlation near turning points on the Sr curve.
Strontium isotope stratigraphy (SIS) can be used to esti-
mate the duration of stratigraphic gaps (Miller et al., 1988),
estimate the duration of biozones (McArthur et al., 1993, 2000,
2004) and stages (Weedon and Jenkyns, 1999), and to distin-
guish marine from non-marine environments (Schmitz et al.,
1991; Poyato-Ariza et al., 1998). The degree to which such
things can be accomplished rests, in part, on how well the
trend in marine 87 Sr/86 Sr through time can be dened, and it
is this issue that concerns us here. For a more detailed account
of SIS, the reader is referred to reviews by McArthur (1994)
and Veizer et al. (1997, 1999).

96
 Strontium isotope stratigraphy 97

0.7092

0.7090
0.7080

0.7088

Sr
0.7079
Sr

0.7086

86
86

Sr /
Sr /

0.7084

87
0.7078
87

0.7082

0.7077
0.7080

Pl Plio Miocene Oligocene Olig Eocene Palaeocene Cret

0.7078 0.7076
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70

(a) Numerical age (Ma) (b) Numerical age (Ma)

0.7079
0.7078

0.7077
0.7077

0.7076 0.7075
Sr
86
Sr /

0.7075
0.7073
Sr
87

86

0.7074
Sr /

0.7071
87

0.7073
0.7069
0.7072
Pal Ma Campan S C Tu Cen Albian Aptian Bar Haut V Ber T Ki Ox C B B Aa Toar Plien Sin H R No
0.7071 0.7067
60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210

(c) Numerical age (Ma) (d ) Numerical age (Ma)

0.7086 0.7086

0.7084
0.7084
0.7082

0.7080
0.7082
Sr
Sr

0.7078
86
86

Sr /

0.7080
Sr /

0.7076
87
87

0.7074
0.7078
0.7072

0.7070
0.7076
0.7068
R Norian Carnian Lad Anis Ol Loping Guadol Cis Ar Sakmar As Gz K Mo Bash Serp Visean To
0.7066 0.7074
200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 280 290 300 310 320 330 340 350

(e) Numerical age (Ma) (f ) Numerical age (Ma)

0.7088 0.7092

0.7090
0.7086
0.7088

0.7084
Sr
Sr

0.7086
86
86

Sr /
Sr /

0.7082 0.7084
87
87

0.7082
0.7080
0.7080

0.7078
0.7078
Tour Famenian Fras Giv Eif Ems Pra Lo Sil Tel A Rh --- --- Darr -- ---- Trem Cambrian
0.7076 0.7076
350 360 370 380 390 400 410 420 430 430 440 450 460 470 480 490 500 510

(g) Numerical age (Ma) (h) Numerical age (Ma)

87
Figure 7.2 Details of the variation of Sr/86 Sr through time given in Fig. 7.1, showing width of 95% condence intervals. See text for a
discussion of its parts.
98 PA RT I I C O N C E P T S A N D M E T H O D S
Figure 7.3 Correlation with 87 Sr/86 Sr. Values of 87 Sr/86 Sr are matched between 87 Sr/86 Sr proles constructed for independent sections.
The method works only for marine minerals. Practition-
ers assume that the oceans are homogenous with respect to
87
Sr/86 Sr and always were so. Uniformity of 87 Sr/86 Sr is ex-
pected for two reasons. First, because the residence time of
Sr in the oceans (106 years) is far longer than the time it
takes currents to mix the oceans (103 years), so the oceans
are thoroughly mixed on time scales that are short relative to
the rates of gain and loss of Sr. Second, because the amount
of Sr in the sea (7.6 g/l) is much greater than the amount in
rivers (variable, but two orders of magnitude less), the effect
of riverine dilution is small; seawater maintains a 87 Sr/86 Sr
value that is characteristic of the open ocean until it is diluted
to salinities well below those supportive of fully marine fauna
(Andersson et al., 1992). Tests of the homogeneity of 87 Sr/86 Sr
in modern open oceans and some restricted seas (DePaolo and
Ingram, 1985; Andersson et al., 1992; Paytan et al., 1993) con-
rm that it appears to be homogenous at an analytical precision
of 0.000 020. Since those studies were done, the precision of
measurement of 87 Sr/86 Sr has improved to around 0.000 003
for replicate determinations, so the assumption of uniformity
now requires re-evaluation.
7 . 2 M AT E R I A L S F O R S T RO N T I U M
I S O T O P E S T R AT I G R A P H Y
Of the materials that have been used for SIS, belemnite guards
(Jones et al., 1994a,b; McArthur et al., 2000) and brachiopod
shells (Veizer et al., 1999) have proven useful, since they resist
diagenetic alteration better than other forms of biogenic cal-
cite. Early diagenetic marine carbonate cements have made an
important, if volumetrically minor, contribution to SIS cal-
ibration in the lower Phanerozoic (Carpenter et al., 1991).
Foraminiferal calcite, largely from DSDP/ODP sites, has
yielded the curve for the Neogene (see works of Farrell and
others, Hodell and others, Miller and others; Table 7.1), while
acid-leached, nannofossil-carbonate ooze (McArthur et al.,
1993), inoceramids (Bralower et al., 1997), atoll carbonates
( Jenkyns et al., 1995), and ammonoid aragonite (McArthur
et al., 1994) have all yielded useful data. Attempts to use barite
have met with mixed success (Paytan et al., 1993; Martin et al.,
1995; Mearon et al., 2003). The use of conodonts seems to
work for samples with a color-alteration index of around 1,
which implies minimal alteration (Martin and Macdougall,
1995; Ruppel et al., 1996; Ebneth et al., 2001; Korte et al.,
2003).
7 . 3 A GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE 2004 ( G T S 2 0 0 4 )
DATA BA S E
The standard curve of 87 Sr/86 Sr as a function of time pre-
sented here (Figs. 7.1 and 7.2, and available in a supplementary
tabulation from the authors: j.mcarthur@ucl.ac.uk) is updated
from that given in McArthur et al. (2001) and uses 3875 data
pairs from the sources listed in Table 7.1. This table also gives
 Strontium isotope stratigraphy 99

Table 7.1 Sources of data used for the LOWESS t

Author Normalizer (106 ) Age range (Ma)

Azmy et al. (1999) 30 417 443

Banner and Kaufman (1994) 3 337 342
Barrera et al. (1997): Site 463; new age model 13 67.7 74.5
Bertram et al. (1992): conodonts 11 420 435
Bralower et al. (1997): inoceramids 0 94.7 116.3
Brand and Brenckle (2001): some 0 319 319
Bruckschen et al. (1999) 30 325 359
Callomon and Dietl (2000) 0 164.2 164.4
Carpenter et al. (1991) 3 379 380
Clemens et al. (1993, 1995) 6 0.0 0.2
Cummins and Eldereld (1994): brachiopods 11 327 331
Denison et al. (1993) 102 45.6 65.3
Denison et al. (1994) 102 257 360
Denison et al. (1997) 102 364 438
Denison et al. (1998) 102 445 510
DePaolo and Ingram (1985): Palaeogene 59 38.1 65.65
Diener et al. (1996): brachiopods 30 378 400
Ebneth et al. (2001): Texas and Australia 33 487.5 491
M. Engkilde, pers. comm. (1998) 0 144.2 175.9
Farrell et al. (1995): pruned 2.83.5 Ma 9 0.0 7.0
Henderson et al. (1994) 17 0.0 0.37
Hodell et al. (1991): Holes 588 and 588A 18 7.3 18.3
Hodell and Woodruff (1994): new age model 18 10.9 23.3
Jenkyns et al. (1995) 12 99.7 125.2
Jones et al. (1994a,b): some 22 100.8 199.7
Koepnick et al. (1990) 102 201 251
Korte et al. (2003) 25 200 252
Martin and Macdougall (1995) 12 248 295
Martin et al. (1999): <13.8 Ma 22 5.0 13.8
McArthur et al. (1993) 0 71.1 89.1
McArthur et al. (1993) 0 69.4 84.3
McArthur et al. (1994) 0 71.4 99.1
McArthur et al. (1998) 0 65.4 68.1
McArthur et al. (2000) 0 177.1 189.6
McArthur and Kennedy (unpub. data) 0 96.0 107.8
McArthur and Morton (2000) 0 170.8 174.2
McArthur et al. (in review) 0 2.6 3.6
McArthur et al. (2004) 0 124.2 133.4
McArthur and Janssen (unpub. data) 0 133.6 138.4
Mead and Hodell (1995) 18 18.6 45.3
Miller et al. (1988) 14 22.9 33.7
Miller et al. (1991) 14 9.1 24.1
Montanez et al. (1996) 6 500 505
Oslick et al. (1994): >16 Ma 14 16.0 25.0
Qing et al. (1998): <463 Ma 5 420 489
Ruppel et al. (1996) 7 417 442
Sugarman et al. (1995) 14 65.7 72.4
Zachos et al. (1992, 1999) 0 23.2 42.2
100 PA RT I I C O N C E P T S A N D M E T H O D S
the amount added to, or subtracted from, the literature data in
order to correct for apparent inter-laboratory bias in measure-
ment of 87 Sr/86 Sr. Such bias is assumed to represent system-
atic error and to be correctable by such a normalization process.
As replication of 87 Sr/86 Sr measurement can give mean val-
ues precise to 0.000 003 ( Jones et al., 1994a; McArthur et al.,
2001), inter-laboratory bias must be quantied to this precision
if SIS is to realize its full potential.
We correct data to a common value of 0.710 248 for stan-
dard reference material NIST-987 (formerly known as SRM-
987) or a value of 0.709 175 for EN-1, a modern Tridachna
clam from Enewetak Atoll (prepared by the USGS). Some
older work is normalized to a SrCO3 standard, known as E
and A, that was prepared by the Eimer and Amend company
(New York; now owned by Fisher Chemical). The 87 Sr/86 Sr
value of E and A is 0.708 022 4 (2 s.e., n = 34) relative to a
value for NIST-987 of 0.710 248 ( Jones et al., 1994a). In a few
cases, our normalizer is based on evaluation of inter-laboratory
bias that is independent of the published source of data, so it
may be different from that given in the source.
7.3.1 Numerical ages
The revised SIS calibration curve given here (Figs. 7.1 and 7.2)
uses the GTS2004 time scale of this volume. Where original
data were reported to other time scales, the original ages have
been converted to the current time scale using the formulae
of Wei (1994) and the nearest pair of numerically dated strati-
graphic tie points. In some instances, where local or regional
stratigraphy has advanced since the publication of a source, we
have revised the age models used in original publications.
The calibration curve shown in Figs. 7.1 and 7.2 is based
on measurement of 87 Sr/86 Sr in samples dated by biostratig-
raphy, magnetostratigraphy, and astrochronology (mostly the
rst two). The difculty of assigning numerical ages to sedi-
mentary rocks by the rst two methods is well known. Users
of the calibration curve, and the equivalent look-up tables de-
rived from it that enable rapid conversion of 87 Sr/86 Sr to age
and vice versa (McArthur et al., 2001), must recognize that
the original numerical ages on which the curve is based may
include uncertainties derived from interpolation, extrapola-
tion, and indirect stratigraphic correlations and may suffer
from problems of boundary recognition (both bio- and mag-
netostratigraphic), diachroneity, and assumptions concerning
sedimentation rate, all of which contribute uncertainly to the
age models used to generate the calibration line. Furthermore,
age models are ultimately based (mostly) on radiometric dates
and are as accurate as those dates. Interpolation of ages between
tie points, however, may be more precise, although necessarily
systematically inaccurate.
7.3.2 Fitting the database
We used the statistical non-parametric regression method
LOWESS (LOcally WEighted Scatterplot Smoother of
Cleveland, 1979, 1981; Chambers et al., 1983; Thisted, 1988;
Cleveland et al., 1992) to obtain a best-t curve for the
87
Sr/86 Sr data as a function of time. Details of the tting pro-
cedure are given in Howarth and McArthur (1997). Because
of the complex shape of the t, and the very uneven density
of data points through time, the curve was optimized by be-
ing tted in 29 overlapping local segments. These were then
joined using splines at segment junctions. To obtain a table
for predicting age from 87 Sr/86 Sr, and the lower and upper
condence limits on the age, we used inverse interpolation of
the tted curve of 87 Sr/86 Sr and its 95% condence intervals
(CIs) as a function of age. The complete table is available from
j.mcarthur@ucl.ac.uk.
7.3.3 The quality of the t
C O N F I D E N C E L I M I T S O N T H E L OW E S S F I T
In addition to the best-t curve of estimated 87 Sr/86 Sr as a
function of age, the LOWESS tting process also provides a
two-sided, 95% CI, on the estimates of age. These CIs are in-
cluded in Fig. 7.2, but are best seen in Fig. 7.4 as a half-width
interval plotted against time. The width of the CI varies with
numerical age, and is dependent on both the density and spread
of the calibration data. For substantial segments of the Meso-
zoic, values approach 0.000 005 and are seldom more than
0.000 010. Where data are abundant and samples well pre-
served, e.g. 07 Ma, the half-width CI is around 0.000 003.
Where data are few, e.g. most of the Permian, the uncertainty
is much greater. Well-preserved samples become rarer with
increasing age so the uncertainty envelope increases with age;
nevertheless, achieving a precision of 0.000 015 for the entire
Paleozoic is not an unrealistic goal.
Assuming that the half-widths of the upper and lower con-
dence intervals are approximately equal, and that U = (upper
age CI estimated age) and L = (estimated age lower age
CI), then the overall uncertainty on an age derived from the
curve can be computed by combining the uncertainties on the
measurement and the tted curve as follows:

1/2
stotal = sm2 + sc2 , (7.1)
 Strontium isotope stratigraphy 101

50

45
Sr/ Sr

40
86

35
87
Half-width CI, 10 x

30
6

25

20

15

10

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
(a)
Numerical age (Ma)

200

150
Sr/ Sr
86

100
87
Rate of change, 10 x
6

50

50

100

Cen Cret Jurassic Triassic Perm Carb Devon Sil Ord C

150
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500

(b) Numerical age (Ma)

Figure 7.4 (a) Half-width of the 95% condence intervals on the LOWESS t, and (b) rate of change with time of 87 Sr/86 Sr.

where s m is the standard deviation of the estimated numerical
age of the sample and sc = ((L + U)/2)/1.96. If L and U are
different enough, then it may be preferable to use upper and
lower bounds for stotal by replacing sc with L/1.96 and U/1.96,
respectively.
Inter-laboratory bias introduces an additional source of un-
certainty, since few laboratories have reported precise estimates
of the 87 Sr/86 Sr value of their standards, i.e. a comparison of
mean 87 Sr/86 Sr in NIST-987 and EN-1, each given to a preci-
sion of less than 0.000 005. The uncertainty from this source
can be as high as 0.000 020. As a consequence, inter-laboratory
bias may limit the quality of dates and correlations determined
using SIS.
CONFIDENCE LIMITS ON MEASURED 87 S r / 86 S r
The uncertainty with which the mean (m) 87 Sr/86 Sr of a sample
is known, from n independent determinations of 87 Sr/86 Sr,
102 PA RT I I C O N C E P T S A N D M E T H O D S
may be quantied if one assumes that the measurement errors
are normally distributed and so a two-sided condence interval
applies:
m t1 /2, n 1 (s/n 1/2 ), (7.2)
where s is the standard deviation of n observed 87 Sr/86 Sr
values, and t1 /2,n 1 is the 100(1 /2)th percentile of
Students t-statistic with (n 1) degrees of freedom; is the
risk (specied as a proportion) that the true (but unknown)
value of 87 Sr/86 Sr in the mineral, which is estimated by m , will
fall outside the specied condence interval. Thus is com-
monly set to 0.05 (5%) in order to obtain two-sided 95% con-
dence limits on m . The t-statistic is used for this purpose rather
than the 100(1 /2)th percentile of the cumulative normal
distribution in order to correct for the fact that the number
of replicate determinations of 87 Sr/86 Sr is nite. Increasing n
decreases the uncertainty in m . For example, the multipliers
for two-sided 95% condence limits when n = 2, 3, 4, 5, and
10 are 12.71, 4.30, 3.18, 2.78, and 2.26, respectively.
It may be possible to obtain only a single determination of
87
Sr/86 Sr (x) for a given mineral sample. If, for some rea-
son, there exists a prior estimate of the expected value of
87
Sr/86 Sr (a), e.g. from measurements previously made on pre-
sumed similar material, or the ratio has been estimated from
the 87 Sr/86 Sr curve and a knowledge of the samples strati-
graphic position, then, assuming x is the centre of a normal
distribution, Blachman and Machol (1987) showed that a two-
sided 100(1 )% condence interval on x is given by:
x (1 + 0.484/)|x a|. (7.3)
If is 0.05, the multiplier equals 9.68. Less-conservative
bounds are obtained by inverting the prediction interval for
a single future observation. This gives:
x z1 /2 (1 + 1/n 0 )1/2 s 0 . (7.4)
In this case, s 0 is a prior estimate of the standard devi-
ation of the distribution (assumed normal) from which x is
drawn, e.g. the pooled standard deviation based on n 0 sets of
previous determinations of similar samples, and z1 /2 is the
100(1 /2)th percentile of the cumulative normal distribu-
tion. If is 0.05, the multiplier equals 1.96.
The best analytical precision on 87 Sr/86 Sr that has so
far been obtained by repeated replicate measurements of
87
Sr/86 Sr over a period of time is 0.000 003 (2 s.e.; Jones
et al., 1994a; McArthur et al., 2001). Figure 7.4 shows that
little of the global Sr curve has yet been dened to this degree
of precision.
N U M E R I C A L R E S O LU T I O N
The uncertainty of an estimated numerical age obtained us-
ing the calibration curve (Figs. 7.1 and 7.2) depends on:
(i) the width of the 95% CI on the calibration curve, (ii) the
uncertainty with which the 87 Sr/86 Sr of a sample is known, and
(iii) the slope of the curve. Given that the best-dened parts
of the calibration curve have half-width CIs no better than
0.000 003, and that this is also the best-attainable precision
on measurement of 87 Sr/86 Sr, application of (i) above gives
a minimum total uncertainty in dating of around 0.000 004.
Given that the slope of the calibration curve (Fig. 7.4) rarely
exceeds a value of 0.000 060 per myr, it follows that the pre-
cision in dating with 87 Sr/86 Sr will not be better than about
0.1 myr and will generally be much worse. Correlation with
87
Sr/86 Sr avoids the uncertainty involved in assigning numer-
ical ages and the accuracy with which it can be accomplished
depends upon: (i) the sedimentation rate of the sequences, or
sections, being correlated; (ii) the uncertainty with which the
87
Sr/86 Sr of a sample is known; and (iii) the slope of the curve.
Under optimum conditions, e.g. with well-preserved mate-
rial and where the rate of change with time of marine 87 Sr/86 Sr
is steep, the precision with which SIS can date and/or correlate
marine strata can surpass foraminiferal biostratigraphy in the
Cenozoic and ammonite biostratigraphy in the Mesozoic. The
utility and accuracy of SIS declines as the target rocks get older,
since the method relies on analysis of well-preserved samples,
mostly biogenic calcite, and these become less common and
more likely to be altered as age increases.
RU B I D I U M C O N TA M I NAT I O N
A further potential problem arises from the fact that samples
may contain Rb, the radioactive isotope of which, 87 Rb, decays
to 87 Sr, thereby altering the 87 Sr/86 Sr of even a perfectly pre-
served sample. The Rb+ ion is too large, and its marine abun-
dance too low, for it to be found in worrying amounts in biogenic
calcite, but the larger cation site in aragonite will accommo-
date Rb more easily. Rubidium should therefore be monitored
in all samples, if the Sr/Rb weight (ppm) ratio is >8000, sam-
ples of Phanerozoic age will have altered their 87 Sr/86 Sr by
<0.000 003. As a rule of thumb, concentrations of Rb above
0.1 ppm may require a correction to their 87 Sr/86 Sr. A table for
making such Rb corrections can be found in McArthur (1994).
7 . 4 C O M M E N T S O N T H E L OW E S S F I T
Some details of the GTS2004 database and t require com-
ment.
 Strontium isotope stratigraphy 103

Pliocene to now For the period from 0 to 7 Ma, we rely mostly Albian scaling of
on the data of Farrell et al. (1995) excepting between 2.8 and Bralower et al. 1994 (a)
0.70755
3.4 Ma. In this interval, these authors data are too high by
0.70750
up to 0.000 020 and have been pruned and supplemented
by 87 Sr/86 Sr data from the astronomically calibrated Pliocene 0.70745

type section at Punta Piccola, Sicily, (McArthur et al., unpub.) 0.70740

Sr
86
0.70735

Sr /
Early Miocene In the LOWESS t of McArthur et al. (2001)

87
0.70730
the high scatter of data between 22 and 24 Ma was attributed
0.70725
to the effects of diagenetic alteration of the material analyzed.
0.70720
We now believe that explanation to be incorrect and that the
scatter results from an uncertain age model for DSDP Site 0.70715
100 102 104 106 108 110 112 114 116
588C (Hodell et al., 1991), so we no longer use data for 588C;
Age (Ma)
we retain data for Sites 588 and 588A after updating the age
models to this time scale. For Site 289 (Hodell and Woodruff, Albian scaling of
1994), we use a revised age model that includes breaks in 0.70755 GTS2004 (b)

the sequence between 522 and 544 meters below seaoor 0.70750

(mbsf ). 0.70745

0.70740
Paleogene The 87 Sr/86 Sr curve for the Paleogene shows suf- Sr
86
Sr / 0.70735
cient slope for it to be potentially useful for dating (Fig. 7.2b ).
87

From the KP boundary (65.5 Ma) value of 0.707 83, 87 Sr/86 Sr
declines to 0.707 72 in the Ypresian (51Ma) before rising
sharply to a maximum of 0.707 78 in the early Lutetian (46 Ma)
and then declining again to a second minimum of 0.707 73
in the earliest Bartonian (40 Ma). Thereafter, the ratio in-
creases steeply until modern times. For the Paleocene, the
rate of decrease in 87 Sr/86 Sr of around 0.000 08 per myr
should give a resolution in dating no better than 0.5 myr,
and then only if both curve and 87 Sr/86 Sr measurement of
the sample achieve the best-attainable precision. Given that
this quality has been achieved in the late Neogene (Farrell
et al., 1995), Late Cretaceous (McArthur et al., 1993), early
Jurassic (PliensbachianToarcian, McArthur et al., 2000) and
Hauterivian times (McArthur et al., 2004), it seems possible to
do so.
Maastrichtian For the Late Maastrichtian interval, we use
the data of Sugarman et al. (1995) and Barrera et al. (1997), for
DSDP Site 463, the latter after recalibration to the age model
of Li and Keller (1999).
AptianAlbian Of Bralower et al.s (1997) data, we use only
that for inoceramids. We have adjusted the Albian boundary
ages of Bralower et al. (1997) to those in this volume, but retain
his apportionment of time between them. The scaling given in
this volume distorts the Sr isotope curve in an unreasonable
way (cf. Fig. 7.5a,b ), increasing its slope in the basal-Albian,
0.70730
0.70725
0.70720
0.70715
100 102 104 106 108 110 112 114 116
Age (Ma)
87 86
Figure 7.5 Trend in Sr/ Sr in the AlbianAptian: data of
Bralower et al. (1997) for inoceramids plotted against (a) the
biozonation given by the authors and (b) that given in this volume.
The age scaling of Bralower et al. (1997) is used for the construction
of the LOWESS t.
introducing a break-in-slope at the AptianAlbian boundary,
and stretching data into a plateau above 110 Ma.
Jurassic The data of Jones et al. (1994a,b) for the Toarcian,
Berriasian, Valanginian, Hauterivian, and Barremian stages
are replaced by data in McArthur et al. (2000), McArthur
et al. (2004), and McArthur and Janssen (unpub. data). For the
Valanginian and Berriasian, these data have been assigned nu-
merical ages based on equal zone duration, excepting that the
uppermost two Valanginian zones (of Criosarasinella furcillata
and Neocomites peregrinus) are allotted a duration that is one
half that of other zones. For the Hauterivian and Barremian
time, ages are assigned on the basis of a polynomial model
that assigns a linear increase of 87 Sr/86 Sr with time through
the Hauterivian and lowermost Barremian, and a maxima and
104 PA RT I I C O N C E P T S A N D M E T H O D S
Korte et al. (2003)
0.70795 Jones et al. (1994a)
Koepnick et al. (1990)
0.70785
Sr
86
Sr /
0.70775
87
0.70765
Jurassic Triassic
0.70755
0.70745
190 192 194 196 198 200 202 204
Numerical age (Ma)
Figure 7.6 Trend in 87 Sr/86 Sr at the TriassicJurassic boundary
and the accompanying LOWESS t, showing the 95% condence
intervals on the mean line.
downturn in 87 Sr/86 Sr through the ssicostatum, elegans, and
denkmanni ammonite zones (McArthur et al., 2004).
Triassic Two Rhaetian data are from Jones et al. (1994a). The
rest are from Koepnick et al. (1990) and Korte et al. (2003).
The peaks in the earliest and latest Triassic are shown in both
the second and third sets of data, but as the second data set
is based on analysis of whole rocks, and the last (around the
peaks) is based on conodonts, which do not preserve their iso-
tope ratios well, the amplitudes of the peaks may be enhanced
by artifacts of diagenesis. At the TriassicJurassic boundary
there is a possible mismatch (Figs. 7.2d and 7.6) between the
trend of the UK data of Jones et al. (1994a), which is calibrated
with ammonites, and the trend of the data of Korte et al. (2003)
and Koepnick et al. (1990), which is calibrated with conodonts.
The putative mismatch may result from problems of integrat-
ing these different biostratigraphic schemes; nevertheless, the
two Rhaetian samples of Jones et al. (1994a) fall on the Trias-
sic trend of the other authors, so it may be real and we have
honored the data in making a t through this interval (Fig.
7.6). The steepness of the rise in 87 Sr/86 Sr in the very earli-
est Triassic, and the apparent break-in-slope of the 87 Sr/86 Sr
curve at the PermianTriassic boundary (Fig. 7.2e), might be
revealing an undue compression of the time scale in the basal
Triassic.
Permian The Ochoan data of Denison et al. (1994) and the
data for the latest Permian given by Martin et al. (1995) differ
by up to 3.5 myr around the PermianTriassic boundary. We
include both data sets, despite the decrease in precision this
causes in the t, because the differences are certainly caused
by problems of age assignment and correlation. As with some
Carboniferous data, 87 Sr/86 Sr might here be used to correlate
the different sections used by these authors, rather than be
composited to form a global curve.
Carboniferous The Carboniferous data rely heavily on that
of Bruckschen et al. (1999) but those data show a large
spread, especially in the Serphukovian and Visean Stages; even
after extremes yers are ignored, values of 87 Sr/86 Sr range
from 0.707 637 to 0.707 805 around 332 Ma. Bruckschen et al.s
206 (1999) data from Germany group more tightly than do their
data from Belgium, and are mostly higher (by about 0.000 070).
The high spread of the data increases the width of the con-
dence interval in this part of the Carboniferous. The 87 Sr/86 Sr
data might be better used to rene correlation, particularly be-
tween the USA and Europe, than be used to construct a global
standard curve. Finally, much of the data of Denison et al.
(1994) for the late Carboniferous is some 0.000 100 higher in
87
Sr/86 Sr than data given in Bruckschen et al. (1999), so we
use only the latter in our t from 304 to 315 Ma.
Ordovician The trend in 87 Sr/86 Sr across the Cambrian
Ordovician boundary differs markedly between data sets
(Fig. 7.7). The least slope is seen in the data of Gao and
Land (1991) for the Arbuckle Limestone of Oklahoma. The
differences may be caused by incompatible local age models.
It is important to determine the trend because different trends
necessitate different rates of decline in 87 Sr/86 Sr in the mid
Ordovician (sensu lato), and the steeper ones having been
Ebneth et al . (2001): Texas and Australia
0.70915
Gao and Land (1991): Oklahoma
Denison et al . (1998)
0.70910
0.70905
Sr / Sr
86
0.70900
87
0.70895
0.70890
0.70885
0.70880
476 478 480 482 484 486 488 490 492 494 496 498
Numerical age (Ma)
Figure 7.7 Data trends for the CambrianOrdovician boundary,
showing the differences between authors.

interpreted as reecting major geologic events (Shields et al.,
2003). The data of Qing et al. (1998) show a step around the
LateMiddle Ordovician boundary of 0.708 041 to 0.708 698
over <1 myr, which must be a stratigraphic artifact. A lower,
but still steep, decrease of 87 Sr/86 Sr starts in the late Darriwil-
ian in the data of Shields et al. (2003); the decrease is less steep
again for the data of Denison et al. (1998), probably because it
starts in the early Darriwilian (equivalent). Where unusually
steep rates of change of 87 Sr/86 Sr with time have been noted
before, they have diminished with improved correlation,
improved age models, or identication of altered samples. We
have chosen to use Ebneth et al. (2001) for the Cambrian
Ordovician boundary interval and continue the Early and
Middle Ordovician trend using the data of Denison et al.
Strontium isotope stratigraphy 105
(1998), because that data relate to a few well-studied localities in
the USA, and result in the least-steep decline through the Or-
dovician. The data of Shields et al. (2003) and Qing et al. (1998)
supplement Denison et al. (1998) in the Late Ordovician.
Data gaps Finally, Fig. 7.2 reveals a paucity of reliable data
for many intervals of time (the late Albian to Turonian, most of
the Kimmeridgian and Berriasian, the Bajocian and Bathonian,
much of the Permian and the Devonian, some of the Ordovi-
cian, and most of the Cambrian). This lack is reected in the
large (>0.000 015) half-width of the condence interval on the
mean for the LOWESS t (Fig. 7.4); to reduce this uncertainty
substantially will require some threeve accurate and precise
87
Sr/86 Sr values per biozone.
8 Geomathematics
. .
The inputs for the calculation of a numerical time scale are a set of
radiometric dates with variable uncertainty in both time (in myr) and
stratigraphic position (in biozones). For the Paleozoic and Mesozoic,
these selected input dates are irregularly distributed with respect to a
biostratigraphic scale derived from graphical correlation, constrained
optimization, or successive biozonal units; and for the Cenozoic, the
dates are correlated to relative seaoor distances of marine magnetic
anomalies. Spline tting combined with Ripleys Maximum Like-
lihood tting of a Functional Relationship produces a linear time
scale with error bars on the boundary ages and durations of geo-
logic stages. These methods were applied to OrdovicianSilurian,
Devonian, CarboniferousPermian, the PermianTriassic boundary,
Late Cretaceous, and Paleogene date sets.
8 . 1 H I S T O RY A N D OV E RV I E W
8.1.1 Statistical estimation of chronostratigraphic
boundary ages (with error bars)
The starting point for construction of numerical time scales,
as described in this chapter, is a data set of ages, measured in
millions of years, with 2-sigma error bars, for samples posi-
tioned along a relative stratigraphic scale of which the unit is
approximately proportional to time (also measured in millions
of years). Spline-curve tting is used to relate the observed ages
to their stratigraphic position. During this process the ages are
weighted according to their variances based on the lengths of
their error bars. A chi-square test can be used for identifying
and reducing the weights of the relatively few outliers exhibit-
ing error bars that are much narrower than expected on the
basis of most ages in the data set.
Stratigraphic uncertainty is incorporated in the weights
assigned to the observed ages during spline-curve tting.
In the nal stage of analysis, Ripleys Maximum Likelihood
tting of a Functional Relationship (MLFR) algorithm is
used for error estimation, resulting in 2-sigma error bars for
A Geologic Time Scale 2004, eds. Felix M. Gradstein, James G. Ogg, and Alan
G. Smith. Published by Cambridge University Press.
c F. M. Gradstein,
J. G. Ogg, and A. G. Smith 2004.
106
the estimated chronostratigraphic boundary ages and stage
durations. The method is applied to OrdovicianSilurian,
Devonian, CarboniferousPermian, Late Cretaceous, and
Paleogene data sets.
In this chapter, previous methods used to construct time
scales are briey reviewed. The approach adopted by GTS2004
places more emphasis on the relative stratigraphic position
of the few samples for which precise age dates are available.
It is based on methods, Sections 8.1.38.1.4, of straight-line
construction applied to more or less homogeneous data sets
previously developed for Paleozoic periods. Application of
the method to dating specic boundaries is addressed in Sec-
tions 8.28.3. The chapter ends with a summary of results
(Section 8.4). Appendix 3 provides previously undocumented
mathematical aspects of the approach.
The weights assigned to the age dates are inversely pro-
portional to their variances. The latter are proportional to the
squares of the lengths of the 2-sigma error bars. Consequently,
an age date with an error bar that would be 10 times smaller
would receive 100 times as much weight during the statistical
analysis. This is one of the main reasons for testing all ages in
the same data set for homogeneity. This aspect is emphasized
in Section 8.2.
The Late Cretaceous and Paleogene applications primar-
ily use 40 Ar/39 Ar age dates for which it is important to dis-
tinguish between external and internal uncertainty. For ex-
ample, the Late Cretaceous data set uses 40 Ar/39 Ar ages
with published errors that do not consider uncertainties as-
sociated with measurement of the KAr age of the uence
monitor or errors related to the determination of decay con-
stants. Although the data set is homogeneous from a statis-
tical point of view, uncertainties of both the slope and the
intercept of the nal best-tting straight line have been in-
creased to account for external uncertainties. This type of
adjustment and others are discussed in more detail in Sec-
tion 8.3.
Data tables with zonal assignments and age dates for each
of the periods on which the calculations were carried out are
presented in Chapters 1217, 19, and 20.

8.1.2 History
Geological time scales are constructed by combining strati-
graphic information with radiometric dates and their standard
deviations. The stratigraphic record to be used includes litho-,
bio-, chrono-, cyclo-, and magnetostratigraphy. Statistical
methods should embody concepts and data available for the pe-
riods considered. For the construction of several previous time
scales, ages of stage boundaries were estimated by application of
the chronogram method (Harland et al., 1982, 1990), or maxi-
mum likelihood (Gradstein et al., 1994a, 1995), to a world-wide
database of chronostratigraphically classied dates. These
methods, which can also be applied to more closely spaced
zone boundaries (Palfy et al., 2000a), resulted in age estimates
accompanied by approximate 95% condence intervals. A
nal time scale was obtained by calibration using graphical
and curve-tting methods including cubic smoothing splines.
New challenges for construction of the GTS2004 numer-
ical time scale include:
1. use of new age determinations that can be an order of
magnitude more precise than earlier dates,
2. consideration of information on external versus internal
uncertainty of age determinations especially for 40 Ar/39 Ar
dates, and
3. astronomical calibration of parts of the time scale by cycle-
tuning
Odin (1994) discussed three separate approaches to nu-
merical time scale construction: statistical, geochronological,
and graphical methods. Gradstein et al. (1994a, 1995) used
all three approaches in a step-wise procedure involving maxi-
mum likelihood, use of stratigraphically constrained dates, and
recalibration by curve tting.
The chronogram method used in Harland et al. (1982,
1990) is suitable for estimation of the age of chronostrati-
graphic boundaries from a radiometric database when most
rock samples used for age determination are subject to sig-
nicant relative uncertainty. Inconsistencies in the vicinity of
chronostratigraphic boundaries then can be ascribed to impre-
cision of the age determination method.
Cox and Dalrymple (1967) originally developed an ap-
proach for estimating the age of Cenozoic chron boundaries
from inconsistent KAr age determinations of basaltic rocks.
Harland et al. (1982, 1990) adopted this method in their calcu-
lations of ages of stage boundaries for the 1982 and 1990 time
scales. The basic principle of this approach is as follows.
Assuming a hypothetical trial age for an observed chrono-
stratigraphic boundary, rock samples from above this boundary
should be younger, and those below it should be older. An
Geomathematics 107
inconsistent date is either an older date for a rock sample known
to be younger than the trial date, or a younger date for a sample
known to be older. The difference between each inconsistent
date and the trial age can be standardized by dividing it by
the standard deviation of the inconsistent date. Thus relatively
imprecise dates receive less weight than more precise dates.
The underlying assumptions are that: (1) the rock samples
are uniformly distributed along the time axis, and (2) the error
of each date satises a normal (Gaussian) error distribution
with standard deviation equal to that of the age determination
method used.
Standardized differences between inconsistent dates and
trial age can be squared and the sum of squares (written as
E 2 ) determined for all inconsistent dates corresponding to the
same trial age. Chronograms constructed by Harland et al.
(1982) were basket-shaped plots of E 2 against different trial
ages spaced at narrow time intervals. The optimum choice of
age was at the trial age where E 2 was a minimum.
Agterberg (1988) made the following improvement to this
method. In addition to inconsistent dates, there are gener-
ally more consistent dates for any trial age selected for a
chronostratigraphic boundary. The statistical maximum like-
lihood method can be used to combine consistent with incon-
sistent dates resulting in an improved estimate of the age of
the chronostratigraphic boundary considered. Each standard-
ized difference with respect to a trial age was interpreted as
the fractile of the normal distribution in standard form, and
transformed into its corresponding probability. Summation of
the logarithmically transformed probabilities then yields the
log-likelihood value of the trial date. In this type of calcula-
tion, inconsistent dates receive more weight than consistent
dates. Consequently, the improvement resulting from using
consistent dates, in addition to the inconsistent dates, is rel-
atively minor. The log-likelihood function is beehive-shaped.
For examples, see Gradstein et al. (1995).
A general disadvantage of chronogram methods is that the
relative stratigraphic position of the sample is generalized with
respect to stage boundaries that are relatively far apart in time.
The relative stratigraphic position of one sample with respect
to another within the same stage is not considered. A better ap-
proach is to incorporate relative stratigraphic positions of fewer
samples for which precise age determinations are available.
8.1.3 Spline-curve tting with consideration
of stratigraphic uncertainty
The objective of the statistical analysis described in this
chapter is to combine age determinations with stratigraphic
108 PA RT I I C O N C E P T S A N D M E T H O D S
information in order to estimate the ages of chronostrati-
graphic boundaries, together with their 2-sigma error bars.
Additionally, the approach can be used for calculating error
bars of stage or zone durations.
The rst stage of the approach consists of tting a cubic
smoothing spline curve according to the method previously
described in detail for the Mesozoic time scale in Gradstein
et al. (1994a, 1995) and Agterberg (1988, 1994). Age determi-
nations are plotted in the vertical direction (along the y-axis)
against relative stratigraphic position (x-axis). Each age deter-
mination is weighted according to the inverse of its variance
corresponding to the published 2-sigma (or 1-sigma) error bar.
If stratigraphic uncertainty is incorporated, this variance be-
comes s t2 ( y) = s 2 (x) + s 2 ( y) instead of s 2 (y).
A cubic-smoothing spline f (x) is fully determined by n
pairs of values (xi , yi ), the standard deviations of the dates
s (yi ), and a smoothing factor (SF) representing the square root
of the average value of the squares of scaled residuals r i =
( yi f (xi ))/s ( yi ). If all s (yi ) values are unbiased, SF 1, or
SF is equal to a value slightly less than 1 (cf. Agterberg, 1994,
p. 874). If SF signicantly exceeds 1, this suggests that some or
all of the variances used are too small (under-reported). Thus
the spline-tting method provides an independent method of
assessing mutual consistency and average precision of pub-
lished 2-sigma error bars.
The method of leave-off-one cross-validation can be
used to determine the optimum smoothing factor. In this
method, all observed dates yi , between the oldest and youngest
one, are successively left out from spline tting with pre-
selected trial values of SF. The result is (n 2) spline curves
for each SF tried. The cross-validation value for any SF is the
sum of squares of deviations between yi and estimated values
on the (n 2) spline curves with the same xi values as yi . The
best SF has the smallest cross-validation value.
It is noted that even if the cross-validation pattern shows a
well-developed minimum at a value not close to 1, adoption of
the optimum SF value instead of SF = 1 generally constitutes
only a minor improvement of the spline curve. In Paleozoic ap-
plications (Section 8.2), the optimum SF is consistently greater
than 1. Setting SF = 1 would result in slightly more curved
spline curves.
Relative stratigraphic position along the x-axis is according
to a continuous scale that is the same for all age determinations
used. For the Late Cretaceous, bentonite ages originally de-
termined by Obradovich (1993) are used. These occur within
ammonite zones of the US Western Interior sedimentary se-
quence. The position of each sample is plotted along a scale
derived by numbering all ammonite zones (with or without
bentonites). The xi values represent positions of bentonites
within the ammonite zones that contain them. For example,
ammonite zone No. 25 contains bentonite date No. 7, therefore
x7 = 25; date No. 15 is reported to occur at the base of zone
No. 47, therefore x15 = 47.5.
Composite standard zonal scales are used for rela-
tive stratigraphic position in the OrdovicianSilurian and
CarboniferousPermian data sets. Relative positions of Or-
dovician and Silurian ages are determined by means of a
composite stratigraphic standard scale derived by Cooper and
Sadler (cf. Chapters 12 and 13) by application of the CONOP
method to graptolite zones. For the Devonian, the optimized
zonal scale of M. House (cf. Chapter 14), representing relative
stratigraphic ranges of ammonites and conodont taxa within
the Devonian, is used. Similar methods are used to obtain dates
for other geologic periods.
To some extent, the scale initially used for relative strati-
graphic position determines the shape of the nal spline curve.
A relative stratigraphic scale should be used that is as close
as possible to the numerical geologic time scale (in millions of
years) except for a linear transformation. Relative stratigraphic
scales used in the past include scales based on sediment accu-
mulation corrected for differences in rates of sedimentation,
the hypothesis of equal duration of stages (Harland et al., 1982),
and the hypothesis of equal duration of biozones (Kent and
Gradstein, 1986; Harland et al., 1990; Gradstein et al., 1995).
Unless its unit is consistently proportional to geologic time
measured in millions of years, the numerical time scale result-
ing from spline tting is not linearly related to the initial relative
time scale. It is, however, linearly related to geologic time in mil-
lions of years. This allows for gradual changes over time in the
original, hypothetical process on the basis of which the initial
relative time scale is constructed. For example, deviations from
a straight line on a tted spline curve may represent corrections
of changes in sedimentation rate or rate of evolutional change.
Relative stratigraphic position has its own uncertainty. For
the Late Cretaceous, the stratigraphic error bar is relatively
narrow because it is generally equal to the unit representing
the interval between the base and the top of the ammonite zone
containing one of the bentonite layers sampled. Because strati-
graphic uncertainty is relatively little, statistical treatment of
the Late Cretaceous data set is easier than in Paleozoic ap-
plications. Stratigraphic uncertainty can also be neglected for
the Paleogene data set, where stratigraphic position will be set
equal to distance from spreading center in the South Atlantic
(Section 8.3.2).
In Paleozoic applications, the stratigraphic error bars can
be relatively wide. Stratigraphic uncertainty then adds to the

uncertainty expressed by the 2-sigma error bars of the age
determinations. A strategy to cope with this additional source
of uncertainty will be discussed later.
8.1.4 General comments on straight-line tting
McKerrow et al. (1985) described the following type of method
to construct a numerical time scale for the Ordovician, Silurian,
and Devonian. Use was made of an iterative construction in-
volving a sequence of diagrams wherein the isotopic age of the
sample was plotted along the x-axis and its stratigraphic age
along the y-axis. They stated:
Most graphs are constructed with denite numerical scales
along both the x and y axes; this is not the case with g. 1,
where only the horizontal (x) axis is numerical. The vertical
(y) axis is a stratigraphic time scale, showing periods, se-
ries, stages and zones; the precise duration of each of these
time divisions is unknown. In fact the whole object of this
documentation is to determine, as far as possible with the
evidence available, what estimates can be given on the dura-
tion of these stratigraphic divisions. Thus in the course of
preparing this gure, we have constructed a series of graphs,
each with slightly differing vertical scales, until we obtained
a scale which allowed a straight line to pass through almost
all the rectangles representing the analytical errors (2 ) and
the stratigraphic uncertainties in the data we use.
In a later paper on the Ordovician time scale, Cooper
(1999b) used 14 analytically reliable and stratigraphically con-
trolled high-resolution TIMS UPb zircon dates and a single
SmNd date. Adopting a modied version of the McKerrow
method, Cooper plotted these Ordovician dates along a relative
time scale that was then re-proportioned as necessary to achieve
a good t with a straight line obtained by linear regression. This
method of relative shortening and lengthening of parts of the
Ordovician time scale was based mainly on a comparison of
sediment accumulation rates in widely different regions and,
to some extent, on empirical re-proportioning.
Agterberg (2002) subjected Coopers (1999b) data to spline
tting and found that the optimum smoothing factor corre-
sponds to a straight-line t. He then used Ripleys MLFR
method (cf. Appendix 3) to t a straight line in which strati-
graphic uncertainty was considered as well. Coopers original
stratigraphic error bars were converted into standard devia-
tions as follows.
Each stratigraphic standard deviation s (x) was set 15%
larger than one-quarter of the error bar shown in Coopers
(1999b) Fig. 1. This is because the rectangular frequency
Geomathematics 109
distribution model better represents this type of stratigraphic
uncertainty than the Gaussian frequency distribution model
employed for the measurement errors of the dates.
If the length of a stratigraphic error bar is written as q , the
variance of a rectangular frequency density distribution (with
base q ) is q 2 /12 instead of q 2 /16 for the Gaussian distribution.
This translates into a standard deviation s (x) = 1.15/(q /4).
The stratigraphic error bars to be used for analysis in this
documentation were treated in the same manner.
Spline tting provides estimated f (x) values that are inde-
pendent of origin and scale of the relative time scale along the
x-axis. However, when stratigraphic standard deviations s (xi )
are to be combined with s (yi ) values, care should be taken that
both s (xi ) and s (yi ) are expressed in millions of years. For s (xi )
values, a good approximation is obtained by setting the interval
between oldest and youngest observed ages along the relative
scale equal to the difference between these two ages in millions
of years.
If the original relative time scale is not linearly related to
the numerical time scale, spline tting provides an objective
method for shortening or lengthening of parts of the relative
time scale. This is because a straight-line pattern is obtained
when the original dates yi are plotted against the f (xi ) values
on the best-tting spline curve. Writing Y = f (x), the result,
generally, is a plot on which the points ( yi ,Yi ) scatter around
a straight line that, to a good approximation, slopes at 45 and
passes through the origin. The unit along both axes on this
plot is age in millions of years.
This approach can be taken one step further: the scatter of
the points about the best-tting straight line in the nal plot
can be used to calculate 2-sigma error bars on the f (x) value (in
millions of years) of any x including the chronostratigraphic
boundaries of interest. Suppose that the straight line on the
nal plot is written in the form Y ! = a + b x. The intercept
a (0) and slope b (1) can be regarded as random variables
with expected values that can be estimated, together with their
variances s 2 (a) and s 2 (b ), and their covariance s (a, b ). Because
x is not a random variable, Y ! is a random variable with variance
s 2 (Y !) = s 2 (a) + x 2 s 2 (b ) + 2x s (a, b ).
The preceding equation results in the familiar hyperbolic
95% condence interval around a best-tting straight line
Y ! = a + b x. It is an application of the general expression
for the variance of a linear function of random variables (see,
for example, Hald, 1952, p. 118).
Some remarks may be appropriate regarding notation. The
subscripts i (for observations) and k (for chronostratigraphic
boundaries) are omitted when this does not create misunder-
standing. Final estimates of the ages of chronostratigraphic
110 PA RT I I C O N C E P T S A N D M E T H O D S

boundaries may be the end product of an iterative process in-
volving the tting of several, successive curves or straight lines.
The nal estimates to be used satisfy Y = f (x), representing
values on the last spline curve tted. The values Y ! = a + b x
then fall on a straight line obtained after setting x = Y for
the nal supplementary (MLFR) straight-line tting. The pur-
pose of this MLFR straight-line tting is not to improve Y,
because Y ! Y, but to estimate s 2 (Y !) s 2 (Y ), which cannot
be estimated otherwise. As a rule, the x-axis on a plot is hori-
zontal (and the y-axis is vertical), but best-t Y values become
x values during supplementary straight-line tting. Final 95%
condence intervals on estimated values are usually referred
to as 2-sigma error bars.
8 . 2 PA L E O Z O I C A P P L I C AT I O N S
8.2.1 Straight-line tting for Ordovician
and Silurian ages
The initial relative stratigraphic scale of the Ordovician
Silurian is the CONOP composite standard as calculated by
Cooper and Sadler (Chapters 12 and 13) for graptolite zones.
A plot of the 22 ages in this data set against the CONOP scale
gives a nearly linear pattern except for possible curvature near
the base of the Ordovician.
Table 8.1 shows results of zero-stratigraphic-error spline-
curve tting with chi-square testing of scaled residuals. In-
dividual scaled residuals are either positive or negative and
should be approximately distributed as Z values (from the nor-
mal Gaussian frequency distribution). Their squares, then,
are chi-square distributed with one degree of freedom. The
sum of squares of several scaled residuals is also approximately
distributed as chi-square but with a larger number of degrees
of freedom. This method will be discussed in more detail in
Section 8.2.2.
There are two small probabilities in the last column of
Table 8.1. However, because the initial pattern is close to a
straight line, it was decided to repeat the analysis incorporat-
ing stratigraphic uncertainty from the beginning. Chi-square
testing results are shown in Table 8.2. Again there are two small
probabilities in the last column.
The rst relatively large chi-square value (14.92 in row 3 of
Table 8.2) is for a 426.8 0.85 Ma 40 Ar/39 Ar date discussed

Table 8.1 Preliminary OrdovicianSilurian spline-curve values Table 8.2 OrdovicianSilurian: re-calculation of spline curve
(Ma) compared to 1-sigma age determination errorsa using s (t) instead of s ( y)a

E O s ( y) OE Chi-square Prob. E s (x) O s ( y) s (t) Chi-square Prob.

417.92 417.6 0.5 0.32 0.41 0.52 417.97 0.42 417.6 0.5 0.66 0.32 0.58
423.24 421.0 1.00 2.24 5.02 0.03 423.20 0.28 421.0 1.00 1.04 4.49 0.03
423.28 426.8 0.85 3.52 17.16 0.00 423.24 0.35 426.8 0.85 0.92 14.92 0.00
431.38 430.1 1.20 1.28 1.13 0.29 431.61 1.13 430.1 1.20 1.65 0.83 0.36
439.10 436.2 2.50 2.90 1.35 0.25 439.42 0.28 436.2 2.50 2.52 1.64 0.20
439.96 438.7 1.05 1.26 1.45 0.23 440.27 0.28 438.7 1.05 1.09 2.09 0.15
445.25 445.7 1.20 0.45 0.14 0.71 445.41 0.28 445.7 1.20 1.23 0.05 0.82
452.18 454.1 1.10 1.92 3.04 0.08 452.15 0.57 454.1 1.10 1.24 2.48 0.12
453.41 453.1 0.65 0.31 0.23 0.63 453.37 0.28 453.1 0.65 0.71 0.14 0.71
454.40 454.5 0.25 0.10 0.15 0.69 454.35 0.28 454.5 0.25 0.38 0.16 0.69
455.24 457.4 1.10 2.16 3.84 0.05 455.19 0.28 457.4 1.10 1.14 3.80 0.05
455.24 454.8 0.85 0.44 0.27 0.60 455.19 0.28 454.8 0.85 0.90 0.19 0.67
456.97 456.9 0.90 0.07 0.01 0.94 456.91 0.64 456.9 0.90 1.10 0.00 1.00
456.98 455.0 1.50 1.98 1.74 0.19 456.92 0.28 455.0 1.50 1.53 1.57 0.21
462.11 460.4 1.10 1.71 2.41 0.12 461.94 0.42 460.4 1.10 1.18 1.71 0.19
464.72 464.6 0.90 0.12 0.02 0.90 464.41 0.28 464.6 0.90 0.94 0.04 0.84
467.03 464.0 1.00 3.03 9.20 0.00 466.55 0.57 464.0 1.00 1.15 4.93 0.03
467.04 465.7 1.05 1.34 1.62 0.20 466.55 0.28 465.7 1.05 1.09 0.61 0.43
467.91 469.0 2.00 1.09 0.30 0.59 467.35 0.28 469.0 2.00 2.02 0.67 0.41
481.19 483.0 0.50 1.81 13.05 0.00 479.83 0.99 483.0 0.50 1.11 8.14 0.00
489.55 489.0 0.30 0.55 3.40 0.07 490.07 1.13 489.0 0.30 1.17 0.84 0.36
490.33 491.0 0.50 0.67 1.77 0.18 491.10 1.20 491.0 0.50 1.30 0.01 0.94

a E values on zero stratigraphic error spline curve; O, Observed values; s ( y) = a E values on re-calculated spline curve; s (x), stratigraphic uncertainty;
1-sigma error; chi-square = (O E)2 /s 2 ( y ); Prob., probability. s 2 (t) = s 2 (x) + s 2 (y); Prob., probability.
 Geomathematics 111

0.059 490
480
0.058
470
Cross-validation value

0.057
460

Age (Ma)
0.056 450

0.055 440
430
0.054
420
0.053 410

0.052 400
1.2 1.25 1.3 1.35 1.4 1.45 1.5 1.55 1.6 1.65 1.7 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Smoothing factor (SF) Relative stratigraphic position (composite standard)

Figure 8.1 OrdovicianSilurian spline-curve cross-validation. Figure 8.2 OrdovicianSilurian time scale: observed versus
estimated values.

Table 8.3 OrdovicianSilurian: calculation of 95% condence interval (2-sigma)a

x (Spline) y (Obs.) s (t) Chi-square Prob. Y ! (Cal.) 2-sigma

415.97 417.6 0.66 6.95 0.01 415.87 0.99

421.75 421.0 1.04 0.41 0.52 421.66 0.87
421.79 426.8 5.29 0.93 0.34 421.71 0.87
431.16 430.1 1.65 0.37 0.54 431.10 0.68
439.63 436.2 2.52 1.81 0.18 439.59 0.54
440.52 438.7 1.09 2.68 0.10 440.48 0.53
445.78 445.7 1.23 0.00 0.97 445.75 0.47
452.51 454.1 1.24 1.67 0.1962 452.50 0.44
453.72 453.1 0.71 0.74 0.3886 453.71 0.44
454.69 454.5 0.38 0.26 0.6127 454.69 0.44
455.53 457.4 1.14 2.72 0.0991 455.53 0.44
455.53 454.8 0.90 0.66 0.4171 455.53 0.44
457.23 456.9 1.10 0.09 0.7591 457.24 0.45
457.24 455.0 1.53 2.17 0.1409 457.25 0.45
462.18 460.4 1.18 2.31 0.1285 462.19 0.49
464.55 464.6 0.94 0.00 0.9735 464.57 0.52
466.57 464.0 1.15 5.09 0.0240 466.59 0.55
466.57 465.7 1.09 0.68 0.4102 466.60 0.55
467.31 469.0 2.02 0.67 0.4121 467.34 0.56
478.78 483.0 1.11 14.01 0.0002 478.84 0.77
488.40 489.0 1.17 0.19 0.6632 488.49 0.97
489.37 491.0 1.30 1.40 0.2369 489.46 0.99

a x (Spline) on curve of Fig. 8.8; s 2 (t) = s 2 (x) + s 2 (y); Prob., probability.

in Section 8.2.2. Replacing its s (t) value by 0.53 myr (instead
of 0.92 myr) after setting its probability equal to 0.5, and re-
tting the spline curve produced the results shown in Figs. 8.1
and 8.2.
The smoothest possible spline curve is a straight line. The
cross-validation value does not show any increase toward larger
smoothing factors (SF) if the best-tting spline curve is a
straight line. Although the minimum cross-validation value in
Fig. 8.1 is not as sharply dened as those in other applications
(e.g. Fig. 8.5, see later), it is possible to select an optimum
smoothing factor of about 1.45 that corresponds to a curved
spline rather than a straight line.
Table 8.3 shows results based on the spline curve of Fig. 8.2.
The third chi-square value (14.01) from the bottom of Table 8.3
112 PA RT I I C O N C E P T S A N D M E T H O D S

3.0 Table 8.4 Final estimates a of the age of Ordovician and

2.5 Silurian stage boundaries and durations of stages
2.0
1.5 Duration
Scaled residual

1.0 Period Stage Base (Ma) (myr)

0.5 Devonian 416.0 2.8
0 Silurian
0.5 Pridolian 418.7 2.7 2.7 0.1
Ludfordian 421.3 2.6 2.5 0.1
1.0
Gorstian 422.9 2.5 1.7 0.1
1.5
Homerian 426.2 2.4 3.3 0.1
2.0 Scheinwoodian 428.2 2.3 2.0 0.1
410 420 430 440 450 460 470 480 490 500
Estimated age (Ma)
Telychian 436.0 1.9 7.9 0.2
Aeronian 439.0 1.8 2.9 0.1
Figure 8.3 OrdovicianSilurian scaled residuals.
Rhuddanian 443.7 1.5 4.7 0.1
Ordovician
490 Stage 6 450.2 1.6 6.5 0.2
2,3 Stage 5 460.9 1.6 10.6 0.3
480
1 Stage 4 468.1 1.6 7.3 0.2
470
(Darriwilian)
460 Stage 3 471.8 1.6 3.7 0.1
Age (Ma)

450 Stage 2 478.6 1.7 6.8 0.2

440
430
420 3
410
2 1
400
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Relative stratigraphic position (composite standard)
Figure 8.4 Comparison of OrdovicianSilurian spline curves: 1,
based on original data; 2, as shown in Fig. 8.2; 3, alternative model
(see text).
is too large for the 483 1 Ma age, which could be an out-
lier. Dividing the scaled residuals by their standard deviation
(1.51) produces the plot of Fig. 8.3 on which this age is
the only Z value outside the (1.96, 1.96) 95% condence
interval.
Inspection of the stratigraphic error bar of 483 1 Ma
shows that it is asymmetrical, extending downward along the
CONOP composite standard scale. The current approach is
based on the assumption that all error bars are symmetrical. It
is not possible to account for the asymmetry of this error bar
exactly, but moving its position toward a higher age along the
relative stratigraphic scale would be equivalent to reducing its
scaled residual value.
From the preceding analysis it follows that the spline curve
of Fig. 8.2 is probably the best t. As an experiment, Fig. 8.4
shows three spline curves obtained after enlarging the s (t) value
of none, one, and both of the two ages with the large chi-square
values in Table 8.2, respectively. The preferred curve of Fig. 8.4
Stage 1 488.3 1.7 9.7 0.2
(Tremadocian)
Cambrian
a Estimates of uncertainty in 2-sigma.
(Series 2) is close to being a straight line except near the base
of the Ordovician where it shows a slight bend occupying a
position between the other two splines.
Differences between Y ! (from the MLFR line) and spline-
curve values (column 1) are negligibly small in Table 8.3. The
2-sigma values in the last column show the typical pattern of a
95% condence belt for a best-tting straight line that is nar-
rowest at the center of the cluster of data points. At the top of
the Silurian (416.0 Ma), 2-sigma is 0.99 myr. In the sample-
point distribution adjustment (cf. Section 8.3.1), this rela-
tively large value, corresponding to the youngest stage bound-
ary, is accepted as a conservative estimate of 2-sigma for the
entire data set.
Final estimates of the ages of the Ordovician and Silurian
stage boundaries and durations are given in Table 8.4. Note:
This was computed before the Ordovician subcommission revised
the denition of Stage 6 (see Chapter 12).
The method used to estimate 2-sigma values (95% con-
dence intervals) for stage boundaries and durations will be
discussed in more detail in Sections 8.2.2 and 8.3.1. Summa-
rizing, it can be said that the 2-sigma value of a stage base is
equal to the product of the age estimate (millions of years)
 Geomathematics 113

and an age uncertainty factor that amounts to 0.00345 for greater than can be expected on the basis of the s ( y) value used
the OrdovicianSilurian data set. The corresponding duration for scaling the residual.
uncertainty factor is 0.0249. A comparison of uncertainty fac- As can be seen from column 6, these probabilities for the
tors for all applications will be given in Table 8.16. last two dates are very small and it is likely that the s ( y) values
Ordovician 2-sigma values were calculated from the un- are too small. Replacement of probabilities that are too small
certainty factors for the OrdovicianSilurian data set. To by 0.5 results in the revised s ( y) values in the last column of
provide a smooth transition from Ordovician to Devonian Table 8.5. Setting the probability equal to 50% is equivalent
uncertainties, Silurian 2-sigma values were increased toward to replacing the chi-square value by 0.4549. This is the same
the base of the Devonian by linear interpolation between base- as adopting a new Z value of 0.674, because chi-square with a
Rhuddanian (the basal Silurian Stage) and base-Lochkovian single degree of freedom is Z 2 .
(the basal Devonian stage), a process described as ramping. The details of replacing the s ( y) value are illustrated in
the following example for the bottom row of Table 8.5. The
8.2.2 Straight-line tting for Devonian ages original chi-square value (7.65) was divided by the new chi-
square value (0.4549). This yields 16.82. Multiplication of the
Table 8.5 shows results of tting a zero-stratigraphic error line square root of this result (4.10) by the original s ( y) value yields
to the 14 Devonian dates used. The values in column 1 fall the new s ( y) value of 4.10 0.85 (i.e. 3.49).
on a spline curve similar to the one previously obtained for the The bottom row is for 426.8 1.7 Ma, representing the
OrdovicianSilurian. The last two values in column 1 are equal only 40 Ar/39 Ar date in the Devonian data set. Originally it
because they correspond to samples from Gorstian strata of the was reported as 423.7 1.7 Ma (Kunk et al., 1985) and its new
N. nilssoniL. scanicus conodont zones. These samples have the value used here was the result of J-factor conversion. The other
same position along the initial relative stratigraphic scale by Gorstian date (420.7 2.2 Ma) is an average age taken from
House (see Chapter 14) although their dates are different. the KAr and Rb-Sr dates of Wyborn et al. (1982). These two
As shown in column 4 of Table 8.5, the differences between are the only non-zircon dates in the Devonian data set and it
observed and estimated dates are relatively large for these last is likely that their precision was overstated. For the 40 Ar/39 Ar
two values. Division by their s ( y) values and squaring them date, this is because external uncertainty was not considered
gives the approximate chi-square values in column 5. Each (cf. discussion in Section 8.3.1 on the nature of Late Cretaceous
chi-square value has a single degree of freedom and can be 40
Ar/39 Ar dates).
converted into a probability to test the hypothesis that it is not Column 2 of Table 8.6 shows stratigraphic standard devia-
tions s (x) of the Devonian dates based on measurements along
Table 8.5 Preliminary Devonian spline-curve values compared the House scale. The s (x) values of the two Gorstian dates are
to 1-sigma age determination errors a not abnormally large. In fact, they are smaller than most other
s (x) values. This indicates that the large chi-square values of
E O s ( y) OE Chi-square Prob. New s ( y)
Table 8.5 cannot be due to stratigraphic uncertainty.
359.32 358.3 2.10 1.02 0.23 0.63 2.10 For the preceding reasons, the new s ( y) values derived in
359.32 360.4 2.80 1.08 0.15 0.70 2.80
Table 8.5 were accepted for tting a new spline curve with s (t)
359.69 361.0 2.05 1.31 0.41 0.52 2.05
363.85 363.6 0.80 0.25 0.10 0.76 0.80 replacing s ( y). The recalculated spline-curve values in the rst
380.61 381.1 0.80 0.49 0.37 0.54 0.80 column of Table 8.6 differ signicantly from those in column
390.22 391.4 0.90 1.18 1.73 0.19 0.90 1, Table 8.5. The s (t) values that satisfy s 2 (t) = s 2 (x) + s 2 (y)
390.22 390.0 0.25 0.22 0.76 0.38 0.25 can be used for a new chi-square test as shown in Table 8.6.
406.43 408.3 0.95 1.87 3.86 0.05 0.95 The probabilities in column 6 of Table 8.6 indicate that
410.35 409.9 3.30 0.45 0.02 0.89 3.30
the seventh Devonian date listed (390 0.5 Ma) has a 2-sigma
415.07 413.4 3.30 1.67 0.26 0.61 3.30
417.89 417.6 0.95 0.29 0.10 0.76 0.95 value that is under-reported. This is the monazite age of Roden
421.22 420.2 1.95 1.02 0.27 0.60 1.95 et al. (1990). Its s (t) value was increased to 3.09 after replacing
424.45 420.7 1.10 3.75 11.62 0.00 5.56 its probability of 0.0018 by 0.5.
424.45 426.8 0.85 2.35 7.65 0.01 3.49 It should be kept in mind that the preceding chi-square test
does not provide a totally objective rule for deciding whether or
a E-values on zero-stratigraphic error spline curve; O, observed values;
s (y) = 1-sigma error; chi-square = (O E)2 /s 2 (y); probability that s =
not a published 2-sigma bar is too narrow. Sample size also has
1-sigma; new s ( y) for P < 0.01 only; Prob., probability. to be considered: n = 14 dates were used for the Devonian.
114 PA RT I I C O N C E P T S A N D M E T H O D S

Table 8.6 Devonian: re-calculation of spline curve using 450

s (t) instead of s (y)a 440
430
Y s (x) y s ( y) s (t) Chi-square Prob.
420

Age (Ma)
358.31 1.55 358.3 2.10 2.62 0.00 1.00 410
358.31 0.77 360.4 2.80 2.91 0.52 0.47
400
358.71 1.55 361.0 2.05 2.58 0.79 0.37
362.89 0.77 363.6 0.80 1.12 0.41 0.52 390
378.13 1.86 381.1 0.80 2.04 2.12 0.15 380
392.09 0.46 391.4 0.90 1.01 0.46 0.50 370
392.09 0.62 390.0 0.25 0.67 9.76 0.00
360
401.94 2.94 408.3 0.95 3.11 4.18 0.04 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
405.20 2.79 409.9 3.30 4.33 1.18 0.28 Relative stratigraphic position
410.75 0.77 413.4 3.30 3.39 0.61 0.43 (House scale)
414.87 0.62 417.6 0.95 1.14 5.76 0.02 Figure 8.6 Devonian time scale: observed versus estimated values.
419.75 0.93 420.2 1.95 2.16 0.04 0.84
424.26 0.62 420.7 5.56 5.59 0.40 0.52
424.26 0.62 426.8 3.49 3.54 0.52 0.47
used to t the corresponding straight line. This gave the Y !
and 2-sigma error bars based on s (Y !) shown in columns 6
aY values on re-calculated spline curve; s (x) stratigraphic uncertainty; and 7.
s 2 (t) = s 2 (t) + s 2 (y); Prob., probability. The 2-sigma values of Table 8.7 and the scaled residu-
als were adjusted for sample-point distribution and also for
0.100 average square of scaled residuals. This was achieved as fol-
0.099 lows: the sum of squares of residuals standardized with respect
0.098 to s (ti ) would exceed its expected value if age determination
Cross-validation value

0.097 or stratigraphic error were systematically underestimated. For

0.096 this reason, nal scaled residuals (last column of Table 8.7) were
0.095 computed by articially setting their average square equal to 1.
0.094
This procedure reduces the values in the preceding column by
0.093
about 29% in absolute value.
0.092
The preceding correction of setting the average square of
0.091
scaled residuals equal to unity results in slightly wider error
0.090
0.089
bars. In the Paleozoic applications described in this chapter,
0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 scaled residuals r i = (yi Yi )/s (t) are on average greater than
Smoothing factor (SF)
expected even after eliminating the effects of outliers. This sug-
Figure 8.5 Devonian spline-curve cross-validation. gests that s (t) values may slightly overestimate true precision
by the same factor slightly greater than one.
One can ask questions such as the following. What are the
possibilities that probabilities less than 0.0007 or 0.0057 occur
AV E R AG E S Q UA R E O F S C A L E D R E S I D UA L
when n = 14 as in Table 8.5? These secondary probabilities
ADJUSTMENT
are 1 (1 0.0007)14 = 0.0098 and 0.077, respectively. The
corresponding probability for the seventh date of Table 8.3 The 2-sigma values in Table 8.7 were based on the variance with
is 0.025. These estimates are not as small as those for single equation s 2 (Y !) = s 2 (a) + x 2 s 2 (b ) + 2x s (a, b ). There
dates listed in Tables 8.5 and 8.6. Because dating methods have is the implied assumption that all s (t) values are unbiased. If
improved signicantly during the past ten years, previously the average square of scaled residuals is slightly greater than
accepted dates may have large errors that preclude their use in 1, it is reasonable to assume that all s (t) values are slightly less
the time scale. than the values that should have been used. This second ad-
Results of nal Devonian spline-curve tting are shown in justment amounts to multiplying all initial 2-sigma values by
Figs. 8.5 and 8.6. The values in the rst column of Table 8.5 1.504. It was applied in addition to the sample-point distribu-
fall on the spline curve of Fig. 8.6. The MLFR method was tion adjustment (cf. Sections 8.2.1 and 8.3.1).
 Geomathematics 115

Table 8.7 Devonian: calculation of 95% condence interval (2-sigma) and nal scaled residuals (FSR)a

X (Spline) s (x) Y (Obs.) s ( y) s (t) Y ! (Cal.) 2-sigma (O E)/s (t) FSR

358.10 1.55 358.3 2.10 2.62 357.83 1.98 0.18 0.14

358.10 0.77 360.4 2.80 2.91 357.83 1.98 0.88 0.68
358.55 1.55 361.0 2.05 2.58 358.29 1.96 1.05 0.81
363.31 0.77 363.6 0.80 1.12 363.09 1.77 0.46 0.35
380.29 1.86 381.1 0.80 2.04 380.20 1.26 0.44 0.34
394.53 0.46 391.4 0.90 1.01 394.56 1.17 3.11 2.41
394.53 0.62 390.0 3.03 3.09 394.56 1.17 1.47 1.14
403.81 2.94 408.3 0.95 3.11 403.91 1.33 1.41 1.09
406.81 2.79 409.9 3.30 4.33 406.94 1.41 0.68 0.53
411.88 0.77 413.4 3.30 3.39 412.05 1.56 0.40 0.31
415.64 0.62 417.6 0.95 1.14 415.83 1.69 1.55 1.20
420.08 0.93 420.2 1.95 2.16 420.31 1.86 0.05 0.04
424.18 0.62 420.7 5.56 5.59 424.44 2.02 0.67 0.52
424.18 0.62 426.8 3.49 3.54 424.44 2.02 0.67 0.51

a X (Spline) as on curve of Fig. 8.5; s 2 (t) = s 2 (x) + s 2 ( y); O = Y(Observed), E = Y ! (Calculated).

3 Table 8.8 Final estimatesa for the age of Devonian stage

boundaries and durations of stages
2

Duration
1
Scaled residual

Period Stage Base (Ma) (myr)

0 Carboniferous 359.2 2.5

Devonian
1 Famennian 374.5 2.6 15.3 0.6
Frasnian 385.3 2.6 10.8 0.4
2 Givetian 391.8 2.7 6.5 0.3
Eifelian 397.5 2.7 5.7 0.2
3 Emsian 407.0 2.8 9.5 0.4
350 360 370 380 390 400 410 420 430
Pragian 411.2 2.8 4.2 0.2
Estimated age (Ma) Lochkovian 416.7 2.9 4.8 0.2
Figure 8.7 Devonian scaled residuals. Silurian

a Estimates of uncertainty in 2-sigma.

Figure 8.7 shows the nal scaled residuals also listed in the
last column of Table 8.7. Only one of the 14 Z values falls
outside the 1.96 interval. This value is 2.41. Because the
size of the Devonian data set is relatively small (n = 14), it is
good to keep in mind that the Z test is approximate. Use of
a slightly wider 95% condence interval of 2.18 based on
Students t-test for 12 degrees of freedom is more appropriate
(cf. Table 8.16, Section 8.4).
Final estimates of Devonian stage boundaries and durations
are given in Table 8.8. However, it is better to replace the
base-Devonian estimate of 416.7 2.9 Ma by 416.0 2.8 Ma,
resulting from statistical analysis of the OrdovicianSilurian
data set, in the previous section. This replacement has already
been made in calculation of the duration of the Lochkovian.
8.2.3 CarboniferousPermian
CONOP relative stratigraphic positions of 26 Carboniferous
Permian dates were used to construct Figs. 8.8 and 8.9 ac-
cording to the method described in Sections 8.2.1 and 8.2.2.
Permian uncertainties were based on CarboniferousPermian
MLFR results, but ramping was used in the Carboniferous to
provide a gradual transition between uncertainties for base-
Asselian and the larger Devonian uncertainties. Final results
are shown in Table 8.9.
The estimate of 251.0 0.4 Ma for the PermianTriassic
boundary is derived in Section 8.2.4.
116 PA RT I I C O N C E P T S A N D M E T H O D S

0.132 380
0.13 360
0.128 340
Cross-validation value

0.126
320
0.124

Age (Ma)
300
0.122
280
0.12
0.118 260

0.116 240
0.114 220
0.112 200
0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Smoothing factor (SF) Relative stratigraphic position

Figure 8.8 CarboniferousPermian spline-curve cross-validation. Figure 8.9 CarboniferousPermian time scale: observed (gray
squares) versus estimated values.

Table 8.9 Final estimatesa for the age of the Carboniferous

252.5
and Permian stage boundaries and durations of stages

(Ma) Duration 252.0

Period Stage Base (Ma) (myr)
Age (Ma)

251.5
Triassic 251.0 0.4
Permian
Changhsingian 253.8 0.7 2.8 0.1 251.0
Wuchiapingian 260.4 0.7 6.6 0.1
Capitanian 265.8 0.7 5.4 0.1 250.5
Wordian 268.0 0.7 2.2 0.1
Roadian 270.6 0.7 2.5 0.1 250.0
Kungurian 275.6 0.7 5.0 0.1 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Artinskian 284.4 0.7 8.8 0.2 Downward distance (m)
Sakmarian 294.6 0.8 10.2 0.2 Figure 8.10 Preliminary PermianTriassic boundary spline curve
Asselian 299.0 0.8 4.4 0.1 based on complete data set: observed (squares) versus estimated
Carboniferous
(diamonds) values.
Gzhelian 303.9 0.9 4.9 0.1
Kasimovian 306.5 1.0 2.6 0.1
Moskovian 311.7 1.1 5.2 0.1
ve dates in the immediate vicinity of the boundary. These
Bashkirian 318.1 1.3 6.4 0.2
Serpukhovian 326.4 1.6 8.4 0.2 are the four dates at 6.70 m (18 cm below the boundary at
Visean 345.3 2.1 18.9 0.7 6.62 m) and the 250.7 Ma date at 6.44 m (8 cm above the
Tournaisian 359.2 2.5 13.9 0.6 boundary). The preliminary results are shown in Figs. 8.10
Devonian and 8.11.
The spline curve derived from all eight dates is S-shaped
a Estimates of uncertainty in 2-sigma.
and indicates signicant decrease in sedimentation rate in the
immediate vicinity of the PermianTriassic boundary. Fig-
ure 8.10 is a comparison of input and output values. It shows
8.2.4 PermianTriassic boundary
that the point at 6.44 m is quite far below its calculated spline
A single spline curve was tted to TIMS dates at the GSSP value. Figure 8.11 is an analysis of the scaled residuals (two
sections at Meishan, China, and the correlative locality near points with 6.70 m, 251.6 coincide). Because these scaled
Heshan, China. Initially, use was made of all eight dates listed residuals should all behave like Z values, it can be concluded
in Table 17.2 (under column Used in Ch. 8). This includes that the point 8 cm above the boundary is clearly anomalous.
 Geomathematics 117

2.5 2.5
1.5 2
0.5 1.5
Scaled residual

0.5

Scaled residual
1
1.5
0.5
2.5
0
3.5
0.5
4.5
1
5.5
250 250.5 251 251.5 252 252.5
1.5
Age (Ma)
2
Figure 8.11 PermianTriassic boundary: scaled residuals for 250.6 250.7 250.8 250.9 251 251.1 251.2 251.3 251.4 251.5 251.6 251.7

Fig. 8.10. Age (Ma)

Figure 8.13 PermianTriassic boundary: two ash layers only

251.8 scaled residuals.

251.6 and slope b = 0.999 918, with s (b ) = 0.1703. From these

statistics (and the covariance), a 2-sigma uncertainty estimate
251.4 of 0.1994 myr was derived. However, this estimate was en-
Age (Ma)

larged to 0.4 myr for the following reason.

251.2
251
250.8
250.6
6.4 6.45 6.5 6.55 6.6 6.65
Downward distance (m)
Figure 8.12 PermianTriassic boundary: two ash layers only
inputoutput comparison.
A way out of this dilemma is to use the ve dates in
the immediate vicinity of the boundary (from two ash layers)
only. The best-tting spline then is the straight line shown in
Fig. 8.12. The scaled residuals for this solution behave properly
(see Fig. 8.13).
The estimate based on Figs. 8.10 and 8.11 was 251.5 Ma.
The new estimate based on Figs. 8.12 and 8.13 is 251.0
0.4 Ma. This new estimate would imply that the rate of sedi-
mentation remained constant between 8 cm above and 18 cm
below the boundary, respectively. In Fig. 8.10 this sedimenta-
tion rate corresponds to a straight line connecting the point at
6.44 m with the cluster of four dates at 6.70 m. The slope of
this line is very steep indicating that the sedimentation rate at
the boundary was much less than at the rst two input points
and at the last input point.
The MLFR line, corresponding to the straight line of
Fig. 8.12, has intercept a = 0.020 566, with s (a) = 42.83,
On average, the China PT dates have a 1-sigma error of
0.0537%. This is less than the 1-sigma error of 0.1% listed in
Table 6.1. For this reason, the TIMS dates at the PT boundary
were multiplied by approximately 1.86 to account for limiting
decay-constant effect. This gives a nal PT age estimate of
6.7 6.75
251.0 0.4 Ma.
It is noted that use of 0.1% (1-sigma) external uncertainty
for UPb determinations at the PermianTriassic boundary
compares favorably to the 1% (1-sigma) external uncertainty
used for 40 Ar/39 Ar determinations near the Cretaceous
Paleogene boundary in Sections 8.3.1 and 8.3.2.
8 . 3 L AT E C R E TAC E O U S A N D PA L E O G E N E
A P P L I C AT I O N S
8.3.1 Late Cretaceous
As mentioned previously, application of the preceding method
to the Late Cretaceous data set is simpler than to Paleozoic data
sets because stratigraphic error bars are negligibly small for the
former. Also, this data set is homogeneous, in that it does not
present signicant problems with outliers, as encountered in
Paleozoic applications.
The 29 40 Ar/39 Ar bentonite dates of Obradovich (1993;
see Table 17.2, column Used in Ch. 8) were re-calibrated
with the new age of the Taylor Creek sanidine (TCs) monitor
standard set equal to 28.34 Ma (Renne et al., 1998c) instead of
the 28.32 Ma age used by Obradovich. Because the new age is
118 PA RT I I C O N C E P T S A N D M E T H O D S

Table 8.10 Late Cretaceous: calculation of 95% condence

0.002 65
interval (2-sigma)a
0.002 60
X Y
Cross-validation value

0.002 55 (Spline) (Obs.) s (Y ) Y (Cal.) 2-sigma (O E)/s

0.002 50 69.46 69.47 0.19 69.45 0.20 0.04
73.50 73.40 0.20 73.49 0.16 0.49
0.002 45
74.67 74.81 0.23 74.67 0.15 0.60
0.002 40 75.40 75.42 0.20 75.40 0.15 0.10
76.06 75.94 0.36 76.06 0.14 0.34
0.002 35 80.50 80.60 0.28 80.50 0.11 0.36
81.89 81.77 0.17 81.89 0.10 0.73
0.002 30 83.79 83.97 0.22 83.79 0.09 0.82
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3
Smoothing factor (SF) 83.99 84.15 0.20 83.99 0.09 0.79
85.33 84.94 0.14 85.33 0.09 2.80
Figure 8.14 Late Cretaceous spline-curve cross-validation. 86.42 86.98 0.20 86.42 0.09 2.87
88.26 88.40 0.30 88.26 0.09 0.46
90.31 90.27 0.36 90.31 0.10 0.11
40 90.69 90.57 0.23 90.69 0.10 0.53
35 93.15 93.46 0.32 93.15 0.11 0.99
93.30 93.31 0.28 93.31 0.11 0.02
30 93.59 93.36 0.20 93.60 0.12 1.17
25 93.59 93.85 0.25 93.60 0.12 1.04
93.59 93.65 0.29 93.60 0.12 0.19
20 93.78 93.55 0.45 93.78 0.12 0.52
15 93.93 93.97 0.36 93.93 0.12 0.12
94.66 94.70 0.31 94.67 0.12 0.13
10
94.98 95.00 0.27 94.99 0.13 0.06
5 95.84 95.85 0.31 95.84 0.13 0.04
96.01 95.93 0.23 96.02 0.13 0.38
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 97.12 97.24 0.35 97.13 0.14 0.33
98.53 98.59 0.21 98.54 0.16 0.29
Relative stratigraphic position
98.74 98.61 0.35 98.74 0.16 0.36
Figure 8.15 Late Cretaceous time scale: observed versus estimated 98.83 98.81 0.30 98.84 0.16 0.07
values.
a X (Spline) on curve of Fig. 8.2; O = Y (Observed), E = Y (Calculated).

nearly equal to the old age, J-factor conversion change is minor.

The corresponding error bars are not changed at this stage of
the analysis.
Cross-validation (Fig. 8.14) shows that SF = 0.9 is a good
choice for the smoothing factor. The resulting spline curve
(Fig. 8.15) provides an excellent t to the data. The observed
yi values, with their standard deviations s (yi ), are shown in
Table 8.10. The spline-curve values are given in the rst col-
umn of Table 8.10. These were used as xi values for tting the
Y ! = a+ bx line, whose values are shown in the fourth column.
The main purpose of regressing the observed dates on
the spline-curve values is to calculate the 2-sigma values of
the estimated spline values. These are given in column 5 of
Table 8.10. They range from 0.09 to 0.20 myr. A second
purpose is to calculate 2-sigma error bars for duration esti-
mates. Each duration estimate is equal to b times the difference
between the chronostratigraphic boundaries selected. Conse-
quently, its uncertainty is proportional to duration multiplied
by s (b ).
Column 6 in Table 8.10 shows differences between ob-
served and estimated values divided by s (yi ). The sum of
squares of these values is 23.5. Theoretically, this sum is dis-
tributed as chi-square with (n 2 =) 27 degrees of freedom
and an expected value equal to 27. The difference between 23.5
and 27 is not statistically signicant. It is equivalent to the op-
timum smoothing factor SF = 0.9 being somewhat less than 1.
Because the sum of squared residuals is theoretically dis-
tributed as chi-square with (n 2) degrees of freedom, the
standard deviation of scaled residuals s (r i ) will be estimated
by taking the square root of their sum divided by (n 2) instead
of n. Consequently, n SF2 is equivalent to (n 2) s 2 (r i ).
 Geomathematics 119

3.00 Table 8.11 Final age estimatesa for Late Cretaceous stage
boundaries as commonly assigned in the ammonite zonation of
2.00
the US Western Interior and durations of stages
1.00
Scaled residual

Base Duration
0.00
Period Stage (Ma) (myr)

Paleogene 65.5 0.3b

1.00 Cretaceous
Maastrichtian 70.6 0.6 5.1 0.3
2.00 Campanian 83.5 0.7 13.0 0.7
Santonian 85.8 0.7 2.3 0.1
3.00 Coniacian 89.1 0.8 3.2 0.2
65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 Turonian 93.5 0.8 4.5 0.3
Estimated age (Ma)
a Estimate of uncertainty in 2-sigma.
Figure 8.16 Late Cretaceous scaled residuals. b For the PaleogeneCretaceous boundary, an estimate based on the Pa-
leogene spline curve was used.

Figure 8.16 is a plot of the scaled residuals in the last column

of Table 8.10. Ideally, the scaled residuals are approximately
distributed as Z-values, with 68% of them contained within the
interval (1, 1), and 95% within (1.96, 1.96). This condition
is roughly satised in Fig. 8.16.
On the whole, the original error bars of Obradovich (1993)
are unbiased. However, two scaled residuals (2.80 and 2.87)
have greater absolute values than normal. They are for the
observed dates of 84.94 and 86.98 Ma, respectively. These two
dates are probably less and greater than expected. Because their
expected values are nearly equal to one another with residuals
of opposite signs, the effect of this anomaly on the spline curve
is negligibly small and further adjustment is not required.
Except for the CretaceousPaleogene boundary1 estimate,
which is included for reference purposes, the stage boundary
ages, Table 8.11, were obtained using the spline curve of
Fig. 8.15. This suite assumed that the current placement of
these boundaries within the Western Interior ammonite zona-
tion is equivalent to their proposed global denition based
on other fossil groups (see Chapter 19). However, only the
base-Turonian GSSP coincides exactly with a Western Interior
ammonite level.
The 2-sigma error bar estimates are wider than those listed
in Table 8.10 for the original bentonite ages. There are two
reasons for this: (1) adjustment related to age distribution of
samples in data set, and (2) adjustment to account for external
uncertainties associated with the 40 Ar/39 Ar age determination
method. Only the rst of these adjustments had been previ-
ously applied to Paleozoic data sets. The second adjustment is
replaced by an error bar correction for relatively few individual
dates.
S A M P L E - P O I N T D I S T R I BU T I O N A D J U S T M E N T
The 2-sigma values in column 5 of Table 8.10 show a distinct
pattern of narrowing toward the center of the cluster of obser-
vation points (cf. Fig. 8.16). This pattern is articial in that it
reects the fact that there are no data points outside the range
between the youngest and oldest samples used. The following
procedure was adopted to correct for this.
The youngest stratigraphic boundary in the data set gener-
ally has an age that is slightly older than the age of the youngest
sample used. For the Late Cretaceous, this is the Campanian
Maastrichtian Stage boundary of 71.0 Ma. The preliminary
2-sigma error bar for this value is 0.19 myr, i.e. slightly less
than the largest value of 0.20 myr listed for the youngest date
in Table 8.10. This value provides a conservative estimate of
the single initial 2-sigma value to be used for the entire Late
Cretaceous data set.
Preliminary 2-sigma values for the Late Cretaceous stage
boundaries were set equal to 0.19 myr by multiplication
of the stage boundary age by a factor of 0.1881/70.796 =
0.002 657 representing the ratio of 2-sigma and the age of the
CampanianMaastrichtian Stage boundary.
A D J U S T M E N T T O AC C O U N T F O R E X T E R NA L
VA R I A B I L I T Y O F L AT E C R E TAC E O U S 40 A r / 39 A r DAT E S

1 For the CretaceousPaleogene boundary, an estimate based on the Paleogene A source of uncertainty associated with 40 Ar/39 Ar dates, in-
spline curve was adopted. cluding those of Obradovich (1993), is that, traditionally, the
120 PA RT I I C O N C E P T S A N D M E T H O D S
error quoted for 40 Ar/39 Ar only includes internal uncertainties
related to the measurement of 40 Ar /39 ArK and the J-factor.
As discussed by McDougall and Harrison (1999), it is increas-
ingly widely recognized that the quoted error should also in-
clude external errors associated with measurement of the KAr
age of the uence monitor and errors related to the determi-
nation of the decay constants. This becomes essential when
ages from different systems are used together for time scale
construction.
If internal uncertainty alone is considered, errors on differ-
ent samples may be mutually consistent, but all dates would re-
ect the same uncertainty associated with decay constants and
uence monitor. In other words, although all Late Cretaceous
observations and their standard deviations are fully explained
by a single straight-line pattern, it is likely that the slope and
intercept of this line are biased because of external errors.
Karner and Renne (1998) and Renne et al. (1998c) have dis-
cussed these questions and derived expressions that take the
external errors into account. As an example of back-calculating
with external errors, Renne et al. (1998c) computed that the
mean age of 65.16 0.08 Ma reported by Swisher et al. (1993)
for an ash layer probably coincident with the Cretaceous
Paleogene boundary becomes 65.46 1.26 Ma. This estimated
decrease in precision is rather large. Consequently, the full 2-
sigma error for the 40 Ar/39 Ar age of the CretaceousPaleogene
boundary would be 2%.
A second problem that has been identied only relatively
recently is that the decay constants themselves may be biased.
For example, by calibrating with respect to high-precision ref-
erence ages based on the UPb system, Kwon et al. (2002)
estimated that the decay constant of 40 K is = 5.476
0.034 1010 /yr. This estimate falls between the value of
5.543 0.020 1010 /yr currently used by geochronologists minor, adjustments (duration uncertainty corrections 1 and
(Steiger and Jager, 1977) and 5.428 0.068 1010 /yr of 2 in Table 8.16 later). It can be argued that the equivalent of
nuclear physicists (Endt and van der Leun, 1973).
The preceding values of are accompanied by relatively
narrow 2-sigma 95% condence intervals suggesting that one
or more of these estimates are biased. Villeneuve et al. (2000)
have demonstrated that due to a buffering effect, changes in
40
Ar/39 Ar ages that would result from revising the 40 K decay
constant are relatively small.
Unfortunately, it is not possible at this time to revise the
2-sigma error bars on all dates published in the early 1990s
in order to incorporate the external uncertainty. Possible bias
of the decay constants is unknown at present and cannot be
considered at all.
An estimate of the average 2-sigma error bar on Obrado-
vichs (1993) bentonite dates is 0.61%. According to Renne
(pers. comm.), it is prudent to associate a 2-sigma error of 2%
with these ArAr dates (also see preceding discussion). This
would incorporate external precision uncertainties as well as a
possible lack of accuracy of the decay constants. Adoption of
the 2% error is equivalent to multiplying all 2-sigma error bar
estimates by a factor of 3.2628.
The second type of adjustment discussed in Section 8.3
need not be made for data sets that almost exclusively consist
of UPb zircon dates. If one or relatively few 40 Ar/39 Ar dates
are considered together with a number of high-precision un-
biased UPb dates, it is possible to subject the 40 Ar/39 Ar dates
to J-factor conversion rst, and then to test whether or not
their scaled residuals are statistically too large. If the published
error bar of an 40 Ar/39 Ar date is too large because external
uncertainty was not considered, it can be adjusted to a median
or average value. This method is developed in Section 8.3.2.
T O TA L A D J U S T M E N T A N D 2 - S I G M A E R RO R BA R
O F S TAG E D U R AT I O N
According to adjustment 1, all estimated ages are to be mul-
tiplied by (0.1881/70.796) 0.002 657 rst. As a result of
adjustment 2, the 2-sigma error bars of the estimated values
are to be multiplied by 3.2628. Thus total adjustment of an esti-
mated error bar consists of multiplying the age by (0.002 657
3.2628) 0.008 67. This procedure resulted in the error bars
on Late Cretaceous stages reported at the beginning of
Section 8.3.
For duration ages, 2-sigma error bars are obtained by mul-
tiplying the duration (in millions of years) by 0.033 43, repre-
senting twice the standard deviation s (b ), i.e. 0.005 123 mul-
tiplied by 3.2628 for adjustment 2 and two other, relatively
adjustment 1 should be applied to duration uncertainty as well.
For this reason, stage duration uncertainties were multiplied
by the age of the oldest stage boundary (93.6 Ma) divided by
the age of the youngest stage boundary (70.6 Ma) in the data
set. Duration uncertainty correction 1, therefore, consists of
multiplication by 1.326 (cf. Table 8.16 later).
It is noted that duration uncertainty correction 1 is on
the conservative side (slightly too large) for younger stage
boundaries in the data set.
Finally, it can be argued that stage duration is the difference
between two point estimates; in contrast to a stage boundary
age, which is a single point estimate. For single point esti-
mates, the 95% condence belt is controlled by Students
t-distribution (2.052 for the Late Cretaceous data set). For
 Geomathematics 121

Table 8.12 Linear relation between Campanian and Maastrichtian 87 Sr/86 Sr ratios and age

Code Obradovichs Spline age Duration Mean SrSr age Duration

87
No. biozone name of base (Ma) (spline) Sr/86 Sr estimate (SrSr)

1 B. clinolobatus 69.7 0.707 729 69.7

2 B. grandis 70.1 0.4 0.707 757 70.2 0.5
3 B. baculus 70.6 0.5 0.707 739 70.7 0.5
4 B. eliasi 71.0 0.5 0.707 734 71.2 0.5
5 B. jenseni 71.6 0.5 0.707 728 71.7 0.5
6 B. reesidei 72.1 0.6 0.707 697 72.2 0.5
7 B. cuneatus 72.8 0.6 0.707 688 72.6 0.4
8 B. compressus 73.5 0.7 0.707 679 73.1 0.5
9 D. chenyennense 74.3 0.8 73.9 0.8
10 E. jenneyi 75.0 0.8 0.707 637 74.8 0.9

durations, the entire best-tting straight line can be used
with the 95% condence belt controlled by (2F)0.5 , where
F(2, n 2) is the F-distribution with 2 and (n 2) degrees
of freedom (2.590 for the Late Cretaceous data set). Duration
uncertainty correction 2, therefore, consists of multiplication
by 1.264 (cf. Table 8.16). The combined effect of these two
minor adjustments consists of multiplication of the initial es-
timate of the duration uncertainty factor by 1.674. Thus the
duration uncertainty factor for the Late Cretaceous becomes
0.0559.
The resulting Late Cretaceous duration uncertainties are
shown in Table 8.11. Statistics for the Late Cretaceous are
shown in Table 8.16 for comparison with similar estimates
obtained for other data sets. It should be kept in mind that
all age and duration uncertainty factors were derived using
the same types of adjustments. In comparison with the Late
Cretaceous, total adjustments of age and duration uncertainties
for Paleozoic data sets (Sections 8.2.18.2.3) are relatively small
because adjustment 2 (3.2628 for the Late Cretaceous) was not
required.
87 S r / 86 S r
C O M PA R I S O N T O C U RV E
The 87 Sr/86 Sr ratio changes approximately linearly with re-
spect to time for segments of the geological time scale. This is
illustrated in the Table 8.12 following tabulation for parts of
the Maastrichtian and Campanian.
The biozones are as in Obradovich (1993); zone base ages
are as on the spline curve of Fig. 8.15, and spline durations are
equal to differences between successive zone base ages. Mean
87
Sr/86 Sr and SrSr age estimates are from McArthur (pers.
comm.). Because of difculties associated with curve tting of
successive approximately linear SrSr patterns that can show
reversals in time, our Late Cretaceous time scale remains based
on the spline curve of Fig. 8.15. The relative geological time
scale in Fig. 8.15 represents the initial assumption of equal
duration of the Obradovich biozones. Table 8.12 shows that
the modied duration estimates derived from the spline curve
are comparable to the durations estimated by McArthur for
this part of the Late Cretaceous record.
8.3.2 Paleogene time scale
This section contains brief documentation on methods used
to derive the estimated ages of Paleogene stage boundaries and
durations illustrated in Table 8.15.
Paleogene spline tting was performed on 18 original dates
(see Table 20.2). The 18 estimated values are shown in the
Spline-1 column of Table 8.13. They are relatively close to
the original dates shown in the next column. The largest dif-
ference is 1.12 myr for Chron C31n (base). All differences
were subjected to the chi-square test. The probability for C31n
(base) is 0.000 43, indicating that the original date (69.01 Ma)
is probably an anomalous outlier. This conclusion is conrmed
when sample size (n = 18) is considered. Then the probability
amounts to 0.0039 that 69.01 Ma is compatible with the other
17 dates.
Rejection of this date results in 17 dates with estimated val-
ues shown in the Spline-2 column of Table 8.13. Differences
between original dates are shown in the next column and are
less than 0.5 myr. Division by the standard deviation (1-sigma
values) yields the Z values in the last column, which are ap-
proximately normally distributed with unit variance indicating
homogeneity of the reduced data set.
An optimum smoothing factor (SF) could not be deter-
mined by cross-validation and a default value of SF = 1 was
122 PA RT I I C O N C E P T S A N D M E T H O D S

Table 8.13 Paleogene spline-curve ttinga

Polarity Chron Spline-1 Original 1-sigma Chi-square Probability Spline-2 Difference Z-value BFSL 2-sigma

C6An.1r (base) 20.34 20.336 0.02 0.0009 0.9761 20.33 0.00 0.21 20.33 0.0310
C6Cn.2n (base) 23.03 23.03 0.02 0.0036 0.9522 23.04 0.01 0.41 23.04 0.0291
C9n (base) 28.04 28.10 0.15 0.1505 0.6980 27.83 0.27 1.83 27.83 0.0297
approx. C13r.9 33.87 33.70 0.20 0.7319 0.3923 33.89 0.19 0.93 33.89 0.0370
C15n (base) 35.13 35.20 0.135 0.3021 0.5826 35.04 0.16 1.17 35.04 0.0390
approx. C21n.67 45.64 45.60 0.19 0.0482 0.8263 45.94 0.34 1.81 45.95 0.0619
C24n.1n (base) 52.81 52.80 0.15 0.0081 0.9283 53.00 0.20 1.36 53.01 0.0786
approx C24r.5 55.11 55.07 0.25 0.0260 0.8719 55.23 0.16 0.63 55.23 0.0840
C27n (top) 61.72 61.77 0.15 0.1076 0.7429 61.65 0.12 0.80 61.65 0.0999
C28n (top) 63.18 63.25 0.15 0.2110 0.6460 63.10 0.15 0.97 63.11 0.1036
C29n (top) 64.52 64.53 0.15 0.0035 0.9527 64.43 0.10 0.65 64.44 0.1069
C29n (base) 65.24 65.20 0.15 0.0602 0.8062 65.12 0.08 0.55 65.12 0.1086
C29r.56 65.59 65.50 0.15 0.3885 0.5331 65.45 0.05 0.34 65.45 0.1094
C30n (top) 66.05 65.88 0.15 1.2935 0.2554 65.86 0.02 0.13 65.87 0.1105
C31n (base) 68.13 69.01 0.25 12.3876 0.0004
C32n (top) 70.94 70.44 0.325 2.3291 0.1270 70.96 0.52 1.60 70.97 0.1233
C33n (base) 79.34 79.34 0.25 0.0002 0.9888 79.54 0.20 0.81 79.55 0.1452
C33r (base) 84.40 84.40 0.25 0.0000 0.9968 84.35 0.05 0.21 84.36 0.1575

a Spline-1 is based on all 18 dates. Chi-square test indicates that original value for Chron C31n(base) is anomalous. Spline-2 is based on remaining 17 dates. All Z
values are within (1.96, 1.96) 95% condence interval. BFSL, best-tting straight line is followed by its 2-sigma value. Dates are given in Ma.

90 Paleogene boundary (Chron C29r.56) was rounded upward to

80 65.5 Ma in the table at the beginning of this section.
Table 8.14 also shows 2-sigma values for estimated stage
70
boundary ages and stage durations derived by the method pre-
60
viously used on Obradovichs (1993) 40 Ar/39 Ar ages for Late
50
Cretaceous Western Interior ammonite zones. Weighted linear
40 regression of original dates on Spline-2 values gave a straight
30 line with slope (1.000 12) approximately equal to one and in-
20 tercept (0.0028 Ma) approximately equal to zero. Estimated
10 values on this straight line are shown in the BFSL column of
Table 8.13.
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 The standard deviations and covariance of slope and inter-
Distance in South Atlantic profile (km) cept of BFSL were used to estimate its 95% condence belt
Figure 8.17 Paleogene time scale: observed versus estimated values. (2-sigma column in Table 8.13). Contrary to condence belts
previously derived for Paleozoic and Late Cretaceous data sets,
used. Rejection of the 69.01 0.5 Ma age for the base of Late 2-sigma has its minimum not near the center but near the top
Maastrichtian polarity Chron C31n (Hicks et al., 1999) can also of the data set. This is because small standard deviations were
be justied because it was derived by projecting a constant sed- assigned to the two Neogene stages used (cf. 1-sigma column
imentation rate derived from 40 Ar/39 Ar ages in marine shale in Table 8.13).
upward by 100 m across a sharp contact into the nearshore The 2-sigma value in the last column of Table 8.13 is
clastic-rich facies containing the polarity reversal (Rohl et al., 0.1094 myr at the MaastrichtianDanian boundary (C29r.56)
2001, p. 179). and this value was used for sample point distribution adjust-
Figure 8.17 shows the estimated Spline-2 curve in compar- ment.
ison with original dates. The degree of correspondence is ex- The Paleogene 40 Ar/39 Ar ages used have standard devi-
cellent. Table 8.14 shows estimated Spline-2 ages of Paleogene ations ranging from 0.135 to 0.325 myr (1-sigma column,
(and Late Cretaceous) stage boundaries. The Cretaceous Table 8.13). Re-calculated as age percentage values, they range
 Geomathematics 123

Table 8.14 Other Paleogene spline curvesa

Polarity chron Spline-2 Original OSD Spline-2A Spline-2B

C6An.1r (base) 20.33 20.336 <0.02 20.33 20.33

C6Cn.2n (base) 23.04 23.03 <0.02 23.04 23.04
C9n (base) 27.83 0.11 28.10 0.15 27.82 0.01 27.83 0.15
approx. C13r.9 33.89 0.13 33.70 0.20 33.88 0.02 33.89 0.18
C15n (base) 35.04 0.14 35.20 0.135 35.04 0.02 35.05 0.19
approx. C21n.67 45.94 0.18 45.60 0.19 45.96 0.02 45.94 0.24
C24n.1n (base) 53.00 0.21 52.80 0.15 53.05 0.03 52.97 0.28
approx C24r.5 55.23 0.22 55.07 0.25 55.29 0.03 55.17 0.29
C27n (top) 61.65 0.24 61.77 0.01 61.77 0.03 61.52 0.33
C28n (top) 63.10 0.25 63.25 0.05 63.22 0.03 62.97 0.33
C29n (top) 64.43 0.25 64.53 0.02 64.52 0.03 64.30 0.34
C29n (base) 65.12 0.26 65.20 0.02 65.18 0.03 64.99 0.35
C29r.56 65.45 0.26 65.50 0.05 65.49 0.03 65.33 0.35
C30n (top) 65.86 0.26 65.88 0.01 65.89 0.03 65.74 0.35
C32n (top) 70.96 0.28 70.44 0.325 70.85 0.04 70.89 0.38
C33n (base) 79.54 0.31 79.34 0.25 79.52 0.04 79.53 0.42
C33r (base) 84.35 0.33 84.40 0.25 84.36 0.04 84.35 0.45

a Spline-2 and original dates as in Table 8.8. Spline-2A is based on original standard deviations (OSD); Spline-2B
is based on 1-sigma = 0.25 in Paleocene.

from 0.28 to 0.59%, with an average standard deviation of Table 8.15 Final estimates a of the age of Paleogene stage
0.43%. Adopting the larger 1% standard estimate (equiva- boundaries and duration of stages
lent to Rennes 2% estimate of 2-sigma at the Cretaceous
Paleogene boundary) results in a further correction factor of Duration
2.34. Period Stage Base (Ma) (myr)
Final age and duration uncertainty factors become 0.003 92 Neogene
and 0.005 73, respectively. The resulting Paleogene stage Aquitanian 23.0 0.0
boundary 2-sigma errors range from 0.13 to 0.26 myr (see Paleogene
Table 8.15) and all Paleogene stage duration uncertainty esti- Chattian 28.4 0.1 5.4 0.0
Rupelian 33.9 0.1 5.4 0.0
mates are less than 0.05 myr.
Priabonian 37.2 0.1 3.3 0.0
The Paleogene time scale spans the transition from the pre-
Bartonian 40.4 0.2 3.2 0.0
cise Neogene time scale to the Cretaceous and older time scales Lutetian 48.6 0.2 8.2 0.1
that are largely based on age determinations. From the lat- Ypresian 55.8 0.2 7.2 0.1
est Maastrichtian to the PaleoceneEocene boundary, the Thanetian 58.7 0.2 2.9 0.0
Paleogene time scale is based on cyclo-magnetostratigraphy Selandian 61.7 0.2 3.0 0.0
Danian 65.5 0.3 3.7 0.0
tied to the 65.5 Ma age estimate for the CretaceousPaleogene
Cretaceous
boundary. Above this Milankovitch cycle-based interval, the
Paleogene time scale is largely based on 40 Ar/39 Ar age deter- a Estimates of uncertainty in 2-sigma.
minations.
In the preceding analysis it was assumed that the 0.1
myr uncertainty widely used for the CretaceousPaleogene other Paleogene and Late Cretaceous 40 Ar/39 Ar ages (1-sigma
boundary is too low because external uncertainties associ- column, Table 8.13).
ated with 40 Ar/39 Ar ages were not considered. For this rea- In comparison with Late Cretaceous 1-sigma values listed
son, 0.1 myr was replaced by 0.3 myr for uncertainty at in Table 8.13, the 0.3 myr relative uncertainty adopted for
CretaceousPaleogene and stage boundaries within the associ- CretaceousPaleogene is slightly less. As a percentage value
ated cycle-based interval. This correction ensures compatibil- (0.46% of 65.5 Ma), it is nearly equal to the 0.43% average used
ity of CretaceousPaleogene uncertainty with uncertainties of in Section 8.3.1 as a basis for making the further correction
124 PA RT I I C O N C E P T S A N D M E T H O D S
to 2% (2-sigma) 40 Ar/39 Ar age uncertainty at Cretaceous
Paleogene boundary.
Also because 40 K decay constants and their uncertainties
will probably be revised, it is better to overestimate than to un-
derestimate time scale uncertainties associated with 40 Ar/39Ar
ages (cf. Late Cretaceous time scale documentation).
It is interesting to compare the new CretaceousPaleogene
boundary age estimate of 65.5 0.3 Ma with earlier esti-
mates in Gradstein et al. (1995). The recommended value
was 65.0 0.1 Ma, but other (maximum likelihood) estimates
reported in this publication were 66.1 0.4 Ma (high- and
low-temperature dates) and 66.0 0.7 Ma (high-temperature
dates only). The 2-sigma condence interval of the new es-
timate shows overlap with those of the maximum likelihood
estimates but not with 65.0 0.1 Ma. The latter 2-sigma con-
dence interval was much too narrow, mainly because external
40
Ar/39 Ar age uncertainties were not considered before 1995.
Two experiments have been performed to assess the effect
of choosing 0.3 myr further instead of the 0.1 myr relative
uncertainty at CretaceousPaleogene boundary, with results
shown in Table 8.14. No changes were made in the choice of
smoothing factor (SF = 1), sample point distribution adjust-
ment, and further correction to 2% (2-sigma) uncertainty of
the CretaceousPaleogene 40 Ar/39 Ar age.
First the preceding analysis was repeated using 0.1 myr
and other published uncertainties from latest Maastrichtian to
the PaleoceneEocene boundary (OSD column, Table 8.14).
The results of this rst experiment are shown in the Spline-
2A column of Table 8.14. Estimated stage boundary ages are
nearly equal to those in the Original column and relatively close
to those in the Spline-2 column. However, Spline-2A uncer-
tainties are about ten times less than Spline-2 uncertainties. It
is likely that the Spline-2A uncertainties shown in Table 8.14
are too small by an order of magnitude.
In the second experiment (Spline-2B, Table 8.14), relative
CretaceousPaleogene uncertainty was enlarged to 0.5 myr
(instead of 0.3 myr for Spline-2) from latest Maastrichtian
to the PaleoceneEocene boundary. This resulted in moderate
magnication of deviations between Original and Spline-2 age
estimates (e.g. the Spline-2B CretaceousPaleogene bound-
ary estimate becomes 65.3 Ma instead of 65.5 Ma). Spline-2B
uncertainties are about 1.4 times greater than Spline-2 uncer-
tainties.
The two additional experiments indicate that the change
in relative CretaceousPaleogene boundary uncertainty from
0.1 to 0.3 myr has a much greater effect on nal stage
boundary uncertainties than the change from 0.3 to 0.5
myr. These supplementary results help to justify the validity of
the results reported in the Paleogene time scale at the beginning
of this book.
8 . 4 C O N C LU D I N G R E M A R K S
Table 8.16 shows summary statistics for nal spline curves and
MLFR lines used to construct numerical geological time scales
for the ve data sets. The MLFR lines all have slopes close to
1 and intercepts close to 0 Ma. From Y ! Y it follows that
s 2 (Y !) s 2 (Y ) can indeed be used to construct 2-sigma error
bars on the stage boundary ages and stage duration estimates.
A possible disadvantage of spline-curve tting is that age
dates included in the data set are weighted according to their
variance. Thus the size of the error bars constitutes impor-
tant input for obtaining valid results. Here the technique used
checked that individual ages do not carry too much weight in
comparison with their neighbors and other ages in the data
sets. After reducing the inuence of relatively few outliers, the
data sets were shown to be approximately homogeneous.
The 2-sigma error bars of stage durations are narrower
than those of the stage boundaries themselves. This is because
the 2-sigma bars of durations are proportional to the duration
itself, with twice the error of the slope of the MLFR line as
a proportionality constant. The stage boundary estimates are
subject to additional uncertainty related to their position along
the time scale.
The error bars of successive stage boundaries are positively
correlated. In this they differ from the 2-sigma error bars of
observed ages in the data sets that are statistically independent.
This positive correlation can be illustrated as follows: duration
of the Gorstian is only 1.7 0.1 myr; age estimates of its top and
base are 421.3 2.6 and 422.9 2.5 Ma, respectively. It is not
permissible to select an older age from within the condence
interval for the top and combine it with a younger age from
within the condence interval for the base.
The 2-sigma error bar of a duration estimate approaches
zero when duration decreases. Thus reporting on the 95%
condence intervals of durations helps in understanding the
nature of the positive correlation between the limits of the 95%
condence intervals of successive age estimates.
A nal comment concerns application of the sample
point distribution adjustment to age and duration uncertainty
factors. Because these factors are applied to estimated age,
there is a relatively small linear increase in each data set that is
proportional to age. In general, an increase in uncertainty with
age would be in accordance with the facts that age determina-
tion methods tend to have constant proportional errors, while
stratigraphic uncertainty may also increase with age. However,
 Geomathematics 125

Table 8.16 Summary statisticsa

OrdovicianSilurian Devonian CarboniferousPermian Late Cretaceous Paleogene

Youngest stage boundary (Ma) 416 359.2 251 70.6 23

Oldest stage boundary (Ma) 488.3 416 359.2 93.6 65.5
Number of ages in data set 22 14 26 29 17
Smoothing factor 1.45 1.2 1.565 0.9 1
Intercept 0.143 0.729 0.0026 0.041 0.0028
SD (intercept) 0.648 2.121 0.0340 0.445 0.03326
Slope 1.0026 1.008 1.00023 1.00048 1.00012
SD (slope) 0.0116 0.0227 0.00280 0.00512 0.00122
Students t-factor 2.086 2.179 2.064 2.052 2.131
Age uncertainty factor 0.00345 0.00685 0.00261 0.00867 0.00392
Initial duration uncertainty 0.01675 0.0272 0.0115 0.0334 0.00573
Duration uncertainty correction 1 1.174 1.158 1.431 1.326 2.848
Duration uncertainty correction 2 1.267 1.279 1.264 1.262 1.273
Duration uncertainty factor 0.0249 0.0403 0.0208 0.0559 0.00730

a SD, standard deviation. See Section 8.3.1 for explanation of duration uncertainty factor corrections.

it can be argued that possible proportional uncertainties were
already considered in the spline-MLFR approach.
The nal straight line used for each data set has the equation
Y = a + bx. However, it is also possible to t a straight line
!
with equation Y ! = bx. This means that the best-tting line
is forced to go through an origin with Y ! = x = 0. This
approach can be used not only in ordinary least squares but
also in least squares with errors in both x and y, as in Ripleys
MLFR approach.
Advantages of tting Y ! = b x instead of Y ! = a + bx
would be that both uncertainty factors could be controlled
by s (b ) alone. This would imply that they are proportional to
estimated age. Unfortunately, it does not seem feasible to de-
ne a xed origin where there would be zero uncertainty. The
Present (0 Ma) is too far removed from the ages in the data
sets. However, the following experiment makes use of the fact
that the age of the PermianTriassic boundary is assumed to
be known with precision (0.4 Ma).
Suppose that the origin for the Devonian data set is dened
to occur at the base of the Triassic (251.0 Ma). This assumption
results in an MLFR-based Devonian age uncertainty factor es-
timate of 0.0043. This is only slightly less than the 0.00685
uncertainty factor, previously used for all Devonian stage
boundaries (cf. Table 8.16). The experiment seems to conrm
that the estimate based on tting Y ! = a + bx is reasonable
although on the conservative side.
Unfortunately, the new model has a single parameter only
and it forces the duration uncertainty factor to be approx-
imately equal to the age uncertainty factor. The Devonian
duration uncertainty factor actually used (0.0403) is almost
ten times larger than 0.0043 (cf. Table 8.16). It would seem
that the estimate for the Devonian duration uncertainty factor
resulting from tting Y ! = bx is much too small. This is be-
cause the Y ! = a + bx model is more exible than the Y ! = bx
model, allowing separate estimation of the two uncertainty
factors.
Part III Geologic
periods
9 The Precambrian: the Archean and Proterozoic Eons
. . , . . , . . , . . , . , .
Archean and Proterozoic time scales are currently dened chrono-
metrically, with subdivisions into eras and periods being dened and
allocated boundaries in terms of a round number of millions of years
before present. Isotope stratigraphy is increasingly used to identify
tectonic, chemical, and biological changes. The Neoproterozoic Era
is characterized by at least two, and possibly four, severe and exten-
sive glaciogenic events; for this era, chronostratigraphic subdivisions
following established Phanerozoic practices are possible.
9 . 1 I N T RO D U C T I O N
The Precambrian is not a formal stratigraphic term and sim-
ply refers to all rocks that formed prior to the beginning of the
Cambrian Period. The task of establishing a rigorously dened
and globally acceptable time scale for the Precambrian is an ex-
ceedingly difcult, and often frustrating, exercise. The reason
for this is related to the fact that studying the Earth becomes
increasingly difcult and uncertain the further one goes back
in geological time.
The lack of a diverse and well-preserved fossil record, the
generally decreasing volume of supracrustal rocks, and increas-
ing degree of metamorphism and tectonic disturbance, as well
as the uncertainties in the conguration and assembly of the
continents, all contribute to making the establishment of a
chronostratigraphic time scale beyond the Phanerozoic Eon
problematical.
The Phanerozoic Eon broadly coincides with the most
recent supercontinent cycle a relatively well-understood
sequence of geological events during which Pangea was assem-
bled and dispersed. It is also the time period when multicellular
life underwent enormous diversication and proliferation. Ac-
cordingly, the geologic time scale for the Phanerozoic Eon is
dened in terms of a globally correlative, chronostratigraphic
methodology that is rigorously constrained using biostratigra-
phy as well as a host of supporting techniques such as isotope,
A Geologic Time Scale 2004, eds. Felix M. Gradstein, James G. Ogg, and Alan
G. Smith. Published by Cambridge University Press.
c F. M. Gradstein,
J. G. Ogg, and A. G. Smith 2004.
129
sequence and magnetostratigraphy. The detailed description
of the Phanerozoic time scale is dealt with in subsequent chap-
ters.
By contrast, the Archean and Proterozoic time scales are
currently dened chronometrically, with subdivisions into eras
and periods being dened and allocated boundaries in terms
of a round number of millions of years before present (Ma BP,
or simply Ma). Given the difculties mentioned above, as well
as the incomplete state of current knowledge, this scheme is
widely considered to be the most appropriate solution for the
denition of a Precambrian time scale. The scheme may not be a
lasting solution as the dened units lack the geological context
and denition that is required if they are to be recognized
by the intrinsic features of their geologic history rather than
simply by numerical dates. (One suggestion for an alternative
in subdividing Precambrian time is presented by W. Bleeker in
Chapter 10.)
The present chapter will, nevertheless, describe the exist-
ing chronometric time scales for the Archean and Proterozoic
Eons, as well as some of the advances made over the past decade
toward providing an isotopic and paleobiological context to this
time scale. In addition, consideration will be given to the sig-
nicant advances that have been made toward establishing a
chronostratigraphic framework for the nal few hundred mil-
lion years of the Proterozoic Eon.
The highly distinctive biological and environmental char-
acteristics of the Neoproterozoic Era, between 1000 Ma (arbi-
trarily dened chronometrically) and 542 Ma (the base of the
Cambrian Period and chronostratigraphically dened) have re-
sulted in considerable advances in the development of a time
scale for this interval. The Neoproterozoic represents a tran-
sition zone between the rigorous chronostratigraphic detail
of the Phanerozoic Eon and the geochronometric subdivi-
sions of the Precambrian time scale and, as such, special at-
tention is given to this interval. It will be a long time before
such developments can be applied to the whole of the Pro-
terozoic, or to the Archean, and the present chapter should,
therefore, be regarded as an interim report on a challenging
topic.
130 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

9 . 2 H I S T O RY A N D R E C O M M E N D E D
Age
SUBDIVISION Eon Era Period
(Ma)
The Subcommission on Precambrian Stratigraphy (SPS) of Ph Paleozoic Cambrian
the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) worked 542
for more than two decades to develop a proposal for the sub- Ediacaran
Neo- 630
division and nomenclature of the Precambrian. This process
Cryogenian
was accompanied by published reports of progress and by calls proterozoic 850
for discussion and comment. It culminated in a comprehensive Tonian
review and preliminary set of proposals by Plumb and James 1000
(1986). Stenian
1200

Proterozoic
Comments received subsequent to this publication were Meso-
reviewed at a meeting of the SPS in 1988, and the proposed
Ectasian
proterozoic 1400
time scale rened into a nal recommendation. Subsequent
postal ballots, rst by SPS and then by ICS during early 1989,
Calymmian
1600
achieved in excess of the required majority of 60%, and the
Statherian
proposal was submitted to the International Union of Geolog-
1800
ical Sciences (IUGS) for ratication at the 28th International
Orosirian
Geological Congress. Discussion was deferred to a later meet- Paleo-
ing in early 1990, at which time IUGS ratied the proposal as 2050
proterozoic Rhyacian
the recommended international time scale for the chronomet-
ric subdivision and nomenclature of Precambrian time and of 2300
the Proterozoic Eon (Fig. 9.1). Siderian
These denitions were subsequently formalized in Plumb 2500
(1991). The SPS has since addressed the subdivision of the
Archean Eon. The ninth meeting of SPS in 1991 unanimously
Neoarchean
agreed to a provisional proposal for a four-fold subdivision of 2800
the Archean into eras (Fig. 9.1). This was formally accepted by Meso-
full ballot of the subcommission following the tenth meeting
archean
Archean

in 1995. While, at the time of writing, this scheme has still

to be formally submitted to and ratied by ICS/IUGS, the
provisional units are increasingly appearing in the literature.
The majority of written comment received by the SPS has
favored the principle of chronometric subdivisions, with most
of the dissension related to the ages selected for particular
boundaries. Some of the debate is also related to the dispar-
ity in techniques and reliability of age determinations available
during the initial work of the SPS in the 1970s and 80s. With the
proliferation of more accurate and precise age data (mainly U
Pb isotope zircon dates), there is no doubt that future workers
will be well placed to reconsider the efcacy of these subdivi-
sions and perhaps to provide intervals that are either dened in
a different way or better constrained with respect to the major
events of Archean and Proterozoic Earth history.
Among the many approaches to subdivision that have been
considered (Plumb and James, 1986) is the concept of geons,
which are dened as 100-million-year intervals counting back-
ward from the present (Hofmann, 1990, 1999). In this scheme
3200
Paleo-
archean
3600
Eoarchean
Lower limit is
not defined
Figure 9.1 Formal subdivision of the Precambrian time scale. The
Ediacaran Period and its GSSP in the Flinders Range, South
Australia was ratied during 2004.
for example, Geon 18 is the interval from 1800.0 to 1899.9 Ma,
and Geon 34 is the interval from 3400.0 to 3499.9 Ma. There
are many advantages in the simplicity of such a scheme and
especially so for the protracted Precambrian, which lacks the
denitive chronostratigraphic rigor of the Phanerozoic Eon.

It could be argued, however, that such a scheme is little dif-
ferent from simply describing the ages of rocks by direct iso-
topic dating, and would detract from the objective of attaining
a compatible chronostratigraphic scale for the Precambrian.
Consideration of these issues will have to come from the work
of future Precambrian stratigraphers.
The simplest and most direct way of describing the age
of an individual rock body is by reference to its isotopic age.
The need for a time scale in the Precambrian is for consistent
international classication and comparison, and for describing
rock units for which direct isotopic age data are not available.
The Precambrian time scale is presently divided into the
chronometric subdivisions illustrated in Fig. 9.1, where time
boundaries have been selected to delimit, as far as possible, the
principal cycles of sedimentation, orogeny, and magmatism.
The boundaries are dened in years before present, without
specic reference to any rock bodies.
The Precambrian is formally divided into an older Archean
Eon and a younger Proterozoic Eon. The boundary between the
two eons is dened to be at 2500 Ma. The end of the Protero-
zoic coincides with the beginning of the Cambrian Period, the
GSSP of which has been formally dened at Fortune Head,
Newfoundland, Canada (see Chapter 11). This decision was
ratied by the ICS and the IUGS at the Kyoto IGC (Brasier
et al., 1994).
9.2.1 The Archean Eon
The Archean Eon is divided into four eras named, in confor-
mity with nomenclature of the Proterozoic and Phanerozoic,
Eoarchean, Paleoarchean, Mesoarchean, and Neoarchean.
The Eoarchean has no lower limit and an upper limit at
3600 Ma. This is followed in time by the Paleoarchean (rang-
ing from 3600 to 3200 Ma), the Mesoarchean (ranging from
3200 to 2800 Ma), and the Neoarchean (ranging from 2800
to 2500 Ma). None of the eras in the Archean Eon have been
further subdivided into periods. The boundary between the
Archean and Proterozoic is dened as 2500 Ma. Descriptive
terms such as Hadean and Swazian are no longer recom- (i.e. >3900 Ma) clearly did exist, but they appear to be either
mended in the present chronometric scheme.
The Archean has no dened lower boundary because prim-
itive geological terranes are still being discovered and the ages
of the oldest known rocks and minerals on Earth are contin-
ually being pushed back in time. The oldest dated mineral
on Earth at present is a detrital zircon extracted from sample
W74, a metaconglomerate from the Jack Hills area of West-
ern Australia; this zircon grain yielded a UPb isotope date of
4408 8 Ma and the sample itself contained several other zir-
The Precambrian: the Archean and Proterozoic Eons 131
cons with ages between 4100 and 4300 Ma (Wilde et al., 2001).
Although the conglomerate itself is much younger, the exis-
tence of these grains clearly and unequivocally points to the
presence of continental (i.e. granitic sensu lato) crust dating
back to within about 150 million years of the Earths formation
at about 4560 Ma.
The oldest known rock yet dated is the Acasta orthogneiss
from the Slave Craton of Canada, which has yielded a UPb
zircon age of 4031 3 Ma (Bowring and Williams, 1999).
The oldest, well-mapped, and geographically contiguous
segment of Archean crust is the Itsaq gneiss complex (previ-
ously referred to as the Amtsoq gneisses) and the Isua green-
stone belt of southwest Greenland. The supracrustal rocks
of the Isua belt have yielded UPb zircon ages that range
from 3806 2 (felsic metavolcanic rock; Compston et al.,
1986) to 3707 6 Ma (banded iron formation; Nutman et al.,
1997).
The diverse and complex Itsaq orthogneiss suite yields a va-
riety of UPb zircon ages ranging between 3900 and 3600 Ma
(Nutman et al., 1996, 1999). The oldest orthogneiss yet dated
from the Itsaq gneisses is 3872 10 Ma. This very old age,
together with that of the Acasta gneiss, is, however, contro-
versial because of the difculties that exist in unambiguously
and objectively distinguishing xenocrystic from in situ zircons
(Kamber et al., 2001). These authors suggest, on the basis
of regionally compiled whole rock RbSr, SmNd, and Pb
Pb isochrons, that the majority of the Itsaq gneiss complex
formed at around 3655 45 Ma, whereas the Acasta gneiss
may be even younger at 3371 59 Ma. The fact that the late,
heavy meteorite bombardment affecting the EarthMoon sys-
tem, which peaked at around 3900 Ma (Cohen et al., 2000),
will have comprehensively destroyed most of the pre-existing
terrestrial crust makes it unlikely that large, contiguous tracts
of pre-3900 Ma Archean crust will ever be found.
The oldest contiguous section of the Itsaq gneiss complex,
about which there seems to be no contention regarding the age,
is a little deformed tonalite that has yielded a UPb zircon age
of 3818 8 Ma (Nutman et al., 1999). Rocks of extreme age
very sparsely preserved or disaggregated and now seen only as
xenocrysts or detritus.
9.2.2 The Proterozoic Eon
The Proterozoic Eon is subdivided into three eras named, in
conformity with nomenclature of the Phanerozoic and from
oldest to youngest, the Paleoproterozoic, Mesoproterozoic, and
Neoproterozoic. These eras have boundaries placed at 2500,
132 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
1600, 1000 Ma, and the base of the Cambrian (Fig. 9.1).
Each era of the Proterozoic is subdivided into periods as
below.
The Paleoproterozoic is subdivided into four periods
named, from oldest to youngest, the Siderian, Rhyacian,
Orosirian, and Statherian, with their boundaries placed at 2500,
2300, 2050, 1800, and 1600 Ma.
The Mesoproterozoic is subdivided into three periods
named, from oldest to youngest, Calymmian, Ectasian, and
Stenian, with their boundaries placed at 1600, 1400, 1200, and
1000 Ma, respectively.
The Neoproterozoic is divided into three periods. The
lower two, with the boundary between them placed at 850 Ma,
are, from oldest to youngest, referred to as Tonian and Cryo-
genian. In late 2003, the ICS Subcommission on the Terminal
Proterozoic System, after a decade of discussions and delib-
erations and increasingly focused ballots, approved the name
for the third Period as Ediacaran. It replaces the provisional
name Neoproterozoic III. The ICS subcommission in late 2003
also approved by voting that the Ediacaran Period has a GGSP
at the base of the Nuccaleena Formation cap carbonate, im-
mediately above the Elatina diamictite in the Enorama Creek
section, Flinders Ranges, South Australia. Pending accurate
age determination, its boundary with the Cryogenian is provi-
sionally taken as 630 Ma.
9 . 3 N O M E N C L AT U R E O F T H E
SUBDIVISIONS
9.3.1 Eons
The names of the Precambrian Eons are derived from the orig-
inal terms Archeozoic and Proterozoic, which refer, respec-
tively, to early and primitive (animal) life. Although this
denition is now no longer considered appropriate, the cur-
rently used terms Archean and Proterozoic are now entrenched
in the literature and widely accepted.
9.3.2 Eras
A 1988 meeting of the SPS considered and accepted a written
suggestion from H. J. Hofmann (pers. comm., 1987) that the
three Proterozoic Eras be called Paleoproterozoic, Mesoprotero-
zoic, and Neoproterozoic. The terms are simple and understand-
able, have grammatically correct Greek roots and will, there-
fore, transcribe into other languages with minimal translation.
They are analogous to equivalent units in the Phanerozoic and
are now widely used in the literature.
9.3.3 Periods
Following from the historical development of Phanerozoic
chronostratigraphy, many workers have attributed a funda-
mental signicance to stratigraphic nomenclature at the period
level, although the rationale for this is not immediately clear
given the varied derivation of terms. Some, such as Cambrian,
Silurian, and Devonian, have a clear geographic connotation,
while others such as Carboniferous and Triassic are derived
from processes or events. All, however, are associated with well-
understood physical and biological events, and period names
convey substantial history and connotation. Classically, type
sections for periods or systems were considered to characterize
the global characteristics of a given interval of time. Realization
that geological processes were diverse and diachronous chal-
lenged this notion and led to the development of the boundary
stratotype principle, which became the focus of activity for most
subcommissions and working groups of ICS.
Since the boundary stratotype principle has not been ap-
plied to the Precambrian (except, to a certain extent, in the
Neoproterozoic), the SPS has indicated that nomenclature for
Proterozoic time units should simply comprise a set of con-
venient labels designed to be as unambiguous as possible. No
fundamental signicance should be attached to any terms and
the nomenclature should be unique and not duplicate names
already in use, such as established or obsolete local chrono-
stratigraphic units. Many different schemes were considered
(Plumb and James, 1986) and the nomenclature nally selected
for the periods of the Proterozoic Eon comprised Greek-based
conceptual names that reect, but do not dene, geological
history. The names relate to geological processes that are typ-
ical, but not necessarily diagnostic, of the interval they describe.
Although the scheme could incorrectly exert an inuence on
decisions as to where to place particular rock bodies or geo-
logical events in the time scale, the SPS has stressed that the
nomenclature simply comprises a set of convenient labels for
those who require such subdivisions.
It is anticipated that increased usage of the stratigraphic
nomenclature for the Proterozoic Eon will accompany im-
proved understanding and resolution of Precambrian geolog-
ical evolution. An explanation of the derivation of the names
for periods in the Proterozoic is provided in Table 9.1.
9 . 4 T H E N E O P RO T E RO Z O I C
Archean and earlier Proterozoic time will not soon yield
to chronostratigraphic subdivision, but there is reason for
cautious optimism that, in tandem, geochronology and
 The Precambrian: the Archean and Proterozoic Eons 133

Table 9.1 Explanation of nomenclature used at the period level in the Proterozoic Eon

Period name Derivation and geological process

Cryogenian Cryos = ice, genesis = birth Global glaciation

Glacial deposits, which typify the late Proterozoic, are most abundant during this interval
Tonian Tonas = stretch
Further expansion of major platform cover (e.g. Upper Riphean, Russia; Qingbaikou, China; basins of Northwest Africa),
following nal cratonization of polymetamorphic mobile belts, below
Stenian Stenos = narrow Narrow belts of intense metamorphism and deformation
Narrow polymetamorphic belts, characteristic of the mid Proterozoic, separated the abundant platforms and were
orogenically active at about this time (e.g. Grenville, Central Australia)
Ectasian Ectsis = extension Continued expansion of platform covers
Platforms continue to be prominent components of most shields
Calymmian Calymma = cover Platform covers
Characterized by expansion of existing platform covers, or by new platforms on recently cratonized basement (e.g.
Riphean of Russia)
Statherian Statheros = stable, rm Stabilization of cratons; cratonization
This period is characterized on most continents by either new platforms (e.g. North China, North Australia) or nal
cratonization of fold belts (e.g. Baltic Shield, North America)
Orosirian Orosira = mountain range Global orogenic period
The interval between 1900 and 1850 Ma was an episode of orogeny on virtually all continents
Rhyacian Rhyax = stream of lava Injection of layered complexes
The Bushveld Complex (and similar layered intrusions) is an outstanding event of this time; the age of the Bushveld
seems unlikely to change dramatically
Siderian Sideros = iron Banded iron formations (BIF)
The earliest Proterozoic is widely recognized for an abundance of BIF, which peaked just after the ArcheanProterozoic
boundary

stratigraphy will lead to redened Neoproterozoic periods that
reect established Phanerozoic practices. Four considerations
prompt this optimism.
1. The morphological complexity and evolutionary turnover
rates of eukaryotic organisms both increased through Neo-
proterozoic time, providing a basis for at least broad bio-
stratigraphic correlations.
2. Strong secular variations in the C, Sr, and (less well estab-
lished) S isotopic compositions of Neoproterozoic sea-
water offer an independent avenue for the characterization
and correlation of sedimentary rocks.
3. The extraordinary biological and geochemical events of
Neoproterozoic Earth history are linked, at least in part,
to global ice ages that punctuated the era.
4. Well-dated ash beds have begun to place strong constraints
on the timing of these events (see Knoll, 2001, for a recent
review).
As discussed below, many uncertainties attend strati-
graphic interpretations of Neoproterozoic paleontology, iso-
topes, and climate history. There is no consensus on the num-
ber of Neoproterozoic ice ages or the correlation of individual
tillites. Neither do we know whether reliable assemblage zones
can be recognized among Ediacaran fauna. Such uncertainties,
however, present agendas for research not insurmountable ob-
stacles. Already, the international stratigraphic community is
nearing ratication of a chronostratigraphically dened period
immediately before the Cambrian. The initial boundary of this
period, with the name Ediacaran, is dened by a global strato-
type section and point placed at the base of the cap carbonate
above a tillite judged to record the younger of two globally
extensive Neoproterozoic ice ages. Ratication of this GSSP
in the Flinders Range, South Australia, by ICS and IUGS
took place in 2004. Fossils and isotopes provide means for
the subdivision of this period (Knoll and Walter, 1992; Knoll,
2001).
9 . 5 I S O T O P E S T R AT I G R A P H Y
IN THE PRECAMBRIAN
Temporal trends in the isotopic compositions (Sr, C, O, and S)
of marine sedimentary rocks have been used to hypothesize
134 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

0.710
n = 5059
15

0.708

0.706
87Sr/ 86Sr 13Ccarb.
5
0.704 Seawater evolution

15
0.702

Mantle contribution
Barites
25
0.700
3000 2000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0
4000 1000 0
Age (Ma) Age (Ma)
(a) (b)

5 45
n = 9557
40

35

S ( 0/00 , CDT)
30
5
25
18
20
34

calcite

15
15 10

0
3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0
25 Age (Ma)
4000 3000 2000 1000 0
(d )
Age (Ma)
(c)
Figure 9.2 Strontium (a), carbon (b ), oxygen (c ), and sulfur (d ) relatively well constrained in time (better than 50 myr); in
isotope geochemistry of marine carbonate and evaporite minerals Fig. 9.2(b), triangles represent dolostone and circles represent
through Earth history (modied after Shields and Veizer, 2002; limestone. In Fig. 9.1(d ), open symbols represent analyses of trace
Strauss, 2001a). Phanerozoic data are from Veizer et al. (1999). In sulfate.
Fig. 9.2(ac), the lled symbols represent samples that are

tectonic, chemical, and biological change during the Pre-
cambrian. Fluctuations in seawater 87 Sr/86 Sr, which can be
retained in well-preserved marine carbonate rocks, reect
changes in the relative contributions of the continental ver-
sus mantle chemical reservoirs to ocean composition (Veizer,
1989). By contrast, the stable isotopes of C and S have generally
been used to recognize changes in the biogeochemical cycling
of these elements, which may be related to tectonic events, bio-
logical innovation, and the oxidation state at the Earths surface
(Schidlowski et al., 1975; DesMarais et al., 1992; Caneld and
Teske, 1996; Farquhar et al., 2000; Godderis and Veizer, 2000).
Recently, attention has also been paid to the potential of Sr
and C isotopes in the global stratigraphic correlation of Paleo-
proterozoic (Melezhik et al., 1999) and Neoproterozoic rock
successions (Kaufman and Knoll, 1995; Shields, 1999; Walter
et al., 2000).
9.5.1 Strontium isotope stratigraphy
Strontium isotope ratios have the greatest potential for global
stratigraphic correlation in the Precambrian because they rep-
resent a global signal, whereas absolute amplitudes of C and O
isotopic excursions tend to vary. A compilation of all published
87
Sr/86 Sr data for the Precambrian and Cambrian is shown in
Fig. 9.2a. These data were obtained from marine carbonate
samples from 654 lithological units, the distribution of which
is strongly skewed toward the period between 750 and 500 Ma.
All data have been normalized to a NBS 987 standard value
of 0.710 25. The considerable spread within sample popula-
tions implies that post-depositional alteration has signicantly
affected carbonate 87 Sr/86 Sr, which has served in almost all
cases to increase 87 Sr/86 Sr. For this reason the lower part of
the 87 Sr/86 Sr band is likely to represent a maximum constraint

on seawater 87 Sr/86 Sr. These least altered 87 Sr/86 Sr ratios
reveal a deection away from mantle-like 87 Sr/86 Sr before
2.5 Ga to more radiogenic 87 Sr/86 Sr after 2.5 Ga (Veizer
and Compston, 1976). This switch is consistent with a change
from a mantle-buffered to a river-buffered global ocean 1980). The low 18 O values of most Precambrian carbonates
around this time, and is likely to result from a combination of:
(1) decreasing heat ux from the mantle, and (2) intensied
formation of continental crust (Veizer et al., 1982).
A second major increase in 87 Sr/86 Sr from 0.7052 to 0.7092
took place between 1000 and 500 Ma, implying steadily in-
creasing continental inuence on ocean chemistry during this
time. This is consistent with elevated rates of tectonic uplift
and erosion of highly radiogenic crust, possibly related to the
birth, break-up, and dispersal of the supercontinent Rodinia
(Meert and McPowell, 2001).
9.5.2 Carbon isotope stratigraphy
The 13 C values reect changes in the biogeochemical redox
cycling of carbon, while long-term trends (>100 Ma) are likely
to reect real shifts in the proportion of carbonate versus or-
ganic carbon burial (Schidlowski, 1993). Published Precam-
brian 13 C data are relatively numerous with over 10 000 sam-
ples measured from 561 distinct lithological units.
The compilation shown in Fig. 9.2b conrms that marine
bicarbonate 13 C remained close to 0% during much of Pre-
cambrian time (Schidlowski et al., 1975). Two prolonged inter-
vals of anomalously high (>10%O) and variable (up to 20%O)
13 C can be identied: mid Paleoproterozoic (2.31.9 Ga) and
mid Neoproterozoic (0.80.6 Ga). The extent to which high
marine carbonate 13 C for either period represents anomalous
global seawater bicarbonate 13 C or local isotopic enrichment
has not been established (Melezhik et al., 1999). However, the
observation that comparable 13 C trends can be found in many
sedimentary successions, thought on independent grounds to
be of the same age, makes a purely local interpretation un-
likely, at least for the Neoproterozoic. Mean 13 C values reveal
a sustained increase at these times, which is consistent with
a real increase in organic carbon burial and storage rates. At-
mospheric oxygen concentrations are likely to have risen as a
consequence (DesMarais et al., 1992).
9.5.3 Oxygen isotope stratigraphy
Despite considerable scatter due to post-depositional alter-
ation, primary variation, and analytical inconsistencies, calcite
18 O values are generally depleted throughout the Precambrian
relative to most of the Phanerozoic (Fig. 9.2c ). Mean 18 O val-
The Precambrian: the Archean and Proterozoic Eons 135
ues from both calcite and dolomite increase in parallel through
the Precambrian with a roughly constant isotopic discrimina-
tion that probably reects differences in their equilibrium iso-
topic fractionations during precipitation from seawater (Land,
are consistent with the well-documented increase in marine
calcite 18 O during the Phanerozoic, which has been inter-
preted as resulting from a tectonically controlled, rst-order
increase in seawater 18 O (Veizer et al., 2000). The extent to
which seawater 18 O can have changed over geological history
is still a matter of controversy (Muehlenbachs, 1998; Godderis
and Veizer, 2000; Wallmann, 2001).
9.5.4 Sulfur isotope stratigraphy
The sulfur isotope record for Precambrian seawater sul-
fate, based on the analysis of anhydrite, gypsum, barite, and
trace amounts of sulfate in carbonates, cherts, and phospho-
rites (e.g. Strauss, 1993, 2001a,b; Shields et al., 1999; Kah
et al., 2001; Strauss et al., 2001) is much more fragmentary
than the carbonate-based isotope records for strontium, car-
bon, and oxygen. This is a consequence of a rather limited
number of preserved evaporite deposits. Accordingly, the re-
sults of some 500 measurements for only 26 stratigraphic
units are distributed unevenly throughout the rst 4 Ga
of Earths evolution, and provide poor temporal resolution
(Fig. 9.2d ).
The early Archean sulfate sulfur isotope record is based
on the analyses of barites from Australia, southern Africa,
and India, which are generally taken to reect the sea-
water signature. The 34 S values display a range between +2.7
and +8.7%O, averaging +4.0 1.1%O (n = 67). The tem-
poral evolution throughout the Archean and Proterozoic dis-
plays a rst-order increase in 34 S toward an average value
of +32.1 3.7%O (n = 134) for the terminal Neoproterozoic.
This rise is likely not linear, but poor time resolution prohibits
detailed evaluation.
The very positive sulfur isotope values of terminal Neo-
proterozoic age have been recorded from numerous evaporite
deposits around the world. Stratigraphically, these values occur
in units above the late Proterozoic episode of global glaciation
and continue into the Cambrian. Despite the fact that these
units can be only loosely correlated, extremely positive 34 S
values appear to reect a globally representative signature for
seawater sulfate.
The temporal evolution in the sulfur isotopic composition
of seawater sulfate throughout Earths history reects changes
in the (bio)geochemical cycling of sulfur.
136 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
By far the largest isotope effect accompanies the bacterial
reduction of sulfate, preferentially utilizing the lighter 32 S iso-
tope (Kaplan and Rittenberg, 1964; Caneld, 2001; Detmers
et al., 2001). As a consequence of mass balance, the remain-
ing sulfate pool, now present as evaporitic sulfate in the rock
record, is enriched in 34 S. Thus, the observed increase toward
more positive 34 S values through time could reect the grow-
ing importance of a biologically controlled sulfur cycle. Due
to the poor time resolution, however, no conclusive evidence
exists as far as the timing is concerned.
Based on the sulfur isotopic composition of sedimentary
pyrite (reecting the biologically mediated product), unequiv-
ocal evidence suggests the late Archeanearly Paleoproterozoic
as the transition period from a mantle-dominated to a bio-
logically controlled sulfur cycle (Caneld and Raiswell, 1999;
Godderis and Veizer, 2000; Strauss, 2001b), despite a few ear-
lier occurrences of biogenic pyrite that reveal substantial iso-
topic fractionation (Shen et al., 2001).
9.5.5 The role of isotope stratigraphy
in global correlation
Phanerozoic events and trends can be identied and corre-
lated using a stratigraphic framework based primarily on bio-
stratigraphy with only relatively minor contributions from
other stratigraphic methods. However, no such framework ex-
ists for most of the Precambrian, which makes global strati-
graphic correlation considerably less straightforward. Re-
cently, several competing isotope-based global stratigraphic
calibration schemes have been proposed, which facilitate
global correlation, at least in the Neoproterozoic. These
schemes integrate relevant radiometric ages with a vari-
ously weighted combination of sequence, litho-, bio-, and
chemostratigraphy (e.g. Kaufman and Knoll, 1995; Shields,
1999; Walter et al., 2000). It is important to remember that
none of these schemes will turn out to be correct in their en-
tirety but must be treated as working hypotheses that can be
repeatedly tested and improved upon in an iterative fashion by
future research. In this regard, they differ little from biostrati-
graphic correlations of Phanerozoic rocks.
Isotope stratigraphy forms a vital component of these cal-
ibration schemes due to the rapidly changing 87 Sr/86 Sr ratios
and the extreme 13 C values recorded in Neoproterozoic ma-
rine carbonates (Fig. 9.3). However, care must be taken that
isotope-based correlation avoids circular reasoning by com-
bining as much supporting evidence as possible. In order to
lessen the degree of circularity, some researchers choose to
illustrate their correlation hypotheses as stacked sections.
In this approach, stratigraphic sections are shown alongside
each other together with potentially useful correlation crite-
ria, e.g. UPb age constraints, major sequence boundaries,
glaciogenic units, marker fossils, 13 C excursions, and least-
altered 87 Sr/86 Sr ratios. One such example is given in Fig.
9.4. The stacked section approach is advantageous because
the sequence of appearance of correlative features within each
of these sections is known from the local stratigraphy, which
normally cannot be refuted. Therefore, the repetition of the
same sequence of features in entirely unrelated sections raises
a strong argument for the global importance of these features
as well as for the mutual correlation of these sections. Section
stacking allows more complete isotopic and biotic evolutionary
records to be established (Fig. 9.3), which can then assist in the
recognition of hiatuses.
Two aspects of Fig. 9.3 are unusual and require additional
comment. First, 87 Sr/86 Sr features are shown as chemo-
zones. This was rst recommended by McArthur (1994) and
circumvents the problem of not knowing the precise Neopro-
terozoic 87 Sr/86 Sr curve. The 87 Sr/86 Sr chemozones also help
in the differentiation of otherwise indistinguishable 13 C ex-
cursions (Shields, 1999). Second, 13 C features in Fig. 9.3 have
been assigned the names of the lithological units in which they
are best expressed, e.g. the Keele 13 C peak (Ke) or the Yudoma
13 C negative excursion (Ya). Chronological ordering (e.g. 1,
2, 3; A, B, C; i, ii, iii) is best avoided because this approach ne-
cessitates the continual re-invention of new schemes as strati-
graphic records become more complete, which can lead to con-
siderable confusion (Hancock, 2000).
9 . 6 B I O S T R AT I G R A P H Y I N T H E
N E O P RO T E RO Z O I C
Fossils are abundant in Phanerozoic rocks and very much less
so in latest Archean and Proterozoic strata. Surprisingly per-
haps, stromatolites are just as common in late Archean as
in Proterozoic strata. The Proterozoic Eon presents a slid-
ing scale of biostratigraphic opportunity. Cyanobacteria are
particularly widespread in Proterozoic cherts and shales, but
their record strongly suggests early diversication followed by
the long persistence of little varying lineages. In consequence,
cyanobacterial fossils tend to provide better indicators of en-
vironment than age. Nonetheless, to the extent that the na-
ture of coastal marine environments have shifted through the
Proterozoic Eon, the stratigraphic distributions of cyanobac-
terial fossils should reect this change. For example, the ma-
rine precipitates found commonly in Paleo- and Mesoprotero-
zoic carbonates deposited on tidal ats largely disappear by
 The Precambrian: the Archean and Proterozoic Eons 137

10 0.7081 0.7085 0.7085 Cambrian fauna

Bf ?Ks
Trace fossils

)
5 Bl' 2

535

544
Rusophycus,
E SIBERIA 3 Cruziana

(%o
0
200 m 2 Phycodes

Ma
Us

Kh
Pe

Tu
13
5 ? Ya
Skeletal fossils
10 Archaeocyaths
10
0.7084 Ks0.7081 0.7071 Purella
)

5 2 Bf Protohertzina

Wi
549
NAMIBIA Cambrotubulus
(%o

Sc 545
543
500 m

Nu
Hyolithellus
13

5 No ?

Ku
Anabarites

Vi
10 Sponges
0.7084 0.7077
10
Ks Do" Do' Precambrian biota

Na <748
Bf
)

5 ?2
Cloudinids
S CHINA
( %o

0 "Twitya" discs
200 m
De

Do
Ti
13

5 Ediacaran
T fronds
0.7071
10 0.7085 "best"
10 0.7084 0.7072 0.7066 87Sr/ 86Sr
Ks Do
Glacial horizon
Tp

2 Ke
5 Bf
)

NW 3 Distinct hiatus

Ra <755
CANADA
0
(%o

549
1000 m Geochron. age
Gt
Bb

Sh

5 Ke 13 C feature
Ri
13

T
IB

10 0.7076
(Officer Basin) Ke
10 0.7087 0.7079 0.7071

<777
2
)

5 Te
SOUTH 3
AUSTRALIA TH
Tr
( %o

0
ABC

1000 m
Wo

TH

Wi
Ra

Nu
Bo

Bu

En

Su
Ur

Br

Et
13

5
0.7073
10 0.7082 0.7084 0.7084 0.7078 0.7072 0.7067
10
2 Ke
<c.725

BI'' BI' 3 ?2
)

5
Do
(%o

0
MU
Ts
Ba

W MONGOLIA Ya TH
13

5 500 m ? Ya 100 m

10
Ediacaran fronds
Sponges Biotic
Cloudina expansion
Small shelly fossils
Phycodes
Rusophycus 87Sr/ 86 Sr Zones
<0.7083 0.7084 0.7083-0 0.7079-76 0.7075-71 0.7070-65 <0.7067
BI'' BI' Ya Bf Ks Do'' Do' Te Ke TH 13C features
Cambrian Ediacaran Cryogenian
535 Ma 542 Ma 720 Ma
Figure 9.3 Attempted stratigraphic correlation between key importance of the latest Neoproterozoic. Resultant order of animal
NeoproterozoicCambrian successions world-wide (modied after fossil rst appearances is given at base together with chemical
Shields, 1999). Note non-linear age scale, which exaggerates the zonation.
138 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

Greenland

Southern
Mongolia

Northern
Australia

Australia

Western

Namibia

Namibia
Svalbard
Canada

Canada
Norway

Norway
Central

Oman
South

South
China

South
Africa

North
USA
East

East
NW

NW
UK
Cambrian

500 B
O
S
T
0.7085 0.7085 O 0.7085 0.7085
N 539
542 544
0.7084 0.7084 549
550
? 0.7085 P
565
0.7079 P 0.7076 0.7075 0.7079 0.7077 0.7081 0.7077 P
0.7072
Ediacaran

0.7072 595-540 595-565 Fe Fe

600
0.7075 0.7071 0.7072 0.7072
C C
>90/00 >90/00 >90/00 >90/00 >90/00 A A
L L
0.7071 T E E
A D D
O O O A
650 U N N V
D I I A
E D D L
N E E O
I S S N
Small shelly fossils
>9 0 / 00 >9 0 / 00 >9 0/00
700 Cambrian trace fossils
0.7066 0.7067 0.7065 0.7071
Cloudinid tubes
Fe Fe Fe >595 >730
Cryogenian

<728 Ediacaran fronds

0.7068
<777 <824 <755 <~740 <746 <806 <748 Twitya discs
750 Pertatataka-type spiny acritarchs
0.7065 0.7064 0.7067 P
Chuaria Tawuia assemblage
A <806 Radiometric age constraint
C P
C G A P 0.7067 Least-altered 87Sr/ 86 Sr ratios
O O L D A
800 A R B E A L K >90/00 Distinctive 13 C features
D A D I D L A Y A
E M I - O R C A L
L N A Fe Sedimentary iron formations
L A A C A H N
A D L L O H I D I G H
I E E T N D I T A Glaciogenic units
U N
850 D U R A G Q E A A Z R
Characteristic cap-carbonates
E S A I O F S N E I
Ma S

Figure 9.4 Age constraints and correlation criteria are consistent signicant glacial episodes (shown shaded) during the midlate
with, but do not prove the existence of, two, possibly three, globally Neoproterozoic.

the Neoproterozoic. Mirroring this change, the abundant mat- but most are thought to represent the vegetative walls or spores
building entophysalid cyanobacteria in older cherts give way to of algae.
cyanobacteria such as Polybessurus whose living counterparts Acritarchs have been used to divide the Early Cambrian
exist on unlithied carbonate muds (Knoll and Sergeev, 1995). into ve assemblages or zones, demonstrating a biostrati-
Stromatolites also show broad patterns of change in form and graphic potential equivalent to that of contemporaneous
microfabric through the Proterozoic Eon and, like observed invertebrates (Moczydlowska, 1991). This biostratigraphic
stratigraphic patterns in cyanobacteria, these appear to reect resolution does not, however, extend downward into Protero-
environmental as much as biological changes (Grotzinger and zoic rocks. Acritarch assemblages from successions marked
Knoll, 1999). by Ediacaran casts and moulds are characteristically simple,
Eukaryotic fossils offer better prospects for biostratigraphy. with few taxa of mostly unornamented spheroids. In contrast,
Beginning with pioneering research in Russia (Timofeev, 1966) successions bracketed by Ediacaran fossils above and tillites
and Sweden (Vidal, 1976), acritarch populations have been below display a high diversity of large, amboyantly orna-
used to correlate Neoproterozoic successions. Acritarchs are mented forms (Zang and Walter, 1992; Zhang et al., 1998), seen
generally spheroidal to polygonal, organic-walled microfossils globally.
found in Proterozoic and Phanerozoic sedimentary rocks. By Earlier Neoproterozoic rocks contain distinctive microfos-
denition, their biological relationships are uncertain if you sils, including ornamented acritarchs and vase-shaped micro-
know it is a green alga, you dont place it among the acritarchs fossils (now known to be related to lobose and lose amoebae;

Porter et al., 2003). These fossils are distinctively Neoprotero-
zoic in aspect, but the degree to which ner-scale zonation
can be justied remains uncertain (reviewed by Knoll, 1996).
Until recently, paleontologists commonly assumed that older
Proterozoic rocks contained only simple acritarchs, but dis-
tinctively ornamented forms have now been documented in
Mesoproterozoic rocks from China and Australia (Xiao et al.,
1997; Javaux et al., 2001). Thus, biostratigraphic correlation
may eventually prove feasible for the second half of the Pro-
terozoic Eon.
Eukaryotic macrofossils are less common in Proterozoic
rocks, but these, too, have time distributions that suggest po-
tential biostratigraphic utility. The distinctive macrofossils
(algae?) Horodyskia and Grypania have been found in sev-
eral Paleo- to Mesoproterozoic successions, but not younger
rocks. In contrast, carbonaceous compressions such as Tawuia
and Longfengshania have been identied in earlier Neopro-
terozoic shales, but not in older or younger rocks. Conspicu-
ously branching algae and anged tubules possibly produced
by cnidarian-grade animals are limited to terminal Proterozoic
shales (Hofmann, 1994; Steiner, 1994; Xiao et al., 2001).
Pre-Ediacaran animals have been claimed from time to
time, but a continuous record of abundant, widespread, dis-
tinctive, and, therefore, stratigraphically useful animal fossils
begins only in the terminal Proterozoic period. Centimeter-
scale compressions of spheroidal, sac-like fossils occur be-
neath the younger tillite in northwestern Canada (Hofmann
et al., 1990); these may be metazoans, but most could alter-
natively have algal origins. Microscopic animal remains, in-
cluding embryos and small cnidarian-like colonies occur in
phosphatic rocks just above the younger tillite in South China
(Xiao and Knoll, 2000; Xiao et al., 2000). Canonical Edi-
acaran fossils, in turn, occur in Newfoundland sandstones
dated, from intercalated ash beds, at 575 Ma. The New-
foundland assemblage includes complex frondose structures,
but not distinctively bilaterian body or trace fossils. In con-
trast, 555 Ma rocks from the White Sea contain both body
impressions and trackways of bilaterian animals (Martin et al.,
2000).
As a group, Ediacaran fossils clearly dene a discrete in-
terval of latest Proterozoic time. Assemblage zones may allow
subdivision of this interval for example, the distinctive fron-
dose fossil Swartpuntia has been found near the Proterozoic
Cambrian boundary on several continents but for now, this
possibility remains conjectural. Microbial reefs in latest Pro-
terozoic (<549 Ma) carbonates also contain calcied macro-
fossils (Cloudina and Namacalathus) of demonstrated biostrati-
graphic value (Grant, 1990; Grotzinger et al., 2000).
The Precambrian: the Archean and Proterozoic Eons 139
In summary, fossils document evolutionary and environ-
mental change through Proterozoic time, and eukaryotic fossils
document accelerating evolution through the Neoproterozoic
Era. Thus, in tandem with isotopic chemostratigraphy, pale-
ontology provides tools for the correlation of Proterozoic and,
especially, Neoproterozoic sedimentary rocks. These are likely
to remain fruitful areas of research in the short term and will
undoubtedly lead to much improved global stratigraphic cor-
relations in the Precambrian.
9 . 7 N E O P RO T E RO Z O I C I C E AG E S A N D
C H RO N O M E T R I C C O N S T R A I N T S
Evidence for continental glaciation is found in mid and late
Neoproterozoic successions world-wide. This evidence usu-
ally comprises glaciomarine (or glaciolacustrine) diamictites
(mixtites) that contain exotic, occasionally striated and faceted
dropstones embedded within ner grained, often nely
stratied sediment. More rarely, striated or grooved pave-
ments, roches moutonnees, eskers, and tunnel-valleys, as well
as other periglacial features, such as ice-wedge pseudomorphs
and wind-blown loess, imply peripheral terrestrial glaciation.
Some of the Neoproterozoic glaciations appear to have been
unusually severe and extensive, with currently indisputable ev-
idence from Australia of grounded ice at equatorial latitudes
during the Marinoan glaciation (Sohl et al., 1999).
At present it is unclear how many glaciations occurred dur-
ing the Neoproterozoic Era or whether all these glaciogenic
deposits represent times of global glaciation (Evans, 2000).
Fig. 9.4 illustrates how global stratigraphic correlation criteria
are consistent with, but not yet proof of, two major phases of
glaciation, one mid Neoproterozoic phase at 730 15 Ma
and a younger phase at 580 10 Ma. The timing of the later
Neoproterozoic glacial episode is poorly constrained in most
regions of the world except eastern North America.
At present, there is no evidence for any early Neopro-
terozoic, i.e. pre-750 Ma glaciation, which had been envis-
aged previously (Eyles and Young, 1994). In particular, recent
geochronological evidence (Rainaud et al., 2001) is inconsis-
tent with a pre-Sturtian glaciation in Africa. Current bio- and
chemostratigraphic constraints would allow for at least re-
gional glaciation during the very latest Neoproterozoic, some-
time between 570 and 550 Ma (Fig. 9.4).
The earlier mid Neoproterozoic glacial episode commonly
comprises two major diamictitemudstone sequences, which
have been interpreted to represent two or more glacial advance
retreat cycles (Eyles and Young, 1994), although this particular
interpretation is no longer widely accepted. Sedimentary iron
140 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
formations are frequently associated with, but are not unique
to, this mid Neoproterozoic episode of glaciation.
By contrast, late Neoproterozoic glaciogenic units are com-
monly capped by a characteristically deformed, generally <5 m
thick, dolostone unit of enigmatic origin. This cap carbon-
ate is never found overlying clearly metazoan fossils, such
as small shelly fossils, or Ediacara-type complex fronds, and
might become a robust criterion for global stratigraphic cor-
relation (Kennedy et al., 1998).
It seems likely that there were at least two distinct episodes
of global glaciation during the midlate Neoproterozoic: from
745 to 725 Ma and from 590 to >550 Ma, each episode of which
seems likely to have comprised more than one cycle of glacial
advance and retreat.
At present, we are unable to date these glaciations world-
wide. Most age constraints are ambiguous, while some glacio-
genic deposits may represent only local glaciation. For these
reasons, the currently widespread use of the terms Varange-
rian (Varangian), Marinoan, or Sturtian is not recom- of stratigraphic principles in the Precambrian compared to
mended unless direct correlation with the sections of origin of
these names has been seriously attempted. In their place, we
advise use of the terms upper or late Proterozoic and mid in the Proterozoic Eon.
Neoproterozoic, respectively.
9 . 8 S U M M A RY
The science of biostratigraphy is applied essentially to rocks of
the Phanerozoic Eon. As illustrated in the ensuing chapters of
this book, a Phanerozoic time scale that is biostratigraphically
conceived and chronostratigraphically dened (Knoll, 2001)
is now reasonably well established on a global scale.
By contrast, more than seven-eighths of Earth history, be-
tween 4500 and 500 Ma, is subdivided into segments of
geological time that are more arbitrarily dened in terms of
geochronometry. These segments occur at the eon level, where
the Archean Eon is dened as applying to any rock older than
2500 Ma and the Proterozoic Eon as applying to any rock whose
age is younger than 2500 Ma but older than 542 Ma (the age
of the presently dened GSSP for the base of the Cambrian
Period; see Chapter 11).
Further division occurs at the era level, and these are de-
ned by adding the prexes Eo (>3600 Ma), Paleo (3600
3200 Ma), Meso (32002800 Ma), and Neo (28002500 Ma)
to the term Archean and, likewise, the prexes Paleo (2500
1600 Ma), Meso (16001000 Ma), and Neo (1000542 Ma) to
the term Proterozoic (Fig. 9.1).
Only the Proterozoic Eon is currently further subdivided
into periods and these subdivisions are also shown in Table 9.1.
The periods of the Proterozoic Eon, although still arbitrarily
allocated, have been dened in terms of, and are chosen to
coincide with, major geological processes characterizing this
time interval.
Despite the major differences that exist in the application
the Phanerozoic Eon, steady progress is being made in the
denition of a time scale in older successions, and particularly
The Neoproterozoic Era is characterized by at least two,
and possibly four, severe and extensive glaciogenic events, the
legacies of which have been to deposit highly characteristic
diamictic and chemical sediments that may provide the basis
for well-dated marker horizons on a global scale.
The recognition of a Neoproterozoic supercontinent,
Rodinia, provides an additional framework in terms of which
sequence stratigraphy, magmatism, and orogenic cycles are be-
ing used, and will be utilized in the future, to facilitate global
correlations. The denition of GSSPs older than the base of
the Cambrian has commenced in the Neoproterozoic Era and
may then work progressively back in geological time as the
pattern of Precambrian crustal evolution is unraveled.
10 Toward a natural Precambrian time scale
.
It is proposed that Precambrian time should be subdivided into eons
and eras that reect natural stages in planetary evolution rather than
being subdivided by a scheme based on numerical ages. The six eons
can be briey characterized as:
1. Accretion and differentiation: a time span of planet forma-
tion, growth, and differentiation up to the Moon-forming giant
impact event.
2. Hadean (Cloud, 1972): an extended time span of intense bom-
bardment and its consequences, but no preserved supracrustals.
3. Archean: an episode of increasing crustal record from the old-
est supracrustals of Isua to the onset of giant iron formation
deposition in the Hamersley Basin, likely related to increasing
oxygenation of the atmosphere.
4. Transition: a time span with deposition of giant iron forma-
tions up to the rst bona de continental red beds.
5. Proterozoic: the time span of a nearly modern plate-tectonic
Earth but without metazoan life.
6. Phanerozoic: Earth characterized by metazoan life forms of in-
creasing complexity and diversity.
1 0 . 1 I N T RO D U C T I O N
The evolution of the geological time scale since the eighteenth
century reects in many ways the evolution of the geological
sciences as a whole. On the one hand, the evolving time scale
provides the essential nomenclature to classify, analyze, and
communicate Earth history, while on the other it closely reects
the overall intellectual framework in which Earth history, as
recorded in the rock record, is viewed.
Contrary to historical practice, however, and against the
specic critique of many leading scholars in the eld (e.g.
Cloud, 1987; Crook, 1989; Nisbet, 1991), the Subcommission
on Precambrian Stratigraphy chose a purely numerical basis
of absolute ages for subdividing over 4000 million years of ge-
ological history (Plumb and James, 1986; Plumb, 1991; see also
Chapter 9). The ages assigned to the boundaries of Proterozoic
A Geologic Time Scale 2004, eds. Felix M. Gradstein, James G. Ogg, and Alan
G. Smith. Published by Cambridge University Press.
c F. M. Gradstein,
J. G. Ogg, and A. G. Smith 2004.
141
periods are not uniformly distributed, but were theoretically
chosen to delimit principal cycles of sedimentation and tec-
tonics (Table 9.1). The resulting time scale is convenient in
terms of round numbers, but is divorced from key events in
the stratigraphic record (Fig. 9.1).
10.2 CURRENT PRECAMBRIAN
S U B D I V I S I O N S A N D P RO B L E M S
The term Precambrian is an informal stratigraphic term that
encompasses all geologic time prior to the Cambrian Period.
It traces its origin through its older hyphenated form pre-
Cambrian to the early efforts by Sedgwick and Murchison to
divide the fossiliferous grauwacke strata of Wales into corre-
latable systems (see Hallam, 1992a, pp. 6586, for an engaging
historical overview). With the Cambrian System becoming
established in the mid-nineteenth century, older non-
fossiliferous strata, schists, and crystalline rocks were loosely
referred to as pre-Cambrian. In modern usage, the Precam-
brian spans the time from the birth of planet Earth at about
4560 Ma to the biostratigraphically dened onset of the Cam-
brian Period, presently dated at 542 1 Ma (see Chapter 11).
It is formally subdivided into the Proterozoic and Archean
Eons, with the base of Archean presently undened (Fig. 9.1).
This Precambrian time scale, while innovative in design,
has a few major problems.
First, a purely chronometic denition, such as the 2500 Ma
denition of the ArcheanProterozoic boundary, is not, and
cannot be, located precisely in the stratigraphic record. Sys-
tematic errors due to uncertainties in decay constants (Ludwig,
2000; Begemann et al., 2001; see also Chapter 6), together with
errors in analytical measurements, mean that the uncertainties
in dates are about 6.5 million years at 2500 Ma and 10
million years at 4000 Ma. Denition of boundaries in terms of
arbitrary, round, absolute ages, although supercially appeal-
ing, is therefore nave. Correlation of such boundaries between
distant sections, on the basis of even our best geochronometers
(UPb ages on single zircons), can be no better than 510
million years (relative to absolute ages), even if all other sources
142 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
of uncertainty (e.g. analytical scatter, Pb loss, or cryptic inheri-
tance) are negligible. In principle, this fundamental uncertainty
could be reduced by dening boundaries explicitly in terms of
207
Pb/206 Pb zircon ages or isotopic ratios, rather than absolute
age numbers, but this would result in a time scale that is even
less transparent. Furthermore, it would not solve the problem
of intercalibration between different geochronometers, most
of which suffer from greater decay constant uncertainties then
the UPb system (see Chapter 6). As new values of the decay
constants become available, rocks that had previously been as-
signed to the Archean might become Proterozoic or vice versa.
In fairness to many years of signicant efforts by the Sub-
commission on Precambrian Stratigraphy, a positive outcome
of their Precambrian time scale (Fig. 10.1) has been stabiliza-
tion, at least temporarily and albeit articially, of the debate on
the age and signicance of the ArcheanProterozoic boundary.
This has facilitated, to some extent, the recent literature on the
late Archean.
Second, the boundaries within the Precambrian scale are
dened by a completely different method to the Phanerozoic
time scale, in which boundaries are based on GSSPs in strati-
graphic sections. The one exception is the ratication in 2004
of a GSSP in Australia for the youngest subdivision of the Pro-
terozoic, at the base of the Ediacaran (see Chapter 9). Its upper
boundary is dened by the GSSP for the base of the Cambrian
in Newfoundland (see Chapter 11).
Third, the formal or proposed subdivisions (e.g. Meso-
archean, by Plumb, 1991, and Lumbers and Card, 1991) of
the current Precambrian time scale are either not being used or
are used inconsistently. Subdivision names, chosen to avoid ref-
erence to particular sections (Plumb and James, 1986), are also
a factor in their non-usage. For example, a search of the Georef
reference database for such terms as the Ectasian or Calymmian
periods yielded zero results. Due to current interest in Neopro-
terozoic glaciations, the Cryogenian faired better, but was only
used in 14 recent papers. In effect, Precambrian stratigraphers
are simply ignoring the formal terminology for subdivisions.
Fourth, the present time scale is incomplete, leaving the
lower boundary of the Archean undened. Hence, the popu-
larity of the informal term early Earth, loosely dened as
Earths rst gigayear, to encompass the earliest episodes of our
planets history.
1 0 . 3 A NAT U R A L P R E C A M B R I A N
TIME SCALE
Thus a completely different view of how to subdivide the Pre-
cambrian is that the subdivisions should, like their Phanerozoic
counterparts, be dened in terms of the extant rock record, i.e.
by GSSPs and that these GSSPs should be placed so as to
focus attention on what appear to be key stages in Precam-
brian history. These key events or key transitions in the
stratigraphic record would establish a natural time scale for
the evolution of planet Earth (Bleeker, 2002). Ideally, these
key events should be observable globally, but at a minimum
should be signicant in one well-preserved section. In the pre-
ferred case where a specic key event or transition can be rec-
ognized in multiple sections world-wide, that section which
shows the most detailed development of the stratigraphic in-
terval of interest should be selected as the basis for dening
a boundary, complete with a golden spike at the horizon or
rock unit that denes the boundary. These type sections and
their golden spikes will provide the physical standards for ab-
solute age calibration, and against which other global sections
can be compared.
To stimulate debate, a proposal for an improved Precam-
brian time scale is presented below. It attempts to provide a
natural time scale for the Precambrian in which eons and
eras, and their boundaries, are dened in terms of key events
and transitions in Earth evolution.To some extent such a devel-
opment was anticipated by proponents of the present chrono-
metric scheme, which they state (see Chapter 9): may not be
a lasting solution as the dened units lack the geological con-
text and denition required if they are to be recognized by the
intrinsic features of their geologic history rather than simply
numerical dates. Given the rapid advances in planetary sci-
ence, geochronology, and Precambrian geology, an improved
natural time scale for the Precambrian appears timely.
A tentative proposal for a natural subdivision of the rst
half of Earth history is given in Fig. 10.2. Parts of it are con-
servative in that it maintains present terminology at the eon
and era rank, but it is built around rst-order benchmarks in
the extant stratigraphic record.
The rst-order benchmarks are:
1. An early eon of Accretion and Differentiation (perhaps
to be termed Genesis?).
2. The interval from the Moon-forming catastrophic impact
to the end of heavy bombardment (a redened Hadean).
3. A redened Archean whose base is the end of the heavy
bombardment.
4. A presently unnamed Transition Eon, whose base marks
the onset of giant banded iron formations.
5. The Proterozoic, whose base is taken as the rst continen-
tal red beds and an extended Paleozoic, whose base is the
basal Ediacaran, ushering in Ediacaran metazoans.
Geon Eon Era Age (Ma)
3
4 Ph Paleozoic Cambrian radiation & first shelly metazoan fossils

5 542 Emergence of Ediacaran metazoans

Global glaciations ("Snowball Earth")
6 Neo-
7 proterozoic
8
9 1000 Amalgamation of supercontinent Rodinia
10
11
Meso-
Proterozoic

12 ~1267 Mackenzie giant radiating dyke swarms

13 proterozoic
14
15 1600
16
17 1800 Amalgamation of Earth's first supercontinent: Nuna
18 1850 Sudbury impact structure
19 Paleo- 2000 Gunflint microfossils
20 proterozoic 2023 Vredefort impact structure
2060 Bushveld layered intrusion
21 Sediment-dominated passive margin sequences
22 Progressive rifting, break-up and dispersal of late Archean supercratons
Paleoproterozoic glaciations
23 2450 Matachewan giant radiating dyke swarm
24 Giant BIFs (banded iron formations), e.g. Hamersley Basin
2500 Archean-Proterozoic boundary (defined)
25 ~2574 Great Dyke, Zimbabwe craton
26 Neoarchean ~2680-2580 Craton-scale strike-slip faults: rigid plates
Eukaryote chemofossils
27 2730-2700: widespread (global?) flood basalt volcanism & komatiites
2800
28 ~2820 Central Slave Cover Group, Slave craton
29 Meso- 3000-2800: transient stability of most Archean cratons as indicated by
Archean

widespread quartzite-banded iron formation-komatiite cover sequences,

30 archean e.g. Central Slave Cover Group, Steep Rock and Witwatersrand successions.
31 3200
32 ~3230 Fig Tree & Moodies Group, Barberton greenstone belt
Paleo-
33 ~3460 Onverwacht Group, Barberton greenstone belt
34 archean 3465 Oldest microfossils: Apex chert, Warrawoona Group
~3500 Regional basement complexes of several Archean cratons
35 ~3530 pre-Warrawoona & Onverwacht supercrustals
3600 Younger tonalites & granites at Acasta
36 Isua greenstone belt, Greenland
37 Eoarchean Oxygenic photosynthesis
"Early Earth"

38 ~3850 Oldest supracrustals and chemofossils: Isua, Akilia

3900 Late heavy bombardment ("lunar cataclysm')
39 ~4000 Onset of inner core crystallization & generate of Earth's magnetic field
Hadean

40 ~4030 sometime prior to life's colonization of shallow hydrosphere (undated)

~4050 Acasta gneisses
41 Emergence of life?
~4276 Detrital zircons
42
43 ~4400 Oldest detrital zircons & early hydro/atmosphere
Differentation complete & accretion of late veneer
44 4510 Giant impacts & formation of Moon & superheated Fe, Ni core
45 4550 Accretion & formation of differentiated meteorites
4566 Condensation & CAIs
Solar Nebula collapse Impact cratering intensity
Pre-Solar dust particles

Figure 10.1 Formal subdivisions of the Precambrian annotated
with key events in Earths evolution. Geon scale from Hofmann
(1990, 1991) provides a quick chronometric shorthand notation.
The interval highlighted early Earth is an informal designation
commonly used for Earths rst gigayear from the time of accretion
to 3.5 Ga. Exponentially decreasing impact intensity (curve on
right) is schematic and includes the late heavy bombardment
episode. Stars indicate Sudbury and Vredefort inpact structures
with diameters >50 km.
144 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

Eon Era Age Key Event Lunar Scale

Ma
present
Cenozoic First-order extinction and radiation
Phanerozoic

65
Mesozoic
~250 First-order extinction and radiation

Paleozoic
~542 Cambrian radiation
~600 Emergence of Ediacaran metazoans

Neo-
proterozoic
Proterozoic

~1267 Mackenzie giant radiating dyke swarms

Meso-
proterozoic
~1800 Assembly of first supercontinent

Paleo-
proterozoic
~2300 First continental red beds

Transition
~2600 Onset of giant BIFs, Hamersley Basin
Neoarchean Eratosthenian
Basal Fortescue Group unconformity
~2850 Basal Ngezi Group (Manjeri Fm.) unconformity
Mesoarchean
Archean

~3100 Basal Gorge Creek Group &

Dominion Group unconformity
Lunar
Paleoarchean Terrestrial Mare Basalts
Rock Record
~3500 Onset of Warrawoona Group Imbrian
Eoarchean Orientale
Oldest (preserved) Link to lunar stratigraphy? ~382020 impact
~3850 supracrustal rocks Imbrium impact (~3850) ~3850
~3920 Nectaris
Hadean

Nectarian impact

Pre-Nectarian

~4510 Moon-forming giant impact Link to lunar

~4560 Accretion and differentiation stratigraphy
Genesis

Figure 10.2 Proposal for a natural Precambrian time scale. Earth
history is divided into six eons, with boundaries dened by what can
be considered rst-order watersheds in the evolution of our
planet. The six eons can be briey characterized as follows:
Accretion and Differentiation, planet formation, growth and
differentiation up to the Moon-forming giant impact event; Hadean
(Cloud, 1972), intense bombardment and its consequences, but no
preserved supracrustals; Archean, increasing crustal record from the
oldest supracrustals of Isua to the onset of giant iron formation
deposition in the Hamersley Basin, likely related to increasing
oxygenation of the atmosphere; Transition, starting with
deposition of giant iron formations up to the rst bona de
continental red beds; Proterozoic, a nearly modern plate-tectonic
Earth but without metazoan life; and the Phanerozoic, characterized
by metazoan life forms of increasing complexity and diversity. The
latter denition of the Phanerozoic (e.g. Cloud, 1988) would involve
moving its lower boundary to encompass an Ediacaran Period. Some
of the boundaries are currently poorly calibrated in absolute time,
whereas the onset of the Archean should oat with the oldest
preserved supracrustal rocks, a distinction currently held by
38203850 Ma rocks of the Isua greenstone belt. Comparison to the
lunar time scale is shown (e.g. Guest and Greeley, 1977; Murray
et al., 1981; Spudis, 1999).

10.3.1 The Accretion and Differentiation
or Genesis Eon
Earths rst eon (perhaps more provocatively called Genesis)
spanned the time from planetary formation and early differ-
entiation to the giant impact event that led to the formation of
the Moon.
The birth of planet Earth and other planetary bodies of
the inner solar system is a somewhat fuzzy concept, depending
on what stage in the accretionary growth history is selected as
the threshold for planet formation. Here, the 45504560 Ma
age of the oldest differentiated meteorites (All`egre et al., 1995;
see also Patterson, 1956), including basaltic achondrites, is cho-
sen as the birth date of planet Earth.
The Moon-forming event, likely involving a Mars-size
planetary body (Hartmann and Davis, 1975; Cameron and
Ward, 1976; Canup and Asphaug, 2001), is thought to have
occurred at 4510 Ma (Lee et al., 1997). Dynamical model-
ing studies of the catastrophic impact event (e.g. Canup and
Asphaug, 2001) suggest that the material blasted into orbit,
derived in part from the impactor and in part from the Earths
mantle, and re-aggregated in a relatively short time to form the
Moon. Therefore, the end of Earths rst eon of about 45 myr
duration at the same time marks the onset of the lunar time
scale (Fig. 10.2). Clearly, no true GSSP can be dened on Earth
for the base or the top of the accretion and differentiation
eon. Both are boundaries that will have to be dened by age, but
an age linked to geological evolution rather than to an arbitrary
number.
10.3.2 The Hadean Eon
The term Hadean was initially dened by Cloud (1972,
1988), with the EarthMoon system clearly in mind. The
Hadean Eon should be re-dened to span the time from the
Moon-forming catastrophic impact to the end of heavy bom-
bardment. The former is likely to have re-set the Earth in
fundamental ways: e.g. excavation of part of the mantle to form
the Moon; impact erosion and partial vaporization of an early
crust; impact erosion of an early atmosphere; and extensive
melting to form a temporary magma ocean. The nature and
timing (4.03.8 Ga) of a discrete late heavy bombardment
phase is still the subject of considerable debate, but in practi-
cal terms the end of this intense bombardment may well corre-
late with the rst preservation of terrestrial supracrustal rocks,
a distinction currently held by the 38503820 Ma clastic
and volcanic rocks of the Isua greenstone belt (Nutman et al.,
1993, 1997).Thus the Hadean Eon is characterized by intense
Toward a natural Precambrian time scale 145
bombardment, a sparse record of ancient infracrustal rocks
(e.g. Acasta gneisses; Stern and Bleeker, 1998; Bowring and
Williams, 1999), some detrital zircons (Wilde et al., 2001), but
no preserved supracrustal rocks. From a historical perspec-
tive, the Hadean (Cloud, 1972) has priority over Harlands
Priscoan (Harland et al., 1982). The Hadean Eon lasted about
700 myr.
10.3.3 The Archean and Transition Eons
The base of the Archean can be dened by the rst (preserved)
occurrence of supracrustal rocks in the rock record. Hence,
a GSSP should be placed at the 38503820 Ma clastic and
volcanic rocks in the Isua greenstone belt.
The Archean Eon is characterized by the protracted,
>1 billion year evolution from granitegreenstone belts to less-
deformed sequences. The transition in tectonic style was once
considered too synchronous on all cratons, but it is now real-
ized that the ArcheanProterozoic boundary is a transition
in tectonic styles that is diachronous: in some cratons it took
place as early as 3.1 Ga, whereas in others it occurred as late
as 2.5 Ga or even later (e.g. Windley, 1984; Blake and Groves,
1987; Cloud, 1987; Nisbet, 1991; Bleeker, 2003b).
Interestingly, this broad transition in tectonic behavior
overlaps changes in the atmosphere, in particular, a rise in
oxygen partial pressure (e.g. see summary in Windley, 1995,
and references therein), in turn marked by the incoming of
new types of sediment such as the giant banded iron forma-
tions at about 2600 Ma and the rst continental red beds at
about 2300 Ma (Fig. 10.2). A Transition Eon is therefore
proposed between the Archean and Proterozoic proper (see
also Cloud, 1987) that encapsulates this episode of planetary
evolution events. This has the added advantage of shortening
the Paleoproterozoic, which is currently 900 myr in duration.
Thus a GSSP for the lower boundary of the Transition
Eon could be placed to include the bulk of the giant banded
iron formations, such as in the Hamersley Basin, Western
Australia, which has a remarkably complete stratigraphic
record (e.g. Trendall et al., 1998; Pickard, 2002). Its approxi-
mate age would be 2600 Ma.
The Archean Eon can be subdivided into the Eoarchean,
Paleoarchean, Mesoarchean, and Neoarchean Eras (Fig. 10.2).
The base of the Eoarchean is the base of the Archean itself.
Archean cratons contain the rst successions of mature quartz
sandstones that lie unconformably on underlying greenstones
and crystalline basement. The unconformities at the base of
these successions can be traced over large areas. Each succes-
sion represents a signicant tectonic event of unknown origin,
146 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
but viewed as a whole, they provide important breaks in the
Archean stratigraphic record. Whether these breaks are of local
or of global signicance is not known, but, in principle, GSSPs
for the Mesoarchean and Neoarchean Eras could be placed so as
to include the bulk of an appropriate quartz sandstone succes-
sion. For example, the base of the Mesoarchean could be located
so as to include the Gorge Creek Group, dated at 3.223.05
Ga (Buick et al., 2002; van Kranendonk et al., 2002), which
overlies the basalt-dominated Warrawoona Group throughout
much of the East Pilbara granitegreenstone terrain (van Kra-
nendonk et al., 2002).
Do these unconformities have global signicance and, if
so, how diachronous are they? The answers to these questions
are not known. However, provisional GSSPs could be placed
close to the base of a quartz arenite succession where a mag-
netic chron boundary was also present. This would have the
advantage of dening the boundary in rock and also of provid-
ing a unique correlation marker. As knowledge progressed, the
GSSP might be moved elsewhere and the origin golden spike
would have evolved into a rusty iron spike. The GSSPs cannot
be located at an unconformity without introducing the problem
of missing time. Alternatively, geochemical markers might
be capable of subdividing the Archean Eon or Archean eras.
10.3.4 The Proterozoic Eon
Conventionally, it might be argued that a suitable lower bound-
ary for the base of the Proterozoic could be dened by the rst
craton-scale fracturing and dyke intrusion of a typical Archean
craton, such as the Great Dyke of the Zimbabwe craton of
southern Africa. However, a GSSP directly associated with
this event would have to be placed in a stratied sequence and
no correlative sequence has yet been recognized.
Therefore, a GSSP for the base of the Proterozoic Eon (and
the top of the Transition Eon) could be placed at a horizon
that also reects a stage in atmospheric evolution the rst
appearance of bona de continental red beds, such as those of
the Lorraine Formation of the Huronian Supergroup, Ontario,
at 2300 Ma (Roscoe, 1973; Prasad and Roscoe, 1996).
10.3.5 The Ediacaran Period (base-Paleozoic?)
A nal, and likely controversial, aspect of the proposed time
scale of Fig. 10.2 is to re-dene the base of the Phanerozoic
(meaning obvious life) in terms of the rst appearance of
metazoans the Ediacaran fauna rather than shelly fauna
at the base of the Cambrian (Cloud, 1988; see also Nisbet,
1991). This would add the Ediacaran System to the Phanero-
zoic. This would mean that the base of the Ediacaran, with its
GSSP in Australia, would become the boundary between the
Phanerozoic and the Precambrian.
Such practice would require that the informal term Pre-
cambrian be replaced with the new term Prediacaran to
designate that part of Earth history that predated an obvi-
ous (metazoan) fossil record. Such a step is not essential: the
Ediacaran System could remain as the youngest period of the
Neoproterozoic Era.
1 0 . 4 C O N C LU S I O N S
A subdivision of Precambrian time based on stages in plan-
etary evolution appears to be a realizable goal. Adoption of
such a scheme would make Precambrian geology more acces-
sible to Earth scientists than the current classication based on
the assignment of arbitrary numerical values to Precambrian
eons, eras, and periods. As in the Phanerozoic Eon, boundaries
would be dened by GSSPs in rock sequences, though such a
denition could not be used for the onset of the terrestrial geo-
logic time scale and the onset of the Hadean. Their boundaries
need to be dened by rst-order planetary events.
11 The Cambrian Period
. . . .
520 Ma (mid-Cambrian)
Ediacaran
Base of
Cambrian
Geographic distribution of Cambrian GSSPs that have been ratied on a mid-Cambrian map (status in January 2004; see Table 2.3).
Appearance of mineralized metazoan skeletons, explosion in bi-
otic diversity and disparity, occurrence of metazoan Konservatfos-
sillagerstatten, establishment of all invertebrate phyla, strong faunal
provincialism, dominance of trilobites, globally warm climate (hot-
house conditions), opening of Iapetus Ocean, progressive equatorial
drift, and separation of Laurentia (including Avalonia), Baltica, and
Siberia characterize the Cambrian Period.
1 1 . 1 H I S T O RY A N D S U B D I V I S I O N S
The Cambrian was the name given by Sedgwick (Sedgwick and
Murchison, 1835) for strata exposed in North Wales. The name
is taken from Cambria, the Roman variant of the Celtic Cum-
bria, the old name for North Wales. As used today, the name
applies essentially to Sedgwicks (1852) Lower Cambrian.
The Cambrian marks the appearance in the geologi-
cal record of mineralized skeletons of multicellular animals
(metazoans), and of a rapid diversication of metazoan life,
A Geologic Time Scale 2004, eds. Felix M. Gradstein, James G. Ogg, and Alan
G. Smith. Published by Cambridge University Press.
c F. M. Gradstein,
J. G. Ogg, and A. G. Smith 2004.
147
Paibian
commonly referred to as the Cambrian explosion. All ani-
mal phyla appeared by the end of the Cambrian. The biostrati-
graphically most useful fossil group is the trilobites, which
show remarkable diversication and evolutionary change, par-
ticularly in the Upper Cambrian. Inarticulate brachiopods,
archaeocyathans, and acritarchs also provide good biostrati-
graphic control in appropriate facies.
As discussed below, international agreement on subdivi-
sion of the Cambrian lags behind most other systems. In most
parts of the world, the Cambrian is divided into lower, middle,
and upper parts (series) but there is no international agreement
on where the boundaries should be placed and there is consid-
erable variance in practice, particularly regarding the base of
the Middle Cambrian. In this volume, we follow the Australian
practice, using a three-fold subdivision with boundaries placed
as in Fig. 11.1.
Cambrian global biostratigraphic markers are scarce, which
is one reason why there are only two internationally ratied and
formally dened Cambrian stage-level divisions (status early
2004). The problem is particularly acute in the Early Cambrian.
Most continents have regional stages but the International
 Cambrian Regional Subdivisions
AGE
(Ma) Epoch/Stage Bioevents Siberia Australia South China Laurentia Kazakhstan West Avalonia
Warendan/
Ordovician Tremadocian Lancefieldian Ibexian/ Ungurian Tremadocian
488.3 1.7
6th stage Mansian Datsonian Skullrockian
490 FAD C. proavus
Payntonian Batyrbaian
Ketyan
Furongian

Taoyuanian Sunwaptan
495 Paibian Iverian Aksayan
Merionethian
Yurakian

Ensyan Steptoan Sakian

500 Maduan Idamean Waergangian
5 01 2.0 FAD G. reticulatus Tavgian
Nganasanian Mindyallan Youshuanian Ayusokkanian
4th stage
Boomerangian Wangcunian Marjumian
Mayan Undillan Zhanarykian
505 FAD P. punctuosus
3rd stage FAD A. atavus late Temple- Arcadian
Middle

2nd stage tonian Floran Tyesaian

FAD T. gibbus Taijangian
Amgan Delamaran
1st stage
FAD O. indicus Ordian
510 early
Templetonian "Lenan"
Toyonian
Duyunian
513 2.0
Dyeran
515 Branchian
Botoman
Nangaoian

520
Atdabanian Montezuman

525

no No No
Early

Tommotian
stages stages stages
designated
Meishucunian
designated designated
530
Placentian
No
stages
?
designated
535

Nemakit
Daldynian Jinnigian
540
FAD T. pedum
542 1.0
Ediacaran

Figure 11.1 Principal stage schemes of the Cambrian (after been decided by the ICS; the Early and Middle Cambrian lower
Geyer & Shergold, 2000). The six biostratigraphic global correlation boundaries shown follow Australian usage. See text for caution in
datum points are shown on the left hand side of the gure. The applying numerical scale to stage boundaries.
Early, Middle, and some of the Late Cambrian divisions have not yet

Subcommission on Cambrian Stratigraphy has found that no
regional stage schemes are suitable for global use (Interna-
tional Subcommission on Cambrian Stratigraphy Newsletter,
19991). In the Middle and Late Cambrian, global biochrono-
logical markers, such as those based on agnostid trilobites,
are present and for these series, at least, it should be possi-
ble to erect internationally acceptable stages, as is being done
in the Ordovician. The only two boundaries so far dened are
the base of the Cambrian System, and the base of the Paib-
ian Stage and Furongian Series, the uppermost series of the
Cambrian.
In the following discussion, therefore, the regional stage
classications of Australia and North America are outlined,
as representative of two major, and widely applicable, faunal
provinces, but it should be noted that Russian archaeocyathan
stages are commonly used in the Lower Cambrian of Australia.
In Fig. 11.2, the stages and zones used in Siberia, Kazakhstan,
south China, and west Avalonia also are shown. The most
promising biostratigraphic datums on which to base global
stages are listed below.
11.1.1 Base of the Cambrian System and Paleozoic
Erathem
The GSSP for the base of the Cambrian was the rst appear-
ance level of the ichnofossil Phycodes pedum, a species now
commonly referred to as Tricophycus pedum or Treptichnus pe-
dum, in the Chapel Island Formation in coastal cliffs of the
440 m thick Fortune Head section, on the Burin Peninsula
of southeastern Newfoundland (Landing, 1994; Brasier et al.,
1994). Later work showed that the ichnofossil occurs slightly
below the GSSP (Gehling et al., 2001). The GSSP lies 2.4 m
above the base of Member 2 in the Chapel Island Formation,
just above the transition to storm-inuenced facies. Mem-
ber 1 of the Chapel Island Formation includes uppermost
Precambrian sediments. It yields the trace fossils Harlaniella
podolica. Palaeopascichnus delicates is also present, but it is
widely believed not to be a trace fossil. Harlaniella podolica
ranges into Member 2, where it is last seen 0.2 m below the
GSSP.
The GSSP also denes the beginning of the Paleozoic
Era. This denition recognizes the earliest record of the ac-
tivity of complex metazoa rather than of their direct skeletal
record, which comes 400 m higher in the sequence. The level
is correlated with the base of the regional NemakitDaldynian
Stage of the Olenek region, northern Siberia. Trilobites rst
appear some 1400 m above the boundary (base of the Branchian
Series).
The Cambrian Period 149
Unfortunately, there is no suitable magnetostratigraphy sig-
nal in the rocks of the Chapel Island Formation and, prob-
ably, no useful isotope stratigraphy either. Elsewhere, a
large-magnitude, short-lived negative excursion in carbon
isotopes has been equated with the boundary (Grotzinger
et al., 1995; Bartley et al., 1998; Kimura and Watanabe,
2001).
11.1.2 Biostratigraphic datums with potential
for global correlation
Geyer and Shergold (2000) listed 14 biostratigraphic levels for
inter-provincial correlation. Of these, the International Sub-
commission on Cambrian Stratigraphy in June 2000 selected
six as suitable for GSSPs for Cambrian stages, listed below.
Suitable stratotype sections are now being sought.
BA S E O F T H E CORDYLODUS PROAVUS Z O N E
The conodont Cordylodus proavus has a cosmopolitan distribu-
tion and its rst appearance is used in several regions for stage
base denition, for example the Skullrockian (North America),
Datsonian (Australia), Xinchangian (China), and Ungurian
(Kazakhstan).
BA S E O F T H E GLYPTAGNOSTUS RETICULATUS Z O N E ,
BA S E O F T H E PA I B I A N S TAG E , L OW E R M O S T
F U RO N G I A N S E R I E S
This is one of the most widely recognizable trilobite horizons
and one that has been suggested by many workers as suitable
for denition of a global stage base. Glyptagnostus reticulatus
is used as a zonal fossil in Siberia, Kazakhstan, the Yangtse
Platform, Australia, and Laurentia. The rst appearance of
G. reticulatus marks a time of signicant faunal change, that
denes the base of the pterocephaliid biomere in Laurentia,
the Idamean Stage in Australia, the Sakian Stage in Kaza-
khstan, the Kugorian Stage in Siberia, and Olenus Stage in
Scandinavia.
In 2002, the base of the G. reticulatus Zone was formally
selected by the ICS to dene the base of the Paibian Stage in
the lower Furongian Series. These are the rst formal stage
and series units in global Cambrian stratigraphy.
The GSSP for the base of the Paibian Stage and Furongian
Series, which forms the uppermost series of the Cambrian, is
dened at 396 m, at the lowest occurrence of the agnostoid
trilobite G. reticulatus, in the Huaqiao Formation, Paibi Sec-
tion, NW Hunan Province, South China. This level is near the
150 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

Cambrian Time Scale

Age Polarity South
(Ma) Epoch/Stage Chron Siberia Australia China Laurentia Bioevents

Cordylodus
Ordovician Rhabdinopora
flabelliformis
lindstromi
Rhabdino? scitulum
Hysterolenus

Onychopyge
Symphysurina
bulbosa
488.3 1.7
C. prolindstromi S. brevispicata
Leiostr.
6th stage Dolgeuloma constrictum M. depressa Cordylodus
Cordylodus proavus Shen. brevica proavus (Co)
490 Mictosaukia striata Eurekia apopsis
Mictosaukia perplexa Fatocephalus
Archaeul. Saukiella serotina
Kaninia Neoagn. quasibilobus taoyuanense
S. nomas
Leioagn. cf. bexelli
? Sinosaukia Lot.punctatus
impages Hedinaspis regalis
Rh. clarki maximus Probinacunaspis Saukiella junia
Rh. papilio nasalis
Furongian

Rhaptagn. bifax Peichiashania

Kujandaspis N. denticulatus hunanensis
Rh. clarki prolatus Saukiella pyrene
Caz. secatrix Eolotagnostus
R. c. patulusC. squamosa decoratus Rasettia maga
H. lilyensis
495 ?
Peichiashania tertia
Kaolishaniella
Ellipso
P. quarta
cephaloides
Peichiash. secunda Rhaptagnostus
Amorphella Pro. glabella ciliensis Idahoia
Yurakia Wentsuia iota Onchonot. cf.
kuruktagensis Taenicephalus
Rhaptagn. apsis
Agnost.clavata Irvingella +
Elvinia
No data: major polar wander

Irvingella tropica Irving.angustilimbata Agnostotes (Tr)

Corynexochus plumula
Stigmatoa diloma
Faciura Sinop. cf.
Paibian Garbiella
Erixanium sentum
kiangshanensis Dunderbergia
Innitagnostus inexpectans
Proceratopyge
500 Maspakites cryptica Proceratopyge protracta Glyptagnostus
"Idahoia"
Glyptagnostus Glyptagnostus Aphelaspis reticulatus (Tr)
Raashellina reticulatus reticulatus
501 2.0 Pedinocephalina Glyptagnostus Glyptagnostus
stolidotus Glyptagnostus
Toxotis stolidotus Crepicephalus stolidotus (Tr)
Achmarhachis Linguagnostis
quasivespa reconditus Linguagnostis
Acro.granulosa
Kold. prolixa Proagnostus bulbus reconditus (Tr)
Erediaspis eretes Cedaria
L. laevigata-- Lejopyge laevigata Lejopyge laevigata Lejopyge laevigata Lejopyge
4th stage Oidalag. trispinifer
laevigata
A. limbataeformis Goniagnostus nathorsti Goniagnostus nathorsti
Ptychagnostus Ptychagnostus
Anopolenus henrici Ptychagnostus Ptychagnostus punctuosus
505 Corynexochus punctuosus punctuosus punctuosus
perforatus Euagnostus opimus (Tr)
Acidusus atavus Acidusus
3rd stage Tomagnostus Acidusus
Middle

Acidusus atavus atavus

fissus atavus (Tr)
2nd stage Ptychagnostus
gibbus
Ptychagnostus
gibbus
Ptychagnostus
gibbus
Ptychagnostus
gibbus
Ptychagnostus
gibbus (Tr)
Pentagnostus
praecurrens
Peronopsis
Kounamkites Oryctocephalus bonnerensis
1st stage indicus Albertella
Oryctocara Oryctocephalus
Schistocephalus PlagiuraPoliella indicus (Tr)
antiquus Xystridura
510 templetonenesis Bathynotus Protolenus
Anabaraspis Hamatolenus
splendens Redlichia Cobboldites
chinensis Protoryctocephalus Oryctocara (Tr)

Figure 11.2 Principal biostratigraphic zonal schemes of the Cambrian. A color version of this gure can be found in the plate section.
 The Cambrian Period 151

Cambrian Time Scale

Age Polarity South
(Ma) Epoch/Stage Chron Siberia Australia China Laurentia Bioevents

Oryctocara Oryctocephalus
Xystridura PlagiuraPoliella indicus (Tr)
Schistocephalus templetonenesis
Middle

antiquus
510 Redlichia Bathynotus
Anabaraspis chinensis
splendens Protolenus
Hamatolenus
Cobboldites
Lermontovia Protoryctocephalus Oryctocara (Tr)
grandis

Bergeroniellus
513 2.0 ketemensis
Arthricocephalites
Bonnia
Pararaia janeae Changaspis
Bergeroniellus ? ? Olenellus
ornata
515
Pararaia Arthricocephalus
Bergeroniellus bunyerooensis
asiaticus
?
Bergeroniellus ?
gurarii Sichuanolenus
Hebediscus
B. micmacciformis Pararaia tatei Chengkouia attleborensis
Erbiella ? Calodiscus
Serrodiscus
Triangulaspis
Judomia Hupediscus "Nevadella" (Tr)
Abadiella huoi
Sinodiscus
520 Pagetiellus ? ? ?
anabarus
Sinosachites

Lapworthella
"Fallotaspis"
Early

No Fallotaspis

stages Profallotaspis
jakutensis
?

designated First
occurrence of
Mixed: reversals dominant

D. lenaicus ? trilobites (Tr)

525 Tum. primigenius

Dokidocyathus Paragloborilus
regularis
Siphogonuchites

Wyattia

530 Nochoroicyathus
sunnaginicus No zones

?
? established

Figure 11.2 (cont.)

152 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

Cambrian Time Scale

Age Polarity South
(Ma) Epoch/Stage Chron Siberia Australia China Laurentia Bioevents

530 Nochoroicyathus
sunnaginicus No zones
established
?
?

Wyattia

?
Early

535
No
stages ?
designated
?

No zones
Anabarites
established Circotheca

540

? Tricophycus
pedum (Ich)
542 1.0

Ediacaran
Figure 11.2 (cont.)

base of a large positive shift in 13 C values (Fig. 11.3), referred
to as the Steptoean positive carbon isotope excursion (i.e. the
SPICE excursion).
The Paibian Stage is a new name, derived from Paibi, a
village near the GSSP site in Hunan Province, China. It is
the lower stage of the Furongian Series, which also is a new
name. The name Furongian is derived from Furong, which
means lotus, referring to Hunan, the Lotus State in China.
The upper boundary of the Furongian Series is the base of the
Tremadocian Series, Lower Ordovician.
BA S E O F T H E PTYCHAGNOSTUS PUNCTUOSUS Z O N E
Ptychagnostus punctuosus is a widespread trilobite that is used
as a zonal index species in most areas in which it is found. It is
known from Australia, New Zealand, South China, northwest
China, Kazakhstan, Siberian Platform, Scandinavia, Great
Britain, Greenland, Canada, and the USA. Its appearance de-
nes the base of the Undillan Stage of Australia and the base
of the Zhanarykian Stage in Kazakhstan.
BA S E O F T H E ACIDUSUS ATAVUS Z O N E
The trilobite A. atavus is known from Australia, Vietnam,
China, Korea, Russia, Scandinavia, Great Britain, Greenland,
Canada, and the USA. Its rst appearance marks a prominent
faunal change and denes the base of the Marjuman Stage in
Laurentia and the base of the Floran Stage in Australia.
BA S E O F T H E TRIPLAGNOSTUS GIBBUS Z O N E
Triplagnostus gibbus is a widespread trilobite used commonly
as a zonal index species. It is known from Antarctica,
 The Cambrian Period 153

stratigraphy
Chrono-
Global
Bio- South China
stratigraphy

Agnostoid

Conodont
trilobite 200

thickness (m)
Epoch

Stratigraphic
Stage

Kazakhstan Laurentian

Laurentian
biomeres
sea level
Unnamed

0 Low High
Nevada
Furongian

Sauk III

Pterocephaliid
Paibi Section
W. matsushitai Westergaardina

SPICE
Paibian

proligula

Sauk II
G. reticulatus
GSSP
W. grandidens

G. stolidotus
Linguagnostus

Marjumiid
reconditus
Unnamed
Unnamed

1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Westerg.
quadrata
13
d C

1 0 1 2 3 4 5
13
d C
Westerg. quadrata Westergaardodina quadrata
1 0 1 2 3 4 5 W. matsushitai
Westergaardodina matsushitaiW. grandidens
d13C W. grandidens
G. stolidotus Glyptagnostus stolidotus
G. reticulatus Glyptagnostus reticulatus

Figure 11.3 Correlation of basal-Paibian events with trends in 13 C and sea level.

Australia, Kazakhstan, Russia, Poland, Scandinavia, Great AU S T R A L I A N C A M B R I A N S TAG E S

Britain, Greenland, Canada, and the USA. Its rst appear-
Australian stages are summarized by Shergold (1995) and
ance denes the base of the Paradoxides paradoxissimus Stage
Young and Laurie (1996), on which the following outline is
in Scandinavia.
based. They are described as biochronological units and are
dened in terms of their contained fauna (Shergold, 1995).
BA S E O F T H E ORYCTOCEPHALUS INDICUS Z O N E Boundary stratotypes are therefore not designated. Ordian
The trilobite O. indicus is known from Kashmir, Laurentia, apart, the stages discussed below have all been erected in the
Great Britain, the Yangtse Platform, and South China. It is Georgina Basin of western Queensland.
associated with other oryctocephalids that have wider distri-
bution, but correlation into western and central Gondwanaland
would be problematic. Pre-Ordian Stages have not yet been designated for most
of the Lower Cambrian of Australia. Archaeocyathans, small
shelly fossils, and trilobite correlations indicate that the Adta-
11.1.3 Regional Cambrian stage suites
banian to Toyonian Stages of the Siberian Platform and the
The most intensively studied Cambrian stadial suites are those AltaySayan Foldbelt of Russia can be recognized through-
of Australia, southern China, Kazakhstan, Siberia, and North out southern and central Australia. Ichnocoenoses in southern
America, shown in Fig. 11.1, and Baltica. Australia are thought, possibly, to represent the Tommotian
154 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
and NemakitDaldynian (Bengtson et al., 1990; Shergold in
Young and Laurie, 1996).
OrdianLower Templetonian An Ordian Stage was originally
proposed by Opik (1968) as a time and time-rock division of the
Cambrian scale characterized by the occurrence of the Redlichia
chinensis faunal assemblage. The Templetonian Stage, a liberal
interpretation of Whitehouses [1936] Templetonian series
(Opik, 1968), was originally conceived by Opik as containing
the Xystridura templetonensis assemblage of western Queens-
land overlain by fauna of the Triplagnostus gibbus Zone. In prac-
tice, it is difcult to distinguish the Redlichia and Xystridura
fauna because four species of Xystridura, similar eodiscoid and
ptychoparioid trilobites, some bradoriid ostracodes, and chan-
celloriids occur in rocks of both Ordian and early Templetonian
ages. Accordingly, Shergold (1995) regarded the Ordianearly
Templetonian as a single stadial unit. It is retained as the earliest
Middle Cambrian Stage in Australia even though it apparently
correlates with the Longwangmiaoan Stage of China (Chang,
1998) and Toyonian Stage of the Siberian Platform (Zhuravlev,
1995), which are traditionally regarded as terminal Early
Cambrian.
Upper TempletonianFloran As originally dened (Opik,
1979), the Floran Stage contained the agnostoid trilobite zones
of Acidusus atavus and Euagnostus opimus. This concept was re-
vised by Shergold (1995) to include the late Templetonian zone
of Triplagnostus gibbus, arguing on grounds of sequence stratig-
raphy (Southgate and Shergold, 1991) and faunal continuity as
suggested by the overlap of A. atavus and T. gibbus in western
Queensland. We maintain the late TempletonianFloran as a
single unied stage. Having a global distribution, this stage is a
very important datum, because, besides agnostoid trilobites, it
contains oryctocephalid trilobites (Shergold, 1969) which are
also signicant for international correlation.
Undillan The Undillan Stage, dened by Opik in 1979, is
unrevised, and is based on the fauna of two agnostoid zones,
the Ptychagnostus punctuosus Zone below, overlain by the Goni-
agnostus nathorsti Zone above. A third zone, based on Doryag-
nostus notalibrae, containing the overlap of 15 bizonal agnostoid
species, including P. punctuosus and G. nathorsti, was recognized
by Opik (1979) in the Undilla region of the Georgina Basin.
The agnostoid fauna of the Undillan Stage have cosmopolitan
distribution. Agnostoids apart, other trilobites include pty-
choparioids, anomocarids, mapaniids and damesellids, cono-
coryphids, corynexochids, nepeiids, and dolichometopids, all
of widespread distribution.
Boomerangian The Boomerangian Stage (Opik, 1979) is es-
sentially the Lejopyge laevigata Zone divided into three. A Pty-
chagnostus cassis Zone at the base is overlain by zones dened by
the non-agnostoid trilobites Proampyx agra and Holteria arepo.
Boomerangian agnostoids are accompanied by a range of poly-
meroid trilobites including species of Centropleura, dolichome-
topids, olenids, mapaniids, corynexochids, and damesellids. A
Zone of Passage, characterized by the occurrence of Damesella
torosa and Ascionepea janitrix, was interposed by Opik (1966,
1967) between the Boomerangian (latest Middle Cambrian)
and Mindyallan (considered at that time to mark the begin-
ning of the Upper Cambrian) Stages. Subsequently, Daily and
Jago (1975) restricted this zone to the Middle Cambrian, and
placed the MiddleUpper Cambrian boundary within the early
Mindyallan.
Mindyallan Originally (Opik, 1963), the Mindyallan Stage
was considered to be represented by a Glyptagnostus stolido-
tus Zone (above) and a pre-stolidotus Zone (below). Sub-
sequently (Opik, 1966, 1967), the former was maintained in
the late Mindyallan but the latter was divided into an ini-
tial Mindyallan Erediaspis eretes Zone and an overlying Ac-
marhachis (Cyclagnostus) quasivespa Zone. The E. eretes Zone
contains 45 trilobites, including 18 agnostoid genera. The
polymeroid trilobites belong to a wide variety of families:
anomocarid, asaphiscid, catillicephalid, damesellid, leioste-
gid?, lonchocephalid, menomoniid, nepeiid, norwoodiid, rhys-
sometopid, and tricrepicephalid. The A. quasivespa Zone has
18 species of trilobites conned to it, but many other species
range from earlier zones. Daily and Jago (1975) proposed to
subdivide the A. quasivespa Zone into two assemblages based
on the occurrence of Leiopyge cos Opik and Blackwelderia sab-
ulosa. Since they regarded L. cos to be synonymous with L. l.
armata Westergard, a late Middle Cambrian taxon, they drew
the MiddleLate Cambrian boundary between these two as-
semblages. Only eight species range from Opiks A. quasivespa
Zone into the overlying Glyptagnostus stolidotus Zone, which
contains 75 species with partly American (asaphiscid, aurita-
mid, catillicephalid, norwoodiid, and raymondinid) and partly
Chinese (damesellid and liostracinid) relationships.
Idamean The Idamean Stage was introduced by Opik in
1963, originally conceived as representing ve successive
assemblage-zones: Glytagnostus reticulatus with Olenus ogilviei,
Glypagnostus reticulatus with Proceratopyge nectans, Corynex-
ochus plumula, Erixanium sentum, and Irvingella tropica with
Agnostotes inconstans. This biostratigraphic scheme was criti-
cized by Henderson (1976, 1977) who proposed an alternative

zonation in which the two zones with Glyptagnostus were united
into a single G. reticulatus Zone, the Corynexochus Zone was re-
named the Proceratopyge cryptica Zone, and the Erixanium sen-
tum Zone was subdivided into a zone of E. sentum followed by a
zone of Stigmatoa diloma. The Irvingella tropicaAgnostotes in-
constans Zone is abbreviated to Irvingella tropica Zone. Hender-
sons scheme was adopted by Shergold (1982) and is followed
here with the exception that the Irvingella tropica Zone be ex-
cluded from the Idamean Stage and be recognized as the initial
zone of the succeeding Iverian Stage (see Shergold, 1982, for
justication; Shergold, 1993).
There is a major faunal crisis at the beginning of the
Idamean where no Mindyallan species survive the stadial pas-
sage (Opik, 1966), and very few genera persist into the early
Idamean. There is also a major re-organization of trilobite
families as outer shelf communities dominated by agnostoids,
olenids, pterocephaliids, leiostegiids, eulomids, and ceratopy-
gids abruptly replace those of the shallow shelf Mindyallan
biota. Shergold (1982) recorded a total of 69 Idamean taxa,
which permit a highly resolved biochronology capable of yield-
ing very accurate international correlations.
Iverian The Iverian Stage (Shergold, 1993) was proposed for
the concept of a post-Idameanpre-Payntonian interval in the
eastern Georgina Basin, western Queensland, the only region
where a probable complete sequence has so far been described
(Shergold, 1972, 1975, 1980, 1982, 1993). Paleontologically,
the Iverian Stage is clearly distinguished. On the basis of trilo-
bites, it is characterized by: the occurrence of the cosmopoli-
tan genus Irvingella in Australia; the diversication of the
agnostoid subfamily Pseudagnostinae during which Pseudag-
nostus, Rhaptagnostus, and Neoagnostus separate, and become
biostratigraphically important; diversication of the Leioste-
gioidea, especially the families Kaolishaniidae and Pagodiidae;
the rst occurrence of the Dikelocephaloidea, Remopleuri-
doidea, and Shumardiidae; and the separation of the true
asaphids from ceratopygids. As a result, ten trilobite assem-
blage zones have been recognized based on successive species of
Irvingella, Peichiashania, Hapsidocare, and Lophosaukia (Sher-
gold, 1993). Over 160 trilobite taxa occur in the type area of
the Iverian Stage.
Payntonian As dened by Jones et al. (1971), the Paynto-
nian Stage is recognized on the basis of its trilobite assem-
blages (Shergold, 1975), its base lying at the point, in its type
section (Black Mountain, western Queensland), where the co-
mingled AmericanAsian assemblages of the Iverian are re-
placed by others of total Asian afnity. These are dominated
The Cambrian Period 155
by tsinaniid leiostegioidean and saukiid and ptychaspidid dike-
locephaloidean and remopleuridoidean trilobites. A tripartite
zonal scheme is applicable following biostratigraphic revisions
suggested by Nicoll and Shergold (1992), Shergold and Nicoll
(1992), and Shergold (1993). In ascending order, these zones
are based on Sinosaukia impages, Neoagnostus quasibilobus with
Shergoldia nomas, and Mictosaukia perplexa. These zones are
fully calibrated by a comprehensive conodont biostratigraphy
(Nicoll, 1990, 1991; Shergold and Nicoll, 1992). The Paynto-
nian Stage contains a total of 30 trilobite taxa.
Datsonian The concept of the Datsonian Stage remains as
dened by Jones et al. (1971) with its base located at the rst
appearance datum of the conodont Cordylodus proavus. Only
rare trilobites, Onychopyge and leiostegiids, occur and these are
insufcient for the establishment of a trilobite biostratigraphy.
Accordingly, the Datsonian Stage is dened solely on the basis
of conodonts (see discussion in Section 11.2.4 below).
N O RT H A M E R I C A N C A M B R I A N S TAG E S
The development of a stadial nomenclature for Laurentia has
until recently (Palmer, 1998) been complicated by the con-
cept of the biomere (segment of life) introduced by Palmer
(1965a) and subsequently reviewed by him (1979, 1984), Stitt
(1975), and Taylor (1997) among others. As originally dened,
a biomere is a regional biostratigraphic unit bounded by abrupt
extinction events on the shallow cratonic shelf. At these times
existing evolving community complexes are replaced by low-
diversity trilobite fauna dominated by simple ptychoparioid
trilobites invading from the outer shelf or shelf break, which
in turn rapidly evolve. Six such events have been suggested by
Hollingsworth (1997), but the lower two are as yet undened.
In ascending order they are the Olenellid, Corynexochid,
Marjumid, Pteropcephaliid, Ptychaspid, and Symphysurinid
biomeres.
Ludvigsen and Westrop (1985) emphatically considered
biomeres to be stages since they were based on an aggregate
of trilobite zones and subzones. Palmer (1998) currently con-
siders biomeres can be retained as subtly different units based
on his (1979) modied concepts, and has subsequently (1998)
proposed a sequence of stages for the Laurentian Cambrian
based on trilobites, as follows. The pre-trilobite Cambrian still
lacks dened stages.
Montezuman The Montezuman Stage (Palmer, 1998) is
named from the Montezuma Range, Nevada. Its base is de-
ned by characteristic fallotaspid trilobites, as in Morocco and
156 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
Siberia, which are followed by nevadiids and holmiines, and is
distinguished by at least three families of Olenellina, which are
different from ollenellids of the succeeding stage (see generic
range charts in Palmer and Repina, 1993). The Montezuman
Stage also contains the oldest Laurentian archaeocyathans.
Dyeran The Dyeran Stage (Palmer, 1998) is named from the
town of Dyer, Nevada, and covers the biostratigraphic interval
previously assigned to the Olenellus Zone, currently regarded
as tripartite (Palmer and Repina, 1993). The base of the stage
coincides with a major change in the olenelloid fauna following
the nevadiid bearing late Montezuman. A similar change has
been documented by Fritz (1992) in British Columbia. Olenel-
lidae are characteristic.
Delamaran The Delamaran Stage (Palmer, 1998) has a
boundary stratotype in the Delamar Mountains, Nevada,
at the Oak Spring Summit section. The stage embraces
the Corynexochus biomere and the PlagiuraPoliella, Al- gested a parastratotype section in the Desert Range, Nevada,
bertella, and Glossopleura Zones in restricted shelf environ-
ments. It is characterized by ptychoparoid, corynexochid,
zacanthoidid, dolichometopid, and oryctocephalid trilobites.
The biostratigraphic status quo has been presented by Palmer
and Halley (1979) and, in part, by Eddy and McCollum
(1998).
Marjuman The Marjuman Stage (Ludvigsen and Westrop,
1985; emended Palmer, 1998) is named from Marjum Pass in
the House Range, Utah. Ludvigsen and Westrop (1985) orig-
inally dened the base of the Marjuman Stage at the base of
the Acidusus atavus Zone, but this is not a major extinction
event according to Palmer (1998). Ludvigsen and Westrop
(op. cit.) equated the Marjuman Stage with the Marjumiid
biomere (Palmer, 1981), but this event occurs earlier on the in-
ner shelf at the major change from trilobites of the Glossopleura
Zone to those of the Ehmaniella Zone (Proehmaniella subzone),
which has been documented by Sundberg (1994). On the open
shelf this event is correlated to the base of the Bathyuriscus
Elrathina and Bolaspidella Zones, whose fauna characterize the
early Marjuman.
The late Marjuman is characterized on the open shelf by
cedariid trilobites, four zones of which are documented by Pratt
(1992), distributed among the Cedaria and Kingstonia biofacies,
regarded as bathymetrically related communities. Cedariid and
crepicephalid trilobites characterize the inner shelf. The Mar-
juman Stage embraces agnostoid zones from Pentagnostus prae-
currens to Glyptagnostus stolidotus.
Steptoean The Steptoean Stage (Ludvigsen and Westrop,
1985) was named from Steptoe Valley, in the Duck Creek
Range, near McGill, eastern Nevada. The base of the stage
is dened at the base of the Aphelaspis Zone, which also cor-
responds to the base of the Pterocephaliid Biomere (Palmer,
1965b). The Aphelaspis Zone contains Glyptagnostus reticulatus
(Angelin), a very important species for international correla-
tion of the Steptoean Stage. Above the Aphelaspis Zone, the
Steptoean Stage embraces the Dicanthopyge, Prehousia, Dun-
derbergia, and lower part of the Elvinia Zones in restricted-shelf
environments, and the Glyptagnostus reticulatus, Olenaspella
regularis, O. evansi Zones and the Parabolinoides calvilimbata
and Proceratopyge rectispinata fauna, documented by Pratt
(1992), in open-shelf environments.
Late Steptoean trilobites from the Elvinia Zone in SE
British Columbia have recently been described by Chatterton
and Ludvigsen (1998). The Steptoean Stage also embraces the
signicant Sauk IIIII discontinuity event which is widespread
across Laurentia (Palmer, 1981). Palmer (1998) has sug-
where the extinction event at the MarjumanSteptoean
boundary is dened at the base of the Coosella perplexa
Zone.
Sunwaptan This stage (Ludvigsen and Westrop, 1985) is
named from Sunwapta Creek, Wilcox Peak, Jasper National
Park, southern Alberta. The base of the Sunwaptan Stage is
taken at the Irvingella major subzone of the Elvinia Zone, which
Chatterton and Ludvigsen (1998) argue should be regarded as
a separate zone. This is succeeded by the Taenicephalus Zone,
Stigmatocephalus oweni fauna, and Ellipsocephaloides Zone in
the early Sunwaptan, and the Illaenurus Zone and most of
the Saukia Zone in the late Sunwaptan. More than 130 trilo-
bite taxa of Sunwaptan age have been documented in Al-
berta by Westrop (1986), and from the District of Mackenzie,
North Western Territories, Canada, by Westrop (1995). Char-
acteristic are dikelocephalid, ptychaspidid, parabolinoidid,
saukiid, ellipsocephaloidid, illaenurid, and elviniid trilobites.
The Sunwaptan Stage corresponds to the Ptychaspid Biomere
(Longacre, 1970; Stitt, 1975).
Skullrockian The Skullrockian Stage (Ross et al., 1997) was
named from Skull Rock Pass in the House Range, Utah. It
was conceived as the earliest stage of the Ibexian Series. The
base of the Skullrockian is dened by conodonts at the base of
the Hirsutodontus hirsutus Subzone of the Cordylodus proavus
Zone. On the trilobite zonal scale this level corresponds to
the base of the Eurekia apopsis Subzone of the Saukia Zone
 The Cambrian Period 157

and is regarded as an independent zone by Ross et al. (1997). 11.2.2 Trilobite zones
The E. apopsis Zone has a limited trilobite fauna, as does the
The most widely used fossil group for biostratigraphic zona-
overlying Mississquoia Zone, and the primary group for ne
tion is the trilobites, the best known group of extinct arthro-
correlation is conodonts. The upper part of the Skullrockian
pods. They enable ne stratigraphic subdivision and good cor-
Stage is Ordovician.
relation reliability in deposits of the continental shelf and plat-
form within faunal provinces (for general statements on the
occurrence of trilobites see Whittington, 1992, and Kaesler,
1 1 . 2 C A M B R I A N S T R AT I G R A P H Y
1997).
11.2.1 Faunal provinces In the Late Cambrian, trilobite diversication and evolu-
tionary turnover was extreme and ne zonations are estab-
The Cambrian Period is of particular biological interest in that
lished on the major paleocontinents (Jago and Haines, 1998).
it marks the appearance of multicellular phyla that have popu-
Through the late Middle and Late Cambrian, an interval of
lated the Earth since.
18 myr (Fig. 11.2), there are 26 fossil zones, averaging 700 000
Faunal provincialism was strongly developed and bios-
years each in duration. One group of trilobites, the agnostids,
tratigraphic zonal schemes generally cannot be applied be-
were pelagic and pandemic and enable global correlation of the
yond their provincial boundaries. This is most marked
Middle and Late Cambrian (Westergard, 1946; Opik, 1979;
in the Early Cambrian where two major trilobite faunal
Shergold and Laurie, 1997).
provinces were developed, one characterized by Redlichi-
Australia, China, Russia, Scandinavia, and North America
ina (Redlichian Province), composed of endemic redlichi-
have the most complete Cambrian trilobite zonal successions.
ids and pandemic Ellipsocephaloidea and eodiscid fauna, the
Those of Australasia and North America are shown in Fig.
other by Olenellina (Olenellian Province), composed of en-
11.1. Differing biostratigraphic philosophies, developed since
demic olenellids and pandemic ellipsocephaloids and eodiscid
the late eighteenth century, have resulted in different concepts
fauna (Chang, 1989, 1998; Palmer, 1973; Palmer and Repina,
of trilobite zones. In North America, for example, the concept
1993).
of a zone is based on the range of a characteristic genus, which
Debrenne (1992) suggests that three archaeocyathid faunal
is subdivided into subzones by species or associations of species
provinces existed in the Early Cambrian: an AfroEuropean
(interval-zones, Robison, 1994). A dual biostratigraphy (zones
Province, which possibly extends to China, characterized by
and biofacies) currently operates in Canada (Ludvigsen et al.,
Anthomorphidae; an AustraloAntarctica Province character-
1986). In Australia, species-zones or assemblage-zones have
ized by Flindersicyathidae, Metacyathidae, and Syringocne-
been most commonly applied (index fossil biostratigraphy), as
midae; and a Siberian Province characterized by all of these
in Scandinavia, Russia, and China. In Scandinavia, the Late
genera. Kruse and Shi (2000), on the other hand, applying so-
Cambrian is minutely divided into 32 subzones on the basis of
phisticated statistical analysis to the distribution of archaeocy-
successive species of olenid trilobites (Henningsmoen, 1957).
athans, recognizes ve provinces based on SiberiaMongolia,
EuropeMorocco, CentralEast Asia, AustraliaAntarctica,
and North AmericaKoryakia. During the Middle and Late
11.2.3 Archaeocyathan zones
Cambrian, Chang (1989) recognizes Pacic Provinces, based
on Centropleuridae, Xystriduridae, and Olenidae, respectively; Regular Archaeocyatha and Radiocyatha, totalling 310 genera,
and Atlantic Provinces, based on Paradoxidae and Olenidae, are known from Lower Cambrian carbonate platform environ-
respectively. ments in 15 key regions of the Cambrian world (Kruse and
Jell (1974) recognized three trilobite provinces: Colum- Shi, 2000). They have been exploited extensively in regional
ban in North and South America; Viking in Europe, maritime biostratigraphic schemata. The most detailed archaeocyathan
North America and NW Africa; and Tollchuticook in Asia, biostratigraphy has been developed in the Lower Cambrian of
Australia, and Antarctica. Thus the trilobite fauna of Aus- Siberia, where the Tommotian Stage embraces four successive
tralia, China, and Kazakhstan have many elements in common, assemblage-zones, the Atdabanian four, the Botoman three,
but differ markedly from those of North America (Jell, 1974; and the Toyonian three (Debrenne and Rozanov, 1983; Zhu-
Palmer, 1973). In the latest Cambrian, conodonts provide ne ravlev, 1995). Archaeocyathan zones have also been established
biostratigraphic subdivision and substantially aid global cor- in South Australia (ve), Laurentia (nine), Spain (11), and
relation. Morocco (four); (Zhuravlev, 1995). Problems associated with
158 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
archaeocyathan correlation of these areas is primarily due to
regional endemism. For example, Kruse and Shi (op. cit.) note
that of the 240 archaeocyath species occurring in Australia and
Antarctica, only 26 are shared between the two continents and
only genera with wide stratigraphic distribution are common
to Australia and Siberia (Zhuravlev and Gravestock, 1994).
11.2.4 Conodont zones
Protoconodonts, in particular species of Protohertzina, occur
rst in the earliest Cambrian (NemakitDaldynian) of the
Siberian Platform where a zone of ProtohertzinaAnabarites
has been recognized at the PrecambrianCambrian transition
(Missarzhevsky, 1973, but see Bengtson et al., 1990). Con-
odonts begin to diversify in the late Middle Cambrian, but
it is not until the Late Cambrian that they are sufciently
common and differentiated to be used biostratigraphically, al-
though Muller and Hinz (1991) dispute their utility in Scan-
dinavia. Dong and Bergstrom (2001) have developed a com-
prehensive conodont biostratigraphy at this level in Hunan
Province, China. In the latest Cambrian, they have been most
intensively studied in the Great Basin (Miller, 1980, 1988, inter
alia), western Queensland (Black Mountain; Druce and Jones,
1971; Nicoll and Shergold, 1992; Shergold and Nicoll, 1992).
Faunas from these areas can be readily correlated into north-
eastern China and the Siberian Platform.
In Australia, from the late Iverian to the base of the ear-
liest Ordovician (Warendan), seven successive conodont as-
semblages occur on the Black Mountain section. In ascending
order, these are assemblage-zones based on Teridontus nakamu-
rai, Hispidodontus resimus, H. appressus, H. discretus, Cordylo-
dus proavus, Hirsutodontus simplex, and Cordylodus prolindstromi
(Shergold and Nicoll, 1992). In Utah, nine subzones have been
dened (Miller, 1980), based on Proconodontus posterocostatus,
P. muelleri, Eoconodontus notchpeakensis, Cambrooistodus min-
utus, Hirsutodontus hirsutus, Fryxellodontus inornatus, Clavo-
hamulus elongatus, Hirsutodontus simplex, and Clavohamulus
hintzei. The conodont zones of both areas are of great assistance
in correlating the provincialized (Gondwanan and Laurentian)
trilobite zones.
11.2.5 Magnetostratigraphy
A magnetic polarity time scale has not been developed for the
entire Cambrian, for reasons summarized by Trench (1996).
Detailed studies, however, have been undertaken adjacent to
the lower and upper boundaries of the system to facilitate
their denitions. A rudimentary scale is available as a result of
limited investigations by Kirschvink (1978a,b) and Klootwijk
(1980) in central and South Australia. More detailed are stud-
ies on the CambrianOrdovician transition at Black Mountain
in western Queensland by Ripperdan and Kirschvink (1992)
and Ripperdan et al. (1992).
In general, Early and Middle Cambrian samples have pre-
dominantly reversed polarities with shorter periods of mixed
polarity. The latest Cambrian is characterized by mainly re-
versed polarity with signicant short intervals of normal polar-
ity late in the Proconodontus and Eoconodontus Zones and early
in the Cordylodus proavus and Hirtsutodontus simplex Zones.
The initial Ordovician is dominated by periods of normal po-
larity. Results from CambrianOrdovician boundary sections
in China, North America, and Kazakhstan conrm the Aus-
tralian results (Kirschvink et al., 1991; Apollonov et al., 1992).
Based on the work of Kirschvink and Rozanov (1984) and
Kirschvink et al. (1991), a detailed magnetostratigraphic scale
is available for the Early Cambrian Tommotian and Atdaba-
nian Stages and early archaeocyathan zones of the Siberian
Platform. This, in association with carbon isotope stratigraphy,
permits correlation to Morocco and South China (Kirschvink
et al., 1997; Kirschvink et al., 1991).
11.2.6 Chemostratigraphy
A signicant and stratigraphically important body of
chemostratigraphic information, sometimes linked to the mag-
netic reversal scale, has become available over the past decade.
Particularly important are carbon and strontium isotopes
(Figs. 11.4 and 11.5).
Brasier (1993) and Montanez et al. (2000) have documented
the potential of carbon isotope stratigraphy through the Cam-
brian Period of the Great Basin of Laurentia. A detailed ref-
erence scale has been constructed for the complete Lower
Cambrian of Siberia, where eleven carbon cycles have been cal-
ibrated against the biostratigraphy by Brasier et al. (1994) and
Brasier and Sukhov (1998). In Siberia and Mongolia, these are
supplemented by 87 Sr/86 Sr measurements, which have per-
mitted the recognition of a major hiatus (Fig. 11.1) in the
NemakitDaldynian part of the Siberian sections (Derry et al.,
1994; Brasier et al., 1996).
In Australia, carbon and strontium measurements have
been obtained from the Middle Cambrian of the southern
Georgina Basin, Northern Territory, by Donnelly et al. (1988),
and have been calibrated to the agnostoid biostratigraphy
there. In the Late Cambrian, the anomalous +4% shift in
13 C in the Steptoean Stage, discussed by Brasier (1993), has
been conrmed by Saltzman et al. (1998), and traced across

the Great Basin to Wyoming and the upper Mississippi Valley.
This event, the Steptoean Positive Carbon Isotope Excursion
(SPICE), is also documented in Australia (Georgina Basin),
China (Hunan), and Kazakhstan (Runnegar and Saltzman,
1998; Saltzman et al., 2000; Fig. 11.3). Latest Cambrian and
initial Ordovician 13 C uctuations are recorded and cali-
brated against the magnetostratigraphy and biostratigraphy
in Australia (Black Mountain) by Ripperdan et al. (1992) and
Saltzman et al. (2000). A high-resolution strontium isotope
stratigraphy across the CambrianOrdovician boundary has
been developed by Ebneth et al. (2001), also in Australia (Black
Mountain), North America, northeastern Siberia, Baltica,
China, and Kazakhstan.
Further detailed work, calibrated to the emerging global
biostratigraphic framework, is required to reconstruct the iso-
topic evolution of seawater through all of Cambrian time. This
will enable chemostratigraphy to be more widely applicable to
questions of global stratigraphic correlation as well as paleoen-
vironmental interpretation of the Cambrian Period.
11.2.7 Cambrian evolutionary explosion
The Cambrian evolutionary explosion refers to the rst
metazoan evolutionary radiation, which essentially began at
the beginning of the Cambrian, and during which all except
one of the invertebrate phyla became established. During the
Early and Middle Cambrian there was a spectacular burst in
diversity (number of species and genera) and in disparity (num-
ber of distinct body plans). Brasier (1979) has given an extensive
review of the Early Cambrian fossil record.
Fossil groups involved include prokaryotes and stromato-
lites; eukaryote protists, acritarchs, and chitinozoans; larger
algae and vascular plants; Parazoa (Porifera, Chancellori-
ida, Radiocyatha, Archaeocyatha, Stromatoporoidea); Radiata;
Bilateria (Priapulida, Sipunculida, Mollusca, Annelida,
Onycophora and Tardigrada, Pogonofora, Arthropoda,
Brachiopoda, Ectoprocta, Phoronida, Conodontophorida,
Mitrosagophora and Tommotiida, mobergellids, Echinoder-
mata, Hemichordata, Chaetognatha and Chordata). Brasier
(1979) also comments on phyletic changes, skeletal changes,
niche changes, size changes, and environment-related changes.
In attempting to explain the Cambrian explosion, Brasier
(1982, 1995a) has attempted to link Cambrian bio-events to
sea-level uctuation and oxygen depletion, to nutrient enrich-
ment (Brasier, 1992a,b) and, nally, to eutrophy and oligotro-
phy (Brasier, 1995b,c). There does appear to be a connection
between chemostratigraphic cycles and biostratigraphic events
(Margaritz, 1989; Brasier et al., 1994).
The Cambrian Period 159
A full review (Zhuravlev and Riding, editors, 2001)
discusses the ecology of the Cambrian radiation in the context
of life environments, community patterns, and dynamics, and
ecologic radiation of major fossil groups, with important
chapters on paleomagnetically and tectonically based global
maps, global facies distribution supercontinental amalgama-
tion as a trigger for the explosion, climate change, and biotic
diversity and structure.
Insights into Cambrian diversity are provided by Kon-
servatfossillagerstatten, deposits containing exquisitely well-
preserved fossils, particularly of soft body parts. They are
known globally from 35 localities if the Orsten-type preser-
vation in Swedish Alum Shale, and elsewhere are considered
as lagerstatten. The most spectacular lagerstatten are in the
Buen Formation of Greenland, the Burgess Shale of British
Columbia, the Chengjiang fauna of Maotianshan, Yunnan, and
Kaili, Guizhou, China.
11.3 CAMBRIAN TIME SCALE
High-precision, biostratigraphically controlled dates in the
Cambrian are extremely sparse, and ages assigned to the major
boundaries have ranged widely in recent time scales (Palmer,
1983; Harland et al., 1990; Tucker and McKerrow, 1995; Young
and Laurie, 1996; Bowring et al., 1998). We accept 11 dates as
of sufcient analytical quality and biostratigraphic constraint
for use in calibrating the Cambrian (Table 11.1). All are based
on zircon crystals in volcanogenic rocks and are determined by
the TIMS method.
Uraniumlead ages of zircons from volcanic ash beds, de-
termined on the HRSIMS method in the Geochronological
Laboratory, Canberra, have been used for time scale calibra-
tion (Compston et al., 1992; Compston and Williams, 1992;
Cooper et al., 1992; Perkins and Walshe, 1993). The ages have
produced a time scale for the Early Paleozoic that appears
to be 12% younger than that based on the mass spectro-
metric isotope dilution method (Tucker and McKerrow, 1995;
Compston, 2000a,b). The cause for this systematic difference
is uncertain. The standard SL13 that was used for most of the
HRSIMS dates has since been found to be inhomogeneous,
but this is not thought by Compston (2000a,b) to be the cause
of a systematic error. He has re-interpreted the HRSIMS
dates and also several of the TIMS dates listed in Table 11.1.
In his new time scale, calibrations for the Cambrian and early
Ordovician remain 13% younger than the TIMS scale. For
the reasons discussed by Cooper and Sadler in Chapter 12,
TIMS dates only are used here for calibrating the Cambrian
Period.
Table 11.1 Radioisotopic dates used for calibrating the Cambriana

Zone/stage Bio.
No. Sample Locality Formation Comment 1-ry Biostratigraphic age assignment reliability Reference Age (Ma) Type

1 Volcaniclastic Bryn- Pyritic Weighted mean 207 Pb/206 Pb date based on Close to top Acercare Zone. Rhab. 1 Landing et al. Min. age PbPb
sandstone Llyn-Fawr, tuffaceous ss 17 concordant analyses of 22 fractions Dated ash is 4 m below praeparabola (1998) 489 0.6
N Wales in Dolgellau derived from 2 closely spaced appearance of Rhabdinopora ZoneAcerocare
Fm. volcaniclastic bands; indicates a maximum and 5 m below R. f. parabola. It Zone boundary
age for ash is therefore very close to C O
boundary
2 Volcaniclastic Ogof-Ddu, Pyritic Four nearly concordant and 5 discordant Peltura scarabaeoids Lower P 1 Davidek et al. Min. age PbPb,
sandstone Criccieth, N tuffaceous ss analyses from crystal-rich volcaniclastic scarabaeoids below and P. s. scarabaeoides (1998) 491 1 UPb
Wales in Dolgellau sandstone. Weighted mean dates of 4 westergardi above = Lower Zone
Fm. concordant analyses = 490.9 0.5 Peltura scarabaeoides Zone
(207 Pb/206 Pb); 490.7 0.7 (206 Pb/238 U);
490.7 0.5 Ma (207 Pb/235 U). Suggested
(maximum) age of 491 1 Ma
3 Ash bed Taylor Taylor Fm. Sample TAY-7 = 1 concordant and 1 Trilobites in carbonate bed, 1 km Undillan Stage 3 Encarnacion 505.1 1.3 PbPb
Nunatak, discordant fraction (mean 207 Pb/206 Pb age from dated samples. Amphoton et al. (1999)
Shackleton 504.5 2.9 Ma); TAY-1 = 2 concordant cf. oatesi, Nelsonia cf. schesis,
Glacier, fractions (mean 207 Pb/206 Pb age of 505.7 taken to indicate an Undillan,
Antarctica 2.1 Ma); TAY-F = 1 concordant and 1 possibly late Floran, age
discordant fraction (mean 207 Pb/206 Pb age
of 504.7 2.2 Ma). Weighted mean of the
3 samples is 505.1 1.3 Ma taken as age
of the ash bed
4 Ash bed, 3 St John, Hanford Composite zircon ID date of 3 samples Protolenus cf. elegans Matthew, P. howleyi Zone 1 Landing et al. 511 1 UPb,
samples from New Brook Fm., comprising a total of 39 single grain and Ellipsocephalus cf. galeatus Late Branchian, (1998) PbPb
a 6.3 m Brunswick Somerset St multigrain analyses, 511 1 Ma Matthew associated in same Toyonian
interval Mbr bed. Suggests an age for the
base of the Middle Cambrian no
older than 513 Ma
5 Section Le-XI S Morocco Upper Zircon date. Five single grain analyses give A. guttapluviae Zone, based Antatlasia 3 Landing et al. 517 1.5 UPb,
ash Lemdad Fm. a concordant cluster. Best estimate of age on detailed correlation to guttapluviae (1998) PbPb
given as 517 1.5 Ma section Le-I, 8 km away. The Zone, Banian
trilobite, Berabichia vertumnia, a Stage, Botomian
guide to the A. guttapluviae
Zone, is 21 m higher in
sequence. Lower Botomian
6 Felsic New Placentian Upper intercept regression, based on 2 Upper part of trace fossil zone Tommotian 2 Isachsen 530.9 2.5 UPb
volcanic ash Brunswick, Series concordant analyses and 2 analyses with a Rusophycus avalonensis, et al. (1994)
Canada small amount of secondary Pb loss but no Placentian series
zircon inheritance. The U-Pb age is 530.9
2.5 Ma. Moderate quality. Sample No. 6
of Tucker & McKerrow (1995)
7 Ash beds Namibia Nomtsas Fm. U-Pb dates on zircons (92-N-1): 2 Trychophycus pedum in lower Trychophycus 3 Grotzinger 539.4 1 PbPb
concordant single grain analyses and 3 Nomtsas Formation, which pedum et al. (1995)
discordant analyses. Detrital or inherited stratigraphically overlies
component present. The weighted mean Spitskopf Member. Regarded as
207
Pb/206 Pb age for the 2 concordant a minimum age for base of
analyses is 539.4 0.3 Ma. Best age Cambrian
estimate given as 539.4 1 Ma
8 Ash beds Oman Ara Group U-Pb dates on zircons immediately below Simultaneous occurrence of an Base-Cambrian 1 Amthor 542.0 <0.5 UPb
and at the PrecambrianCambrian extinction of Precambrian et al. (2003)
boundary of, respectively, 543.2 0.5 and Namacalathus and Cloudina
542.0 0.3 Ma (2-sigma) and a negative excursion in C
isotopes
9 Ash beds Namibia Upper Dates on zircons (94-N-11): 14 fractions of Pteridinium and Ediacaran Top Ediacaran, 1 Grotzinger 543.3 1 PbPb
94-N-11 Spitskopf Mbr from 2 to 13 grains each. Weighted mean (dickinsonid-like) fossils 100 m immediately et al. (1995)
207
Pb/206 Pb age, based on 10 concordant higher in section. Cloudina below
fractions, is 543.3 1. Regarded as a present throughout Spitskoppf base-Cambrian
maximum age for basal-Cambrian Mbr. Dated ash bed
boundary immediately below [erosional
contact with] basal Cambrian
Phycodes pedum Zone, and
base of Cambrian
10 Ash beds Namibia Lwr Spitskopf Eight fractions (2 concordant and 6 Cloudina and Ediacaran fossils Top Ediacaran 2 Grotzinger 545.1 1 UPb
91-N-1 Mbr discordant), including 4 single grains, et al. (1995)
define a near linear array. Best estimate
given as 545.1 1 Ma
11 Rhyolitic Near Mooring 3 concordant analyses of 1020 crystals Rhyolite lies 1030 m below base Late Ediacaran 4 Tucker & 551.4 5.9 UPb
flows Fortune Cove Fm. each, give an eruption age for rhyolite of Trychophycus pedum Zone (= McKerrow
Head, SE 551.4 5.9 Ma. Moderate quality. Sample base Cambrian) (1995)
Newfld no. 2 of Tucker & McKerrow (1995)

a Unless otherwise stated, all dates are high-resolution dates on zircon crystals determined by TIMS methods.
b Biostratigraphic precision and reliability: 1, well constrained to short zone; 2, well constrained but long zone; 3, moderately well constrained by correlation to a biostratigraphic zone; 4, poor biostratigraphic constraint.
162 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
Figure 11.4 Stratigraphy of the Huqf Supergroup. Inset map
shows location (unlled circle) of the subsurface basin in the
Sultanate of Oman where UPb dates were obtained at the
PrecambrianCambrian boundary (re-drawn after Amthor et al.,
2003, with permission of the authors). Chemostratigraphic and
11.3.1 Age of boundaries
The maximum age of the base of the Cambrian is now reason-
ably well constrained. A high-quality 207 Pb/206 Pb date of 543
1 Ma on volcanic ashes in the upper Spitskopf Member of the
Schwarzrand Subgroup in Namibia, is assigned to the latest
Ediacaran (Grotzinger et al., 1995). The Spitskopf Member is
overlain, with erosional contact, by the Nomtsas Formation,
207
Pb/206 Pb dated at 539.4 1 Ma, the basal beds of which
contain Tricophycus pedum. Interestingly, some elements of the
globally distributed Ediacara fauna are found stratigraphically
immediately above the dated ash bed in the Spitskopf Mem-
ber, indicating that this fauna, characteristic of the Ediacaran,
ranged into the base of the Cambrian (Grotzinger et al., 1995).
paleontologic data indicate the simultaneous occurrence of an
extinction of Precambrian fossils (Namacalathus and Cloudinia) and
a large-magnitude, short-lived negative excursion in carbon
isotopes, which is widely equated with the boundary.
Similar faunal relationships have been found in South Australia
(Jensen et al., 1998).
The age of the base of the Cambrian is thought to be just
younger than 543 Ma (Brasier et al., 1994; Grotzinger et al.,
1995), an age consistent with other zircon dates, stratigraphi-
cally less-well constrained, from Siberia (Bowring et al., 1993),
and from the late Ediacaran (Grotzinger et al., 1995; Tucker
and McKerrow, 1995).
Recently, the PrecambrianCambrian boundary has been
identied in drill cores in Oman with tuffs on either side
(Bowring et al., 2003; Amthor et al., 2003; Fig. 11.4).
Chemostratigraphic and paleontologic data are interpreted
to indicate the simultaneous occurrence of an extinction of
Precambrian mineralized skeleton fossils (Namacalathus and
 The Cambrian Period 163

interbedded with trilobite-bearing limestones assigned to the

Cambrian geochemical trends Undillan Stage. On the basis of this date, the authors esti-
13C 87
Sr/ 86Sr mated the age of the base of the Late Cambrian at 500 Ma.

0.7081
0.7083
0.7085
0.7087
0.7089
0.7091
Series/Stage (0/00 PDB) We think 503 Ma is a better estimate based on this date. The
AGE
(Ma) 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 Late Cambrian, or Upper Cambrian in this context, has a lower
boundary equivalent to the base of the Agnostus pisiformis Zone
485 Ordovician
or the base of the Mindyallan Stage of Australia. This level
Middle Furongian

490 6th stage lies three zones below the base of the Furongian Series, the
495
youngest division of the Cambrian. The base of the Furongian
500 Paibian Series is therefore estimated at 501 Ma.
4th stage
505 3rd stage Ash beds associated with upper Lower Cambrian pro-
2nd stage tolenid trilobites in southern New Brunswick (Landing et al.,
510 1st stage
1998) have yielded zircons, which give a composite age based
515
on three samples, of 511 1 Ma. The beds are correlated with
520
the middle Botoman to Toyonian Stages of Siberia. The date
525
Early

no stages was taken by (Landing et al., 1998) to indicate an age of 510

530 designated
535
540
545
Ediacaran
Figure 11.5 Strontium and carbon isotope trends through the
Cambrian Period from published data on marine carbonate rocks
and fossils. Strontium curve for the lower Paibian stage to the upper
third stage is from Montanez et al. (2000), and for Late Cambrian
and Early Cambrian is from Ebneth et al. (2001). The carbon-13
curve for the Late and Middle Cambrian is from Montanez et al.
(2000) and for Early Cambrian is from Kirshvink & Raub (2003).
Cloudina) and a large-magnitude, short-lived negative excur-
sion in carbon isotopes, which is widely equated with the
boundary (Grotzinger et al., 1995; Bartley et al., 1998; Kimura
and Watanabe, 2001). The ash bed immediately below the
boundary yielded 543.2 0.5 Ma, and the ash bed at the bound-
ary 542.0 0.3 Ma (2-sigma). Including external radiogenic
factors the authors prefer the quoted uncertainty to be 1 myr
(S. Bowring, pers. comm., 2003). The 542 1 Ma date then
is the best estimate for the age of the PrecambrianCambrian
boundary and the base of the Phanerozoic (Fig. 11.5).
The difference between the age of the top of the Cambrian
(i.e. of the base of the Ordovician), here taken as 488.3 Ma, and
the bottom, 542 1 Ma, gives 54 myr as the duration of this
period.
Ages of the base of the Late Cambrian and base of the
Middle Cambrian are not well constrained. The Taylor For-
mation in Antarctica (Encarnacion et al., 1999) has yielded
zircons with a weighted mean age of 505.1 1.3 Ma on ashes
Ma for the base of the Middle Cambrian. This translates to
513 Ma for the base of the Middle Cambrian as applied in
Australia. The Early Cambrian, therefore, occupies over half
of Cambrian time.
The ages of boundaries between these levels are poorly
constrained, and caution should be used when using the nu-
merical scale in Figs. 11.1 and 11.2. In the latest Late Cam-
brian, a volcanic sandstone in North Wales gives a maxi-
mum age for the Lower Peltura scarabaeoides Zone of 491
1 Ma (Davidek et al., 1998). Ash beds from Morocco,
taken as representing the middle Botoman to Toyonian,
help constrain the age of these stages. Five single-grain zir-
con analyses cluster at 517 1.7 Ma (Landing et al., 1998).
Ash beds in New Brunswick with an age of 530 2.5 Ma
(Isachsen et al., 1994) only weakly constrain the age of the
Tommotian.
Within the Late Cambrian, which is nely zoned by trilo-
bite biostratigraphy, stages are here proportioned according
to the number of trilobite zones they contain. This method is
also used for the late Middle Cambrian, where agnostoid trilo-
bites provide reliable zonation and inter-regional correlation.
The method, however, assumes a more or less constant rate
of evolutionary turnover and a uniformity in paleontological
practice in zonal designation, which are not only unproven,
but are unlikely to be true.
Fossil diversity and abundance become increasingly rare
passing downwards through the early part of the Middle Cam-
brian and Early Cambrian; and, as a result, the biostratigraphic
framework becomes increasingly vague. In the early part of
the Early Cambrian, resolution of the time scale is limited as
much by lack of biostratigraphically useful fossils as by lack of
164 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
radio-isotopic data. Our estimates of stage durations become
correspondingly intuitive and the age of stage boundaries in
the Early Cambrian shown in Figs. 11.1 and 11.2 should be
regarded as highly approximate.
To summarize, the duration of the Cambrian is almost
54 myr, ranging from 542.0 to 488.3 Ma. The base of the
Middle Cambrian is near 513 Ma, and that of the Furongian
Series, near 501 Ma. Hence the Early Cambrian lasted 29 myr,
the Middle Cambrian 12 myr, and the Furongian approxi-
mately 13 myr. Because ages for the EarlyMiddle and Middle
Cambrian Furongian boundaries are approximate estimates,
the durations of intra-Cambrian divisions are equally ten-
tative. More intra-Cambrian radiometric dates are urgently
required.
12 The Ordovician Period
. . . .
469 Ma (mid-Ordovician)
Tremadocian
2nd stage
(unnamed)
Geographic distribution of Ordovician GSSPs that have been
ratied (diamonds) on a mid Ordovician map (status in January,
Rapid and sustained biotic diversication (Ordovician radiation) to
reach highest diversity levels for Paleozoic; prolonged hot-house
climate punctuated by ice-house intervals and oceanic turnover;
strong uctuations in eustatic level, global glaciation, and mass ex-
tinction at end of period; appearance and evolution of pandemic plank-
tonic graptolites and conodonts important for correlation; moderate
to strong benthic faunal provincialism; re-organization and rapid mi-
gration of tectonic plates surrounding the Iapetus Ocean; migration
of South Pole from North Africa to central Africa, all characterize the
Ordovician period.
1 2 . 1 H I S T O RY A N D S U B D I V I S I O N S
Named after the Ordovices, a northern Welsh tribe, the Or-
dovician was proposed as a new system by Lapworth in 1879.
It was a compromise solution to the controversy over strata in
North Wales that had been included by Adam Sedgwick in his
A Geologic Time Scale 2004, eds. Felix M. Gradstein, James G. Ogg, and Alan
G. Smith. Published by Cambridge University Press.
c F. M. Gradstein,
J. G. Ogg, and A. G. Smith 2004.
165
Darriwilian
5th stage
(unnamed)
2004; see Table 2.3). Four of the seven Ordovician stages are not yet
named, including two that have formalized GSSPs.
Cambrian System but which were also included by Murchison
as constituting the lower part of his Silurian System. Although
it was initially slow to be accepted in Britain, where it was
instead generally called Lower Silurian well into the twentieth
century, the Ordovician was soon recognized and used else-
where, such as in the Baltic region and Australia. The name
Ordovician was ofcially adopted at the 1960 International
Geological Congress in Copenhagen.
Black graptolite-bearing shales are widely developed in Or-
dovician sedimentary successions around the world. Lapworth
(187980) described the stratigraphic distribution of British
graptolites at the same time that he proposed the Ordovician
System, and graptolites have played a major role in the recogni-
tion and correlation of Ordovician rocks since that time. Lap-
worth demonstrated as long ago as 1878, in southern Scotland,
the ne biostratigraphic precision that can be achieved with this
group. In the last several decades, conodonts have proved to be
of similar global biostratigraphic value in the carbonate facies.
In the shelly facies developed mainly on the continental shelf
and platform, trilobites and brachiopods are used extensively
166 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
for zonation, and coralstromatoporoid communities enable
biostratigraphic subdivision in the Late Ordovician. Chitino-
zoan and acritarch zonations are still being developed and both
groups hold promise of providing long-range correlation with
good precision.
Subdivision of the Ordovician into Upper and Lower, or
Upper, Middle, and Lower, parts has been very inconsistent
(Jaanusson, 1960; Webby, 1998). The International Subcom-
mission on Ordovician Stratigraphy voted to recognize a three-
fold subdivision of the System (Webby, 1995), which is used
here.
Because of marked faunal provincialism and facies differ-
entiation throughout most of the Ordovician, no existing re-
gional suite of stages or series has been found to be satisfactory
in its entirety for global application. The Ordovician subcom-
mission therefore undertook to identify the best fossil-based
datums, wherever they are found, for global correlation, and
to use these for denition of global chronostratigraphic (and
chronologic) units (Webby, 1995, 1998). In this respect, it has
deviated from the course followed by the Silurian and Devo-
nian subcommissions, both of which have recommended the
adoption of pre-existing (regional) stage or series schemes for
global use.
In 1997, the Ordovician subcommission agreed to subdi-
vide the period into three primary divisions, each to comprise
two stages; and, in 2003, an uppermost seventh stage Hir-
nantian was added. It is not yet decided whether the primary
subdivisions will be formally designated as Early, Middle, and
Late, or will carry locality names. It is not yet decided whether
they will be given the status of series, as preferred by the In-
ternational Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS), or of sub-
periods (subsystems). They are referred to here as the Early,
Middle, and Late Series.
During the early 1990s, the Ordovician subcommission es-
tablished a number of working groups to investigate and rec-
ommend levels within the period suitable for international
correlation, and therefore for dening international stages
(Webby, 1995, 1998). Seven general chronostratigraphic lev-
els have been certied as primary correlation levels for the
seven international stages. They are based on the rst ap-
pearance of key graptolite or conodont species. At present,
four boundaries have been formally voted on and are de-
ned by a global stratigraphic section and point (GSSP).
Only three have been formally named: the Tremadocian
(Stage 1), the Darriwilian (Stage 3), and the Hirmantian
(Stage 7).
The seven stages are referred to here informally, as Stages 1
through 7 (Fig. 12.1).
12.1.1 Stages of the Lower Ordovician
C A M B R I A N O R D OV I C I A N B O U N DA RY A N D S TAG E 1 :
THE TREMADOCIAN
The CambrianOrdovician boundary, as approved by the ICS
in 2000, is dened by a GSSP in the Green Point section of
western Newfoundland, in Bed 23 of the measured section
(lower Broom Point Member, Green Point Formation; Cooper
and Nowlan, 1999; Cooper et al., 2001). This level coincides
with the appearance of the conodont Iapetognathus uctivagus
(base of the I. uctivagus Zone) at Green Point, and is just 4.8 m
above the appearance of planktonic graptolites, which therefore
can be taken as a proxy for the boundary in shale sections.
This denition enables both graptolites and conodonts to be
used in correlation of the boundary, and resolves a controversy
extending back for at least 90 years (Henningsmoen, 1972).
The boundary also coincides with the appearance of the
trilobites Jujuyaspis borealis and Symphysurina bulbosa, which
are useful for correlation in carbonate successions. It lies at
the peak of the largest positive excursion in the 13 C curve
through the boundary interval (Ripperdan and Miller, 1995;
Cooper et al., 2001) and during the global marine transgression
that followed the Acerocare regressive event.
The name proposed for the new lowest Ordovician stage
the Tremadocian was accepted by the International Com-
mission on Stratigraphy in 1999. The upper and lower bound-
aries of the new stage almost exactly coincide with those
of the British Tremadoc Series (Rushton, 1982; Fig. 12.1).
The Tremadocian Stage thus encompasses the interval dur-
ing which planktonic graptolites became established as a major
component of the oceanic macroplankton, became widely dis-
tributed around the world, and became taxonomically diverse.
The graptolite fauna of the early part of the Tremadoc
are dominated by the evolutionary complex Rhabdinoporav
and Anisograptus, and that of the later part, by other aniso-
graptids, particularly Paradelograptus, Paratemnograptus, Ki-
aerograptus, Aorograptus, Araneograptus, Hunnegraptus, and
Clonograptus. Cooper (1999a) recognized nine global graptolite
chronozones in upward sequence, the zones of Rhabdinopora
praeparabola, R. abelliformis parabola, Anisograptus matanen-
esis, R. f. anglica, Adelograptus, Paradelograptus antiquus, Ki-
aerograptus, Araneograptus murrayi, and Hunnegraptus copiosus.
The early Tremadocian contains two widespread con-
odont zones: the zones of Iapetognathus uctivagus and Cordy-
lodus angulatus, equivalent to the graptolite zones of R.
praeparabola to P. antiquus. The middle and late Tremadocian is
nely subdivided into six conodont subzones (Lofgren, 1993),
within the zones of Paltodus deltifer and Paraiostodus proteus,
 The Ordovician Period 167

Ordovician Regional Subdivisions

AGE Epoch/Stage Boundary-
(Ma) defining event Britain Australasia Baltica North America China

Silurian
443.71.5 FAD A. ascensus

Chientangkiangian
445 Hirnantian Porkuni Gamachian
445.61.5 FAD
N. extraordinarius Wufeng

Cincinnatian
Ashgill Bolindian
Pirgu Richmondian

450
Vormsi Shikou
sixth stage Maysvillian
Nabala
Late

Edenian
Rakvere
Eastonian

Neichiashanian
Mohawkian
Oandu
455 Chatfieldian
Caradoc Keila
455.81.6 FAD D. caudatus
Hanjiang
Haljala Turinian
fifth stage Gisbornian
Kukruse
460
460.91.6 FAD N. gracilis
Uhaku

Zhejiangian
Lasnamagi

Whitrockian
Llanvirn Aseri
Darriwilian Darriwilian Hulo
465
Kunda
Middle

468.11.6 FAD U. austrodentatus

Yapeenian
Volkhov Rangerian
470 third stage Castlemainian (Valhallan)
471.81.6 not yet formalised
Yushanian
Arenig Chewtonian
Billingen Blackhillsian Ningkuo
475 second Bendigonian
stage

478.61.7 FAD T. approximatus

Ibexian

Tulean
Early

480 Hunneberg

Lancefieldian
Ichangian

Hunjiang
Tremadocian Tremadoc
Stairsian
485 Varangu

Skullrockian
pre- Pakerort (part)
488.31.7 FAD I. fluctivagus
Lancefieldian

Cambrian
490

Figure 12.1 Chart showing international stages and selected Fig. 12.2, applies to the Australasian stage boundaries. Other regions
regional suites of stages and series. The calibration, taken from are calibrated by correlation with the Australasian stages.
168 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
equivalent to the three graptolite zones, Kiaerograptus, A.
murrayi, and H. hunnebergensis. The two sets of zones
have been closely integrated by means of the conodont-
and graptolite-bearing, shalecarbonate sections of southwest
Sweden (Lofgren, 1993, 1996), providing a global correlation
framework of high precision for the Tremadocian Stage.
S TAG E 2 ( U N NA M E D )
The base of the second stage of the Ordovician is dened by a
GSSP at the rst appearance of the graptolite Tetragraptus ap-
proximatus in the section exposed in the Diasbrottet quarry on
the northwestern slope of Mount Hunneberg, in the province
of Vastergotland, southern Sweden (Maletz et al., 1996). This
biostratigraphic datum can be widely recognized throughout
low- to middle-paleolatitude regions and has proved a distinc-
tive and reliable marker. It is also the level adopted for base of
the revised British Arenig Series (Fortey et al., 1995) and thus
is employed in a high-paleolatitude region.
The stage base coincides with base of the T. approximatus
Zone of global distribution. It lies just above the base of the
conodont subzone of Oelandodus elongatus Acodus deltatus,
the highest subzone of the zone of P. proteus in the Baltic (cold
water) sequence (Maletz et al., 1996). It lies at, or very close
to, the base of the deltatuscostatus Zone of the midcontinent
(warm water) realm. The boundary lies within the Megistaspis
(Paramegistaspis) planilimbata trilobite zone.
During Stage 2, there is a spectacular increase in diver-
sity and abundance of graptolites, driven by expansion of the
Dichograptidae and Sigmagraptidae, and anisograptid grapto-
lites become rare. Graptolite species diversity reaches its high-
est level for the Lower to Middle Ordovician (Cooper et al., in
press). There is also a peak in the faunal turnover rate at this
time. This stage is the most nely zoned part of the Ordovician
in low-paleolatitude regions such as Australasia and Laurentia.
12.1.2 Stages of the Middle Ordovician
S TAG E 3 ( U N NA M E D )
For the base of the third stage, a level close to the base of the
Australasian Castlemainian Stage and the base of the North
American Whiterock Series (middle Arenig) is being consid-
ered by the Ordovician subcommission. The rst appearance of
the conodonts Tripodus combsi and Baltoniodus triangulatus and
the rst appearance of the graptolite Isograptus victoriae lunatus
are bioevents suggested to have good international correlation
value and to which to tie the boundary (Bergstrom, 1995). Iso-
graptus victoriae victoriae, which succeeds I. v. lunatus in the I.
victoriae bioseries, is also being considered. These markers are
widely recognizable throughout middle- to low-paleolatitude
regions, but not in high-paleolatitude regions. Finding a suit-
able section for the GSSP is proving difcult and further in-
vestigation is needed before specic candidate GSSPs can be
proposed.
Stage 3 spans the evolutionary development of Isograptus
(particularly the Isograptus victoriae and I. caduceus groups)
and its derivatives, providing ne zonal subdivision and corre-
lation. Two Australasian stages and six zones are represented
in upward sequence, the zones of Isograptus victoriae lunatus,
I. v. victoriae, I. v. maximus, I. v. maximodivergens (Castle-
mainian stage), and Oncograptus upsilon and Cardiograptus mor-
sus (Yapeenian stage).
S TAG E 4 : T H E DA R R I W I L I A N
The GSSP for the base of the Darriwilian Stage has been
placed at the rst appearance of the graptolite Undulograptus
austrodentatus in the Huangnitang section, near Changshan,
Chejiang Province, southeast China (Chen and Bergstrom,
1995; Mitchell et al., 1997). This level lies just above the rst
appearance of Arieneigraptus zhejiangensis and marks the on-
set of a major change in graptolite fauna, from one dominated
by dichograptids and isograptids to one dominated by diplo-
graptids and glossograptids. The rapid evolutionary radiation
of the Diplograptacea, along with the appearance of several
distinctive pseudisograptid and glossograptid species provide
a global event that is readily recognized in many graptolite
sequences around the world.
The stage base lies very close to, and immediately above,
the base of the conodont zone of M. parva, which marks the ap-
pearance of both M. parva and Baltoniodus norrlandicus, in the
Baltoscandian succession. It lies close to the appearance of the
zone fossil H. sinuosa in the North American (midcontinent)
conodont succession (Chen and Bergstrom, 1995).
The stage corresponds exactly to the Australasian stage
after which it is named (VandenBerg and Cooper, 1992), com-
prising the four graptolite zones Da1 Undulograptus austroden-
tatis, Da2 Undulograptus intersitus, Da3 Pseudoclimacograptus
decoratus, and Da4 Archiclimacograptus riddellensis. It marks
the progressive increase in relative abundance of diplograptid
graptolites. In the mid Darriwilian Da3 Zone, a narrow diver-
sity peak marks a sharp, but short-lived, expansion of a diverse
dichograptacean and glossograptacean assemblage, including
didymograptids, sigmagraptids, sinograptids, isograptids, and
glossograptids (Cooper et al., in prep). The extinction event at
the end of the Da3 Zone is one of the most severe within the

Ordovician graptolite succession. By the end of the Darriwilian
Stage, graptolite diversity was greatly reduced.
In terms of the Baltoscandian conodont zones, the Dar-
riwilian Stage embraces the (middle and upper) norrlandicus
Zone, the variabilis, suecicus, and serra Zones, and the lower
anserinus Zone. In terms of the midcontinent conodont zones,
the Darriwilian Stage ranges from the sinuosa Zone, through
holodentata, polystrophos, and friendsvillensis Zones to the lower
sweeti Zone.
12.1.3 Stages of the Upper Ordovician
S TAG E 5 ( U N NA M E D )
The base of Stage 5 and of the Late Ordovician Series is de-
ned at the rst appearance of the globally distributed zonal
graptolite, Nemagraptus gracilis. The GSSP is in outcrop E14b,
located on the south bank of Sularp Brook at the locality known
as Fagelsang in the Province of Scania, Sweden, 1.4 m below
the Fagelsang Phosphorite marker bed in the Dicellograptus
Shale (Bergstrom et al., 2000, see their Fig. 5). This level co-
incides with base of the N. gracilis graptolite zone (Finney and
Bergstrom, 1986). Nemagraptus gracilis is also used to dene
the base of the British Caradoc series (Fortey et al., 1995),
the Australasian Gisbornian Stage (VandenBerg and Cooper,
1992) and the Chinese Hanjiang Series (Fig. 12.1). The base
lies within the conodont zone of Pygodus anserinus, which has
global correlation value.
During Stage 5, graptolites expand in diversity, a trend
driven by proliferation of dicellograptid graptolites following
an abrupt decline in the later part of the Darriwilian. Dicho-
graptids are rare and diplograptids abundant. The stage also
marks a peak in faunal turnover rate (Cooper et al., in press).
S TAG E 6 ( U N NA M E D )
In 1995, the Ordovician subcommission subdivided the Up-
per Ordovician Series into two stages (the fth and sixth
stages) with the boundary between them being based on the
rst appearance datum (FAD) of the graptolite Dicellograptus
complanatus and/or the conodont Amorphognathus ordovicius.
However, after 17 years of evaluating sections, no adequate stra-
totype section could be found for these suggested biohorizons.
Accordingly, in 2003, the subcommission voted to pursue
a new strategy, which is to divide the Upper Ordovician Series
into three stages with the boundaries between them placed at
biohorizons with known potential for reliable global correlation
and for which there exists suitable stratotype sections. The
The Ordovician Period 169
FAD of the graptolite Diplacanthograptus caudatus is favored
as the biohorizon for dening the base of the sixth stage with
candidate stratotype sections at Black Knob Ridge, Oklahoma,
USA, and Hartfell Spa, southern Scotland, UK.
This revised placement of the base of the Stage 6 is much
earlier than the previous level, which would have been at, or
close to, the base of the British Ashgill Series and Australasian
Bolindian Stage. The middle part of this Stage 6, equivalent
to the Australasian zones BolBo3 (C. uncinatusP. pacicus),
contains a rich graptolite fauna including diplograptids
(Appendispinograptus and Euclimacograptus) and dicellograp-
tids, and species diversity reaches a peak for the Ordovician
(Chen et al., 2000).
S TAG E 7 : T H E H I R NA N T I A N
The seventh stage (or uppermost stage of the Upper Or-
dovician Series) is the Hirnantian. The classical Hirnantian
Stage was the uppermost subdivision of the Ashgill regional
stage of Britain, and is named after the Hirnant Beds in
Wales. One GSSP proposal is the base of the Normalograptus
extraordinariusN. ojsuensis graptolite biozone in the Wangji-
awan section in China.
The Hirnantian Stage corresponds to a major climatic os-
cillation and sea-level excursion. Graptolites, along with many
other fossil groups (see below) were drastically reduced in di-
versity and were almost completely wiped out during the mass
extinction in graptolite zones of Normalograptus extraordinar-
ius and N. persulptus.
The top of the stage is dened by the base of the overly-
ing Silurian System at the base of the Akidograptus acuminatus
Zone, marked by the rst appearance of the graptolite Akido-
graptus ascensus in the Dobs Linn section of southern Scotland
(Melchin and Williams, 2000).
1 2 . 2 P R E V I O U S S TA N DA R D D I V I S I O N S
The British series Tremadoc, Arenig, Llanvirn, Llandeilo,
Caradoc, and Ashgill established in North Wales and
England, have been those most widely used around the world,
and it is likely that they will continue to be widely used in their
modied form (Fortey et al., 1995) until the new divisions
are established and become generally accepted. The classical
British series divisions that came into use at the turn of the
century were applied to the British graptolite zonal succession
by Elles in 1925. It is in the sense of Elles (1925) that the series
have been most widely applied and correlated around the world
(Skevington, 1963; Fortey et al., 1995), but there has always
170 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
been a problem of how to relate the graptolite-based divisions
to the classical divisions which were tied to type areas with
shelly fauna. This problem has been considerably alleviated
by British stratigraphers in recent years (Fortey et al., 1995,
2000).
The series have been fully reviewed and re-dened in sev-
eral papers (Whittington et al., 1984; Fortey et al., 1991, 1995,
2000). The following summary accepts the recommendations
in these works. Fortey et al. (1995) recommend boundary
stratotype sections and levels and, for all but the Ashgill,
boundaries based on a graptolite datum. They expanded the
Llanvirn to include the Llandeilo of Elles, relegating the Llan-
deilo Series to stage status and reducing the number of series
in the Ordovician to ve. This classication is adopted here.
12.2.1 Tremadoc
Sedgwick (1847) introduced the stratigraphical term
Tremadoc Group for trilobite-, graptolite-, and mollusc-
bearing strata in Wales. Salter (1866) excluded the beds with
Rhabdinopora sociale, referring them to the underlying Lingula
ags, and Marr (1905), who introduced the term Tremadoc
Series, followed Salters classication. Most authors, however
(Fearnsides, 1905, 1910; Whittington et al., 1984; Fortey et al.,
1995), have included the Rhabdinopora-bearing beds in the
Tremadoc, the type area for which is in North Wales around
the town of Tremadog (Fortey et al., 1995). Reviews are given
in Whittington et al. (1984).
The base of the British Tremadoc has not been formally
dened, but has been proposed in Fortey et al. (1991) to be at
Bryn-llyn-fawr in North Wales, at the horizon of appearance of
Rhabdinopora abelliforme, sensu lato, about 2 m above the base
of the Dol-cyn-afon Member of the Cwmhesgen Formation.
This level was adopted by Fortey et al. (1995). The level equates
to that taken as a proxy for base of the Ordovician System
in shale sections (Cooper et al. 2001). The Tremadoc Series
almost exactly corresponds in scope with the newly dened
international Tremadocian Stage.
12.2.2 Arenig
Following Sedgwicks (1852) reference to rocks around the
mountain Arenig Fawr as characterizing a broad lithological
division of the Lower Paleozoic, overlying the Tremadoc, the
Arenig Series became established as the second division in
the Ordovician of Britain (Fearnsides, 1905). The base is an
unconformity in the type area, and there has been much de-
bate about its international correlation (Whittington et al.,
1984). Fortey et al. (1995) proposed that the base be taken
at the base of the Tetragraptus approximatus Zone, thereby
bringing denition of the boundary into accord with general
international usage (Skevington, 1963). The best section in
Britain that spans this level is Trusmador in the Lake District,
but the zone base cannot yet be located with any precision.
The base also accords with the base of Stage 2 of the new
classication.
12.2.3 Llanvirn
The Llanvirn Group was erected by Hicks (1881) for rocks pre-
viously referred to as Upper Arenig and Lower Llandeilo
in sections near Llanvirn Farm, southwest Wales. Its base has
generally been taken at the base of the Didymograptus artus Zone
(Elles, 1925) and Fortey et al. (1995) indicate an appropriate
section for boundary stratotype in the Llanfallteg Formation
in South Wales. This boundary cannot be precisely located in
low paleolatitudes and has not been favored as an international
correlation datum by the Ordovician subcommission. Fortey
et al. (1995) incorporate as a stage within the Llanvirn, the
entire Llandeilo Series, as it has generally been used inter-
nationally. The historical Llandeilo lies largely within the
redened Caradoc (see below).
12.2.4 Caradoc
The Caradoc Sandstone (Murchison, 1839), exposed adjacent
to the hill Caer Caradoc, near Church Stretton, south Shrop-
shire, is the basis of the name, Caradoc Series. The type section
became accepted as the Onny River section but, unfortunately,
in this region the base of the series is an unconformity (Whit-
tington et al., 1984). Consequently, there has been uncertainty
about age and correlation of the base. Internationally, the base
of the Caradoc Series has generally been taken at base of the
graptolite zone of Nemagraptus gracilis, following Elles (1925)
and the British Geological Survey. However, this level has been
found to lie well down in the historical Llandeilo Series,
causing much confusion. Fortey et al. (1995) suggest that the
base be dened at the base of the gracilis Zone thus removing
the bulk of the historical Llandeilo Series to the Caradocian.
The base thus dened accords with the base of Stage 5 of the
new Ordovician stage divisions proposed by the Ordovician
subcommission of the ICS.
12.2.5 Ashgill
The Ashgillian Series was erected by Marr (1905) who sub-
sequently (1913) designated the Cautley district of northwest
Yorkshire as the type area. The base of the Ashgill Series was

proposed by Fortey et al. (1991) at Foggy Gill in the Cautley
district, at a level marking the appearance of a number of shelly
fossils, including the trilobites Brongniartella bulbosa and Grav-
icalymene jugifera and the brachiopods Onniella cf. argentea and
Chonetoidea aff. radiatula. The absence of diagnostic grapto-
lites and conodonts in the Foggy Gill section has led to contin-
uing debate about correlation of this level with the graptolite
and conodont successions, even within Britain (Williams and
Bruton, 1983; Whittington et al., 1984). Fortey et al. (1995)
correlate the base with a level within the Pleurograptus linearis
Zone, and close to, but just above, the base of the conodont zone
of Amorphognathus ordovicicus. Here we follow Webby et al. (in
prep.) and align its base with the base of the Bolindian Stage
and the A. ordovicicus zone.
12.2.6 Australasian stages
Graptolite-based stages were established in Victoria, Australia,
in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries (Hall, 1895;
Harris and Keble, 1932; Harris and Thomas, 1938). A suite of
nine stages has been used for the Ordovician of Australia and
New Zealand for over 60 years (Harris and Thomas, 1938;
Thomas, 1960; VandenBerg and Cooper, 1992). In upward
sequence they are the Lanceeldian, Bendigonian, Chewto-
nian, Castlemanian, Yapeenian, Darriwilian, Gisbornian, Eas-
tonian, and Bolindian Stages. They have proved to be widely
applicable in graptolite successions around the world, partic-
ularly those representing low-paleolatitude regions (30 N
30 S), such as North America, Cordilleran South America,
Greenland, and Spitsbergen. As originally dened and used,
the nine stages were, in effect, groupings of graptolite zones
(see below) and their lower boundaries were taken at zone
boundaries (Fig. 12.2). Only one stage, the Lanceeldian, has
a lower boundary formally dened by a boundary stratotype
(Cooper and Stewart, 1979). In a move toward establishing
the remaining stages as chronostratigraphic units, bioevents
and reference sections for dening their lower boundaries,
have been given by VandenBerg and Cooper (1992). One stage,
the Darriwilian, has since been adopted for international use,
with a lower boundary stratotype established in China (see
above).
1 2 . 3 O R D OV I C I A N S T R AT I G R A P H Y
12.3.1 Biostratigraphy
The two most reliable and cosmopolitan fossil groups for corre-
lation in the Ordovician are graptolites and conodonts. Grap-
tolites are most abundant in shale sections, particularly those
The Ordovician Period 171
of the outer continental shelf, slope, and ocean, whereas con-
odonts are most abundant in carbonate sections of the shelf
and platform. Together they provide a biostratigraphic cor-
relation framework that can be applied with good precision
across a wide range of facies and latitudinal zones (Bergstrom,
1986; Cooper, 1999b). Other fossil groups that are useful for
regional and inter-regional correlation include trilobites, bra-
chiopods, and, in Upper Ordovician carbonate facies, corals
and stromatoporoids (Webby et al., 2000). Chitinozoans and
acritarchs appear to have good potential for global correlation
(Paris, 1996).
GRAPTOLITE ZONES
Graptolites (Phylum Hemichordata) were a component of the
Ordovician macroplankton. They lived at various depths in
the ocean waters (Cooper et al., 1991), were particularly abun-
dant in upwelling zones along continental margins (Finney
and Berry, 1997), and are found in a wide range of sed-
imentary facies. Most graptolite species dispersed rapidly,
are widespread globally, and are of relatively short strati-
graphic duration (13 myr). These attributes combine to
make them extremely valuable fossils for zoning and corre-
lating strata (Skevington, 1963; Bulman, 1970; Cooper and
Lindholm, 1990). Together with conodonts, they are the
primary fossil group for global correlation of Ordovician
sequences.
The most detailed and best-established zonal scheme span-
ning the entire Ordovician is that of Australasia (Fig. 12.2; Har-
ris and Thomas, 1938; VandenBerg and Cooper, 1992), widely
applicable in low-paleolatitude regions (Pacic Province,
30 N30 S). Thirty zones, two of which are divided into sub-
zones, are recognized, giving an average duration of 1.5 myr
each. Zones are based on the stratigraphic ranges of species,
most zone boundaries being tied to rst appearance events.
The most representative zonal scheme for middle to high
paleolatitudes (Atlantic Province) is that of southern Britain
where, if the nine Tremadocian zones of Cooper (1999a) are
added, 19 zones span the Tremadocian to middle Caradocian,
averaging 2.4 myr each. Many species were cosmopolitan, and
correlation between high- and low-paleolatitude regions is well
controlled throughout most of the period. Other important
graptolite zonal schemes for correlation are those of North
America, Scandinavia, and China (Fig. 12.2).
CONODONT ZONES
Conodonts are tooth-like structures of primitive chordates,
small eel-like animals that were predators living in shoals in
 Ordovician Time Scale
Main
AGE Polarity Conodonts Graptolites Graptolites Chitinozoans
(Ma) Epoch/Stage Chron N. Atlantic Britain Australasia N. Gondwana
Bioevents Seq.
T R

Silurian Akidograptus
ascensus
Akidograptus
ascensus (Gr)
443.71.5 Normalo-
Normalograptus? Bo5 Tanuchitina
persculptus graptus?
oulebsiri
445
Hirnantian persculptus
Normalograptus? Bo4 N? extra-
Normalograptus?
Tanuchitina extraordinarius
extraordinarius ordinarius (Gr)
445.61.5 elongata
Paraortho- Paraortho-
graptus Bo3 graptus
Amorphognathus pacificus pacificus Ancyrochitina
ordovicicus merga

Dicellograptus Bo2 (pre-

complexus pacificus) Armoricochitina
nigerica
Dicellograptus Climaco- Dicellograptus
complanatus Bo1 graptus? Acanthochitina
barbata complanatus
450 uncinatus (Gr)
Dicello- Tanuchitina Amorphognathus
sixth stage Pleurograptus
Ea4 graptus
gravis
fistulosa ordovicicus
(Co)
linearis
Dicrano-
Late

Ea3 graptus Belonechitina

kirki robusta
Amorphognathus
superbus Dicello-
graptus Diplacantho-
morrisi Ea2 graptus Euconochitina
Dicrano- spiniferus, tanvillensis
graptus Dipl-
clingani acantho- Diplacantho-
455 graptus Ea1 graptus
caudatus Diplacantho-
lanceolatus
Amorphognathus tvaerensis

graptus
455.81.6 Baltoniodus ? caudatus (Gr)
alobatus Climaco-
Diplo- graptus Ortho-
graptus wilsoni Gi2 graptus
multi- calcaratus Lagenochitina
Baltoniodus dens Climaco-
gerdae graptus dalbyensis
fifth stage peltifer
Baltoniodus Lagenochitina
Nema- deunffi
variabilis Nemagraptus Gi1 graptus
gracilis gracilis
460
Lagenochitina Nemagraptus
ponceti gracilis (Gr)
460.91.6 Pygodus
anserinus Archi- Linochitina
Hustedo- Da4 climaco- pissotensis
graptus graptus
teretiusculus riddellensis Laufeldochitina
Pygodus clavatai
serra
Middle

Armoricochitina
Pseudo- amoricana
Darriwilian Eoplacognathus Didymograptus Da3 climaco- -
murchisoni graptus Cyathochitina
suecicus decoratus jenkinsi
465 Siphonochitina
Didymograptus Undulo- formosa
artus Da2 graptus Cyathochitina
Eoplacognathus
variabilis intersitus calyx
Aulograptus -
Da1 Cyathochitina
cucullus protocalix

Figure 12.2 Chart showing major fossil zonal suites for the
Ordovician. The Australasian graptolite zones are calibrated against
the numerical time scale (see explanation in text) and other zonal
suites are correlated with them. The global graptolite chronozones
for the Tremadocian (Cooper, 1999a) have been added to the British
zonal suite. Zones are after Lofgren (1993), Webby et al. (in prep.),
and Bergstrom and Wang (1995). The magnetic polarity scale is
from Idnurm et al. (1996). A color version of this gure is in the
plate section.
 The Ordovician Period 173

Ordovician Time Scale

Main
Age Polarity Conodonts Graptolites Graptolites Chitinozoans
(Ma) Epoch/Stage chron N Atlantic Britain Australasia N Gondwana
Bioevents Seq.
T R
465 Siphonochitina
Didymograptus Undulo- formosa
artus Da2 graptus
Eoplacognathus Cyathochitina
variabilis intersitus calyx
Darriwilian Aulograptus Undulo-
cucullus graptus Cyathochitina Undulograptus
(Expansograptus Da1 austro- protocalix
iddle

hirundo) austrodentatus
Baltoniodus dentatus (Gr)
468.1 1.6 norrlandicus Y C. morsus,
Desmochitina
bulla
1-2 O.upsilon
Paroistodus
originalis Ca I. v. maximo- Belonechitina
Isograptus divergens-
3-4 I.v. maximus henryi
gibberulus
470 third stage Baltoniodus
navis Ca2 Isograptus
v. victoriae
Desmochitina Isograptus
Baltoniodus Isograptus ornensis victoriae lunatus
triangulatus Ca1 v. lunatus
471.8 1.6 (Gr)
Expansograptus Ch2 Isograptus
M

simulans primulus
Didymo- Eremochitina
Oepikodus evae Ch1 graptus brevis
protobifidus
Be4
Corymbograptus
varicosus Be3 (Pendeo-
475 graptus
second stage Be2 fruticosus) Eremochitina
baculata
Prioniodus ?
elegans Be1

Tetragraptus Tetra-
phyllograptoides graptus Conochitina
Oelandodus La3
approxi- symmetrica
elongatus (Tetragraptus matus
approximatus) Tetragraptus
478.6 1.7 Acodus deltatus approximatus
(Gr)
Paroistodus proteus

Hunnegraptus
Paracordylodus copiosus
Early

gracilis
480
La2 Araneo-
Tripodus upper
graptus
Araneograptus pulchellus
Lagenochitina
murrayi conifundus
Drepanoistodus
aff. amoenus

Tremadocian ?
Paltodus deltifer Kiaerograptus Aoro-
La2
graptus
lower
485 Adelograptus/ victoriae Lagenochitina
Paradelograptus destombesi
antiquus
Cordylodus
angulatus
Rhabdinopora f. La1b P. jacksoni
anglica
Anisograptus La1a Aniso- Jujuyaspis
matanensis graptus borealis (Tr)
Rhabdinopora Rhabdinopora
Iapetognathus praeparabola/ Pre-La1 praeparabola (Gr)
fluctivagus parabola
488.3 1.7 Iapetognathus
Cambrian fluctivagus (Co)

Figure 12.2 (cont.)

174 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
Paleozoic seas (Aldridge and Briggs, 1989). They were most
abundant above continental shelves and were readily preserved
in shelf carbonates. Conodonts are composed of calcium phos-
phate and can be extracted from the carbonate rock by acid di-
gestion. The conodont animal roamed widely and some species
are found in a wide range of sedimentary environments and ge-
ographical regions, making them valuable fossils for long-range
correlation. Conodonts range from early Cambrian to Triassic
and are used as zone fossils in all these periods.
In the Ordovician, conodont fauna, like graptolite fauna,
are distributed in two major biogeographic provinces (Sweet
and Bergstrom, 1976, 1984). A warm-water province ranged
about 30 N and S of the Equator, and a cold-water province
extended poleward from 3040 latitude. The warm-water
province, typied by the North American midcontinent re-
gion (Sweet and Bergstrom, 1976), contains a diverse and
rich fauna that can be nely zoned 26 zones are listed in
Fig. 12.2 and some of these are subdivided into subzones. The
cold-water province is best known from the North Atlantic
region in which 17 zones and several subzones are recognized.
The two zonal successions provide good resolution through
the Lower and Middle Ordovician. In the Upper Ordovi-
cian, there are 11 warm-water zones and only three cold-water
zones.
E VO LU T I O NA RY E V E N T S
The Ordovician Period encompasses one of the greatest evolu-
tionary radiations recorded in the Phanerozoic. Marine biodi-
versity increased three-fold between the end of the Cambrian
and the middle Caradoc, to reach a level (about 1600 genera)
that was not signicantly exceeded during the remainder of
the Paleozoic and the early Mesozoic (Sepkoski, 1995) or, pos-
sibly, up to the Paleocene (Alroy et al., 2001). The cause of
this radiation is not clear. Two spectacular bursts in diversity
took place, one in the late Arenig and the other in the late
Llanvirnian to early Caradocian, mainly through expansion in
what Sepkoski has termed the Paleozoic Evolutionary Fauna.
Brachiopods, trilobites, corals, echinoderms, bryozoans, gas-
tropods, bivalves, ammonoids, graptolites, and conodonts all
show major generic increase through the Ordovician (Sepkoski,
1995). They replace the trilobite-dominated communities of
the Cambrian Evolutionary Fauna. As a result of these ra-
diations, the nature of marine fauna was almost completely
changed, from the Cambrian to the Silurian (Sepkoski and
Sheehan, 1983), and a pattern established that was to last for
the following 200 myr of Paleozoic time.
Barnes et al. (1995) recognized ve major evolutionary
events (bioevents) through the Ordovician, based on the
faunal histories of conodonts, trilobites, and graptolites. The
events are marked by peaks in extinction for each group, fol-
lowed by a radiation into a more diversied fauna. These all lie
at stage or series boundaries: (1) the base of the Tremadocian
Stage (and base of the Ordovician), (2) the base of the Arenig
Series, (3) the base of the Darriwilian Stage, (4) the base of the
Caradoc Series (Stage 5), and (5) the base of the Hirnantian
Stage.
The basal-Ordovician event marks the origination of eu-
conodonts and planktonic graptolites, the abundant appear-
ance of new platform trilobites, and early radiation of inarticu-
late brachiopods and nautiloid cephalopods. Signicant faunal
turnover in all three groups, as well as other groups such as bra-
chiopods and nautiloid cephalopods, mark the following three
evolutionary events. The last event marks the second greatest
mass extinction in the Paleozoic after the late Permian, and is
discussed below. Each evolutionary event is accompanied by a
signicant eustatic event.
A mass extinction at the end of the Ordovician extinguished
22% of all marine animal families, making it one of the largest in
the Phanerozoic (Sepkoski, 1995; Brenchley, 1989). Trilobites,
brachiopods, graptolites, echinoderms, conodonts, coral, and
chitinozoa were drastically reduced in generic diversity, and
the event caused a major faunal turnover. The extinction event
coincides with the climatic and sea-level uctuations associated
with the latest Ordovician glaciation, and was probably brought
about by a combination of factors such as reduced shelf- and
platform-habitable space, cold and uctuating temperature,
and perturbation of the ocean stratication and circulation
systems (Brenchley, 1989).
12.3.2 Magnetostratigraphy
Magnetostratigraphy of the Ordovician is still at a reconnais-
sance stage of investigation. It has been summarized by Idnurm
et al. (1996) and is shown in Fig. 12.2. Its main features are
a long reversed interval corresponding to Arenig time, sev-
eral reversals of the geomagnetic eld during the Llanvirn,
and relatively long intervals of normal polarity during the
early Caradoc and Ashgill. The scale depends mainly on two
stratigraphically long-ranging carbonate platform sections
one exposed along the banks of the Lena River in Siberia
(Rodionov, 1966) and the other in the Baltic (Torsvik and
Trench, 1991) together with several other short-ranging,
or imprecisely correlated, sections. The magnetostratigraphic
 The Ordovician Period 175

Ordovician geochemical trends

87Sr/86Sr
13C Temperature
trends
Sea level
(0/00 PDB)

0.7080

0.7085

0.7090
AGE Series/Stage 18O (0/00 PDB)
(Ma) 1 0 1 4 6 8 High Low
Cooler <> Warmer
440 Silurian
445 Hirnantian

450
Late

sixth stage
455

460
fifth stage
Middle

465 Darriwilian
470 third stage
475 second stage
Early

480

485
Tremadocian
490 Cambrian
Figure 12.3 Geochemical and sea-level trends in the Ordovician
Period. The schematic carbon isotope curve is a 5-myr averaging of
global data (Veizer et al., 1999) from Hayes et al. (1999; downloaded
from www.nosams.whoi.edu/jmh). The 87 Sr/86 Sr LOWESS curve
for the interval is based on the data of Qing et al. (1998), Denison
et al. (1998), and Ebneth et al. (2001) see Chapter 7. The oxygen
isotope curves (inverted scale) are derived from a 3-myr interval
averaging of global data compiled by Veizer et al. (1999; as
downloaded from www.science.uottawa.ca/geology/isotope data/
in January 2003). Large-scale global shifts to higher oxygen-18
values in carbonates generally are interpreted as cooler seawater or
glacial episodes, but there are many other contributing factors (e.g.
Veizer et al., 1999, 2000; Wallmann, 2001). The Ordovician sea-level
curve is from Nielsen (2003a,b).

record cannot yet be precisely tied to international stage distinctive cold-water shelly fauna known as the Hirnantian
boundaries. fauna can be recognized globally in this Hirnantian Stage.

12.3.3 Eustatic and climatic events 12.3.4 Sr isotope stratigraphy

The Ordovician was a time of marked uctuation in climate and
sea level (Fig. 12.3). Eustatic curves have been proposed by sev-
eral authors (e.g., Nielsen, 1992, 2003b; Nicoll et al., 1992; Ross
and Ross, 1995). Although concensus on a global eustatic pat-
tern has yet to be achieved, several signicant, abrupt eustatic
changes are widely recognised, and include the Acerocare, Black
Mountain, and Ceratopyge Regressive Events in the Tremado-
cian, the major transgression in the early Arenig (Stage 2), the
regression at the end of the Arenig (Stage 3), the transgression
in the early Caradoc (Stage 5), and the regression(s) in the late
Ashgill (Stage 7). This last event was associated with glacia-
tion in high paleolatitudes (Brenchley, 1984, 1989; Brenchley
et al., 1994) and a mass extinction event (Sepkoski, 1995). A
The 87 Sr/86 Sr curve for the interval (Fig. 12.3) is based on the
data of Qing et al. (1998), Denison et al. (1998), and Ebneth et al.
(2001). Marine 87 Sr/86 Sr decreases through almost the entire
Ordovician, from a value of 0.709 05 at its base (Gao and Land,
1991; Ebneth et al., 2001; McArthur et al., 2001; Shields et al.,
2003) to a minimum of 0.707 88 before beginning to increase
again some 24 myr prior to the boundary with the Silurian.
The rate of change of 0.000 140 per myr between 472 and 477
Ma is the steepest known. According to Shields et al. (2003),
this decrease and similar changes in carbon and oxygen isotopic
trends mark a major reorganization of ocean chemistry and
surface environment. But given that the Ordovician isotopic
trends are patched together from a variety of world locations,
176 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
the variable rate of change in 87 Sr/86 Sr through the interval
might well be caused by correlation difculties and artifacts of
the time scale.
1 2 . 4 O R D OV I C I A N T I M E S C A L E
12.4.1 Radiometric dates
Although many radiometric dates have been obtained from Or-
dovician rocks (e.g. Gale, 1985; Kunk et al., 1985; McKerrow
et al., 1985; Odin, 1985; Tucker and McKerrow, 1995; Harland
et al., 1990; Compston and Williams, 1992) only few reach the
standard of precision, analytical quality, and biostratigraphic
constraint desirable for time scale calibration. An initiative
started by R.J. Ross and his colleagues in North America and
Britain in the late 1980s systematically undertook to sample and
date British volcanic ash beds which can be biostratigraphically
constrained by, or reliably correlated with, the British grapto-
lite zones. Zircon separations from the samples were initially
dated by the ssion track method (Ross et al., 1982), but the
resulting dates had unacceptably long uncertainty intervals for
rening the time scale. However, zircons from many of the sam-
ples were subsequently dated by the UPb method and have
produced high-precision dates used in the present calibration.
In addition, volcanogenic zircons have been recovered by other
workers from beds in North America and Baltica, and other
localities in Britain.
Tucker and McKerrow (1995) reviewed the available dates
and rejected all but those based on zircon crystals and deter-
mined using the U-Pb isotope system, except for a selected
number of dates by the 40 Ar/39 Ar and SmNd methods, using
other minerals. They produced a calibration for the Early Pa-
leozoic that has been widely accepted. We follow Tucker and
McKerrow in accepting only the high-resolution, biostrati-
graphically constrained, dates. Fourteen of the dated samples
that were used by Tucker and McKerrow are used here and
are shown in Table 12.1, which summarizes the isotopic data,
dating method, and biostratigraphic constraints. They range
in age from early Llanvirnian to earliest Silurian. Two of these
are 40 Ar/39 Ar dates. An 40 Ar/39 Ar date of 454.1 2.0 Ma
on biotite from the Millbrig K-bentonite (Kunk et al., 1985)
and an 40 Ar/39 Ar date of 455 3 Ma on biotite and sanidine
from K-bentonite at Kinnekulle, Sweden, are both accepted
here. However, the biostratigraphic age assignments of some
samples are revised following a reassessment of the associated
fauna or of its correlation.
Two dates accepted by Tucker and McKerrow are rejected
here; their dated item 16, a SmNd date on the Borrow-
dale Volcanics in the Lake District has a large error range
and poor biostratigraphic constraint, and their dated item
17, from Llanwrtyd Wells in Wales, has poor biostratigraphic
constraint.
Since 1995, four more dates have been published that are
acceptable for calibration of the Ordovician time scale. Two
K-bentonite beds in the lower member of the Los Azules
Formation in the Precordillera of Argentine have been dated
by the isotope dilution method (Huff et al., 1997). One of
these (ARG-1) has yielded three almost concordant multi-
grain fractions which give a lower intercept age of 464
2 Ma. A rich graptolite fauna of early Darriwilian (Da2)
Zone age is inter-bedded with the bentonites (Mitchell et al.,
1998).
A K-bentonite in the Chelsey Drive Group on Cape Breton
Island, Nova Scotia, has given a weighted mean 207 Pb/206 Pb
age of 483 1 Ma (MSWD 0.14), based on six multigrain
zircon samples (Landing et al., 1997). The olenid trilobite Pel-
tocare rotundifrons is found below and above the dated bentonite
bed, and the conodont Scandodus is found 3.5 m below. These
taxa suggest an age in the late Tremadocian. Peltocare rotun-
difrons is found elsewhere in the Chelsea Group associated with
the graptolites Hunnegraptus sp. cf. copiosus and Adelograptus
of quasimodo type, supporting the late Tremadocian assign-
ment which is accepted here. Although the biostratigraphic
constraint on this bentonite bed is not tight, the bentonite is
important in lying within what is otherwise a long, undated
interval in the Early Ordovician.
Two closely spaced pyritic, tuffaceous sandstone beds in
the Bryn-Llyn-Fawr road section, in the Dolgellau Formation
of North Wales, have given a weighted mean 207 Pb/206 Pb date
of 489 0.6 Ma based on 17 (of a total of 22) concordant zircon
fractions (MSWD = 0.82, Landing et al., 2000). This determi-
nation is one of the most highly concordant and precise dates
available for calibration of the Cambrian and Ordovician. The
age of the volcanic sandstone is inferred to be close to that of
the dated zircon crystals, which, however, provide only a maxi-
mum age for the sandstone. The sandstone overlies strata with
Acerocare Zone trilobites (Late Cambrian) and is immediately
overlain by strata with planktonic graptolites, including Rhab-
dinopora abelliformis parabola, a zonal indicator for the lowest
Ordovician. The date is of high resolution and quality and the
zircon-bearing bed lies very close to the CambrianOrdovician
boundary.
Also from the Dolgellau Formation, at Ogof-Ddu near
Criccieth in North Wales, zircons in a crystal-rich vol-
canic sandstone have yielded four nearly concordant, and
ve slightly to moderately discordant, multigrain fractions

(Davidek et al., 1998). From the weighted mean 207 Pb/206 Pb,
206
Pb/238 U, and 207 Pb/235 U dates of the four nearly concor-
dant analyses, Davidek et al. suggest an age of 491 1 Ma
for the zircons, which themselves are inferred to be of similar
age to that of the enclosing volcanic sandstone. The sand-
stone lies 17 m below the appearance level of the early Or-
dovician graptolite Rhabdinopora abelliformis sociale and is
inter-bedded with mudstone and siltstone with calcareous nod-
ules that contain a rich trilobite fauna representing the Peltura
scarabaeoides Zone (Late Cambrian). Thus, this date provides
a maximum age for the volcanic sandstone that underlies the
CambrianOrdovician boundary, and is consistent with the
preceding zircon date on Dolgellau volcanic sandstone.
Altogether, 22 dates are here regarded as of sufcient anal-
ytical quality and biostratigraphic constraint to be used for
calibration of the Ordovician time scale (Table 12.1). They
range from latest Cambrian to earliest Silurian in age. They
are unevenly distributed within the Ordovician, and the Early
Ordovician, in particular, is poorly calibrated. All Ordovician
dated samples, except for two using the 40 Ar/39 Ar method, are
based on zircons that are analyzed by the TIMS method.
The Ordovician chronostratigraphic scale is well con-
strained by isotopic dating between 453 and 457 Ma (Carado-
cian or approximately the fth stage), between 461 and 468 Ma
(Llanvirnian or later Darriwilian), and at 489490 Ma (base),
but elsewhere is poorly constrained. This poses a problem for
interpolating stage boundaries into the linear scale of geologic
time.
12.4.2 HRSIMS (SHRIMP) dates
High-resolution-secondary ion mass spectrometry (HR
SIMS, also known as SHRIMP) dates of zircons in Pale-
ozoic rocks, produced in the geochronology laboratory of the
Australian Geological Survey, Canberra, have been used for
time scale calibration (Compston and Williams, 1992; Comp-
ston, 2000a,b). Rocks dated by the HRSIMS method using
standard SL13 appear to have produced ages that are about
1.3% younger than those based on standard QGNG (Black
et al., 1997). They are similarly younger than TIMS dates, even
on the same samples (Tucker and McKerrow, 1995; Cooper,
1999b).
Compston (2000a,b) stated that the standard SL13 is in-
homogenous at the sub-30-m level. However, this was not
thought by him to be the cause of a systematic error in HR
SIMS dates using this standard. He devised a new procedure
for using the standard, and applied it to the previously pub-
lished HRSIMS analyses of Compston and Williams (1992).
The Ordovician Period 177
Compston also adopted a new statistical method (mix-
ing model) for separating detrital (inherited) ages from erup-
tive ages in zircon crystals. When applied to previous HR
SIMS analyses, some changed to younger, and others to older,
ages. Many of the published TIMS dates were similarly re-
interpreted, including several of those used here. Most of these
were interpreted to be based on zircon populations that in-
cluded an inherited component not detected by the multigrain
TIMS method. For some of these re-interpreted TIMS anal-
yses, Compston assumed a common 204 Pb/206 Pb ratio revised
downwards by about 2% from that generally used (Stacey and
Kramers, 1975). The net result was that the eruptive ages of
most of the TIMS dated samples was younger than thought
by the original authors.
A new time scale for the Early Paleozoic was then con-
structed, based on his re-interpreted HRSIMS and TIMS
dates. For the early Ordovician, this time scale is 13%
younger than that used here. In particular, it conicts with the
two highly concordant and biostratigraphicaly well-controlled
zircon TIMS dates (on the Dolgellau Formation) near the
base of the Ordovician (Davidek et al., 1998; Landing et al.,
2000). This poses a problem for time scale calibration. Clearly,
Compstons ages for Ordovician zircon-bearing ashes can-
not be combined with TIMS ages using conventional tech-
niques because they are based on different assumptions. There
are, in effect, two alternative calibrations for the Ordovi-
cian, one based on conventional TIMS dating, the other on
HRSIMS and re-interpreted TIMS dating. Until this prob-
lem is resolved, we use only the conventional TIMS dates in
calibration.
12.4.3 Calibration of stage boundaries by composite
standard optimization
Quantitative methods for interpolating period boundaries be-
tween nearby radiometric dates have been used by Harland
et al. (1990) and, for interpolating Mesozoic stage boundaries,
Gradstein et al. (1994a), both of whom also estimate the as-
sociated error. But where radiometric dates are sparse, as in
much of the Early Paleozoic, these methods cannot be applied
and some way of estimating stage durations is necessary. The
compromise procedures have received little rigorous attention
in the past. Generally, some arbitrary assumption is made, ex-
plicitly or implicitly.
In some previous time scales, stages are simply assumed
to be of more-or-less uniform duration or scaled according
to the number of biozones that they contain (Boucot, 1975;
McKerrow et al., 1985; Harland et al., 1990). Another
Table 12.1 List of radiometric dates used for construction of the Silurian and Ordovician time scales

Primary
T&M biostratigraphic Zone Zonal
No.a Sample Locality Formation Comment age assignment reliabilityb Reference Age (Ma) Type

1 K-bentonite New York, Kalkberg Ten small fractions of 412 Conodonts in other I. woschmidti 1 Tucker et al. 417.6 1.0 Pb-Pb
USA Formation grains each; 4 give sections of the Zone (1998)
concordant analyses; all Kalkberg Formation
share a 207 Pb/206 Pb age of
417 Ma. Weighted mean
207
Pb/206 Pb age 417.6 1.0
Ma
2 25 Felsic Canberra, Laidlaw An average age from KAr Interbedded with N. nilssoniL. 1 Wyborn et al. 420.7 2.2 KAr
volcanic Australia Volcanics (mineral) and RbSr (whole Gorstian scanicus Zones (1982) RbSr
rock and mineral) analyses, fossiliferous
of 420.7 2.2 Ma sediments
(SHRIMP age of 419.6
5.6 Ma not used)
3 Bentonite Shropshire Middle Elton Two biotite grains with Associated with N. nilssoni and L. 1 Kunk et al. 426.8 1.7 ArArc
Formation slightly discordant age graptolites indicative scanicus Zones (1985), Snelling
spectra give similar of Neodiv. nilssoni (1989), Lanphere
total-gas 40 Ar/39 Ar ages and Lobo. scanicus et al. (1977)
(424.5 and 425 Ma). The Zones, Gorstian
40
Ar/39 Ar weight-average
plateau age of 423.7 1.7
Ma is regarded as best age
4 24 Thin volcanic Welshpool, Buttington Mean 207 Pb/206 Pb age of 4 Within the zone of Monoclimacis 1 Tucker and 430.1 2.4 PbPb
ash Wales Shales concordant analyses Monoclimacis crenulata Zone McKerrow
consisting of 1020 grains crenulata (1995), Tucker
per fraction analyzed (USGS open le
report)
5 23 Ash Esquibel Descon ArAr total gas age of 436.2 4 m above shale with Coronogr. cyphus 1 Kunk et al. 439.4 5 ArArc
Island, Alaska Formation 5 Ma at 1200 C fusion graptolites of Zone (1985), Churkin
(Kunk et al., 1985) Coronogr. cyphus et al. (1971), Ross
Zone age (Churkin et al. (1982)
et al., 1971)
6 22 Ash Dobs Linn Birkhill Mean 207 Pb/206 Pb of 4 Coronogr. cyphus Coronogr. cyphus 1 Tucker et al. 438.7 2.1 PbPb
Shales concordant analyses Zone Zone (1990); Ross et al.
consisting of 1320 grains (1982; for locality)
in each fraction analyzed. Toghill (1968)
Ash is 6 m above top of
Ordovician Toghill
(1968), (not 60 m as per
Tucker et al., 1990, or Tucker
and McKerrow, 1995)
7 21 Ash Dobs Linn Hartfell UPb age, based on 3 Approximately 4.5 m Paraorthograptus 1 Tucker et al. 445.7 2.4 UPb
(Linn Shales concordant zircon fractions below OrdSil pacicus Zone (1990)
Branch) of 1030 grains each GSSP,
Paraorthograptus
pacicus Zone
8 20a K-bentonite Millbrig Millbrig Mean UPb age of 5 Phragmodus undatus Phragmodus 1 Bergstrom (1989), 453.1 1.3 UPb
K-bentonite concordant single grain Zone (lower) undatus Zone Huff et al. (1992),
analyses, 453.1 1.3 Ma (lower) Tucker et al.
(Tucker, 1992) (1990)
40
9 20a K-bentonite Millbrig Millbrig Ar/39 Ar on biotite, 451.1 Phragmodus undatus Phragmodus 1 Kunk et al. (1985) 457.4 2.2 ArArc
K-bentonite 2.1 Ma (Kunk et al., Zone (lower) undatus Zone
1985) (lower)
10 20b K-bentonite Millbrig Diecke Mean 206 Pb/238 U age of 5 Phragmodus undatus Phragmodus 1 Tucker (1992), 454.5 0.5 UPb
K-bentonite concordant single grain Zone (lower) undatus Zone Tucker and
analyses, 454.5 Ma (lower) McKerrow (1995)
(Tucker, 1992)
11 19 Calcareous Pont-y- Base of Mean 206 Pb/238 U age of Rich brachiopod, Close to D. 3 Tucker et al. 454.8 1.7 UPb
ash Ceunant, Geli-grin 454.8 1.7 Ma (Tucker, trilobite, conodont miltidensD. (1990), Tucker
Bala, Wales 1992) fauna. Longvillian clingani Zone (1992)
above D. multidens, boundary
below D. clingani
40
12 18 K-bentonite Mossen Chasmops Ar/39 Ar dates on biotite Conodonts, Late D. 1 Kunk and Sutter 458.3 3 ArArc
Quarry, Limestone and sanidine phenocrysts, correlated by multidens Zone (1984), Tucker
Kinnekulle, 455.0 3 Ma (Kunk and Bergstrom et al. and McKerrow
Sweden Sutter, 1984) and 454 Ma (1995) (1995), Bergstrom
(Kunk et al., 1985) et al. (1995),
Leslie and
Bergstrom (1995)
(cont.)
Table 12.1 (cont.)

Primary
T&M biostratigraphic Zone Zonal
No.a Sample Locality Formation Comment age assignment reliabilityb Reference Age (Ma) Type

13 18 K-bentonite Mossen Chasmops Mean UPb age of 5 Conodonts, Late D. 1 Kunk et al. 456.9 1.8 UPb
Quarry, Limestone concordant single grain correlated by multidens Zone (1988), Kunk and
Kinnekulle, analyses, 456.9 1.8 Ma Bergstrom et al. Sutter (1984),
Sweden (Tucker and McKerrow, (1995) Tucker and
1995) McKerrow
(1995), Bergstrom
et al. (1995),
Leslie and
Bergstrom (1995)
14 19 Calcareous Pont-y- Base of Mean 207 Pb/206 Pb age from Rich brachiopod, At D. 3 Tucker et al. 457.4 2.2 PbPb
ash Ceunant, Geli-grin 4 multigrain fractions of trilobite, conodont miltidensD. (1990)
Bala, Wales 457.4 2.2 Ma; or mean fauna. Longvillian clingani Zone
206
Pb/238 U age of 454.8 Ma above D. multidens, boundary
(Tucker et al., 1990) below D. clingani
15 15 Gritty Llandrindod, Llanvirn Mean 207 Pb/206 Pb age of 5 D. murchisoni D. murchisoni 3 Ross et al. (1982), 460.4 2.2
calcareous ash central Wales Series concordant fractions of immediately below Zone Tucker and
120 grains each, give 460.4 sampled ash McKerrow (1995)
2.2 Ma considered by Elles
to be close to base G.
teretiusculus Zone
16 K-bentonite Cerro Viejo, Los Azules Three almost concordant 10 graptolite species Basal Da2 1 Huff et al. (1997), 464 2 UPb
San Juan, Formation fractions (14 grains total), 1 listed by Mitchell Mitchell et al.
Argentina discordant, give a et al. (1998) (1998)
well-dened intercept age
of 464 2 Ma (Sample
ARG-1, Huff et al., 1997)
17 14 Indurated Abereiddy Lower Mean of 3 concordant + 1 Immediately D. murchisoni 2 Tucker et al. 464.6 1.8 PbPb
bentonite Bay, S Wales rhyolitic tuff, slightly discordant overlying Cyffredin Zone (1990), Hughes
Llanrian Volc 207 Pb/206 Pb multigrain Shale is of D. et al. (1982)
Fm fractions, 464.6 1.8 Ma murchisoni Zone age
(= 76SW21 of Ross et al., (Tucker and
1982) McKerrow, 1995).
18 13 Ash ow Arenig Fawr, Serv Mean 207 Pb/206 Pb age of 2 Underlying D. artus Zone 1 Tucker et al. 465.7 2.1
Wales Formation concordant, and 1 slightly mudstone contains (1990)
discordant, multigrain D. artus Zone
fractions graptolites
19 12 Rhyolite Central New- Cutwell Three small fractions give Sparse fauna of Da2 Zone 2 Dunning and 469 + 5 / 3 PbPb
foundland Group an upper intercept midcontinental Krogh (1991),
(207 Pb/206 Pb) age of 469 + conodonts, Stouge (pers
5.3 Ma Histiodella comm.)
holodentata;
mid-lower E.
variabilis Zone
20 Volcanic McLeod Chelsey Mean Peltocare Late 2 Landing et al. 483 1 PbPb
206
sandstone Brook, Cape Drive Group Pb/238 U207 Pb/235 U age rotundiformis, Tremadocian (1997)
Breton Is. of 8 multigrain discordant Hunnegr. cf. copiosus, (Hunnebergian),
fractions dene a Adelograptus of Late La2 Zone
concordant point at 483.3 + quasimodo type
3.9 / 2.1 Ma (0.7%
discordant). Weighted mean
PbPb age 483 1 Ma
(with MSWD = 0.14)
preferred
21 Crystal-rich Bryn-Llyn- Dolgellau Weighted mean 207 Pb/206 Pb Close to top Acercare R. praeparabola 1 Landing et al. (in Maximum PbPb
volcanic Fawr, N Formation date based on 17 concordant Zone. Dated ash is 4 ZoneAcercare press) age 489 0.6
sandstone Wales analyses of 22 fractions m below appearance Zone boundary
derived from 2 closely of Rhabdinopora and
spaced volcaniclastic bands; 5 m below R.f.
indicates a maximum age parabola. It is
for ash therefore very close
to C/O boundary
22 Crystal-rich Ogof-Ddu, Dolgellau Four nearly concordant and Peltura scarabaeoides Lower P. 1 Davidek et al. Maximum PbPb,
volcanic Criccieth, N Formation 5 discordant analyses from scarabaeoides below scarabaeoides (1998) age 491 1 UPb
sandstone Wales crystal-rich volcaniclastic and P. s. westergardi Zone
sandstone. Weighted mean above = Lower
dates of 4 concordant Peltura scarabaeoides
analyses = 490.9 0.5 Zone
(207 Pb/206 Pb); 490.7 0.7
(206 Pb/238 U); 490.7 0.5
Ma (207 Pb/235 U).
Suggested age of 491 1
Ma. Maximum age only

a T & M = Tucker and McKerrow (1995).

Items used by Tucker and McKerrow (1995) are indicated in column 2 by their item number.
b Biostratigraphic precision and reliability; 1, well constrained to a relatively short zone; 2, well constrained to long zone; 3, moderately well constrained to a biostratigraphic zone.
The biostratigraphic zonal assignment of dated samples is given (column 8) but the samples are located in the composite sequence (Figure 12.4) by the optimization procedure, based on the associated species
(see text).
c 40 Ar/39 Ar dates have been re-calibrated with the MMhb-1 monitor standard of 523.1 Ma.
182 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
approach assumes constancy in sedimentation rate, so that
stage duration can be estimated from its mean stratigraphic
thickness (Churkin et al., 1977). This assumption requires ju-
dicious selection of the reference section. Graphic correlation
has been employed to utilize the stratigraphic thickness of
one reference section in which the fossil ranges have been ad-
justed according to collections made elsewhere (Sweet, 1984,
1988, 1995; Kleffner, 1989; Fordham, 1992). Cooper (1999b)
compared graphic correlations from different regions as a test
for steadiness of depositional rate. Generally, some unspec-
ied combination of these methods and assumptions, plus a
measure of intuition, are employed (Tucker and McKerrow,
1995).
As discussed in Chapters 1, 3, and 8, a number of quan-
titative, or semi-quantitative, methods of biostratigraphic
correlation can be adapted to derive relative time scales that
is, scales that estimate the relative proportions of stages with-
out recourse to radiometric dates. These are, of course, un-
calibrated in millions of years. The constrained optimization
(CONOP) correlation technique, developed by Kemple et al.
(1995) and Sadler (1999) uses evolutionary programming tech-
niques to nd a composite range chart with optimal t to all
the eld observations. Thus, it resembles a multidimensional
graphic correlation in the sense that it considers all the local
stratigraphic sections. It differs, however, in treating all sec-
tions simultaneously. A closer analogy exists between CONOP
and algorithms that search for the most parsimonious clado-
gram. For time scale work, CONOP requires a well-studied,
pandemic fossil group with good biostratigraphic utility. Dated
tuff beds that can be associated with these fossils may be in-
cluded in the optimization process. For building Ordovician
(and Silurian) time scales, the excellent state of graptolite bio-
stratigraphy and the review of radiometric data by Tucker and
McKerrow (1995) render the CONOP method suitable. The
principles and methodology of applying constrained optimiza-
tion to time scale development are summarized by Sadler and
Cooper (2004, see also Chapter 3), who use the graptolite suc-
cessions of the Ordovician and Silurian to develop and demon-
strate the method.
Over 230 measured stratigraphic sections in graptolitic
shales from around the world and containing 1400 species have
been compiled in a database that spans the latest Cambrian
Early Devonian (Sadler and Cooper, 2004). The Ordovician
part includes 119 sections, containing 669 taxa with ranges
wholly or partly in the Ordovician (Fig. 12.4). These provide
more than 1400 range-end events (rst and last appearance
events) and other marker horizons (tuff beds) to build a global
composite sequence of events in the Ordovician, and for global
correlation of sections. With the exception of the very basal
portion, every biostratigraphic event level in the Ordovician
composite is spanned by at least 10, and up to 30, measured sec-
tions (Fig. 12.4). Because planktonic graptolites do not range
below the base of the Ordovician, eight trilobite and seven
conodont species that are present in graptolite-bearing sec-
tions in the boundary interval and which range down into the
Late Cambrian have been included in the database. These help
compensate for the lack of graptolites.
In the global composite (Table 12.2), the order and spacing
of events provides a proxy for a time scale. The order and spac-
ing are determined separately, because the spacing requires
simplifying assumptions that need not compromise determi-
nation of the optimal order. First, the optimal order of events is
established by minimizing mist in sequence between the com-
posite and all of the individual sections. Mist is determined
primarily by the net number of event horizons through which
the observed range ends must be extended in order to make all
the observed range charts t the same composite sequence. The
composite, at this stage, is only an ordinal sequence of events,
and is based purely on the sequences of events observed in the
measured sections.
Next, the spaces between events in the optimal composite
sequence are scaled by the following procedure. The observed
fossil ranges in the individual sections are extended as nec-
essary to match the composite sequence and missing taxa are
added. The total thickness of each section is then rescaled ac-
cording to the number of events that it spans in the composite
30
Number of sections
20
10
Camb. Ordovician Silurian Dev.
CONOP scaled composite sequence
Figure 12.4 Stratigraphic section frequency through the
OrdovicianSilurian composite sequence. The graph shows the
number of sections for each level in the CONOP ordinal sequence
used to build the OrdovicianSilurian time scale. Note that the
ordinal sequence is not a time scale. (From Sadler and Cooper,
2004.)
Table 12.2 Ordovician to early Devonian composite zonationa (from Sadler and Cooper, 2004)

Proxy species in composite

Australasian Condence (FA unless otherwise Level in
Stage Zone Zone or zonal group gradingb specied) composite

DEVONIAN Lochkovian Monograptus yukonensis 4 M. yukonensis 3440.09

Lochkovian Monograptus hercinicus 4 M. h. hercinicus 3379.30
hercinicus
Base of Monograptus uniformis 4 M. uniformis 3346.15
Devonian
SILURIAN Pridoli Monograptus 4 M. perneri 3317.54
perneritransgrediens transgrediens
Pridoli Monograptus bouceki 4 M. bouceki 3314.37
Pridoli Monograptus lochkovensis 4 M. lochkovensis 3284.20
Pridoli Monogr. 4 M. lochkov branikensis 3283.06
lochkovensisbranikensis
Pridoli Monograptus ultimus 4 M. ultimus 3260.01
Pridoli Monograptus parultimus 4 M. parultimus 3255.50
Ludfordian Monograptus formosus 4 Monograptus hamulosus 3236.79
Ludfordian Neocucullograptus 0 uncertain
kozlowskii
Ludfordian B. cornuatusP. podoliensis 1 Monograptus helicoides 3198.57
Ludfordian Saetogr. 1 Saetogr. leintwardensis 3171.35
lientwardensislinearis
Gorstian Lobograptus scanicus 2 Colonograptus roemeri 3133.97
Gorstian Neodiversograptus nilssoni 3 Neodiversogr. nilssoni 3116.40
Homeran Colonograptus ludensis 4 Colonograptus ludensis 3102.62
Homeran Colonogr. 4 Lobograptus sherrardae 3080.43
praedeubelideubeli
Homeran Pristiogr. parvusGothogr. 4 Gothograptus nassa 3071.26
nassa
Homeran Cyrtograptus lundgreni 5 Cyrt. lundgreni 3021.36
Sheinwoodian Cyrtograptus perneri 4 Cyrt. perneri 3007.78
Sheinwoodian Cyrtograptus rigidus 3 Prist. dubius pseudolatus 2988.69
Sheinwoodian Monogr. 3 M. antennularus 2982.32
belophorusantennularis
Sheinwoodian Monograptus riccartonensis 4 M. riccartonensis 2974.60
Sheinwoodian Cyrtograptus murchisoni 4 Cyrt. murchisoni 2964.37
Sheinwoodian Cyrtograptus centrifugus 4 C. centrifugus 2946.44
Sheinwoodian Crytograptus insectus 4 Monograptus shottoni 2942.17
Telychian Cyrtograptus lapworthi 23 Torquigraptus pregracillis 2912.85
Telychian Oktavites spiralis 3 Oktavites falax 2854.39
Telychian Monogr. 3 M. griestonensis 2821.20
griestoniensiscrenulata
Telychian Monograptus crispus 4 Monograptus galaensis 2797.45
Telychian Spirograptus turriculatus 1 Pseudopl. obesus obesus 2754.00
Telychian Spirograptus guerichi 4 Monograptus turriculatus 2683.77
Aeronian Stimulograptus sedgwickii 2 Rastrites longispinus 2663.86
Aeronian Lituigraptus convolutus 4 L. convolutus 2643.07
Aeronian Monograptus 3 Pristiograptus gregarius 2628.21
argenteusleptotheca
Aeronian Demirastr. 4 Rastrites longispinus 2588.83
triangulatuspectinatus
Rhuddinian Coronograptus cyphus 5 C. cyphus 2537.47
Rhuddinian Orthograptus vesiculosis 4 Dimorphogr. elongatus 2507.25
Rhuddinian Akidograptus acuminatus 5 A. acuminatus praecedens 2480.21
Base of Silurian Akidograptus ascensus 5 A. ascensus 2437.74
(cont.)
184 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

Table 12.2 (cont.)

Proxy species in composite

Australasian Condence (FA unless otherwise Level in
Stage Zone Zone or zonal group gradingb specied) composite

ORDOVICIAN Bolindian Bo5 Normalograptus persculptus 5 Normalo. persculptus 2403.18

Bolindian Bo4 Normalograptus 3 Diplograptus improvisus 2376.14
extraodinarius
Bolindian Bo3 Paraorthograptus pacicus 4 Paraorthogr. pacicus 2313.68
Bolindian Bo2 pre-pacicus 3 Sinoretiograptus mirabilis 2272.82
Bolindian Bo1 Climacograptus? uncinatus 3 Dicellogr. complanatus 2227.40
Eastonian Ea4 Dicellograptus gravis 12 Leptograptus capillaris 2160.00
Eastonian Ea3 Dicranograptus kirki 3 Neurogr. margarit. LA 2145.15
Eastonian Ea2 Diplacanthogr. spiniferus 2 Pseudo scharenbergi LA 2083.82
Eastonian Ea1 Diplacanthpgr. lanceolatus 3 Orthograptus pageanus 2025.69
Gisbornian Gi2 Orthograptus calcaratus 3 Corynoides calicularis 1967.60
Gisbornian Gi1 Nemagraptus gracilis 5 Nemagraptus gracilis 1889.43
Darriwilian Da4a&b Pterograptus elegans 3 Kalpinograptus ovatus 1821.35
Darriwilian Da3 Pseudoclimacogr. decoratus 4 Holmograptus spinosus 1755.67
Darriwilian Da2 Undulograptus intersitus 3 Holmograptus callotheca 1714.87
Darriwilian Da1 Undulograptus 4 Undulogr. formosus 1661.35
austrodentatus
Yapeenian Ya12 Oncograptus upsilon 5 Pseudisogr. manubriatus 1638.36
Castlemainian Ca34 Isograptus victoriae 4 I. v. maximus 1604.62
maximus
Castlemainian Ca2 Isograptus victoriae 4 I. v. victoriae 1585.90
victoriae
Castlemainian Ca1 Isograptus victoriae lunatus 3 Tetra. reclinatus reclinatus 1546.57
Chewtonian Ch12 Didymograptellus 5 Didymograptus bidens 1490.17
protobidus
Bendigonian Be14 Pendeograptus fruticosus 4 Trichograptus sp. 1405.14
Lanceeldian La3 Tetragraptus approximatus 5 T. phyllograptoides 1335.29
Lanceeldian La2b Araneograptus murrayi 4 A. murrayi 1186.49
Lanceeldian La2a Adelograptus victoriae 5 Temno. magnicus 1117.75
Lanceeldian La1b Psigraptus 3 P. jacksoni 1105.25
Lanceeldian La1a Anisograptus 3 A.ruedmanni 1068.95
Lanceeldian pre-La1 Rhabd. ab. 3 R. f. praeparabola 1037.51
praeparabolaparabola
Base of Iapetognathus uctivagus 4 Iapetognathus uctivagus 1032.68
Ordovician

a The columns are the zones (or zonal groupings) that were calibrated by the CONOP method, proxy species that were used for dening zone boundaries in the
composite, a condence rating on how well dened the zonal boundary is in the composite, and level in composite.
b Levels of condence on zone boundary placements: 1, very low; 2, low; 3, moderate; 4, high; 5, very high.

sequence (assumes that net biologic change is a more reason-
able guide to relative duration, in the long term, than raw strati-
graphic thickness). Finally, the spacing of every pair of adjacent
events in the composite is determined from the average of the
re-scaled spacings of events in the sections (assumes that rela-
tive thickness is a reasonable guide to relative duration in the
short term).
The scaling of the composite is therefore derived from all of
the sections and it is the ratio of the thicknesses between events
that is used, not the absolute thickness. The inuence of aber-
rant sections, incomplete preservation, and non-uniform de-
positional rates is thus minimized. Where evolutionary change
is rapid, many range-end events fall at the same horizon in
measured sections; these zero spacings are included in the
 The Ordovician Period 185

POSITION IN SCALED COMPOSITE SEQUENCE

Pridoli
Wenlock Lud-

Cambrian
Llandovery

Devonian
Lower Middle Upper

Scheinwoodian
low
Ordovician Ordovician Ordovician

Rhuddanian

Ludfordian
Hirnantian

Homerian
Telychian
Aeronian

Gorstian
Tremadocian 2 3 Darriwilian 5 6
410
1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 2250 2500 2750 3000 3250 3500
Devonian
416.01.4
1 Pridoli
418.71.4
420 2 Ludfordian Lud-
421.31.5 Gorstian low
422.91.5
Silurian 3 426.21.5
Homerian Wen-
lock
Scheinwoodian
428.21.5
MILLIONS OF YEARS BEFORE PRESENT

430

Llandovery
Telychian
4
5 436.01.5
Aeronian
439.01.5
440
6 Rhuddanian
443.71.5
Hirnantian
445.61.5
7

Ordovician
450

Upper
6
11,12 8,9,10
Ordovician 455.81.6

15 5
460 13,14 460.91.6

Ordovician
16 Darri-

Middle
17 wilian
18
468.11.6
470 19 3
471.81.6

Ordovician
Lower
478.61.7
480
Trema-
20 docian
Radiometrically dated sample
21 488.31.7
490 Vertical error bars: two standard deviations
Horizontal error bars: range of placements within
22 best-fit solutions Cambrian

500

Figure 12.5 Graph showing the principle of constructing the
Ordovician and Silurian time scale, using a plot of radiometric age
dates for Late Cambrian through Silurian against the CONOP
ordinal sequence of global graptolite events, which is compiled in
Table 12.2. The numbers of the dates correspond to those listed in
Table 12.1. Vertical error bars represent 2 standard deviations;
horizontal error bars depict range of placement within best-t
solution. Although the best-t line shown in this graph is a
regression line with very slight curvature (R2 = 0.99), the nal
calculations that yielded the ages on Ordovician and Silurian stage
boundaries, error estimates, and stage duration estimates employ
cubic-spline tting. The spline t closely follows the best-t line
shown. Ripleys MLFR algorithm for maximum likelihood tting of
a functional relationship was employed for 2-sigma error bars on the
age of stage boundaries and duration of stages (see text). In order to
obtain age constraints for the CambrianOrdovician,
OrdovicianSilurian, and SilurianDevonian boundaries, critical
age dates below and above these boundaries were also included in
the calculations.

averaging process and prevent high diversity from being mis- of the Ordovician Period, but had very low diversity at
interpreted in terms of long time intervals. The procedure the start of the Ordovician. We should anticipate that the
is more vulnerable to intervals of extraordinarily low di- composite spacings are least reliable near the base of the
versity. The graptolite clade survived long after the close period.
186 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

Table 12.3 Ages and durations of Ordovician stages

Age of base Est. myr Est. myr

Period Epoch Stage (Ma) (2-sigma) Duration (2-sigma)

Silurian 443.7 1.5

Ordovician
Late
Hirnantian Stage 445.6 1.5 1.9 0.1
Sixth stage (not yet named) 455.8 1.6 10.2 0.3
Fifth stage (not yet named) 460.9 1.6 5.1 0.2
Middle
Darriwilian Stage 468.1 1.6 7.3 0.2
Third stage (not yet named) 471.8 1.6 3.7 0.1
Early
Second stage (not yet named) 478.6 1.7 6.8 0.1
Tremadocian Stage, base of 488.3 1.7 9.7 0.2
Ordovician

Events in the nal, scaled composite are spaced along a scale
of arbitrary composite units (Table 12.2). The scaled com-
posite is itself a proxy time scale. Graptolite zonal boundaries
and stage boundaries can be located in the scaled composite to
produce a relative time scale for the Ordovician. Uncertainty
estimates are provided by relaxed-t intervals, which give the
range of positions within the composite at which the dated
event lies, in successive runs during which best-t is relaxed
by a small percentage (Sadler and Cooper, 2004). For the ge-
ologic time scale in this book, uncertainty estimates on stage
duration and age of stage boundaries are derived by the maxi-
mum likelihood tting of a function relation (MLFR) method.
12.4.4 Age of stage boundaries
Because radiometrically dated beds were included in the opti-
mizing process, the composite relative time scale already con-
tains the necessary ingredients for calibration to time. The
dated levels allow correlation of the composite with a linear
time scale. An advanced bivariate t provides a natural test of
the spacing procedure and allows interpolation of the ages of
zone and stage boundaries according to their position on the
best-t line.
The best t for the two-way plot of 22 radiometric ages
along the abscissa, and the composite with zones and stages
along the ordinate (Fig. 12.5) was calculated with a cubic-
spline tting method that combines stratigraphic uncertainty
estimates with the 2-sigma error bars of the radiometric data.
The smoothing factor of 1.452 for the cubic spline was cal-
culated with cross-validation, and the 2-sigma error on the
estimated ages for the Ordovician stages with Ripleys MLFR
procedure (see Chapter 8).
The Ripley MLFR procedure to assist with spline tting
worked well for the OrdovicianSilurian data set in Table 12.1,
and the 2-sigma value for the base of the Ordovician is 1.7 myr;
the error value decreases stratigraphically upward because it is
assumed that for each period the relative 2-sigma error remains
proportional to age rather than constant. It is a reasonable
assumption that for any age determination, errors tend to be
proportional to age.
A comparison was made of the calibrated Ordovician scale
with a best-tting interpolation using a second-order poly-
nomial (R2 = 0.9965), which is mildly non-linear (Fig. 12.5;
Sadler and Cooper, 2004). The polynomial interpolation re-
sults fall within the error limits of the MLFR t, with the ages
of bases as follows: Silurian, 443.7 Ma; Hirnantian, 445.6 Ma;
Stage 6, 455.8 Ma; Stage 5, 460.5 Ma; Darriwilian,468.1 Ma;
Stage 3, 472 Ma; Stage 2, 479.3 Ma; and Tremadocian, 490 Ma.
The calculated durations and ages with estimates of un-
certainty (2-sigma) of the Ordovician stages are given in Table
12.3. Note that rounding procedures can result in discrepancy
between stage durations and ages of boundaries.
The base of the Ordovician in the calibrated CONOP scale,
using cubic-spline tting and equal weight on all dates, is
488.3 1.7 Ma. This age overlaps with that of the high-
resolution zircon date from the Dolgellau Formation in Wales
(maximum age is 489 1.6 Ma, Landing et al. 2000). The
dated bed is biostratigraphically well constrained, lying close
to the bio-stratigraphic base of the Tremadocian in Wales. Our
age for the base of the Ordovician also accords well with a

second high-quality date (491 1 Ma) on latest Cambrian
(Acerocare Zone) in North Wales (Davidek et al., 1998). This
age is younger than that given by Tucker and McKerrow (1995,
495 Ma) and Harland et al. (1990, 510 Ma) and considerably
older than that of Compston (2000a, 477 Ma).
The Ordovician Period 187
The duration of the Ordovician is 44.6 myr. The base of
the Middle Ordovician is 471.8 Ma and the base of the Late
Ordovician is 460.9 Ma. The Early Ordovician Series lasted
for 16.5 myr, the Middle Ordovician for 11 myr, and the Late
Ordovician for 17.1 myr.
13 The Silurian Period
. . , . . , . .

430 Ma (mid-Silurian)

Ludfordian
Gorstian
Homerian
Sheinwoodian
Telychian
Aeronian
Rhuddanian

Pridoli

Geographic distribution of Silurian GSSPs. All eight Silurian Scotland (the Rhuddanian GSSP) and the others are in a small area
GSSPs are dened. Only the Pridoli GSSP in the Czech Republic in England or adjacent parts of central Wales. No attempt has been
lies outside the United Kingdom. Of the remaining seven, one is in made to distinguish between these six GSSPs on the map.

Rapid recovery in biodiversity after end-Ordovician extinction event,
sustained greenhouse climate punctuated by short ice-house events,
strong eustatic sea-level uctuations and oceanic turnover, associated
with extinction of moderate scale, colonization of land, general con-
vergence of continental plates and low levels of faunal provincialism,
closure of Iapetus Ocean, narrowing of Rheic Ocean, migration of
South Pole over South American and southern African Gondwana.
1 3 . 1 H I S T O RY A N D S U B D I V I S I O N S
The Silurian System was erected by Murchison (1839) and
named after the Silures, a Welsh borderland tribe. As originally
conceived, the Silurian embraced rocks that were claimed as
Cambrian by Sedgwick, leading to a protracted debate. The
disputed rocks were separated out as the new Ordovician Sys-
tem by Lapworth in 1879 but the debate lingered and Lower
Silurian was used in Britain in parallel with Ordovician for
many years, while Gotlandian was used in parallel with Upper
A Geologic Time Scale 2004, eds. Felix M. Gradstein, James G. Ogg, and Alan
G. Smith. Published by Cambridge University Press.
c F. M. Gradstein,
J. G. Ogg, and A. G. Smith 2004.
188
Silurian in some regions. Eventually, the name Silurian was of-
cially adopted in its restricted (Upper Silurian) sense by the
IGC in Copenhagen in 1960 (Sorgenfrei, 1964). The rather
complex nomenclatural history of denition and subdivision
of the Silurian Period has been reviewed by Whittard (1961),
Cocks et al. (1971), and Holland (1989).
As with the Ordovician, black shales are widely devel-
oped in Silurian sedimentary successions around the world
and graptolites have proved to be valuable fossils for correla-
tion. However, unlike the Ordovician, it was a time of relatively
low faunal provincialism. Over 30 successive graptolite zones
are recognized widely around the world providing a subdi-
vision and correlation framework of extraordinary precision.
Based on the present scale and generalized graptolite zona-
tion there are 36 globally recognizable zones within a span of
slightly less that 24 myr. Although variable in duration, the
zones represent an average of 0.65 myr, signicantly less for
post-Llandovery time. Conodonts have proved to be of consid-
erable global biostratigraphic value in shallow-water carbonate
facies. A rich and diverse fauna are present in the shelly fa-
cies where trilobites and brachiopods are used extensively for

zonation, and coralstromatoporoid communities enable local
biostratigraphic subdivision and correlation. Chitinozoan and
acritarch zonations have been developed for several regions and
are proving to be useful for correlation in many circumstances.
Vertebrate microfossil and radiolarian zonations are also being
developed for the Silurian.
The Silurian comprises four series, the Llandovery, Wen-
lock, Ludlow, and Pridoli in upward sequence, informally
grouped into lower and upper Silurian subsystems. All series
and their constituent stages (Fig. 13.1) have designated lower
boundary Global Stratotype Sections and Points, or GSSPs
(Bassett, 1985; Cocks, 1985).
13.1.1 Llandovery Series
Named from the type area in Dyfed formerly Pembroke in
Southern Wales, the Llandovery Series comprises three stages,
approved by the ICS (Bassett, 1985), the Rhuddanian, Aero-
nian, and Telychian stages. The Aeronian Stage is approxi-
mately, but not exactly, equivalent to the previously employed
Idwian and Fronian stages.
R H U D DA N I A N
Although the stage is named for the Cefn-Rhuddan Farm in
the Llandovery area, its lower boundary GSSP is at Dobs Linn
in the Southern Uplands of Scotland, dened at a point 1.6 m
above the base of the Birkhill Shale in the Linn Brach Trench
section. This point has been regarded as coincident with the lo-
cal base of the Parakidograptus acuminatus Zone (Cocks, 1985).
Re-sampling and systematic revisions have shown, however,
that Parakidograptus acuminatus has its rst occurrence da-
tum 1.6 m above this level and that the succession can be
readily subdivided, both at this section and globally, into a
lower Akidograptus ascensus Zone and an upper Parakidograptus
acuminatus Zone (Melchin and Williams, 2000). Melchin and
Williams (2000) therefore proposed that the base-Akidograptus
ascensus Zone, marked by the rst occurrences of A. ascensus
and Parakidograptus praematurus (the latter was identied by
Williams (1983) as P. acuminatus sensu lato), be regarded as the
biostratigraphic horizon that marks the base of the Silurian.
Thus re-dened, the Rhuddanian Stage spans the Akidograptus
ascensus to Coronograptus cyphus Zones.
A E RO N I A N
The Aeronian Stage is named for the Cemcoed-Aeron Farm
in the Llandovery area. The GSSP is located in the Trefawr
Formation, in the Trefawr track section 500 m north of the
The Silurian Period 189
Cemcoed-Aeron Farm, between Locality 71 and 72 of Cocks
et al. (1984). The GSSP is just below the level of occurrence of
Monograptus austerus sequens, which indicates the Monograptus
triangulatus Zone (Bassett, 1985; Cocks, 1989). However, M.
austerus sequens has previously been reported from only one
other locality, also in Wales (Sudbury, 1958; Hutt, 1974), where
its level of rst occurrence is within but signicantly higher
than the base of the M. triangulatus Zone. In addition, at the
stratotype section, the M. triangulatus Zone is represented by
only a single fossil locality. Thus, although the GSSP can be
shown to occur between levels representing the C. cyphus and
M. triangulatus Zones, it cannot be shown to correlate precisely
with the boundary between those zones.
The Aeronian Stage is generally regarded as extending
through the Stimulograptus sedgwickii Zone, although in parts
of Wales this zone can be subdivided into a lower Stimulograptus
sedgwickii Zone and an upper Stimulograptus halli Zone (Loy-
dell, 1991). In this case, the latter is regarded as the uppermost
graptolite zone of the Aeronian Stage.
T E LYC H I A N
The Telychian Stage is named for the Pen-lan-Telych Farm.
The GSSP is located in an abandoned quarry that forms part
of the Cefn-Cerig Road section, at locality 162 of Cocks et al.
(1984) and Cocks (1989), approximately 31 m below the top of
the Wormwood Formation. Biostratigraphically, it is marked at
a level above the highest occurrence of the brachiopod Eocoelia
intermedia and below the rst appearance of Eocoelia curtisi
(Bassett, 1985). This was regarded as corresponding with the
base of the Spirograptus turriculatus Zone and was considered
to be supported by the occurrence of Paradiversograptus run-
cinatus in the beds above the stratotype level, although not at
the stratotype section.
Loydell et al. (1993) revised the species of the genus
Spirograptus and found that the stratigraphically lower speci-
mens previously assigned to S. turriculatus and S. turriculatus
minor actually belonged to a distinct, new species, S. guerichi.
Accordingly, those authors found that the strata that had pre-
viously been assigned to the lower part of the S. turriculatus
Zone (the minor Zone of some authors) could be regarded as
belonging to a globally correlative S. guerichi Zone. This zone
is now regarded as the lowest graptolite zone of the Telychian.
However, it should be noted that Paradiversograptus runcinatus,
the only identiable graptolite found in the lowest Telchian
beds in the vicinity of the stratotype, is known to have its
rst occurrence in upper Aeronian strata elsewhere in Wales
(Loydell, 1991), although it reaches its acme in the lower S.
guerichi Zone. In addition, Doyle et al. (1991) showed that
Figure 13.1 Silurian time scale, geomagnetic polarity scheme,
Baltic regional stages, graptolite and conodont zonal schemes,
biostratigraphic events used to mark stage boundaries at the GSSPs,
and main transgressiveregressive sequences. International stages
and epochs from Bassett (1985); Baltic regional stages from Bassett
et al. (1989); generalized graptolite zonation based on Koren et al.
(1996), modied herein; generalized conodont zonation based on
Subcommission on Silurian Stratigraphy (1995); main sequences
generalized from Ross and Ross (1996), Johnson et al. (1998), and
Loydell (1998). Shaded boxes at stage boundaries indicate interval
of uncertainty in correlation between stratotype points and the
graptolite zonation (see text for explanation). Gr, graptolite; Br,
brachiopod; Ch, Chitinozoa. (Reproduced in colour plate
section.)
 The Silurian Period 191

Silurian Time Scale

Age Polarity Baltic Biostrati- Main
(Ma)
Epoch/Stage chron regional Graptolites Conodonts graphic seq.
stages events T R

Spirograptus turriculatus
435 Telychian
Adavere Spirograptus guerichi
436.0 1.9 Pterospathodus tenuis Eocelia
Stimulograptus sedgwickii
intermedia (Br)
Lituigraptus convolutus Distomodus
staurognathoides
Llandovery

Aeronian Monograptus argenteus

Demirastrites pectinatus
Demirastrites triangulatus Monograptus
no data

Raikkula austerus
439.0 1.8 sequens (Gr)

440 Coronograptus cyphus

Distomodus
kentuckyensis
Rhuddanian Orthograptus vesiculosus

Juuru Parakidograptus acuminatus

Lland.
mixed

Akidograptus
ascensus (Gr)
Akidograptus ascensus Rexroadus nathani
443.7 1.5
Ordovician
Figure 13.1 (cont.)

elsewhere in Britain, the last occurrence of Eocoelia intermedia S H E I N WO O D I A N

occurs within the upper part of the Stimulograptus sedgwickii
The type locality for the Sheinwoodian Stage occurs in Hugh-
Zone rather than at the base of the S. guerichi Zone. Thus,
ley Brook, 200 m southeast of Leasowes Farm and 500 m
there remains uncertainly regarding the precise correlation of
northeast of Hughley Church. The GSSP is the base of the
the stratotype point with the graptolite zonation, but it appears
Buildwas Formation at this locality, as described by Bassett
to occur within the upper part of the S. sedgwickii Zone.
et al. (1975) and Bassett (1989). The stratotype point occurs
Standard graptolite zonations have previously shown the
within the Pterospathodus amorphognathoides conodont zone,
Telychian extending upward through the Monoclimacis crenu-
between the base of acritarch zone 5 and the last occurrence
lata Zone, overlain by the Cyrtograptus centrifugus Zone.
of P. amorphognathoides (Mabillard and Aldridge, 1985). This
However, later work, especially in Bohemia (Storch, 1994)
level is considered to be approximately correlative with the
and Wales (Loydell and Cave, 1996) demonstrated that the
base of the Cyrtograptus centrifugus graptolite zone although
standard British zonation was incomplete and that be-
no graptolites are known to occur in the boundary interval at
tween the M. crenulata and C. centrifugus zones there occur
the stratotype section.
strata readily assignable to the Oktavites spiralis, Stomatograp-
The occurrence of Monoclimacis aff. vomerina and Pris-
tus grandisCyrtograptus lapworthi, and Cyrtograptus insectus
tiograptus watneyae higher in the Buildwas Formation, to-
Zones. Therefore, the Telychian is now regarded as extending
gether with species indicative of the M. greistoniensis and M.
from the S. guerichi Zone to the C. insectus Zone.
crenulata zones in the underlying Purple Shales Formation,
were regarded as indicating that the stratotype point was near
13.1.2 Wenlock Series
the centrifuguscrenulata zonal boundary. However, as noted
The Wenlock Series is named for the type area, Wenlock Edge, above, it has since been demonstrated that three graptolite
in the Welsh borderlands of England. It has been divided zones can be identied between these zones. In addition, some
into two stages, the lower Sheinwoodian Stage and the upper chitinozoan and conodont data indicate that the base of the
Homerian Stage. Buildwas Formation may correlate with a level at or near
192 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
the base of the Cyrtograptus insectus Zone (Jeppsson, 1997;
Mullins, 2000), although Loydell et al. (2003) and Mullins and
Aldridge (in press) provided evidence that the GSSP is more
closely correlative with the base of the Cyrtograptus murchisoni
Zone. At the present time, we must regard the correlation of the
basal-Wenlock stratotype point with the graptolite zonation as
somewhat uncertain.
HOMERIAN
The stratotype locality for the base of the Homerian Stage is
in the north bank of a small stream that ows into a tribu-
tary of Sheinton Brook in Whitwell Coppice, which is 500 m
north of the hamlet of Homer. The GSSP is within the Apedale
Member of the Coalbrookdale Formation, at the point of rst
appearance of a graptolite fauna containing Cyrtograptus lund-
greni. Underlying strata contain graptolites of the C. ellesae
Zone (Bassett et al., 1975; Bassett, 1989). Although the fauna
of the C. ellesae and C. lundgreni Zones seem to be stratigraphi-
cally and taxonomically distinct in this and some other regions,
recent work in Wales has shown a succession where the rst oc-
currence of C. lundgreni is below that of C. ellesae (Zalasiewicz
et al., 1998). This suggests the possibility that the ranges of the
zonal index taxa may be incomplete at the stratotype section
and that the stratotype point for the Homerian may be within
the C. lundgreni Zone rather than at its base.
13.1.3 Ludlow Series
The Ludlow Series is named for the type area near the town
of Ludlow, in Shropshire, UK. It has been divided into two
stages, the lower Gorstian Stage and the upper Ludfordian
Stage.
GORSTIAN
The stratotype locality for the base of the Gorstian Stage is
the disused Pitch Coppice Quarry, 4.5 km westsouthwest of
the town of Ludlow. The GSSP is the base of the Lower Elton
Formation where it overlies the Much Wenlock Limestone
Formation (Holland et al., 1963; Lawson and White, 1989).
Graptolites questionably assigned to Neodiversograptus nilssoni
and Saetograptus varians collected immediately above the base
of the Lower Elton Formation indicate that this unit occurs
within the N. nilssoni Zone. However, the absence of graptolites
from other parts of the HomerianGorstian interval in the
type area make it impossible to correlate the stratotype point
precisely with the base of that zone. Lawson and White (1989)
note that neither the shelly fossils nor the conodonts are useful
in providing a more rened biostratigraphic denition of the
stratotype point.
LU D F O R D I A N
The locality for the GSSP of the Ludfordian Stage is at Sun-
nyhill Quarry, approximately 2.5 km southwest of the town
of Ludlow. The level coincides with the contact between the
Upper Bringewood Formation and the Lower Leintwardine
Formation (Lawson and White, 1989). The graptolite Sae-
tograptus leintwardinensis leintwardinensis occurs in the basal
beds of the Lower Leintwardine Formation, although appar-
ently not at the stratotype locality, and it becomes common
higher in the formation. The underlying Upper Bringewood
Formation is devoid of identiable graptolites, although the
Lower Bringewood Formation contains graptolites indicative
of the tumiscensincipiens Zones. Thus, the stratotype point is
considered to approximate the base of the leintwardinensis Zone
(Lawson and White, 1989), although it may occur within the
lower part of that zone.
The stratotype level is also marked by the disappearance
of a number of distinctive brachiopod taxa as well as changes
in relative abundances among others. No distinctive conodont
taxa appear at the stratotype point. However, there are signif-
icant changes in the palynological assemblages at or near the
formational contact (Lawson and White, 1989).
13.1.4 Pridoli Series
The Pridoli Series is named for the Pridoli area, near Prague,
Bohemia, Czech Republic. This series has not been subdi-
vided into stages. The GSSP is in bed 96 of the Pozary sec-
tion in the Daleje Valley, near Reporyjie, Prague (Krz, 1989),
approximately 2 m above the base of the Pozary Formation,
marked by the rst appearance of Monograptus parultimus.
Graptolites are absent from the immediately underlying strata,
however, so it is possible that the stratotype point lies within
the lower part of that zone. A number of other fossil groups
are common in the type area of the Pridoli besides the grap-
tolites, but only chitinozoans show potential for more detailed
biostratigraphic correlation in this region. The base of the Fun-
gochitina kosovensis chitinozoan zone occurs approximately 20
cm above the stratotype point.
13.1.5 Other important stage classications
Although a number of regions of the world have had a regional
series and stage classication, the majority of these have
fallen out of usage since the global standard series and stage
stratotypes were dened. The generally high degree of faunal
cosmopolitanism has greatly facilitated the global usage of the
standard time scale. However, there remain signicant intervals
in which correlation between the graptolite bio-stratigraphic

scale and that of conodonts and carbonate shelf facies are
imprecise. As a result, in the East Baltic region, which has
a long history of detailed faunal and stratigraphic study in
mainly carbonate strata, workers continue to refer to a scale
of regional stages (East Baltic regional stages, Fig. 13.1) based
on faunal and facies changes in that area (Bassett et al., 1989).
1 3 . 2 S I LU R I A N S T R AT I G R A P H Y
Much of the sedimentary record of the Silurian in basinal
and continental margin settings is represented by graptolite-
bearing mudrocks. In the paleo-tropical regions, epicontinen-
tal settings are dominated by carbonate successions, commonly
with well-developed reefs. In later Silurian time, large evapor-
ite basins developed in some epeiric basins. Glacial deposits,
mainly of Llandovery age, have been recognized in Brazil
(Caputo, 1998).
The Silurian Period was generally a time of relative con-
vergence of continental land masses and narrowing and closing
of ocean basins (Cocks, 2000). One of the results of this is the
generally low degree of provincialism seen in marine fauna.
However, another result of this convergence is tectonic uplift
in several orogenic belts and a number of areas that were dom-
inated by marine sedimentation through much of Ordovician
and Early Silurian time become sites of continental sedimen-
tation or non-deposition by the end of the Silurian.
As in the Ordovician, the two fossil groups that have been
most widely used in Silurian biostratigraphic correlation are
the graptolites and conodonts. Reference to the GSSPs for the
series and stages is mainly by relation to the graptolite zones.
A number of shelly fossil groups, especially brachiopods, have
proven to be useful for regional correlation. In addition, pa-
lynomorphs, especially Chitinozoa, are proving to be increas-
ingly useful in Silurian biostratigraphy.
13.2.1 Biostratigraphy
GRAPTOLITE ZONES
Graptolites (Phylum Hemichordata) were a component of the
Silurian macroplankton. As in the Ordovician they lived at
various depths in the ocean waters (e.g. Underwood, 1993),
were particularly abundant in upwelling zones along conti-
nental margins (Finney and Berry, 1997), and are found in
a wide range of sedimentary facies. Most graptolite species
dispersed rapidly, are geographically widespread, and are of
relatively short stratigraphic duration (0.54 myr). These at-
tributes combine to make them extremely valuable fossils for
zonation and correlation of strata. Together with conodonts,
they are the primary fossil group for global correlation of Sil-
The Silurian Period 193
urian sequences and the biostratigraphic levels that are used
to dene the Silurian GSSPs are all based on graptolite zones.
The most established zonal scheme as the standard for
Silurian graptolite biostratigraphy (Harland et al., 1990) has
traditionally been based on the British zonation (e.g. Rickards,
1976), except for the Pridoli zonation, which is based on the
succession in Bohemia (e.g. Krz et al., 1986). However, recent
efforts have been undertaken to establish a globally recogniz-
able, standard zonation, based on widely recognizable episodes
of faunal change rather than the succession of any particular
region.
A rst step toward this was the publication of the gener-
alized graptolite zonal sequence (Subcommission on Silurian
Stratigraphy, 1995; Koren et al., 1996), which was assembled
for the purpose of a coordinated study of global paleogeogra-
phy, but was also used for a study of patterns of global diversity
and survivorship in Silurian graptolites (Melchin et al., 1998).
In the course of the latter study it was found that a number of
the generalized zones recognized by Koren et al. (1996) could
be readily subdivided and still recognized in several different
paleogeographic regions of the world. Therefore, the general-
ized graptolite zonation presented here represents a renement
of the one published by Koren et al. (1996). The criterion used
in this zonation was that the zonal base should be recognizable
in at least three different paleogeographic regions of the world.
In some instances, the thicknesses of the intervals of two or
more successive zones were too thin to be depicted as distinct
units on Fig. 13.1. In such cases the zones are grouped together
as one unit.
Figure 13.1 shows the remarkable precision in correlation
obtainable using Silurian graptolites. The 31 graptolite zonal
divisions of the Silurian span 26 myr and thus average 830 000
years each in duration. In the WenlockPridoli interval, this
precision is even better 680 000 years each. At the regional
level, where more zones are recognized, the precision is better
again.
CONODONT ZONES
Conodonts are tooth-like structures of primitive chordates
that were free-swimming in various marine environments.
Although they were most abundant in subtidal, carbonate
shelf environments they have also been found in nearshore
and deeper marine sediments (Aldridge and Briggs, 1989).
Conodonts are composed of calcium phosphate and can be
extracted from the carbonate rock by acid digestion. Many
conodont species are found in a wide range of sedimentary en-
vironments and geographical regions, making them valuable
fossils for long-range correlation. Patterns of provincialism
194 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
in Silurian conodonts appear to be less-well dened than for
the Ordovician, although there are still signicant faunal dis-
tinctions between shallow- and deeper-water fauna as well as
inter-regional differences.
High-resolution conodont zonations are available for some
intervals of the Silurian for particular regions (especially the
Baltic region, e.g. Jeppsson, 1998). A globally recognizable
and generalized zonation for Silurian conodonts was proposed
by the Subcommission on Silurian Stratigraphy (1995) based
on globally recognizable biostratigraphic horizons (Fig. 13.1).
High-resolution conodont zonations are available for some in-
tervals of the Silurian for particular regions, especially in Eu-
rope (e.g. Jeppsson, 1997; Corradini and Serpagli, 1999), and
some of those zonal levels are recognizable in other parts of the
world.
C H I T I N O Z OA N Z O N E S
Chitinozoa are organic-walled microfossils of unknown biolog-
ical afnities, although many accept the hypothesis that they
were the planktonic egg capsules of some metazoan. They oc-
cur in a variety of marine facies and many species were geo-
graphically widespread and relatively short lived. The Sub-
commission on Silurian Stratigraphy (1995) and Verniers et
al. (1995) proposed a global biozonation for Silurian Chitino-
zoa, based on correlation of well-known successions in Lau-
rentia, Avalonia, Baltica, and Gondwana (Fig. 13.2). Global
biozonal levels are dened by well-established taxa whose rst
appearances are regarded as synchronous in two or more paleo-
geographically distinct regions. Many of these biozonal levels
have been dened or recognized in direct reference to GSSPs.
O T H E R Z O NA L G RO U P S
The same efforts of the Subcommission on Silurian Stratigra-
phy (1995) that produced the generalized zonations for grapto-
lites, conodonts, and chitinozoans, also yielded Silurian zona-
tions for spores and vertebrates (Fig. 13.2). The former, which
has been slightly revised by Burgess and Richardson (1995),
is particularly important in that it provides the possibility for
biostratigraphic correlation in terrestrial strata and between
the terrestrial and marine realm. The vertebrate zonation,
based mainly on disarticulated remains (ichthyoliths), was also
published by Marss et al. (1995).
BIOEVENTS
The Silurian Period has a well-documented record of bio-
events. The best known is the biotic recovery in the Llandovery
that follows the Late Ordovician mass extinction event (e.g.
Sheehan, 2001). However, a number of extinction events of
varying intensity have been described among graptolites, con-
odonts, and some other fossil groups (see Melchin et al., 1998;
Jeppsson, 1998; Fig. 13.2). Some of those extinction events in
the Lower Silurian correlate well with the glacial episodes de-
scribed by Caputo (1998). Many of them also correlate with ex-
cursions in the carbon and oxygen isotope chemostratigraphic
record. Jeppsson (1998) related all of these bioevents to changes
in climate and oceanic state.
13.2.2 Physical stratigraphy
M AG N E T O S T R AT I G R A P H Y
Understanding of the magnetostratigraphic scale for the Sil-
urian is still in a very preliminary state and is based on incom-
plete data from only a few localities. Based on the presently
available data it appears that much of the Silurian is character-
ized by a mixed polarity, with a predominantly normal phase
through much of the Wenlock (Fig. 13.1; Trench et al., 1993).
C H E M O S T R AT I G R A P H Y
Chemostratigraphic analyses are now available at fairly high
levels of stratigraphic resolution for all or most of the Silurian
Period for the following isotopic systems: 18 O, 13 C, and Sr
(Fig. 13.3).
Oxygen isotope stratigraphy A number of recently published
oxygen isotope ( 18 O) curves for the Silurian show very similar
trends (Samtleben et al., 1996; Wenzel and Joachimski, 1996;
Bickert et al., 1997b; Azmy et al., 1998; Heath et al., 1998).
There is a slight general trend toward reduction in 18 O val-
ues through Silurian time, possibly as a result of overall global
warming (see temperature trends in Fig. 13.3, after Azmy
et al., 1998). Superimposed on this trend are a number of signif-
icant positive excursions of approximately 12.5% magnitude.
Those events in the early and late Aeronian and earliest Wen-
lock, can be related to episodes of continental glaciation that
have been identied in South America (Caputo, 1998). Those
events in the late Homerian and Ludfordian also correspond to
an episode of eustatic fall, but not with any known glaciation.
Samtleben et al. (2000) suggested that these are related changes
from times of predominantly humid to more arid climates as
indicated by facies changes in carbonate platforms. As a result
of the fact that most of the 18 O data are from Baltica, especially
from the latest Llandovery upward, the global nature and syn-
chroneity of these excursions cannot be tested with condence.
 The Silurian Period 195

Silurian Time Scale

AGE Epoch/Stage Graptolites Chitinozoans Sporomorphs Vertebrates Bioevents
(Ma)
Eisenackitina Emphanisporites Nostolepis
Devonian Monograptus
uniformis bohemica micrornatus-
Streel. newportensis minima
416.02.8 Katoporus timanicus- Klonk C
Monograptus transgrediens Angochitina lithuanicus
Monograptus bouceki-perneri superba transgrediens G
not zoned Poracanthodes
punctatus
Pridoli Monograptus lochkovensis
Monograptus branikensis
Margachitina
elegans Synorisporites
Nostolepis
gracilis
tripapillatus-
Fungochitina Apiculiretusispora
Monogr. parultimus-ultimus kosovensis spicula Thelodus spineus G
418.72.7 sculptilis Klev C
Monograptus formosus
Eisenackitina kozlowskii G
Ludlow

Neocucullograptus kozlowskii barrandei Lau C

420 Ludfordian Synorisporites Andreolepis
B. cornuatus-P. podoliensis libycus
Eisenackitina hedei leintwardinensis G
Saetograptus leintwardinensis- -
phillipi Lophozonotriletes? Linde C
Saetograptus linearis Phlebolepis
421.32.6 Angochitina poecilomorphus
elegans
Lobograptus scanicus echinata
Gorstian Belonechitina Phlebolepis ornata
Sclya. downiei -
Neodiversograptus nilssoni latifrons Concen. sagittarius
422.92.5
Colonograptus ludensis Sphaerochitina
Artemopyra Paralogana
lycoperdoides martinssoni
Colono. praedeubeli-deubeli brevicostata-
Wenlock

Hispanaediscus Mulde C
Homerian Pristio. parvus-Gotho. nassa
verrucatus
425 lundgreni G
Cyrtograptus lundgreni Conochitina
pachycephala
Cyrtograptus perneri Loganellia grossi
426.22.4 Cyrtograptus rigidus Valleviken C
Monogr. beloph.-anten. Cingulochitina Boge C
Monogr. riccartonensis cingulata
Sheinwoodian murchinsoni G
Cyrtograptus murchisoni Margachitina Archaeozonotriletes
margaritana Loganellia avonia
Cyrtograptus centrifugus chulus chulus Ireviken C
428.22.3 Cyrtograptus insectus - lapworthi G
Archaeozonotriletes
Cyrtograptus lapworthi chulus nanus

430 Oktavites spiralis Angochitina

longicollis

Monoclimacis crenulata-
Llandovery

Monoclimacis griestoniensis
Telychian
Monograptus crispus Ambitisporites
dilatus Loganellia scotica
- -
Eisenackitina Ambitisporites Loganellia sibirica
Spirograptus turriculatus avitus
dolioliformis
435 utilis G C
Spirograptus guerichi
436.01.9 Stimulograptus sedgwickii Sandvika C
sedwgwickii G
Lituigraptus convolutus Segestrespora
Cono. alargada
Aeronian Monograptus argenteus membranifera
-
Demirastrites pectinatus - Spinachitina Pseudodyadospora
Demirastrites triangulatus maennili sp. B
439.01.8
Figure 13.2 Silurian time scale, graptolite (from Fig. 13.1), Burgess and Richardson (1995); vertebrate zonation from Marss
chitinozoan, sporomorph, and vertebrate zonal schemes, and et al. (1995); graptolite bioevents from Melchin et al. (1998); and
important bioevents recognized in graptolites (Gr) and conodonts conodont bioevents from Jeppsson (1998). A color version of this
(Ch). Chitinozoan zonation from Verniers et al. (1995); spore gure is in the plate section.
zonation from Subcommission on Silurian Stratigraphy (1995) and
196 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

Silurian Time Scale

AGE Epoch/Stage Graptolites Chitinozoans Sporomorphs Vertebrates Bioevents
(Ma)

Spirograptus turriculatus Ambitisporites

dilatus
435 Telychian Eisenackitina - utilis G C
Spirograptus guerichi dolioliformis Ambitisporites
avitus
436.01.9 Loganellia scotica
Stimulograptus sedgwickii - Sandvika C
Loganellia sibirica sedwgwickii G
Llandovery

Lituigraptus convolutus
Cono. alargada
Aeronian Monograptus argenteus
Demirastrites pectinatus - Spinachitina
Demirastrites triangulatus maennili
439.01.8 Segestrespora
membranifera
440 Coronograptus cyphus -
Conochitina electa
Pseudodyadospora
sp. B
Valyalaspis crista
Rhuddanian Orthograptus vesiculosus Beloechitina
postrobusta

Parakidograptus acuminatus acuminatus G

Spinachitina
fragilis
Akidograptus ascensus not zoned
443.71.5
Ordovician
Figure 13.2 (cont.)

Carbon isotope stratigraphy The carbon isotope curve ( 13 C,
Figure 13.3, after Azmy et al., 1998), like the 18 O curve,
displays a general, slight tendency toward declining values
through the Silurian. This trend is punctuated by several sig-
nicant, positive excursions. Episodes of 13 C values that are
26% above the background, which are prolonged enough to
span more than one graptolite zone, are seen in the early Shein-
woodian, late Homerian, and earlymid Ludfordian (see also
Kaljo et al., 1998). High-resolution records (Kaljo et al., 1998;
Heath et al., 1998; Melchin and Holmden, 2000) also show
smaller-scale positive excursions of 13% in the early and late
Aeronian. In addition, the general trends and main excursions
in the carbon isotope record can be seen clearly in 13 C analy-
ses of unaltered brachiopods (Azmy et al., 1998; Heath et al.,
1998), whole-rock carbonates (Kaljo et al., 1998; Melchin and
Holmden, 2000), and organic matter (Melchin and Holmden,
2000; Zimmerman et al., 2000).
As with the 18 O record, the positive excursions in the 13 C
curve appear to coincide with episodes of eustatic lowstand. In
the Llandovery and early Wenlock, these are reported to be
episodes of continental glaciation (Caputo, 1998). In the later
Silurian there are no reported glacial deposits that coincide
with the times of sea-level fall and the causes of these events
are not known. However, the fact that the later events show
similar isotopic trends to the earlier episodes and also show
similar changes in faunal extinction rates and diversity pat-
terns (e.g. Melchin et al., 1998; Jeppsson, 1998) indicate that
they may also be glaciogenic in origin, despite the lack of phys-
ical evidence in the form of known glacial deposits. Many of
the studies attempting to relate glaciation and positive 13 C
excursions have focused on the high-magnitude event associ-
ated with the Late Ordovician extinction. Models to explain
this and later events have focused either on changes in bio-
logical productivity and depositional rates of organic matter
associated with changing climates and ocean circulation pat-
terns (e.g. Armstrong, 1996; Jeppson, 1998), or changes in the
balance of rates of deposition and erosion of carbonates, sil-
icates and organic matter as a result of sea-level change (e.g.
Kump et al., 1999).
Strontium isotope stratigraphy The most recently published
Silurian strontium isotope curves (87 Sr/86 Sr, Fig. 13.3; Rup-
pel et al., 1998; Azmy et al., 1999) both show the same secu-
lar increase in the 87 Sr/86 Sr ratio through the Silurian, from
 The Silurian Period 197

Silurian geochemical trends

87
13C Sr/86Sr Temperature Eustasy
trends
(0/00 PDB)

0.7080

0.7085

0.7090
Age Epoch/Stage O (0/00 PDB)
18 Ross & Johnson Loydell
Ross et al. (1998)
(1996) (1996)
(Ma) 0 2 4 6 2 4 6 High Low High Low High Low

415 Devonian Cooler <> Warmer

Pridoli
420 Lud- Ludfordian
low Gorstian
425 Wen- Homerian
lock Sheinwoodian
Llandovery

430
Telychian
435
Aeronian
440
Rhuddanian
445 Ordovician
Figure 13.3 Silurian stable isotope chemostratigraphy and eustatic Azmy et al. (1999). Eustasy scales are relative, with sources as
trends. Oxygen and carbon stable isotope curves are from Azmy indicated.
et al. (1998) and the strontium curve is from Ruppel et al. (1998) and

0.707 95 at its base to 0.708 76 at its top. This increase through
the interval has been attributed to an increase in riverine inux
of radiogenic Sr due to climatic warming. In the lower Rhudda-
nian and Gorstian, the rate of increase in 87 Sr/86 Sr is slightly
higher than elsewhere, but it is not clear if this higher rate is
real or is an artifact of the time scale. The data of Ruppel et al.
(1998) show a local decrease in 87 Sr/86 Sr in the staurognathoides
Zone. The minimum probably can be ascribed to stratigraphic
reasons, rather than a change in marine 87 Sr/86 Sr, as these
samples were from a separate locality to most of the others. In
addition, there may be regional differences in diagenetic in-
uences. Both Ruppel and Azmy note the potential for future
use of the Sr isotope signal for stratigraphic correlation in the
Silurian.
E U S TA S Y
There have been several different approaches to the problem
of estimating eustatic changes for the Silurian Period. Johnson
(1996) summarized a series of earlier papers in which the sea-
level histories of individual regions have been reconstructed
mainly based on the use of benthic assemblages and sedi-
mentary structures. Sea-level curves for each region are then
correlated and compared to identify global signals. Johnson
et al. (1998; see Fig. 13.3) has added to this the study of sub-
mergence of paleotopographic features as measures of absolute
sea-level change. Ross and Ross (1996; see Fig. 13.3) have also
employed biofacies data, but have incorporated some litho-
facies information, although their curve is based almost en-
tirely on sections in Laurentia. In contrast, Loydell (1998;
see Fig. 13.3) has dened episodes of sea-level rise and fall
based on identication of transgressive and regressive sys-
tems in deeper-water, graptolitic shales, in which transgres-
sive systems are recognized as being generally condensed and
organic-rich with diverse graptolite fauna, whereas regressive
systems are thicker and less organic-rich with more depauper-
ate graptolite assemblages. This method has some advantages
in that the graptolite biostratigraphy provides a more pre-
cise and globally correlatable temporal control. In addition,
it is also based mainly on deeper-water successions, which
are less susceptible to truncation by subaerial exposure and
erosion. On the other hand, Loydells method provides no
means of deriving quantitative estimates of magnitudes of sea-
level change. Due to the fact that the eustatic curves derived
by Johnson et al. (1998) and Ross and Ross (1996) are based
mainly on data from carbonate platform facies, whereas Loy-
dells curve is based on information from basinal shale suc-
cessions, some of the apparent asynchroneity between them
198 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
may be the result of inaccuracies in correlation rather than real
differences in timing of the events as discerned by the differ-
ent methods. The main sequences shown in Fig. 13.1 represent
those eustatic trends common to two or three of these published
curves.
C L I M AT I C E V E N T S
Following the major glacial event of the Late Ordovician (e.g.
Brenchley et al., 1994) the Silurian Period is generally regarded
as a time of gradually warming climate (Frakes et al., 1992),
with smaller episodes of glacial advance in the Llandovery and
early Wenlock (Caputo, 1998). As noted above, the existence
of episodes of eustatic low, positive excursions in the record of
18 O and 13 C and signicant faunal change in the later Sil-
urian (e.g. Late Homerian), which in many ways resemble the
glacially related events of the Late Ordovician and Early Sil-
urian, indicate that it is possible that there were later Silurian
glacial episodes that have yet to be recognized in the physical
stratigraphic record. On the other hand, some workers (Bickert
et al., 1997b; Jeppsson, 1998) have suggested that the faunal
and isotopic shifts of the Silurian can be related to changes in
climate and oceanic state from more humid episodes of higher
productivity and mainly estuarine circulation in epicontinental
seas, to more arid states of lower productivity and mainly anti-
estuarine circulation. These models are largely based on studies
centered around the Baltic carbonate platform region.
VO LC A N I S M A N D K - B E N T O N I T E S T R AT I G R A P H Y
Volcanic ash beds or K-bentonites have been widely reported
throughout the Silurian, particularly from Europe and east-
ern North America (Bergstrom et al., 1998a). Geochemical
studies of these bentonites suggest that those distributed over
Laurentia, Avalonia, and Baltica can be attributed to at least
three different volcanic centres within the closing Iapetus and
Rheic ocean basins (Bergstrom et al., 1997; Huff et al., 2000).
However, some of these individual K-bentonite units have
been shown by geochemical ngerprinting to be geographi-
cally very widespread and serve as excellent marker beds for
high-resolution, regional correlations (e.g. Bergstrom et al.,
1998b; Batchelor and Evans, 2000).
1 3 . 3 S I LU R I A N T I M E S C A L E
As with the Ordovician, many isotopically dated rocks have
been used for calibrating the Silurian time scale (Gale, 1985;
Kunk et al., 1985; McKerrow et al., 1985; Odin, 1985; Snelling,
1985; Harland et al., 1990; Tucker et al., 1990; Compston
and Williams, 1992; Tucker and McKerrow, 1995; Compston,
2000a,b). Unfortunately, few of these are of sufcient analytical
reliability and precision and biostratigraphic constraint to meet
modern standards for time scale calibration. Following the
practice by Paleozoic time scale geochronologists (e.g. Tucker
and McKerrow, 1995; Tucker et al., 1998, Landing et al., 2000),
we use mainly those dates based on volcanogenic zircons pre-
served in ash beds that are inter-bedded with age-diagnostic
fossiliferous strata and dated using the UPb decay system.
13.3.1 Radiometric dates
Of the published radiometric dates for the Silurian, Tucker
and McKerrow (1995) rejected all but six. Their dated items,
numbered 22, 23, 24, and 25 are all accepted here. Date No. 22 is
from the Birkhill Shales, Scotland (207 Pb/206 Pb age of 438.7
2.1 Ma, Tucker et al., 1990). Date No. 23 is from the Descon
Formation, Esquibel Island, Canada (40 Ar/39 Ar age of 436.2
5 Ma, Kunk et al., 1985; revised to 439.4 5 Ma with the
MMhb-1 monitor standard of 523.1 Ma). Date No. 24 is from
the Buttington Shales, Welshpool, Wales (207 Pb/206 Pb age of
430.1 2.4 Ma, Tucker, 1991 in Tucker and McKerrow, 1995),
and date No. 25 is from the Laidlaw Volcanics in Canberra,
Australia (combined KAr and RbSr age of 420.7 2.2 Ma,
Wyborn et al., 1982). In addition, their dated item No. 21,
from the Late Ordovician (Ashgill) Hartfell Shales, Scotland
(UPb age of 445.7 2.4 Ma, Tucker et al., 1990) is used for
constraining the age of the base of the Silurian.
On the other hand, the following dated items of Tucker and
McKerrow are not used here: Sample No. 26, from the Upper
Whitcliffe Formation, Ludlow, UK (420.2 3.9 Ma, Tucker,
1991 in Tucker and McKerrow, 1995) because it lacks a precise
link with graptolite biostratigraphy and has large analytical er-
ror; No. 27, from the Glencoe Volcanics, Scotland (421 4 Ma,
Thirwall, 1988), because of poor biostratigraphic constraint;
and No. 28, from the Arbuthnot Group, Scotland (RbSr bi-
otite age of 411.9 1.8 Ma and SmNd garnet age of 411.9
1.9 Ma, Thirwall, 1988), because of poor biostratigraphic
constraint.
In addition to the above, we use the following two published
dates. First, Kunk et al. (1985) report an 40 Ar/39 Ar weighted-
average plateau age of 423.7 1.7 Ma (revised to 426.8 1.7
using MMhb-1 of 523.1 Ma) for a bentonite bed in the Middle
Elton Formation, Hopedale, Shropshire, UK. The sample was
collected by Ross et al. (1982, sample 76Sh25) who state that
graptolites present indicate the Neodiversograptus nilssoni to
Lobograptus scanicus Zones. The age is outside the dating error
of the 420.7 2.2 Ma date for the Laidlaw volcanics of the same
biostratigraphic range, but extreme values of the dates can be

accommodated in the top and bottom of the zonal interval.
Hence, the dates contribute to the best-t interpolation. Sec-
ond, Tucker et al. (1998) report a weighted mean 207 Pb/206 Pb
age of 417.6 1.0 Ma based on nine analyses of zircons in a
K-bentonite from the Kalkberg Formation (Helderberg
Group), Cherry Valley, New York. The Kalkberg Formation,
and most of the lower Helderberg Group, contains the zonal
conodont Icriodus woschmidti, indicating a level that can be cor-
related with the M. uniformis graptolite zone. This date, near
the base of the Early Devonian, helps constrain the age of the
upper limit of the Silurian.
Thus we have a total of seven radiometric dates for calibra-
tion of the Silurian stages. Considering that only ve of these
are from rocks biostratigraphically dated as Silurian, it is clear
that further radiometric dating is urgently needed to improve
calibration. Details of the dated samples used here are given
in Table 12.1. The four UPb dates are determined using the
thermal ionization mass spectrometric (TIMS) method.
As discussed in Chapters 6, 12, and 14, zircon ages deter-
mined with the high-resolutionsecondary ion mass spectrom-
etry (HR-SIMS) method in the Canberra Geochronological
Laboratory (Compston and Williams, 1992; Compston,
2000a,b), using standard SL13, are systematically different
from conventional TIMS dates, even on the same samples.
Until resolved, HR-SIMS dates are not employed in Silurian
time scale construction.
13.3.2 Methods to estimate relative duration of
zones and stages
Because there are so few high-quality radiometric dates avail-
able for calibration of the Silurian, the quantitative methods
of interpolating stage boundaries used in other parts of the
time scale by Harland et al. (1990) and Gradstein et al. (1994a)
cannot be applied. As with the Ordovician, various proxy time
scales have been devised by previous workers, in which the
stage durations are estimated by some other method. Almost
all of them rely on assumptions about either evolutionary or
depositional rate.
The chronogram (minimized mist) method of boundary
calibration developed by Harland et al. (1990) is a means of
estimating the age of stage boundaries from radiometric dates.
Twenty-four radiometric dates in Silurian rocks were used,
spanning a wide range of dating methods. Almost none of
these dates are accepted here as of sufcient analytical reli-
ability and biostratigraphic control. It is not surprising, there-
fore, that Harland et al. (1990) found that most chronograms
for Silurian stage boundaries were either poor or meaningless
and [stage durations] must be estimated using chron inter-
The Silurian Period 199
polation. For chrons, they used graptolite zones. Thus, the
number of graptolite zones present was a primary guide to the
duration of the stages. This rule, however, was not consistently
applied. The method assumes that graptolite zones are uniform
in duration, which in turn assumes a constancy in evolution-
ary rate and in paleontological practice (Fig. 13.4a). Similar
assumptions about steady rates of evolution in Silurian time
scale construction are employed, in whole or in part, by Gale
(1985), McKerrow et al. (1985), and Tucker and McKerrow
(1995). In Fig. 13.4c , we have proportioned the stages ac-
cording to the number of graptolite zones they contain (see
Fig. 13.1) against the GTS2004 time scale, which demon-
strates that the proportional biozone interpolation method
does, indeed, approximate the relative durations of Silurian
stages.
In an alternative approach, the thicknesses of fossiliferous
stratigraphic sections through Silurian zones and stages are
used to estimate their duration. Kleffner (1989, 1995) devel-
oped a composite section through the Silurian (Fig. 13.4b), us-
ing the graphic correlation method of Shaw (1964). Forty-two
conodont- and graptolite-bearing, carbonate and carbonate
shale sections, mostly in North America but also from Europe,
were used, and the Cellon section in Austria was selected as the
standard reference section. In this exercise, the stratigraphic
ranges of species in the Cellon section are extended to match
the maximum ranges observed among the correlated sections,
and species not present in the Cellon section are similarly com-
posited into it based on their maximum ranges in other sec-
tions. The Cellon section thus becomes a composite, scaled,
range chart of all compared sections. The conodont and grap-
tolite zone boundaries recognized in the composite section are
regarded as dening chronozones because they are based on
global rather than local stratigraphic ranges. The composite
section was then regarded by Kleffner as a proxy time scale. It
is graduated in composite time units, which are derived from
the original stratigraphic thickness units of the Cellon section.
Zone and stage boundaries are located within it, based on the
composite stratigraphic ranges of the dening species. How-
ever, calibration of this time scale has proved problematic; the
duration of the late Ludlow and Pridoli epochs appears to be
disproportionately long when plotted against the radiometric
dates, particularly that from the Kalkberg Formation (Ford-
ham, 1992, 1998; Fig. 13.4b ). Fordham (1998) illustrates how
dependent the graphic correlation time scale is on choice of the
initial standard reference section, the Cellon section in Aus-
tria, where the section for this time interval is unusually thick.
Some method of minimizing, or normalizing for, thickness bias
is therefore needed, and composite sections derived by graphic
correlation, without a test for steadiness of depositional rate,
200 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

GTS2004 such as that used for the Ordovician (Cooper, 1992, 1999b) can
PRIDOLI be unreliable.
Ludfordian
Gorstian 13.3.3 Calibration of stage boundaries by composite
Homerian
standard optimization
Sheinwoodian
As in the Ordovician, Silurian deep-water shales have the pre-
Telychian requisite for a high-resolution time scale, i.e. rich successions
of graptolite fauna, inter-bedded ash layers with dateable zir-
Aeronian con crystals, and minimally interrupted accumulation. The
computer optimization method of Kemple et al. (1995) and
Rhuddanian
Sadler (1999), using program CONOP, can be used to com-
R A T S H G L P bine graptolite ranges in many measured sections into a scaled
(a)
Harland et al. (1990) composite. The method and results are described in more detail
GTS2004 in Chapters 3 and 12, and are summarized here. The grapto-
PRIDOLI lite successions in over 200 deep-water stratigraphic sections
Ludfordian from around the world have thus been used to derive a global,
Gorstian scaled, composite section that ranges from late Cambrian to
Homerian
early Devonian (Sadler and Cooper, 2004; Table 12.2). In the
Sheinwoodian
Late Cambrian and basal-Ordovician, where graptolites are
sparse or absent, the record is supplemented with conodonts
Telychian
and trilobites. Nearly 1200 taxa provide over 2300 biostrati-
graphic range-end events that have been used to build the
Aeronian
composite. The database includes 115 graptolite-bearing sec-
Rhuddanian tions that range wholly, or in part, in the Silurian, containing
550 graptolite species, and provide the basis for the Silurian
(b) R+A T H G L P
time scale (Fig. 13.1).
Graphic correlation (Kleffner, 1989, 1995)
The method used for developing a relative (proxy) time
GTS2004 scale for the Silurian is the same as that used for the Ordovician.
PRIDOLI It utilizes both evolutionary rates and stratigraphic thickness,
Ludfordian but has built-in normalizing and minimizing procedures to re-
Gorstian
Homerian duce bias, and also a test for linearity of the scale. All sections
Sheinwoodian have been treated simultaneously, avoiding the bias introduced
by choice of the initial standard reference section as in graphic
Telychian correlation. The result is an optimized, scaled, global com-
posite sequence of events. The order and spacing of events in
Aeronian the scaled composite serve as a proxy time scale (Table 12.2).
Stage boundaries are readily located in the composite, as most
Rhuddanian
are tied to graptolite rst-appearance events.
R A T S H G L P
(c)
Stages proportioned 13.3.4 Age of stage boundaries
according to graptolite zones
The seven radiometric-dated ash beds discussed above, in com-
Figure 13.4 The relative duration of Silurian stages in time scales
bination with the CONOP composite to scale the eight Silurian
produced by three methods compared with the GTS2004 scale.
(a) Harland et al. (1990) proportioned stages according to relative
stages, allow calculation of the Silurian time scale; the seven
numbers of graptolite zones in the zonation at that time. (b) Kleffner dates are part of the data set of 22 presented in Table 12.1 and
(1989, 1995) used a composite section from graphical correlation. also used to calculate the Ordovician time scale. The best-t
(c) Stages proportioned according to their component graptolite line for the two-way plot of radiometric ages along the abscissa
zones as shown in the zonation of Fig. 13.1. and the zones and stages along the ordinate (see Fig. 12.5) was
 The Silurian Period 201

Table 13.1 Ages and durations of Silurian stages

Age of Est. myr Est. myr

Period Epoch Stage base (Ma) (2-sigma) Duration (2-sigma)

Devonian 416.0 2.8

Silurian
Pridoli (not subdivided into stages) 418.7 2.7 2.7 0.1
Ludlow
Ludfordian 421.3 2.6 2.5 0.1
Gorstian 422.9 2.5 1.7 0.1
Wenlock
Homerian 426.2 2.4 3.3 0.1
Sheinwoodian 428.2 2.3 2.0 0.1
Llandovery
Telychian 436.0 1.9 7.8 0.2
Aeronian 439.0 1.8 3.0 0.1
Rhuddanian 443.7 1.5 4.7 0.1
Ordovician

calculated with a cubic-spline-tting method that combines
stratigraphic uncertainty estimates with 2-sigma radiometric
data error bars. The smoothing factor for the cubic spline of
1.452 was calculated with cross-validation, and the 2-sigma er-
ror on the estimated ages for the Silurian stages with Ripleys
MLFR procedure (see Chapters 8 and 12).
Error bars of 2 myr were too narrow according to the chi-
square test of residuals. One of these was the error bar on
the revised Kunk et al. (1985) Ar-Ar date of 426.8 1.7 Ma;
the average error bar for the whole graph was used for it
instead. The other error bar with a chi-square probability of
less than 0.01 was item No. 20 in Table 12.1 from Landing
et al. (1997) of 483 1 Ma. Because its stratigraphic error bar
is not symmetric, and reaches the best-t line, it was retained.
The Ripley MLFR procedure to assist with spline t-
ting worked well for the OrdovicianSilurian data set, and
the 2-sigma value for the base-Silurian is 1.5 myr; the error
value decreases stratigraphically upward because it is assumed
that for each period the relative 2-sigma error remains con-
stant (rather than the error bar width itself). This is a sim-
ple assumption along the line that for any age determination
method, errors tend to be proportional to age, as also used for
other periods.
To obtain some idea of the sensitivity of the results to these
simplifying assumptions, the Silurian time scale was also cal-
culated via a second-order polynomial, which is close to linear
(R = 0.9965i) (Sadler and Cooper, 2004). Its results fall within
the error limits of the mathematically more advanced t.
The calculated duration and ages, with estimates of uncer-
tainty (2-sigma), of the Silurian stages are given in Table 13.1.
Note that results of rounding procedures can yield a discrep-
ancy between durations and ages of boundaries.
The age of the base of the Silurian Period in the calibrated
CONOP scale, using cubic-spline tting, is 443.7 1.5 Ma
and for the top of the Silurian is 416.0 1.4 Ma. The duration
of the Silurian in the GTS2004 time scale is 27.7 myr. These
ages differ from those in Harland et al. (1990), which placed
the base-Silurian near 439 Ma and the top near 408.5 Ma, and
from Compston (2000a), who assigned dates of 438.7 Ma
(base) and 417.6 Ma (top).
Ages for the bases of the Silurian epochs are: Llandovery,
443.7 Ma; Wenlock, 428.2 Ma; Ludlow 422.9, Ma; and Pridoli,
418.7 Ma.
Compared to stages in the Ordovician and Devonian Peri-
ods, all but the Rhuddanian and Telychian are considerably
shorter in duration. Although the combination of accurate
radiometrics and a detailed composite standard yielded ages
with small uncertainties, the Silurian time scale needs more
radiometric age dates to strengthen the interpolations. At
present, there is less than one radiometric date per stage on
average, with only one date in the long Telychian and none at
all in the Sheinwoodian.
The Silurian time scale, shown in Figs. 13.1 and 13.2 cal-
ibrates stage and zone boundaries with a precision not pre-
viously achieved. The generalized graptolite zones used here
are based on Koren et al. (1996). Generalized conodont and
chitinozoan zonal schemes are correlated with the grapto-
lite zones, along with spore and vertebrate zones. Of the few
regional stage schemes still used, that of the Baltic is most
useful.
14 The Devonian Period
. . . .

385.5 Ma (mid-Devonian)

Eifelian Pragian Emsian

Lochkovian
Famennian
Frasnian

Givetian

Geographic distribution of Devonian GSSPs. All seven Devonian stages are dened by GSSPs.

The Devonian Period was a time of exceptionally high sea-level stand
and inferred widespread equable climates, but glaciations occur dur-
ing the Late Devonian of the south polar areas of Gondwana. Most
present-day continental areas and shelves were grouped in one hemi-
sphere. Following the tectonic events of the Caledonian orogeny of
Laurasia, many Old Red Sandstone terrestrial deposits formed.
This is the time of greatest carbonate production and the greatest
diversity of marine fauna in the Paleozoic. Vascular plants and forests
became established and, before the end of the period, land tetrapods
appeared.
1 4 . 1 H I S T O RY A N D S U B D I V I S I O N S
Until recently there was considerable confusion in the use of
the term Devonian because the boundaries were used differ-
ently in various parts of the world. A broad, international re-
view of the Devonian Period is given in Devonian Geology of
the World (McMillan et al., 1988) and in House (1991).
A Geologic Time Scale 2004, eds. Felix M. Gradstein, James G. Ogg, and Alan
G. Smith. Published by Cambridge University Press.
c F. M. Gradstein,
J. G. Ogg, and A. G. Smith 2004.
The Devonian System was established by Sedgwick and
Murchison (1839) when it was recognized through the then un-
published work of Lonsdale (1840) that marine rocks in south-
west England were the equivalent of terrestrial Old Red Sand-
stone deposits in Wales, the north of England, and Scotland:
an early recognition of facies change. Murchisons denition
of the boundary between the Silurian System and the Old Red
Sandstone in Wales and the Welsh Borders has some ambi-
guities, but general opinion is that the Ludlow Bone Bed was
very close to the intention. However, other boundaries were
used over the next century (White, 1950). The result was that
there was no clear denition of the boundary in what may be
called the type area, and no consistent practice among British
geologists. All this was little help internationally.
Following the detailed work on British graptolites by Ellis
and Wood (190118) it was recognized that graptolites were
last present in the late Ludlow below the Ludlow Bone Bed.
Therefore, the extinction of graptolites was considered to be
the major guide to the position of the base of the Devonian
elsewhere in the world. It was not until 1960 that it became
clear from evidence outside the British Isles that graptolites

202

continued long after the time equivalent of the Ludlow Bone
Bed. This evidence came from the work of R. Thorsteinson
(Geological Survey of Canada) on Ellesmere Island and the
association of monograptids with Emsian (late Early Devonian)
rocks in Europe. Thus the base of the Devonian, as dened by
the extinction of graptolites, especially in continental Europe
and Asia, belonged to levels well above the Ludlow Bone Bed.
This denition raised the SilurianDevonian boundary to near
the Psammosteus Limestone (Richardson et al., 1981).
As to the DevonianCarboniferous boundary, it could be
argued that Sedgwick and Murchison (1840) placed the top
of the Devonian at a fairly unambiguous boundary in north
Devon, but faunal and oral studies were not then precise
enough for accurate correlation. As a result, stratigraphic levels
were taken that were subsequently demonstrated to be inaccu-
rate, or other names were used for strata where there was some
uncertainty of assignment. In the latter category were names
such as Kinderhookian, in North America, and Etroungt and
Strunian, in continental Europe.
In 1960, a committee was established by the International
Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) to make recommen-
dations on the position of the SilurianDevonian boundary,
which led to its recommendations being accepted at the In-
ternational Geological Congress (IGC) in Montreal in 1972.
Martinsson (1977) summarizes the procedure and conclu-
sions. A separate working party considered the Devonian
Carboniferous boundary.
Recommendations of GSSPs for all boundaries of period,
series, and stage divisions for the Devonian were completed
by the Subcommission on Devonian Stratigraphy (SDS) and
ratied by IUGS by 1996, and by the following year accounts of
all decisions had been published. Summary accounts have been
published by Bultynck (2000a,b). The SDS is now considering
substage denitions.
The Devonian is divided into the Lower, Middle, and Up-
per Series, The Lower Devonian is divided into the Lochko-
vian, Pragian, and Emsian Stages, the Middle into the Eifelian
and Givetian Stages, and the Upper into the Frasnian and Fa-
mennian Stages.
The standard international chronostratigraphic divisions
for the Devonian are given in Fig. 14.1. There are also many
widely used terms as local and regional stages, e.g. for the Lower
Devonian, the Gedinnian and Siegenian. For the Emsian, a
subdivision into two is currently under consideration by the
SDS: the Czech terms Zlichovian and Dalejan are presently
local terms. It was the miscorrelation of the Dalejan deepening
event with the Eifelian deepening event that led to many com-
plications in the denition of the LowerMiddle Devonian
The Devonian Period 203
boundary. The term Couvinian is now a regional term only.
The Givetian also may come to be formally subdivided be-
cause the base of the Upper Devonian, and Frasnian, is drawn
at a level above what was formerly regarded by many as
early Frasnian. The German Upper Devonian Stufen, Adorf,
Nehden, Hemberg, Dasberg, and Wocklum are now regional
terms, but a formal subdivision of the Famennian is likely.
The Strunian falls within the late Famennian of the revised
terminology. It is important to note that the newly dened
boundaries refer to stage names which may have been used
differently in the past.
14.1.1 Lower Devonian Series
The GSSP for the SilurianDevonian boundary, basal-Lower
Devonian Series, and basal-Lochkovian Stage is at Klonk in
the Czech Republic as documented in Martinsson (1977), in
which D. J. McLaren recounts the scientic and political prob-
lems in reaching a decision on its placement. Important faunal
characters used in the initial denition were the entry of the
graptolite Monograptus uniformis and the Warburgella rugosa
group of trilobites.
L O C H KOV I A N
The basal-Devonian and basal-Lochkovian GSSP is situated
southwest of Prague, in the Czech Republic, in the Paleozoic
area known as the Barrandium, where the Klonk section near
Suchomasty is a natural 34 m cliff section embracing the lat-
est Silurian (Pridoli) and the early Lochkovian. The sequence
comprises rhythmically deposited allochthonous limestones
with autochthonous intervening shales. The GSSP is within
Bed 20, a 710 cm unit immediately below the sudden and
abundant occurrence of M. uniformis and M. uniformis angusti-
dens in the upper part of that bed (Martinsson, 1977, p. 21;
Jaeger, 1977). Chlupac and Hladil (2000) review the stratigra-
phy of the type section and summarize the detailed subsequent
work on the faunal and oral sequence at the GSSP. Conodont
and graptolite fauna have enabled this stage to be recognized
in most parts of the world. Richardson and McGregor (1986)
and Richardson et al. (2000) have provided spore evidence for
correlation in other areas.
P R AG I A N
The base of this stage is dened by the GSSP at Velka Chuchle,
near Prague, Czech Republic (Chlupac and Oliver 1989; re-
viewed by Chlupac , 2000). A primary correlation marker for
204 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
Figure 14.1 Epoch and stage boundaries and major marine
biostratigraphic zonations for the Devonian Period with signicant
event levels (e.g. widespread anoxic facies or important outcrops)
and principal eustatic trends. Biostratigraphic scales include
conodonts, ammonoid zonation with selected guide taxa, graptolites,
and ostracods. The combined conodont and ammonite scales were
developed by M. R. House for scaling Devonian stages (see Section
14.4). Details of the scales are given in the text and in House (2002)
and Bultynck (2000a,b). A color version of parts of this gure is in
the plate section.
 The Devonian Period 205

Devonian Time Scale

AGE Ammonoids Main
(Ma) Epoch/Stage Events Conodonts
Zonation Faunal Ostracods Bioevents Seq.
guides T R
Palmatolepis E
puactata 5 cicatricosa/
Middle- D torleyi I.
sex Sandbergero-
Late

Palmatolepis C Mantico- ceras

Timan transitans 4
Frasnian ceras- Timanites
3 B Manticoceras
Genun- falsiovalis
dewa 2 Neopharciceras
Frasnes Koenenites (Am)
385 1 A
385.3 2.6 Lodi torleyi Ancyrodella
rotundiloba (Co)
norrisi
E
Klapperina
disparilis D
III
C Pharciceras
Schmidtognathus
hermanni B
Geneseo
Givetian A Pharciceras
Taghanic
Polygnathus D
varcus
390 C
Middle

II Maenio- Pumilio
Pumilio B ceras
hemiansatus
A
391.8 2.7 otomari
Kacak Polygnathus
xylus ensensis F Cabrieroceras
Tortodus
kockelianus Tortodus
kockelianus
Tortodus E Pinacites (Co)
australis
395
Eifelian I
Polygnathus D
costatus
C jugleri/Pinacites
Chotec Polygnathus B
partitus Polygnathus
A partitus (Co)
397.5 2.7
Polygnathus Anarcestes
patulus D

Polygnathus IV C
Daleje serotinus elegans
400
Early

B
Emsian Polygnathus
inversus/ A
laticostatus
Anetoceras
E
nothoperbonus
III

Figure 14.1 (cont.)

206 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

Devonian Time Scale

AGE Ammonoids Main
(Ma) Epoch/Stage Events Conodonts
Zonation Faunal Graptolites Bioevents Seq.
guides T R

E
nothoperbonus

Polygnathus D
Emsian gronbergi/
III Anetoceras
405 excavatus
C
Basal B Polygnathus
Polygnathus kitabicus (Co)
Zlichov kitabicus A Anetoceras
407.0 2.8 Monograptus
yukonensis
Polygnathus
dehiscens (Co)
Polygnathus
pireneae
Early

Pragian Eognathodus
kindlei
Monograptus
falcarius
II ONLY
410 Eognathodus
Loch- Eognathodus
kovian/ sulcatus STRAIGHT sulcatus (Co)
411.2 2.8 Pragian
Pedavis Pedavis
pesavis Monograptus
AMMONOIDS hercynicus pesavis
Ancyrodelloides (Co)
delta
Lochkovian KNOWN

Latericriodus I
woschmidt/ Monograptus Walburgella
415 postwoschmidti praehercynicus rugosa (Tr)
Klonk Mongraptus Mongraptus
uniformis uniformis uniformis (Gr)
416.0 2.8
Ozarkodina Monograptus
Silurian e. detortus transgrediens

Figure 14.1 (cont.)

this boundary is the entry of the conodont Eognathodus sulcatus. EMSIAN

Other forms which are important include the dacryoconarids
Nowakia sororcula and Now. arcuaria, which enter shortly above
the boundary at a level formerly taken as the base of the stage,
the usage of which has been slightly changed. Chitinozoans are
useful for recognizing the boundary interval and provide a link
to the spore zonation shown in Fig. 14.1. Ranges of other in-
vertebrate taxa around the GSSP are given by Chlupac (2000).
As the spore zonation is currently dened (Steemans, 1989),
the base of the Pragian falls within a spore zone such that it
cannot be accurately dened using palynology, but, neverthe-
less, fairly accurate placing has been achieved in several areas
elsewhere (Richardson et al., 2000).
The GSSP for the basal-Emsian is in the Zinzalban Gorge of
the Kitab National Park in Uzbechistan (Yolkin et al., 1998).
A key conodont marking the base of the Emsian Stage is the
entry of the Polygnathus dehiscens. However, in the GSSP a
new and somewhat controversial species, P. kitabicus, not much
different from P. dehiscens, has been established for dening the
boundary point. This level is distinctly below the level formerly
taken as the top of the Pragian in Bohemia. The Czech terms
Zlichovian and Dalejan are currently used informally.
A major paleoecological changeover in pelagic areas is
shown by the reduction and loss of the graptolites and the

uniserial monograptids become extinct within the early Em-
sian. Shortly above the boundary, coiled ammonoids then enter
and become a dominant group in marine facies until their ex-
tinction at the close of the Cretaceous. The Daleje Shale, within
the Emsian, marks a transgressive pulse that is widely recog-
nized globally and gave rise to the term Daleje Event. In the
past, this level in many areas was erroneously assigned to the
Eifelian.
The Emsian Stage appears to have a relatively long dura-
tion, and the SDS is discussing a potential formal subdivision
into substages.
14.1.2 Middle Devonian Series
EIFELIAN
The base of the Middle Devonian Series and of the Eifelian
Stage is drawn at a GSSP at Wetteldorf Richtschnitt in the
Prum Syncline of the Eifel District of Germany (Ziegler and
Werner, 1982; Ziegler, 2000). The recommendation of the SDS
was ratied at meetings of the IUGS held with the ICS in
Moscow in 1984. A primary correlation marker for this bound-
ary is the junction of the patulus and partitus conodont zones,
which lies just below the anoxic pulse of the Chote Event.
The GSSP is in a trench and the locality is protected by a
building erected by the Senckenbergische Naturforschende
Gesellschaft in 1990. As this boundary is in the Eifel Hills, its
denition involved minor change from historical usage of the
term Eifelian in the area, but the upper boundary, discussed
below, had been dened in several ways.
GIVETIAN
The base of the Givetian Stage is drawn at a GSSP in southern
Morocco at Jebel Mech Irdane (Hill of the Little Mouse) in
the Talalt area of the Anti Atlas, 12 km southwest of Rissani
(Walliser et al., 1996; Walliser, 2000). A primary correlation
marker for this boundary is the base of the conodont hemi-
ansatus Zone, corresponding to the upper part of the former
ensensis Zone. The ammonoid Maenioceras Zones commence a
little below the boundary, and the spore Geminospora lemurata
slightly above it.
The SDSs recommendation was ratied at an IUGS meet-
ing in London in 1994. The original Givet Limestone, and
Assisse de Givet, in the Ardennes gave the name to the stage,
which had been dened in several different ways, based either
on local neritic characters, or on inferred correlation with fauna
in pelagic areas. The lower boundary of the present stage is not
The Devonian Period 207
too far below the base of the Givet Limestone and the entry
of the classical Givetian brachiopod Stringocephalus (Bultynck
and Hollevoet, 1999). In Morocco, the boundary falls in the
upper part of the anoxic pulse of the Kaca k Event.
14.1.3 Upper Devonian Series
FRASNIAN
There have been considerable historic differences in the def-
initions of the base of the Upper Devonian internationally.
These disputes are now rendered irrelevant by the selection
of a GSSP for the base of the Upper Devonian Series and of
the Frasnian Stage at Puech de la Suque, near Cessenon in the
Montagne Noire, France (Klapper et al., 1987; House et al.,
2000). The section is overturned and the GSSP falls within
Bed 42 of the succession. The initial guide to the boundary
was the conodont, Ancyrodella rotundiloba early morph Klap-
per, which in the type area for the naming of the stage (Frasnes,
Belgium) almost coincides with the base of the Frasnes Group.
An important advantage of this conodont taxon is that it occurs
in the pelagic as well as in the neritic facies. But there has been
subsequent dispute over taxonomy of this group, which has
been summarized by Klapper (2000a). However, the bound-
ary is dened as a point in a rock succession (the GSSP) and
not by a zone fossil. The GSSP level corresponds to the base
of Montagne Noire zone MN 1 (Klapper, 1989), or of the so-
luta Zone (Yudina, 1995), or falls within the falsiovalis Zone
(Ziegler and Sandberg, 1990) according to the terminology
followed. The entry of the goniatite genus Neopharciceras oc-
curs immediately above the GSSP in Bed 43 (Korn, in House
et al., 2000), and this provides a useful correlation with Asian
successions.
FA M E N N I A N
In the past, the base of the Famennian Stage has been placed
at different levels, reecting, in part, problems of correlation
between faunal groups. The new denition for the base of the
Famennian proposed by the SDS was ratied by the IUGS in
1993. The GSSP for the base of the Famennian is very close to
the base of the Famennian as formerly used in the Famenne area
in Belgium (Bultynck and Martin, 1995). The GSSP is above
the Upper Coumiac Quarry, near Cessenon, Montagne Noire,
France (Klapper et al., 1993; House, 2000). The boundary falls
at the junction of the linguiformis and Lower triangularis con-
odont zones (Klapper, 2000a). The goniatites Manticoceras and
208 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
Beloceras become extinct at the boundary: these are the last rep-
resentatives of the Gephuroceratidae and Beloceratidae. The
genus Cheiloceras enters signicantly higher. At the GSSP sec-
tion, both anoxic pulses of the Lower and Upper Kellwasser
Events are present. The GSSP level is immediately above the
latter, a level known to be one of major extinctions in other
regions.
BA S E O F T H E C A R B O N I F E RO U S
Following recommendations of a special working party on the
boundary, set up by ICS, the IUGS, in 1989, accepted a GSSP
for the DevonianCarboniferous boundary at La Serre, near
Clermont l Herault, Montagne Noire, France (Paproth et al.,
1991; Feist et al., 2000). The guide to the base is the conodont
Siphonodella sulcata, but there has been some dispute on the
denition of this form.
The DevonianCarboniferous boundary is well-dened
palynologically by the last appearance of Retispora lepidophyta,
which disappears just beneath the rst occurrence of Siphon-
odella sulcata in the Hasselbachtal auxiliary section in Germany
(Higgs et al., 1993). Major extinctions of the ammonoid goni-
atites and clymenids, and of trilobites, occur below the bound-
ary, which falls within the anoxic pulses of the Hangenberg
Event.
1 4 . 2 D E VO N I A N S T R AT I G R A P H Y
14.2.1 Biostratigraphy
There are very rened zonations in pelagic facies using, espe-
cially, ammonoids, conodonts, ostracods, dacryoconarids, and,
for the lower Devonian, monograptid graptolites. For neritic
facies, brachiopods, trilobites, and ostracods are important.
Chitinozoans occur both in the pelagic and in the neritic facies.
In the terrestrial facies, spores, macroplants, and sh are espe-
cially useful. In some facies, spores and acritarchs are found in
all these regimes. Many problems still remain on the correla-
tion of the rened pelagic zonations with those of neritic and
terrestrial facies. A listing of zones and their general correla-
tion is given in Figs.14.1 and 14.2 and elaborated in Bultynck
(2000b).
C O N O D O N T Z O NAT I O N S
The tooth-like microfossils of calcium phosphate can be etched
by dissolution from many marine lithologies. Fundamental
studies by Bischoff and Ziegler (1957) and Ziegler (1962)
have led to a very rened zonation of considerable value in
Devonian correlation. Terminology for the late Devonian has
been revised by Ziegler and Sandberg (1990). A Frasnian zona-
tion based on different criteria has been published by Klapper
(1989, 2000b) and its correlation with the Ziegler and Sandberg
revision, based on the Adorf section, is given in Klapper and
Becker (1999). The current standard zonation is shown on
Fig. 14.1.
A M M O N O I D Z O NAT I O N S
Coiled ammonoids appear in the late Early Devonian. The
zonation compiled by Wedekind in 1917, established that go-
niatites and clymenids provide an important correlation tool
in marine, and especially pelagic, facies. Much further preci-
sion has been added: for the Lower Devonian by Becker and
House (1994), Ruan (1996), and Klug (2001); for the Middle
Devonian by Becker and House (1994); for the Upper
Devonian (Frasnian) by Becker et al. (1993); and for the
Famennian by the work of Schindewolf (1937), Becker (1993a),
and others. The current situation has been summarized by
Becker and House (2000), who have extended the original zonal
scheme of Wedekind, using Latin numbering, into the Middle
and Lower Devonian. The zonation is shown on Fig. 14.1.
O S T R AC O D Z O NAT I O N
The development of pelagic ostracoda in the Devonian has
contributed a very detailed biostratigraphic tool (Fig. 14.1).
Major initial studies were conducted by Rabien (1954) and
Blumenstengel (1965). Benthic ostracods are excellent indica-
tors of ecotypes, but a global biozonation has not been estab-
lished. The biostratigraphic role of ostracods in the Devonian
is reviewed by Groos-Uffenorde et al. (2000).
DAC RYC O NA R I D Z O NAT I O N
The use of planktonic tentaculitids for stratigraphy has re-
sulted in the recognition of their importance for biostratigra-
phy. Major contributions result from the work of Alberti (1993,
2000).
S P O R E A N D AC R I TA RC H Z O NAT I O N S
Several basic spore zonations have been proposed. A scheme
by Streel et al. (1987) used lettered abbreviations, while that of
Richardson and McGregor (1986) used a more standard form
(Fig. 14.2). For the Lower Devonian the work of Steemans
 The Devonian Period 209

Devonian Time Scale

AGE Polarity Conodonts Main
(Ma) Epoch/Stage Chron Vertebrates Spores Acritarchs Plants Seq.
T R

Carboniferous
359.2 2.5
Siphonodella
sulcata
360
LN
Siphonodella
Pusullites
Pusullites
Vallatisporites
pussulites
LE
Cyclostigma

praesulcata - +

L Retispora LL
lepidophyta Rhacophyton 7'
LV

Palmatolepis Rugospora
expansa flexuosa
Bothriolepis
365 ciecere -
VCo
Palmatolepis L7
postera Grandispora
cornuta
Palmatolepis Bothriolepis
Famennian trachytera
western Australia (schematic)

ornata

Rhacophyton 7
Palmatolepis GF
marginifera Phyllolepis torquata
-
370
Palmatolepis GH
Late

rhomboidea L6
mixed polarity

Grandispora
gracilis
Palmatolepis Bothriolepis
crepida leptocheira
(V)
Palmatolepis
triangularis
374.5 2.6
375 Palmatolepis
linguiformis
mixed polarity

Palmatolepis L5
rhenana Bothriolepis
maxima Archaeopteris 6'
Archaeo-
Frasnian Palmatolepis
jamieae
perisaccus
ovalis
-
Palmatolepis
hassi
380 Bothriolepis Cristatisporites
trautscholdti triangulatus
Palmatolepis
puactata

L4

Figure 14.2 Devonian terrestrial facies zonations for vertebrates, The geomagnetic polarity scale and principal eustatic trends are
spores, and plants, and the marine zonation of acritarchs. generalized. A color version of parts of this gure is in the plate
Biostratigraphic zonation of conodonts is shown for correlation. section.
210 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

Devonian Time Scale

AGE Polarity Conodonts Main
(Ma) Epoch/Stage Chron Vertebrates Spores Acritarchs Plants Seq.
T R
Palmatolepis
puactata

Palmatolepis
transitans
Frasnian Bothriolepis
cellulosa
L4
6
falsiovalis

385
385.3 2.6
norrisi
Devononchus
concinnus
mixed polarity

Klapperina Contagisporites
disparilis optivus L3
-
Schmidtognathus Cristatisporites
hermanni triangulatus Svalbardia
Givetian
5
Polygnathus
varcus Diplacanthus
390 gravis Geminospora
Middle

"Sayan (Rn) hyperchron"

lemurata
magnificus L2
hemiansatus
391.8 2.7 Polygnathus Densosporites
xylus ensensis devonicus
Coccosteus -
Tortodus cuspidatus Cladoxyls
kockelianus Grandispora
naumovii
Tortodus
australis Calamophyton
395
Eifelian Pt. rimosum/
Polygnathus Ch. estonicustus v-l L1
costatus
Grandispora Pseudo-
douglastownense sporochnus
Polygnathus -
partitus - 4
Laliacanthus Ancyrospora
397.5 2.7 singularis eurypterota
Polygnathus
patulus

Polygnathus
serotinus Psilophyton +
400

Emsian Polygnathus
inversus/
Emphanisporites
annulatus
K
laticostatus -
Leclercqia
Camarozono-
nothoperbonus triletes
sextantii

Gomphonchus
tauragensis Stocksmanella

Figure 14.2 (cont.)

 The Devonian Period 211

Devonian Time Scale

AGE Polarity Conodonts Main
(Ma) Epoch/Stage Chron Vertebrates Spores Acritarchs Plants Seq.
T R

nothoperbonus

Camarozono- Stocksmanella
Polygnathus
Emsian gronbergi/ triletes
sextantii
K
3'
405 excavatus Gomphonchus
tauragensis

Polygnathus
"Sayan (Rn) hyperchron"
kitabicus
407.0 2.8
Polygnathus
pireneae Verrucosisporites
Early

polygonalis
- Psilophyton
Eognathodus
Pragian kindlei
J 3
Dictyotriletes
410 emsiensis
Eognathodus
sulcatus
411.2 2.8
Pedavis Z. + Gosslingia
pesavis breconensis
- 2
Ancyrodelloides Lietuvacanthus zavellatus I3I1
delta fossulatis
Lochkovian Emphanisporites
Latericriodus micrornatus I0Ic Zosterophyllum
woschmidt/ Nostolepis -
postwoschmidti 2
415 minima Streelispora
newportensis
416.0 2.8
Ozarkodina
Silurian e. detortus

Figure 14.2 (cont.)

(1989) is fundamental. An analysis of spore records in relation P L A N T M E G A F O S S I L Z O NAT I O N

to the conodont zonation of eastern Europe is given by Avkhi-
Vascular plants, which begin well before the Devonian, rise
movitch et al. (1993). Megaspore zonation in relation to GSSP
in dominance during the period and forests occur around the
boundaries has been treated in detail by Streel et al. (2000a) and
MiddleUpper Devonian boundary. A broad division of the
Mark-Kurik et al. (1999); the FrasnianFamennian boundary
Devonian into seven zones was suggested by Banks (1980) and
is also reviewed by Streel et al. (2000b).
this has been further rened by Edwards et al. (2000), whose
Acritarchs are organic-walled microfossils of unknown and
zonation, extending Banks numbers, is shown on Fig. 14.2.
probably varied biological afnities, but their stratigraphical
use, especially in the Middle and Upper Devonian has been
V E RT E B R AT E Z O NAT I O N S
increasing rapidly. At present, the current zonation falls be-
hind that of some other groups in resolving power. Reviews of The Devonian is marked by the evolution of tetrapods, ver-
zonations are given by Molyneux et al. (1996) and Le Herisse tebrates with limbs and digits, which are only of very broad
et al. (2000). stratigraphical use due to the rarity of specimens and relative
212 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
isolation of most known genera. The earliest body fossils
are known from the late Frasnian of eastern Europe and
Scotland (Clack, 2002). During the Devonian these verte-
brates are in many ways sh-like and aquatic, fully terrestrial
tetrapods not being known before the earliest Carboniferous
(Tournaisian).
In terrestrial facies, sh are helpful in age determination
(Fig. 14.2). Several zonations have developed using various sh
groups and teeth and other micro-vertebrate remains. Major
zonations include those for thelodonts and heterostracons and
for placoderm and acanthodian sh, and are of importance
for the difcult problem of marine to non-marine correlation.
There has been an especial growth in recent years in the study
of microvertebrates.
14.2.2 Physical stratigraphy
E X T I N C T I O N A N D A N OX I A E V E N T S T R AT I G R A P H Y
Several time-specic facies have been recognized in the Devo-
nian and often coincide with extinction events. Many of these
are associated with dark limestone or shale episodes and are
interpreted as anoxic events. The events are generally named
after type sections showing characteristic facies development
(Fig. 14.1). General reviews of these episodes include those
by Walliser (1996) and House (1985, 2002). The Kaca k event
is reviewed by Budil (1995); the Taghanic Event by Abous-
salem and Becker (2001); the Kellwasser (FrasnianFamennian
Event) by Buggisch (1991), Schindler (1993), and Racki and
House (2002); and the Hangenberg Event by Caplin and Bustin
(1999) and Streel et al. (2000b).
Although much emphasized, the Kellwasser Event
(FrasnianFamennian boundary) may not be the greatest ex-
tinction event at invertebrate family level in the Devonian.
The Taghanic, Hangenberg, and, perhaps, Kaca k Events are
almost similar in their extent, and much depends on how the
extinctions are dened (House, 2002).
About 73 marine invertebrate families become extinct in the
Famennian, many at the close of the Hangenberg Event, but
how many families actually become extinct during the anoxic
part for the Hangenberg Event is not yet documented. The
Hangenberg Event is an especially important extinction for
ammonoids. Second in importance at the stage level are the 71
family extinctions in the Givetian, of which many are during
the Taghanic Event. The Taghanic Event is associated with the
break-up of the widespread carbonate platforms and associated
loss of biota. Next in numerical importance are the 63 families
reported lost at the close of the Frasnian in association with
the Upper Kellwasser Event (FrasnianFamennian boundary)
Event.
The Lower and Middle Devonian extinctions at family
level are all less than 50 families in each stage. These data,
considered in relation to extinctions as a percentage of the total
known in each stage, give 16.3% for the Famennian, 14.4% for
the Givetian, and 14.9% for the Frasnian (data from House,
2002). Unfortunately, the Devonian radiometric time scale,
and the data records, are not yet precise enough to elucidate
extinction rates in any detail.
C YC L O S T R AT I G R A P H Y
Milankovitch orbital cyclicity has been applied for determining
times scales in the Devonian only for the Famennian (Bai et al.,
1995) and Givetian (House, 1995). In neither case has detailed
harmonic analysis been applied to sections, but the presump-
tion has been made that dominant cycles may be precession or
eccentricity cycles. The inadequacies of the radiometric scale
make checking of this difcult. The main result has been to
demonstrate that conodont zones are not of equal duration, yet
that presumption has been used to attempt rened subdivision
of the radiometric scale.
G E O C H E M I S T RY
Much precise chemical analysis has been done (Fig. 14.3), es-
pecially over the problematic events, but work has concen-
trated on condensed pelagic successions. In the 1970s, irid-
ium anomalies were sought on the supposition that, at least,
the FrasnianFamennian boundary extinctions were related to
bolide impact. Anomalies found are not so tightly constrained.
Wider European studies commenced with the work of Bug-
gisch (1972, 1991).
Carbon isotope data show that global 13 C positive ex-
cursions may be associated with the late Frasnian Kellwasser
Event (Joachimski and Buggisch, 1993; Joachimski et al., 2002).
Similar positive excursions have been identied for other
events, for example for the Hangenberg Event (Schonlaub
et al., 1992; Caplin and Bustin, 1999).
Cerium excursions have been noted (Girard and Lecuyer,
2002). Wider-scale work has been done on the Chinese Up-
per Devonian (Bai et al., 1995). Anomalies are identied for
many elements in Australia for many of the Devonian anoxic
extinction events (Talent et al., 1993).
The 87 Sr/86 Sr of marine Sr through the interval (Carpen-
ter et al., 1991; Diener et al., 1996; Denison et al., 1997) shows
a broad trough, centered on the earliest Givetian, that reaches
 The Devonian Period 213

(Becker et al., 1993; Becker and House, 2000), has indicated

Devonian geochemical trends that there are considerable local variations.
13C 87
Sr/ Sr
86 Temperature
trends
(0/00 PDB)

0.7078

0.7083

0.7088
AGE Epoch/Stage 18O (0/00 PDB)
(Ma) 0 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7
M AG N E T I C S U S C E P T I B I L I T Y
355 Cooler <> Warmer
Carboniferous
360 The usage of magnetic susceptibility event and cyclostratigra-
365 phy signatures for the Devonian has been advanced through
Famennian
the work of Ellwood, Crick, and others (Crick et al., 1997;
Late

370

375 Ellwood et al., 2000, 2001). Changes in the magnetic suscepti-

380 Frasnian bility of Devonian sediments are generally related to low and
385 high stands of sea level. These, in turn, reect climatic regimes,
Middle

390
Givetian but their relation to any orbitally forced parameters still has
395 Eifelian to be demonstrated. Detailed sampling (for example, Lochko-
400
Emsian
vian, 216 samples; Pragian, 553 samples; Zlichovian, 1200 sam-
Early

405 ples) provides a precise history, the resolution of which, while

410 Pragian
415 Lochkovian
Silurian
Figure 14.3 Geochemical trends in the Devonian Period. The
schematic carbon isotope curve is a 5-myr averaging of global data
(Veizer et al., 1999) from Hayes et al. (1999; downloaded from
www.nosams.whoi.edu/jmh). The 87 Sr/86 Sr LOWESS curve for
the interval is based on the data of Denison et al. (1997) and
Carpenter et al. (1991) see Chapter 7. The oxygen isotope curves
(inverted scale) are derived from a 3-myr interval averaging of global
data compiled by Veizer et al. (1999; as downloaded from
www.science.uottawa.ca/geology/isotope data/ in Jan 2003).
Large-scale global shifts to higher oxygen-18 values in carbonates
are generally interpreted as cooler seawater or glacial episodes, but
there are many other contributing factors (e.g., Veizer et al., 1999,
2000; Wallman, 2001).
0.7078 at its minima between an early Devonian high of 0.7088
and an early Carboniferous high of 0.7083. This range is large
enough to offer much potential for using Sr isotope stratigra-
phy in the interval.
SEA-LEVEL CHANGES
In a broad sense, sea-level changes in the Devonian have been
commented upon at least since the collative work of French in
the nineteenth century. A more systematic comparison between
New York (USA) and Europe was published by House (1983)
and this was improved using detailed conodont evidence for
the Laurussian area by Johnson et al. (1985).
Interpretations for Asia are reviewed in House and Ziegler
(1997). The terminology introduced by Johnson et al. (1985)
has been widely adopted. More detailed work, tied to pre-
cise biostratigraphy, for example for the Frasnian of Australia
not time specic, gives a seismograph-like record with poten-
tially much more resolution than is possible by biostratigraphic
means. The importance of this work has been demonstrated es-
pecially in relation to GSSPs and the events (relative sea-level
changes?) often associated with them. The SilurianDevonian
boundary interval has been analyzed by Crick et al. (2001), and
the Lower Devonian generally by Ellwood et al. (2001). Work
on the EifelianGivetian boundary and associated Kaca k Event
(Crick et al., 1997) has established correlations between North
Africa, southern France, and the Czech Republic, and led to
the proposal for establishing a magnetostratotype (Crick et
al., 2000). The FrasnianFamennian boundary and Kellwasser
Event have also been analyzed by Crick et al. (2000).
1 4 . 3 D E VO N I A N T I M E S C A L E
14.3.1 Previous scales
Devonian radiometric time scales are reviewed by Tucker
et al. (1998), Compston (2000b), and Williams et al. (2000a).
Noticeable in reviews of the Devonian time scale are the lim-
ited number of good-quality and chronstratigraphically xed
dates within the period. As a result, various assumptions have
been made such as equal duration of stages or of zones, par-
ticularly for conodonts; even though the available cyclostrati-
graphic data show these assumptions should be used with cau-
tion. Older time scales that assumed constant sedimentation
rates, or relied on the subjective views of specialists on probable
durations are now generally discarded. The fact that conodont
and ammonoid zones are especially well discriminated in the
Famennian may have led to the overemphasis of the length of
that stage, apparent in most compilations. A review of Devo-
nian time scale building and its results is given in Williams
214 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

Table 14.1 Comparison of age and duration of the Devonian

Period in selected time scales

Base Top Duration

(Ma) (Ma) (myr)

Harland et al. (1990) 408.5 362.5 46

Young & Laurie (1996) 410 354 44
Tucker et al. (1998) 418 362 56
Compston (2000b) (1) 411.6 359.6 52
Compston (2000b) (2) 418 362 56
Williams et al. (2000a) 418 362 56
Menning et al. (2000) 353.7
GTS 2004 416 359.2 56.8

et al. (2000a), who essentially plot new dates, particularly HR

SIMS dates, against the TIMS ages time scale of Tucker et al.
(1998). A comparison of the age of the base and/or top of
the Devonian Period with the corresponding duration from
selected time scales published during the 1990s is given in
Table 14.1.
Although a substantial number of key dates were published
after Harland et al. (1990) and Young and Laurie (1996) pre-
sented their fairly limited evidence and interpolations, the De-
vonian time scale is still not well established. A critical problem
is the discrepancy between UPb zircon dates for key De-
vonian levels using TIMS and HRSIMS (SHRIMP) dates
as discussed by Tucker et al. (1998), Compston (2000b), and
Williams et al. (2000a). The discrepancy is well illustrated in
plots of the radiometric age dates for the Devonian super-
imposed on the time scale of Tucker et al. (1998) along the
y-axis (Fig. 14.4). The black boxes that constrain time line a
are TIMS ages of Tucker et al. (1998); the unlled boxes that
constrain time line b are the SHRIMP age dates of Compston
(2000b). Time line b on average gives 1.3% younger ages for
Devonian stages than time line a.
On a more detailed level, there is an extraordinary discrep-
ancy between two estimates for the duration of the Fammenian
5.1 and 14.5 myr in two separate scales given by Compston
(2000b, p. 1144). Hence, there is an urgent need for samples
from the same localities and horizons to be tested at several
laboratories. For example, for the DevonianCarboniferous
boundary, the Hasselbachtal date of around 353 Ma (Claoue-
Long et al., 1993) is at variance with other dates. A criti-
cal look at the original 36 zircon determinations by Comp-
ston (2000b) suggests the bentonite could be 1% older, and
that reprocessing would be desirable. Unfortunately, R. T.
Becker (pers. comm., 2002), who collected the original samples,
writes that slumping in the valley there has restricted further
Figure 14.4 Plot of radiometric age dates for the Devonian
superimposed on the time scale of Tucker et al. (1998) along the
y-axis. The black boxes that constrain time line a are the isotope
dilution ages of Tucker et al. (1998); the unlled boxes that
constrain time line b are the HR-SIMS dates calibrated with SL13
zircons of Compston (2000b). Reproduced with the permission of
E. A. Williams and the Geological Society of London.
collecting. Recent UPb measurements on Hasselbachtal zir-
cons extracted from large samples collected prior to slumping
were unsuccessful due to the weak radiogenic signal in the very
small zircons (B. Kaufmann, pers. comm., 2003).
In addition to the problems posed by accurate laboratory
procedures, by standards, and by constants in radiometric age
dating, there is the matter of critical analysis of the biostrati-
graphic assignments of the sample levels. For example, the
Australian Phanerozoic time scale (Young and Laurie 1996)
was analyzed by Klapper (2000b), who found basic aws in the
biostratigraphic assumptions in relation to the series boundary
data points. The response (Young, 2000) shows little sign that
the criticism has been understood. Next is the matter of the Los
Frailes Stockwork, Rio Tinto (date B on Fig. 14.4) where an age
just above the DevonianCarboniferous boundary is plotted al-
though there is no exact biostratigraphic placement. Similarly,

Williams et al. (2000b) show a UPb age for the Horses Glen
Lower Tuffs of 387.5 0.2 Ma. The unusually low analytical
error strongly contrasts with a stratigraphic range spanning
late Frasnian and possibly well into Famennian time; thus, the
date does not contribute to the Devonian time scale.
14.3.2 Radiometric data
The detailed and high-resolution conodontammonoid zona-
tion for the Devonian, with over 35 zones (Fig. 14.1), is in stark
contrast to the handful of radiometric dates employed in De-
vonian time scale building. With a duration of the Devonian
Period close to 60 myr, the zones on average give a resolu-
tion better than 2 myr, whereas on average there is less than
one radiometric date per 10 myr. Worse, there are no dates
for the Givetian and single dates only for the Frasnian and
Famennian. TIMS or 40 Ar/39 Ar age dates directly assigned to
conodontammonoid levels are needed to constrain those three
stages.
The Devonian time scale presented here must be consid-
ered tentative. We have made some simplifying assumptions
by using normalized HRSIMS dates, and incorporated a
relative scaling of stages according to component conodont
ammonoid zones.
Table 14.2 lists Devonian radiometric dates, with emphasis
on available TIMS ages, that were judged suitable for time
scale construction. In order to provide constraints on the age of
the base and top of the Devonian, three Late Silurian and three
earliest Carboniferous age dates are also included. The Late
Silurian dates were calibrated to the CONOP biostratigraphic
scheme (see Chapters 12 and 13). The RbSr isochron date of
361.0 4.1 Ma in the lower S. sulcata Zone of early Tournaisian
is allowed with low weight in the tting method.
The 40 Ar/39 Ar date in Kunk et al. (1985) in a bentonite
in the N. nilssoni and L. scanicus conodont zones of Gorstian
age was recalculated with the MMhb-1 monitor standard of
523.1 Ma to a new value of 426.8 1.7 Ma. The UPb HR
SIMS dates of Jagodzinski and Black (1999; Items 8 and 9 in
Table 14.2) were not calibrated by these authors with the SL13
monitor standard but with the QGNG standard. This practice
increases the ages by 1.3% and slightly increases the standard
error, and brings them more in line with nearby TIMS ages
(Table 14.2). Two HRSIMS age dates calibrated with the
SL13 standard and assigned to the Siphonella sulcata conodont
zone, the basal zone of the Tournaisian Stage, immediately
above the DevonianCarboniferous boundary (Items 1 and 2
in Table 14.2) were increased by 1.3% to yield ages of 358.3
4.2 and 360.4 5.6 Ma. As mentioned earlier, Compston
The Devonian Period 215
(2000b) also indicates that a 1% age increase is desirable.
The ages are in good agreement with a TIMS date of 363.6
1.6 Ma for an Upper Famennian level equivalent to the upper
Pa. expansa conodont zone. Williams et al. (2000a) used the
original HRSIMS dates in the S. sulcata zone to make a case
that the CarboniferousDevonian boundary is more likely to
be near 362 Ma rather than near 354 Ma or even younger in
age.
A new 207 Pb/206 Pb date for the Hunsruck Slate (Kirnbauer
and Reischmann, 2001) gives an age of 388.7 1.2 Ma for
early Emsian strata. This is much younger than can reasonably
be expected from the preferred regression used, and hence
is rejected. Given the discrepancy, one might consider that
the biostratigraphic age is not well constrained; for example,
the supposed early Emsian age of the index trilobite Chote-
cops ferdinandi may be much longer (D. Bruton, pers. comm.,
2002).
14.3.3 Age of stage boundaries
The selected age dates for the Devonian Period in Table 14.2
were plotted against the relative zonestage scale of Fig. 14.1
(the House scale) with approximate radiometric and strati-
graphic errors (Fig. 14.5). The relative scale in Fig. 14.1
juggles the high-resolution ammonoid and conodont (sub)
zonations such that shortest segments are fairly close to equal
duration. The latter is not unlike the abandoned chron con-
cept of GTS89 (see Chapter 1). Note that the relative posi-
tion of Items 1013 in Fig. 14.5, plotted as boxes relative to
earliest Devonianlatest Silurian zones, is relatively unimpor-
tant. In the nal analysis, the age obtained from the Devonian
data of 416.7 2.9 Ma for the top of the Silurian was over-
ruled by 416.0 1.4 Ma, resulting from the better constrained
data for the OrdovicianSilurian boundary (see Chapters 12
and 13).
The best-t line for the two-way plot in Fig. 14.5 of radio-
metric ages against the zones and stages was calculated with
a cubic-spline-tting method that combines stratigraphic un-
certainty estimates with the 2-sigma error bars of the radio-
metric data. This is achieved with Ripleys MLFR procedure
(see Chapter 8); a smoothing factor of about 1.4 was calculated
with cross-validation. The chi-square test of residuals indi-
cated that the 0.5-myr error bar on the 390.0 Ma monazite
date (No. 6) was too narrow, and an average error bar was
used instead. This, together with the large error bars on dates
8 and 9 reduces the duration of the Emsian. A straight-line
t, as produced by Tucker et al. (1998), would substantially
increase the duration of the Emsian Stage.
Table 14.2 Selected isotopic dates for the Devonian time scale

Biostratigraphic
No. Sample Locality Formation Comment Zone and age reliabilitya Reference Age (Ma) Type

1 K-bentonite, Hasselbachtal, Hangenberg Original HRSIMS (SHRIMP) FAD of Siphonodella sulcata in 1 Claoue-Long 358.3 4.2 UPb
1 cm Ruhr Basin, Limestone age on zircons in ash bed 79 of the S. sulcata Zone, Lower et al. (1993),
Nordrhein 353.7 4.2 Ma, calibrated with Tournaisian, and immediately Roberts et al.
Westfalen, SL13, was corrected with 1.3% below ammonoid Acumitoceras (1995b)
Germany age to yield 358.3 Mab Ash bed antecedens
79 is 0.35 m above the base of the
S. sulcata Zone
2 Pumice tuff Glenbawn Kingseld Original HRSIMS (SHRIMP) S. sulcata (? to lower duplicata) 1 Claoue-Long 360.4 5.6 UPb
Section, Formation age on zircons of 355.8 5.6 Ma, Zone, Lower Tournaisian et al. (1993),
Australia calibrated with SL13, was Roberts et al.
corrected with 1.3% age to yield (1995b)
360.4 Mab
3 Carbonate and Nanbiancun RbSr isochron method Eight samples in carbonate and 1 Yu (1988) 361.0 4.1 Rb-Sr
shale Section, China shale lower S. sulcata Zone,
Lower Tournaisian
4 Pumice tuff Caldera Carrow Fm Weighted mean ages on zircons of Spore-bearing horizon between 1 Tucker et al. 363.6 1.6 UPb
complex, New and Bailey 363.3 2.2 Ma (below the two dated rhyolites in the (1998)
Brunswick, Rock Rhyolite spore-bearing bed) and 363.4 pusilliteslepidophyta spore zone
Canada 1.8 Ma (just above spore-bearing (FA2d), equivalent to the upper
bed) combine to 363.6 1.6 Ma Pa. expansa conodont zone, upper
Famennian
5 K-bentonite Little War Chattanooga Nine analyses on single grain or Pa. hassi conodont zones, 1 Tucker et al. 381.1 1.6 UPb
Gap, East Shale small-fraction zircons give a Frasnian. This age in Belpre Ash (1998), Over
Tennessee, weighted average date of 381.1 is correlated to Centre Hill Ash, (1999)
USA 1.3 Ma. Two zircon analyses were Frasnian
rejected as being contaminated
due to trace inheritance
6 K-bentonite Whyteville, Tioga Zone Four concordant zircon analyses All Tioga ashes are between 1 Tucker et al. 391.4 1.8 UPb
Virginia, USA with 7 ashes in one ash bed give 391.4 1.8 conodont-bearing strata of the (1998; zircon (zircon age)
Ma. Data agrees with the Po. c. costatus zone, middle age), Roden 390.0 0.5
concordant monazite age of 390.0 Eifelian et al. (1990; (monazite
0.5 Ma for the same ash at monazite age) age)
Union County, PA, USA
7 K-bentonite Sprout Brook, Esopus Fm. Four concordant zircon analyses Indirect correlation with 2 Tucker et al. 408.3 1.9 UPb
Cherry Valley, in the lower ash; 5 analyses in brachiopods to the conodont (1998)
NY, USA higher ash are internally zones Po. dehiscens, Po. gronbergi,
discordant and rejected and lower Po. inversus, lower
Emsian
8 Tuff Limekilns Winburn UPb dates on 25 zircons, one Nowakia acuaria, Pragian index 2 Jagodzinski 409.9 6.6 UPb
outlier date deleted; HRSIMS in basal shale below age sample; and Black
(SHRIMP) age was calibrated to sample age estimate (1999)
standard QGNG which gives Pragianearly Emsian
older age than SL13c
9 Volcaniclastic Type section Turondale 27 zircon dates calibrated against Replaced brachiopod fauna; its 2 Jagodzinski 413.4 6.6 UPb
the QGNG standard in the most likely extrapolated age is and Black
HRSIMS (SHRIMP) method late Lochkovian (1999)
that is older than the SL13
standardc
10 K-bentonite Kalkberg, NY, Kalkberg 10 small fractions of 412 zircon I. woschmidti conodont zone in 1 Tucker et al. 417.6 1.9 UPb
USA grains each give 4 concordant another section of Kalkberg Fm (1998)
ages; weighted mean average age gives early Lochkovian age
is 417.6 1.0 Ma
11 Tuff Ludlow, UK Upper 1 cm clay-rich tuff has isotope From regional correlations 3 Tucker and 420.2 3.9 UPb
Whitcliffe dilution age of 420.2 3.9 Ma, considered close to McKerrow
using 4 concordant zircon LudlowPridoli boundary; (1995),
analyses, each of 520 grains rejected by Melchin et al. (this Tucker et al.
study) because of poor (1998)
biostratigraphic constraints, but
allowed here with low weight in
the tting method
12 Felsic Canberra, Laidlaw Average age from KAr (mineral) Interbedded with Gorstian 1 Wyborn et al. 420.7 2.2 KAr
volcanics Australia and RbSr (whole rock and fossiliferous strata of the N. (1982) (95% limit) and
mineral) of 420.7 2.2 Ma. nilssoniL. scanicus conodont RbSr
Three families of older and zones
younger HRSIMS (SHRIMP)
ages on zircons rejected due to
inheritance contamination
(Compston, 2000b).
(cont.)
Table 14.2 (cont.)

Biostratigraphic
No. Sample Locality Formation Comment Zone and age reliabilitya Reference Age (Ma) Type

13 Bentonite Shropshire, Middle Elton Two biotite grains with slightly N. nilssoni and L. scanicus 1 Kunk et al. 426.8 1.7 ArAr
UK discordant age spectra give conodont zones, Gorstian (1985) (2-sigma)
similar total-gas 40 Ar/39 Ar ages
(424.5 and 425 Ma). The
40
Ar/39 Ar weight average plateau
age of 423.7 1.7 Ma is regarded
as best aged

a 40 Ar/39 Ar and HRSIMS UPb ages have been adjusted for internal errors (see Notes b d following and Chapter 6); measurement errors are 95% (2-sigma).
b Tucker & McKerrow (1995) and Cooper et al. (this study) found HR-SIMS age dates to be consistently younger than TIMS age dates for the same zircon suites by about 1.3% when plotting Ordovician, Silurian,
or Devonian age dates. Apparently, previously unrecognized heterogeneity in the zircon Sri Lanka 13 (SL13) standard affects the accuracy of many HRSIMS dates. Both Williams et al. (2000) and Compston
(2000b) and our statistical analysis of dates around the DevonianCarboniferous boundary (see this chapter) favor the HRSIMS dates Nos. 1 and 2 to be shifted 12% (see also discussions in Chapters 12 and 14).
c Instead of common standard SL13, monitor standard QGNG was utilized; this practice shifts the age date from 406 to 409.9 Ma and slightly increases the standard error. The authors argue that, because the older
age agrees well with the isotope dilution ages used to build the Devonian time scale, this age can be incorporated in the Tucker and McKerrow (1995) data set; a practice followed here. The QGNG standard
requires further testing (Compston, 2000b).
d Age calibrated with MMhb-1 monitor standard of 523.1 Ma; Kunk et al. (1985) used an age of 519.4 Ma for this standard.
 The Devonian Period 219

Ma
350
Carboniferous

360 359.2
1
3
Famennian 4 2
Late

370
374.5

380 Frasnian

385.3 5
Middle

Givetian
390
391.8 6
Eifelian
397.5
400
Emsian

407.0
Pragian 7
Early

410
411.2
Lochkovian 8
Radiometrically dated sample
416.0 9
12 Vertical error bars: two standard deviations
420 10
Silurian Horizontal error bars: range of placements within
11 best-fit solutions

13
430
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Relative biostratigraphic position (House Scale)

Figure 14.5 Construction of the Devonian time scale. Radiometric
age dates for Devonian in Table 14.1 are plotted against the
House relative zonal scale (shown in Figure 14.1). The House
scale is a merger of high-resolution ammonoid and conodont (sub)
zones into equal subzonal units. The best-t line of the x/y data is a
spline that is minimally smoothed. In order to obtain constraints for
the ages of the SilurianDevonian and DevonianCarboniferous
boundaries, critical age dates just below and above these boundaries
were included in the calculations. For details see Chapters 8 and 14.

To get some idea of the sensitivity of the scaling to these
simplifying assumptions, the Devonian time scale was also cal-
culated using the relative scale of Tucker et al. (1998) where
the stages are proportioned to an empirical scheme of graphic
correlation and/or biostratigraphic intuition. The pesavis con-
odont zone is now placed in the Early Pragian. There is no
signicant difference between the ages in the House and the
Tucker scales, but this might have been different had there
been more detailed age dates to match the much higher res-
olution in the zonal schemes. For this study we prefer the
House scale because it reduces the duration of the Emsian
and Lochkovian stages in line with biostratigraphic reason-
ing and intuition. The scale also increases the duration of
the Pragian Stage, which agrees with the analysis of cyclic-
ity in the limestones in the classical Devonian sections of the
Barrandian (Czech Republic) that suggest that the Pragian is
not much shorter than the underlying Lochkovian (Chlupac ,
2000).
In a recent study, B. Kaufmann (pers. comm., 2003; see
Section 14.4) obtained new UPb zircon ages from two classical
Devonian localities in Germany. The rst is from Steinbruch
Schmidt (Kellerwald) where a 3 cm thick bentonite up in the
rhenana conodont zone, of late Frasnian age yielded a UPb
age of 376.0 1.5 Ma. A second UPb age date of 398.6
1.7 Ma is given in the Wetteldorf Section, the GSSP for the
LowerMiddle Devonian boundary. Although preliminary and
awaiting full documentation, both dates agree well with the
results obtained here. Kaufmann makes the observation (an
opinion echoed by M. Villeneuve) that it is an enigma that the
391.4 1.8 Ma zircon date and the 390.0 0.5 Ma monazite
date of the Tioga Ash (see Table 14.2) do not t the spline
curve of Fig. 14.5. The new UPb date of 398.6 1.7 Ma
agrees well with the cubic-spline curve.
The calculated duration and ages with estimates of uncer-
tainty (2-sigma) of the Devonian stages are given in Table 14.3.
The total duration of the Devonian is 56.8 myr, which matches
estimates of 56 myr by Tucker et al. (1998), Williams et al.
(2000a), and Compston (2000b). Estimation of uncertainty
limits on the stage boundaries may be improved with more
detailed information on the stratigraphic position of the
radiometric age dates. An improved scaling of the Devonian
Period will require a detailed composite zonal standard as was
calculated for the Ordovician and Silurian, and, especially, ad-
ditional radiometric age dates at precise stratigraphic levels.
220 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

Table 14.3 Ages and durations of Devonian stages

Est. myr Est. myr

Period Epoch Stage Age of base (Ma) (2-sigma) Duration (2-sigma)

Carboniferous 359.2 2.5

Devonian
Late
Famennian 374.5 2.6 15.3 0.6
Frasnian 385.3 2.6 10.8 0.4
Middle
Givetian 391.8 2.7 6.5 0.3
Eifelian 397.5 2.7 5.7 0.2
Early
Emsian 407.0 2.8 9.5 0.4
Pragian 411.2 2.8 4.2 0.2
Lochkovian,
(base of Devonian) 416.0 2.8 4.8 0.2
Silurian

14.4 APPENDIX ITEM C

B. Kaufmann (University of Tubingen, Germany) kindly pro- Sample: Hans-Platte volcaniclastic layer
vided some details of new datings, that reached the editors dur- Locality: Eschenbach quarry near Bundenbach, Germany
ing completion and proong of this chapter; the new dates, once Formation: Hunsruck Slate
peer-reviewed, are intended for publication. With their tight Comment: Ten analyses of single zircons; ve concordant
206
stratigraphic and linear age constraints, the preliminary new Pb/238 U results
dates indicate the DevonianCarboniferous boundary to be Zone and stage: Upper Nowakia zlichovensis dacryoconarid
near 360 Ma, and the PragianEmsian boundary to be slightly zone = middleupper excavatus conodont zone, Lower
below 410 Ma. Emsian
Age: 410.6 0.9 Ma
ITEM A

Sample: K-bentonite of bed 36 ITEM D

Locality: Steinbruch Schmidt, Germany
Sample: K-bentonites of bed 79
Comment: 24 single-zircon analyses yielded 17 concordant
206
Locality: Hasselbachtal, Germany
Pb/238 U results that form on elongate cluster
Formation: Hangenberg Limestone
Zone and stage: Middle part of Late rhenana conodont zone,
Comment: Single zircons; three concordant points form a
Upper Frasnian
tight cluster with a 206 Pb/238 U concordia age
Age: 376.01.5 Ma
Zone and stage: S. sulcata conodont zone, 43 cm above
DevonianCarboniferous boundary, Lower Tournaisian
ITEM B Age 360.5 1.0 Ma
Sample: K-bentonite
Locality: Wetteldorf Section,Germany
ITEM E
Formation: Heisdorf Formation
Comment: Five concordant UPb TIMS analyses on single Sample: K-bentonites of bed 70
zircons Locality: Hasselbachtal,Germany
Zone and stage: Uppermost Patulus Zone 13 m above Formation: Hangenberg Limestone
LowerMiddle Devonian boundary (GSSP) Comment: Ten single zircons; ve concordant points form
Age: 398.6 1.7 Ma a tight cluster with a 206 Pb/238 U concordia age

Zone and stage: Lower duplicata conodont zone, 100
cm above DevonianCarboniferous boundary, Lower
Tournaisian
Age: 358.7 0.7 Ma
New conodont biostratigraphy (Icriodus curvicandata and
I. celtibericus) of the Carlisle stratigraphic unit, above the basal-
Esopus Formation, suggests the 408.3 1.9 Ma age of the
Esopus Formation (Item 7 in Table 13.2) is now constrained to
the lower excavatus Zone, lowermost Emsian. This will better
constrain that interval than shown in the approximate t of
Fig. 14.5.
Kaufmann also kindly provided stratigraphic details of
the isotopic ages of the KeelEnach and Horses Glen tuffs
(Williams et al., 2000b). These dates were not included in the
The Devonian Period 221
Devonian scale due to considerable stratigraphic age uncer-
tainty. Combined single-zircon grain UPb dates in two Keel
Enach tuffs yielded 384.9 0.4 Ma, with a biostratigraphic
assignment of Tco Oppel miospore zone, correlated to an in-
terval from the base of the hermannicristatus to approximately
the top of the falsiovalis conodont zones, late Givetianearliest
Frasnian. The Horses Glen tuffs yielded a multigrain zircon
UPb age of 378.5 0.2 Ma. The Molls Gap quarry mi-
croora in an outcrop in Old Red Sandstone below the tuffs
is assigned to lower miospore zone IV, which correlates to the
upper hassilinguiformis conodont zones, midlate Frasnian.
Hence, the date itself could range stratigraphically higher into
the Famennian. A visual inspection of these two dates relative
to the spline curve in Fig. 14.5 suggests that the latter ts the
time scale trend but the former is stratigraphically too young.
15 The Carboniferous Period
. , . . , . .
322.0 Ma (mid-Carboniferous)
Bashkirian
Geographic distribution of Carboniferous GSSPs that have been
ratied (diamonds) or are candidates (squares) on a
mid-Carboniferous map (status in January, 2004; see Table 2.3).
The supercontinent Pangea formed. Major changes in ocean circula-
tion; biogeographic differentiation; high bio-provincialism; diversi-
cation of land plants and increased continental weathering rates and
storage of organic carbon as coal; drawdown of atmospheric CO2 and
signicant cooling, major glaciation, and sharp sea-level uctuations;
cyclic marine sequences; appearance of reptiles (with amniotic egg
reproduction) and occupation of new (dry-land) niches; extinction or
decreasing role of early Paleozoic biota such as stromatoporids, tabu-
late corals, trilobites, ostracods, heavily armored marine sh; appear-
ance or very rapid diversication of foraminifera, ammonoids, fresh-
water pelecpods, gastropods, sharks, ray-nned shes, and wingless
insects. Late CarboniferousEarly Permian Kiaman Superchron is
the longest known period of predominantly reversed polarity.
1 5 . 1 H I S T O RY A N D S U B D I V I S I O N S
Because of climatic variability, the Carboniferous was a time
of incredible diversication and abundant terrestrial biota.
A Geologic Time Scale 2004, eds. Felix M. Gradstein, James G. Ogg, and Alan
G. Smith. Published by Cambridge University Press.
c F. M. Gradstein,
J. G. Ogg, and A. G. Smith 2004.
222
Visean
Tournaisian
Only the GSSPs for the Bashkirian (base of the Pennsylvanian) and
Tournaisian (base of the Mississippian) have been formalized.
It signies Earths rst episode of massive coal formation.
The commercial production of coal led to the early devel-
opment of Carboniferous stratigraphic classications in three
major regions: western Europe, eastern Europe, and North
America.
Indeed, the name Carboniferous is derived from the Italian
Carbonarium (charcoal producer) or Latin carbo (charcoal) and
ferous (i.e. bearing). The term Carboniferous was rst used
in an adjectival sense by Kirwan (1799) and as an informal
term for the section heading to describe Coal-measures or
Carboniferous Strata by Farey in 1811 (Ramsbottom, 1984).
Later it became a common term for coal-producing sediments
in Great Britain and western Europe. Four stratigraphic units,
in ascending order, were included:
1. the Old Red Sandstone, later assigned to the Devonian;
2. the Mountain, or Carboniferous Limestone, rst listed by
William Phillips in 1818;
3. the Millstone Grit, proposed by Whitehurst in 1778; and
4. the Coal Measures, proposed by Farey in 1807.

Conybeare and Phillips in 1822 constituted these units as
the Carboniferous or Medial Order, and Phillips in 1835 as the
Carboniferous System (Ramsbottom, 1984).
Even though the Carboniferous was one of the rst-
established geological periods, it is one of the most complicated
and confusing in terms of stratigraphic classication and cor-
relation. The reasons for this confusion are:
1. the assembly of the supercontinent Pangea by the collision
of Laurussia with Gondwana, the Variscan, and Hercynian
orogenies, and the subsequent nearly complete separation
of tropical and subtropical shelves by this supercontinent;
and
2. the Gondwana superglaciation and the consequent drastic
climatic changes and sea-level uctuations, and signicant
biogeographic differentiation.
The current subdivision of the Carboniferous Period as
favored by the Subcommission on Carboniferous Stratigraphy
of the ICS is shown in Fig. 15.1, and selected regional stages
are illustrated in Fig. 15.2. As of January 2004, only the major
division of the Carboniferous Period into the Mississippian
and Pennsylvanian sub-periods has been ofcially ratied by
the IUGS.
15.1.1 Evolution of traditional European and
Russian subdivisions
In western Europe, historically, the Carboniferous System was
divided into the Lower Series (marine Mountain Limestone)
and the Upper Series (predominantly terrestrial Millstone Grit
and Coal Measures. Between 1841 and 1845, Murchison and
others, in collaboration with Russian geologists and based on
Russian sections, divided the Carboniferous into Lower, Mid-
dle, and Upper Stages, which were later elevated to Series
(Moeller, 1878, 1880). In terms of recent chronostratigraphy,
Moellers Upper Series included Upper Pennsylvanian and
most of the Cisuralian (Lower Permian) Series, excluding the
Kungurian Stage, and therefore all three proposed series were
approximately equal. Subsequently, the Cisuralian portion of
the succession was excluded from Moellers Upper Series. The
remaining Lower, Middle, and revised Upper Series then con-
stituted a three-fold subdivision of the Carboniferous that be-
came the tradition in Russia and surrounding territories in
Eastern Europe and Asia.
Munier-Chalmas and de Lapparent (1893) named these
three Carboniferous subdivisions the Dinantian (Mountain
Limestone), Moscovian, and Uralian Stages. The Westphalian
(Millstone Grit and Coal Measures combined) and Stephanian
The Carboniferous Period 223
Stages were also established by these geologists in terrestrial
successions of western Europe as equivalents to the Mosco-
vian and Uralian in the marine facies. This was the rst at-
tempt to build a dual marineterrestrial classication for the
Carboniferous, which is still advocated by some geologists
(Wagner and Winkler Prins, 1997), but is not accepted by the
International Commission on Stratigraphy.
In the nineteenth century the majority of Russian ge-
ologists accepted a two-fold subdivision of the Carbonifer-
ous. Nikitin (1890) proposed Serpukhovian (type locality near
Serpukhov City) and placed it at the highest position in the
Lower Carboniferous. He proposed to divide the Upper Car-
boniferous into the Moscovian and Gzhelian stages with type
localities around Moscow (Moscovian) and a series of expo-
sures near the villages of Gzhel, Pavlovo-Posad, and Noginsk
(Gzhelian), along the Klyazma River and in the OkskoTsna
Swell (Nikitin, 1890, pp. 7778). The Moscovian originally
included all the present-day Kasimovian, and the Gzhelian in-
cluded the rest of the Carboniferous and the Asselian Stage
(Lower Permian) of the modern scale. The Kasimovian (ini-
tially known as the Tiguliferina Horizon) was separated from
the Moscovian by Ivanov (1926) and was named by Danshin
(1947). Teodorovich (1949) suggested this unit should be a
chronostratigraphic stage and regarded the Gzhelian (in the
modern sense) to be the uppermost stage of the Carboniferous.
Ruzhenzev (1945) proposed the Orenburgian Stage, equal
to the Pseudofusulina Horizon of Rauser-Chernousova
(1937), in the southern Urals, as the latest Carboniferous stage.
Because of a miscorrelation to the Russian Platform, the Oren-
burgian was thought to be the equivalent of the lower Asselian
(Pnev et al., 1975; Harland et al., 1990) and was removed from
the Russian stratigraphic scale. However, this miscorrelation
was recognized and the Orenburgian was returned to the Car-
boniferous once again (Davydov and Popov, 1986), where it
is generally merged with the Gzhelian Stage. It has been sug-
gested that the Orenburgian should be the terminal stage of the
Carboniferous above the Gzhelian (Ivanova and Rosovskaya,
1967; Davydov, 2001).
Development of Carboniferous stratigraphy during the
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries in western Europe
was summarized in the Heerlen Congresses in 1927 and 1935
(Heerlen Classication), in which two-fold division of the Car-
boniferous was formalized and the Lower Carboniferous was
replaced by the Dinantian. The latter was divided into two
stages: the Tournaisian (proposed by Koninck in 1872) and
the Visean (proposed by Dupont in 1883). The Upper Car-
boniferous (later named Silesian) was also divided into two
stages: the Namurian (name proposed by Purves in 1883 for
224 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

Carboniferous Time Scale

Age Polarity Flora Main
Stage Conodonts Foraminifera Ammonoids Tetrapods Seq.

Macro

Micro
(Ma) Chron
T R
Strepto- As1
gnathodus Cf
Permian Cc
1
cristellaris 2
Cf Sphaero-
Ca
2 Svetlanoceras
DS
Strepto- schwagerina Juresanites

C - Pp1
299.0 0.8 gnathodus 1
Pc isolatus Pf
19 Strepto- 22 Schwagerina
300 Kartamyshian Superzone gnathodus Pa
Central Asia Composite

wabaunsensis VC
12
Kiaman Hyperchron

Pc Pf
18 Eryops
21
Dutkevichia Shumardites
Gzhelian Pc Pf
Gzh2
17 20 Pp NBM
Schellwienia 10
Pc Pf Pa
16 Idiognathodus 19 11
Pc Vidrioceras Pp
Strepto- Pf18 9
303.9 0.9 15
Pc
gnathodus
"simulatos" Pf
Daixina Artinskia Gzh1
14 17 ST
Pp
305 Pf16 Triticites Pa 8
Kasimovian Pc Idiognathodus 10
Pennsylvanian subperiod

13 sagittalis Pf15 Fusulinella

Beedeina Parashumardites
Pc Pf14
306.5 1.0 12
Pf Pa
Pp
7
Edapho-
sauridae
Kas1
13 Protriticites 9
Pc
11 Pf Pp OT
12 6
Pa
Pc Pf 8 Pp
10 11 5
Moscovian
Donetz Basin Composite

Pc Pf
Donetzian mixed normal-reversed Hyperchron (part)

9 10 Fusulinella
310 Pa7
Pp
SL Msc1
Pf
Pc Declino- 9 archaediscids 4
8 gnathodus Eowellerites
donetzianus Pf Aljutovella Pa
311.7 1.1 Pc7 8 aljutovica 6
Winslowoceras NJ
Debaltsevian Superzone

Pc Neognathodus Pf Pa Pp
6 atokaensis 7 5 3
Verella Bsh2
Pc Idiognathodus Pf Pa Pp RA
5 6 4 SS Nectridea
2
D.
marginodosus FR
Pc Pf
4 Strepto- 5
Schubertella
315 Bashkirian Pc gnathodus
Pa
3
KV
3 Pf
4
Pseudo- Pp
Pc Pf staffella 1
2 3 Pa2
Reticuloceras
Pf 2
Pc
1 Declino- Pa
318.1 1.3 gnathodus Pf 1 M. marblensis 1 Bsh1
noduliferus
Homoceras SO
subperiod
Mississip.

Plectostaffella ? Mp
Serpuk- Mc Mf
5
16 17
320 hovian Cravenoceras

Figure 15.1 Subperiod and stage boundaries for the Carboniferous Russian-based nomenclature of super- and hyperchrons (see text)
Period, with pelagic zonations of conodonts, foraminifera and and the principal eustatic trends are also displayed. A color version
ammonoids, and with terrestrial facies zonations of vertebrates, of this gure is in the plate section.
spores, and plants. The geomagnetic polarity scale with
 The Carboniferous Period 225

Carboniferous Time Scale

AGE Polarity Flora Main
Stage Conodonts Foraminifera Ammonoids Tetrapods Seq.

Macro

Micro
(Ma) Chron
T R
Pc Declino-
318.1 1.3 1 gnathodus Pf 1 M. marblensis Pa Bsh1
noduliferus 1
Plectostaffella ? Homoceras SO
Mp
5
Mc Mf
16 17 Cravenoceras
320
Eosigmoilina
explicata
Ma
8
Serpuk- Mc
Mp
Mf 4
hovian 15
16 TK

Goniatites
325 Mc
14 Mf Ma
Donetzian mixed normal-reversed Hyperchron (part)
Appalachian Basin and West Canada Composite

15 7
Eumorphoceras NC
Lochriea
326.4 1.6
Mississippian subperiod

cruciformis Eosigmoilina
Mp
Mc 3
13
Mf
14
VF
Mc
12 Lochriea
nodosa
330
NM
Mc Ma
Mf 6
11 13
Tikhvinian Superzone (part)

Vis2

TC
Visean
Mf
12
335
Mc Mp Anthraco-
10 Howchinia 2
gibba sauria

Gnathodus Mf
billineatus 11
TS
Ar. krestovnikovi
Ma
Mc 5
9
340 Mf
10
Eostaffella

Figure 15.1 (cont.)

226 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

Carboniferous Time Scale

Age Polarity Flora Main
Stage Conodonts Foraminifera Ammonoids Tetrapods Seq.

Macro

Micro
(Ma) Chron
T R
Gnathodus Mf

Appalachian Basin and West Canada Composite

billineatus 11

Ar. krestovnikovi TS

340 Ma
Mc Mf 5
9 10
Eostaffella
Visean
Mf
9
archaediscids Goniatites
Mp
2
PU
Mc Mf Ma Vis1
8 8 4
Gnathodus
homopunctatus Eoparastaffella Dzhaprakoceras
345 simplex
Donetzian mixed normal-reversed Hyperchron (part)

345.3 2.1
Mississippian subperiod

Romer's Gap
Sc. anchoralis
Mc
7
Mf
7
Tikhvinian Superzone (part)

Mc CM
6
Dainella Ma Tm2
Mf 3 ?
6

Mc
Far East of Russia (Kolyma-Omolon) Composite

5 Mf PC
350 5

Pericyclus
Mc Mf Palaeospiroplec. BP
4 4 tchernyshinensis
Tournaisian
Mc Mf HD
3 3 Ma
2

355 Mp
1
Mc
2 Mf
2
Tm1
VI
Quasiendothyra
D - Mt1

Mc
1 Mf Ma
1 1
Siphonodella Gattendorfia
sulcata
359.2 2.5
Climenida
360
Devonian
Figure 15.1 (cont.)
 Carboniferous Regional Subdivisions
AGE Stage Boundary-
Russian Platform Western Europe
(Ma) defining event North America South China

Autunian
Permian Sjuranian Lebach Mapingian
299 0.8 FAD S. isolatus Bursumian
300 Melekhovian
Kuzel
Gzhelian Noginian
Virgilian

Stephanian
Pavlovoposadian
Stephanian C Xiaodushanian
Pennsylvanian subperiod

303.9 0.9
Rusavkian
Dorogovilovian Stephanian B Missourian
305 Kasimovian Khamovnichean A Barruelian
306.5 1.0 Krevyakian Cantabrian
Peskovian
Myachkovian
Asturian Desmoinesian

Westphalian
Podolskian D
Moscovian Kashirian Dalanian
310 Tsninian Bolsovian
Vereian C
311.7 1.1 Atokan
Melekesian B Duckmantian
Cheremshanian A Langsettian
Prikarnian Yeadonian
315 Bashkirian Marsdenian Huashibanian
Severokeltmenian
Kinderscoutian Morrowan
Krasnopolyanian
Alportian
FAD Voznesenian Luosuan
318.1 1.3 Chokierian

Namurian
D. noduliferus Zapaltyubian
320
Protvian Arnsbergian
Dewunian
Serpukhovian Steshevian

325 Tarussian Pendleian Chesterian

326.4 1.6 FAD
L. cruciformis
Venevian Brigantian
Shangsian
330
Mikhailovian Asbian
Mississippian subperiod

Aleksian
335
Visean Holkerian Meramecian
Tulian
Jiusian
340
Bobrikovian Arundian

Radaevian Chadian Osagean

345
345.3 2.1
Kosvinian
Ivorian
Kizolovian

350 Cherepetsian
Courceyan

Karakubian
Tournaisian Tangbagouan
Upinian Kinderhookian
355
Hastarian
Malevian

Gumerovian
359.2 2.5 FAD S. sulcata
360 Devonian Ziganian Famennian
Chatauquan Gelaohean

Figure 15.2 Correlation of regional Carboniferous stages and other stratigraphic subdivisions.
228 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
the equivalent of the Millstone Grit), and the Westphalian,
each with three divisions (A, B, and C; Ramsbottom, 1984).
Further biostratigraphic studies in marine and terrestrial
successions in western Europe, particularly of goniatites and
plants, resulted in signicant renement of the regional strati-
graphic scale into 16 stages from the Tournaisian through
Westphalian (George et al., 1976). Details of the history of the
Carboniferous classication in western Europe can be found
in George et al. (1976), Ramsbottom (1984), and Wagner and
Winkler Prins (1997).
15.1.2 Evolution of traditional North American
subdivisions
In the USA, the Carboniferous was subdivided into the Mis-
sissippian, or lower Carboniferous, proposed by Alexander
Winchell in 1870, and the Pennsylvanian, or upper Carbonif-
erous, proposed by J. J. Stevenson in 1888, each of which was
put forward as an independent system by Williams (1891).
Predominantly marine rocks of early Carboniferous age were
assigned to the Mississippian, with type localities in the upper
Mississippi Valley. Coal-productive beds in the state of
Pennsylvania were termed Pennsylvanian and considered as
stratigraphic equivalents of the western European Coal
Measures. The Pennsylvanian included the Pottsville Con-
glomerate, Lower Productive Coal Measure, and Upper Barren
Coal Measures. The type localities for the Pennsylvanian stages
occur in marine cyclic sequences in the North American mid-
continent basin in Arkansas (Morrowan), Oklahoma (Atokan),
central Iowa (Desmoinesian), along the Missouri River in Iowa
and Missouri (Missourian), and in eastcentral Kansas (Vir-
gilian). More details on the establishment of the Pennsylvanian
stages can be found in Heckel (1999).
15.1.3 Status of the international scale
The rst attempt to build a global Carboniferous scale that
integrated the various chronostratigraphic classications was
made during the Eighth International Congress on Carbonifer-
ous Stratigraphy and Geology in Moscow (Bouroz et al., 1978).
Two subsystems of the Carboniferous, the Mississippian and
the Pennsylvanian, were subdivided into two series to success-
fully merge the usage of recognizing two systems in North
America with the three-fold divisions in the former USSR
(Wagner and Winkler Prins, 1994). Tournaisian, Visean, Ser-
pukhovian, Bashkirian, Moscovian, Kasimovian, and Gzhe-
lian were proposed as global Carboniferous stages (Fig. 15.1).
Bouroz et al.s proposal signicantly advanced the develop-
ment of international Carboniferous stratigraphy. Within a
few years several working groups were founded (Brenckle and
Manger, 1990) and two major Carboniferous boundaries the
base of the Carboniferous Period and the mid-Carboniferous
(or MississippianPennsylvanian) boundary have been ac-
cepted as GSSPs (Paproth et al., 1991; Lane et al., 1999). The
top of the Carboniferous is established by the GSSP for the
base of the Permian (Davydov et al., 1998).
15.1.4 Mississippian subsystem (Lower
Carboniferous)
After several glaciation events during the Late Devonian
(Famennian) with corresponding extinction events in marine
and terrestrial biota (e.g. the Kellwasser and Hangenberg
Events), the beginning of the Carboniferous (earlymid Tour-
naisian) was probably free of ice sheets (Walliser, 1984b;
Joachimski and Buggisch, 1993; Streel et al., 2000b). How-
ever, except for late Viseanearly Serpukhovian (Chesterian),
most of the rest of the Carboniferous was a time of exten-
sive glaciation (Bruckschen et al., 1999; Mii et al., 1999, 2001)
accompanied by high-frequency sea-level uctuations and cor-
responding global transgressiveregressive sequences (Rams-
bottom, 1973, 1981; Veevers and Powell, 1987).
During the Mississippian, there was generally unob-
structed marine communication between paleo-Tethys and
Panthalassan shelves. Therefore, Mississippian marine fauna
are generally world-wide in their distribution, and latitudinal
differences are more strongly developed than are longitudinal
differences (Ross and Ross, 1988).
D E VO N I A N C A R B O N I F E RO U S B O U N DA RY A N D T H E
T O U R NA I S I A N S TAG E
The DevonianCarboniferous boundary is a time of global
regression with a major sequence boundary located slightly
above it (Paproth et al., 1991).
The GSSP for the base of the Tournaisian Stage, Mississip-
pian sub-period, and Carboniferous Period has been dened
in the La Serre section, Montagne Noire, southern France
(Paproth et al., 1991). The section lies on the southern slope of
the La Serre hill, 2.5 km southwest of the village of Cabrieres,
near the classic base of the Gattendora ammonoid zone.
The boundary is dened in Bed 89 at the FAD of the con-
odont Siphonodella sulcata, within the evolutionary lineage of
S. praesulcataS. sulcata. The transitional boundary beds in
the section consist of platy and nodular cephalopod-bearing
and oolitic limestone, and contain a mixture of pelagic and

near-shore biota that show signs of minor transport before
lithication, but no signs of stratigraphic reworking (Feist and
Flajs, 1987). Abundant conodonts with shallow-marine inver-
tebrate assemblages (diverse brachiopods, trilobites, corals, and
rare ostracods, cephalopods, foraminifera, algae, and micro-
problematica) make La Serre section unique. Foraminifera,
algae, and microproblematica are found only in the Carbonif-
erous part of the section, and miospores and acritarches are
almost completely absent in the transitional beds. The distri-
bution of the latter group of fossils is well established in the
Auxiliary Stratotype sections (ASS) at Hasselbachtal (Sauer-
land area, Germany) and Nanbiancun (southern China; Becker
and Paproth, 1993; Wang, 1993). The last appearance da-
tum (LAD) of the miospore Retispora lepidophyta (Retispora
lepidophytaVerrucosisporites nitidus Biozone [LN]) almost co-
incides with the FAD of the conodont Siphonodella sulcata.
In the ammonoid zonation, the base of the Tournaisian co-
incides with the rst entry of Gattendora and Gattenpleura
(Kullmann et al., 1990). The major extinctions of the
ammonoid goniatites and clymenids occurred during the
Hangenberg Event of the latest Famennian extinction crisis
(Streel et al., 2000b). The FAD of the foraminiferal species
Chernyshinella glomiformis and Tournayella beata characterizes
the base of Tournaisian in its type area in the FrancoBelgian
basin (Conil et al., 1990).
VISEAN
Historically, the Visean Stage, like the Tournaisian, was estab-
lished in southern Belgium. The base of the Visean was rst
ofcially dened in 1967 by the International Congress on Car-
boniferous Stratigraphy and Geology in Shefeld at the lowest
marbre noir (i.e. rst black limestone) intercalation in the Leffe
facies at the Bastion Section in the Dinant Basin (George et al.,
1976; Hance et al., 1997). This boundary coincided with the
rst occurrence of the foraminiferal genus Eoparastaffella, and
occurs less than 1 m below the FAD of the conodont Gnathodus
homopunctatus (Conil et al., 1990).
Because of historical priority and achievement of strati-
graphic stability in international stratigraphic practice, the
TournaisianVisean boundary working group decided to keep
the base of the Visean as close as possible to the classical level
(Paproth, 1996). A signicant turnover in pelagic fossils (ei-
ther conodonts or ammonoids) does not occur near the classi-
cal TournaisianVisean boundary, so it was proposed to dene
the boundary within the foraminiferal phylogenetic lineage of
Eoparastaffella. Simple morphological parameters, identifying
two successive morphotypes (types 1 and 2, corresponding,
The Carboniferous Period 229
respectively, to E. rotunda typical and E. simplex typical) can
be used by non-foraminiferal specialists to recognize this evo-
lution and identify the base of the Visean. This proposal has
been accepted as the most appropriate denition of the classic
base of the Visean (Work, 2002). The proposed denition is the
rst benthic marker within the entire Paleozoic. A proposed
GSSP section for the base of the Visean Stage is the Penchong
section, Guangxi, South China (Devuyst et al., 2003).
The disappearance of deeper-water Tournaisian con-
odonts and the entry of shallow-water Visean foraminifera
in the classic FrancoBelgian basin appears to be an ecological
event related to a signicant sea-level drop in late Tournaisian
early Visean time. Hence, this faunal change may be of ques-
tionable chronostratigraphic signicance (Hance et al., 1997).
S E R P U K H OV I A N
The Serpukhovian Stage was proposed by Nikitin (1890) as
the terminal stage of the lower Carboniferous Series and
was named after Serpukhov City, where the stage is exposed in
a series of quarries and localities along the Oka River. The Ser-
pukhovian is perhaps the shortest chronostratigraphic unit in
the Mississippian. In the type area of the Moscow syncline, it is
represented by an unconformably bounded sequence of open-
to restricted-marine shallow carbonate and mixed carbonate
siliciclastic rocks.
The Serpukhovian in the Russian Platform and sur-
rounding regions is informally divided into lower and upper
substages and into ve horizons (regional stages): Tarusian
(Tarusky), Steshevian (Steshevsky), Protvinian (Protvinsky),
Zapaltubinian (Zapaltubinsky), and Voskresenian (Voskresen-
sky), the last two being almost completely absent in the type
area (Makhlina et al., 1993).
More complete successions of the upper Serpukhovian and
its transition to the Bashkirian are present in the Donetz Basin,
in the northern portion of TimanPechora, and in the Urals
(Aizenverg et al., 1983; Kulagina et al., 1992; Kossovaya et al.,
2001).
The lower boundary of the Serpukhovian still remains un-
certain. The working group of the Subcommission on the
Carboniferous of the ICS, responsible for dening the GSSP
close to the ViseanSerpukhovian (Namurian) boundary, was
only recently established. The ViseanSerpukhovian transi-
tion coincides with a major Gondwanan glaciation (Mii et al.,
2001) and sharp climatic changes coupled with severe ma-
rine biotic endemism. In the type area in the Moscow Basin,
the ViseanSerpukhovian transition deposits were restricted,
and connections with open basins in the east (Urals), south
230 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
(Precaspian), and north (TimanPechora) were short lived
and/or limited. Benthic fauna in the Russian Platform are di-
achronous in their distribution (Makhlina et al., 1993) and,
therefore, were strongly controlled by ecological rather than
by evolutionary factors.
The lower boundary of the Serpukhovian in the Moscow
Basin has been referred to the base of the foraminiferal zone
Pseudoendothyra globosaNeoarchaediscus parvus. The latter
corresponds with the Cf7 foraminifera Zone of Conil et al.
(1990) in FrancoBelgian basins. Gibshman (2001) has re-
cently re-studied the foraminifera in the type locality of the
Serpukhovian Zaborie quarry, near Serpukhov City, and placed
the lower boundary of Serpukhovian between the latest Visean
Eostaffella tenebrosa Zone and the earliest Serpukhovian Neoar-
chaediscus parvus Zone. This boundary is purportedly coinci-
dent with a eustatic maximum ooding surface. Similarly, in
the TimanPechora region, the ViseanSerpukhovian bound-
ary is supposedly coincident with a maximum ooding surface
(Kossovaya et al., 2001).
The base of the Serpukhovian Stage closely coincides with
the base of Namurian and, therefore, the Pendleian Stage of
Great Britain. It is an important chronostratigraphic boundary
recognized in western Europe as a widespread marine ooding
surface (Ramsbottom, 1977).
15.1.5 Pennsylvanian subsystem (Upper
Carboniferous)
M I S S I S S I P P I A N P E N N S Y LVA N I A N B O U N DA RY
A N D T H E BA S H K I R I A N S TAG E
The beginning of the Pennsylvanian coincides with a signif-
icant mid-Carboniferous glaciation and consequent sea-level
drop forming a sequence boundary in many sections. Veevers
and Powell (1987) proposed that this boundary marks the be-
ginning of a major Gondwanan glaciation and climate cooling.
However, the glaciation likely started earlier in the Serpukho-
vian and reached its maximum near the mid Carboniferous
(Popp et al., 1986; Gonzales, 1990; Grossman et al., 1993; Mii
et al., 2001).
The Bashkirian Stage was established in the early 1930s
(Semikhatova, 1934) in the mountains of Bashkiria (currently
Bashkortostan Republic) in the southern Urals, Russia. Several
sections have been suggested as a stratotype for the Bashkirian,
but since the mid 1970s, the Askyn section, one of the best ex-
posed and studied sections in the type area, has been accepted as
a hypostratotype for the stage (Semikhatova et al., 1979; Sinit-
syna and Synitsyn, 1987; Nemirovskaya and Alekseev, 1995;
Kulagina et al., 2001). The basal beds of the Bashkirian as it
was dened, were originally characterized by the appearance of
the foraminiferal species Pseudostaffella antique, i.e. the base of
the Bashkirian within the chronostratigraphic succession was
denitely higher than its modern position.
The GSSP for the beginning of the Pennsylvanian and
of the Bashkirian Stage is dened within the transition from
Gnathodus girty simplex to Declinognathodus noduliferus s.l., and
has been xed in Arrow Canyon, in the Great Basin, Nevada,
USA (Lane et al., 1999). The type section is located approx-
imately 75 km northwest of Las Vegas, on the east side of a
strike valley immediately north of Arrow Canyon gorge. The
section begins at the top of the Battleship Wash Formation,
goes up through the overlying Indian Springs Formation, and
into the lower part of the Bird Spring Formation, where the
GSSP boundary horizon is located. During Carboniferous
time, Arrow Canyon was situated near the paleoequator in
a pericratonic tropical to subtropical seaway that extended
from southern California through western Canada and into
Alaska (Lane et al., 1999). The succession containing this the
Mid-Carboniferous Boundary interval (Bird Spring Forma-
tion) comprises numerous high-order transgressiveregressive
sequences driven by glacio-eustatic uctuations caused by on-
going glaciation in Gondwana. Transgressive bioclastic and
mixed bioclasticsiliciclastic limestones and ne sandstone se-
quences are separated by regressive mudstone, oolitic, and
brecciated limestone intervals with paleosols.
The Mid-Carboniferous Boundary GSSP is coincident
with the base of the noduliferusprimus conodont zone of
Baesemann and Lane (1985). Beds below the Mid-
Carboniferous Boundary contain an abundant archediscacean
foraminiferal assemblage that is dominated by the eosig-
moilines Eosigmoilina robertsoni and Brenckleina rugosa, and
these species disappear slightly above the Mid-Carboniferous
Boundary (samples 62 and 63 at Arrow Canyon). The
foraminifer Globivalvulina bulloides is a useful marker to ap-
proximate the boundary, although in Japan, Arctic Alaska,
the Pyrenees, and the Donetz Basin it appears slightly be-
low the boundary. The foraminifera Millerella pressa and M.
marblensis are also informal markers for the boundary, although
primitive Milerella appears in the late Mississippian (Rauser-
Chernousova et al., 1996; Brenckle et al., 1997).
In the eastern hemisphere (Arctic, Pyrenees, Russian
Platform, Urals, Donetz Basin, Central Asia, Japan), the
base of the Bashkirian is marked by the occurrence of
foraminiferal species Plectostaffella varvariensis, P. jakhensis,
P. posochovae, and P. bogdanovkensis; however, the rst prim-
itive representatives of the genus appear slightly below the

Mid-Carboniferous Boundary. The base of the Bashkirian in
the Urals and surrounding regions coincides with the bound-
ary between the Monotaxinoides transitorius and Plectostaffella
varvariensis (or Plectostaffella posokhovae) foraminiferal zones
(Kulagina et al., 1992).
In the ammonoid zonation, the Mid-Carboniferous
Boundary is identied at the base of the Homoceras Zone or
Isohomoceras subglobosum Zone of Great Britain, Nevada,
and Central Asia (Ramsbottom, 1977; Ruzhenzev and
Bogoslovskaya, 1978; Nikolaeva, 1995). However, it is most
likely that the rst Isohomoceras subglobosum in Nevada and
Central Asia occurs slightly earlier, in the latest Mississippian
(Serpukhoviani; Nemirovskaya and Nigmadganov, 1994; Titus
et al., 1997).
M O S C OV I A N
The classic sedimentary sequence of shallow-marine bioclas-
tic limestone intercalated with colorful clays outcropping in
and around the Moscow area gave rise to the Moscovian Stage
(Nikitin, 1890). Nikitin proposed the quarries near the vil-
lage of Myachkovo to be the type section of the stage. How-
ever, as mentioned earlier, the original Moscovian unit also
included strata at locations around the villages of Khamovniki
and Dorogomilovo, now within Moscow, and near the villages
of Voskresensk and Yauza, east of Moscow. These sediments
are now referred to the earlylate Kasimovian Stage in terms
of modern chronostratigraphy. Fortunately, the sequence at
Myachkovo quarry belongs to the late Moscovian, keeping the
Moscovian Stage valid.
Ivanov (1926) was the rst to recognize the signicant dif-
ference between fauna in the limestone of Khamovniki, Doro-
gomilovo, Voskresensk, and Yauza and fauna from Moscovian
strata. He named these different sequences the Teguliferina
Horizon (i.e. a regional stage in Russian sense) after an at-
tractive and common brachiopod. Danshin (1947) named this
horizon Kasimovian, as these sediments are well exposed near
the city of Kasimov in the OkskTsna Basin.
Ivanova and Khvorova (1955) and Makhlina et al. (1979)
provided detailed sedimentology and stratigraphy of Mosco-
vian through Gzhelian Stages in the Moscow Basin. Four
horizons with chronostratigraphic meaning in the Moscovian
Stage were established by Ivanov (1926), in ascending order:
Vereisky, Kashirsky, Podolsky, and Myachkovsky. Later these
units were proposed to be substages or stages (Ivanova and
Khvorova, 1955), and widely used in this sense in equatorial
and subequatorial belts of the eastern hemisphere. However,
these units were not recognized elsewhere.
The Carboniferous Period 231
In the type area of the Moscow Basin, strata of the Mosco-
vian Stage unconformably overlie limestones assigned to the
Mississippian, with Bashkirian strata missing. The lowermost
Moscovian (Vereian Horizon) is made up of three forma-
tions: Shatskaya, Aljutovskaya, and Ordynskaya (Ivanova and
Khvorova, 1955). The lower formation is a siliciclastic and
largely terrestrial sequence with no marine fossils recovered.
Recently, the Shatskaya Formation has been excluded from
the Moscovian and the proposed beginning of the Moscovian
Stage placed at the base of the Aljutovskaya Formation. In
the type section of the Aljutovskaya Formation, 3 m above its
base, a characteristic fusulinid species Aljutovella aljutovica and
the conodont species Declinognathodus donetzianus were found
(Makhlina et al., 2001). Aljutovella aljutovica is an index species
of the foraminiferal zone commonly accepted to dene the base
of the Moscovian in the former Soviet Union. The Aljutovella
aljutovica fusulinid zone correlates widely through the entire
northern and eastern margins of Pangea (Solovieva, 1986).
However, because of signicant provincialism of fusulinid as-
semblages between eastern and western hemispheres, only
conodonts can be used to dene the base of the Moscovian
Stage in the global chronostratigraphic scale. Nemirovskaya
(1999) proposed the Declinognathodus donetzianus and/or Idio-
gnathoides postsulcatus conodont species as indicative of the base
of the Moscovian Stage. These species are widely distributed
geographically (in the Moscow Basin, Urals, northwestern
Europe, Spain, Canadian Arctic, Alaska, North American mid-
continent, and Japan) and their evolutionary position is clearly
recognized (Nemirovskaya, 1999; Goreva and Alekseev, 2001).
Both species occur in the basal beds of the Moscovian Stage in
its type area, and hence can be used for dening the traditional
BashkirianMoscovian boundary.
Another conodont, Neognathodus atokaensis, has a wide ge-
ographical distribution, and formally could be a good candidate
for the index species to dene the base of the Moscovian. This
species is ecologically dependent, has a high rate of morpho-
logical variability, and is not considered by conodont workers
to be a single species (Nemirovskaya, 1999).
It is most likely that the base of the Moscovian in North
America approximates with the rst appearance of the genus
Profusulinella (Moore and Thompson, 1949; Groves et al.,
1999).
In the ammonoid zonation, the BashkirianMoscovian
boundary coincides with either the base of the Winslowoceras
Diaboloceras Zone (a zone based on genera, rather than
species) on the Russian Platform and Urals (Ruzhenzev and
Bogoslovskaya, 1978), or with the Eowellerites Zone in western
Europe and North America (Ramsbottom and Saunders,
232 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
1985). It is most likely that the base of the Eowellerites Zone is
slightly older than the base of the WinslowocerasDiaboloceras
Zone.
K A S I M OV I A N
The Kasimovian Stage was originally included in the Mosco-
vian (Nikitin, 1890). It was the last stage in the Pennsylvanian
Series to be established in the Moscow Basin (Teodorovich,
1949). Ivanov (1926) was the rst to recognize the indepen-
dence of the Teguliferina Horizon (Kasimovian Stage) from
the Moscovian, and considered it to be an Upper Carbonifer-
ous unit (in the sense of the three-fold Russian classication
of the Carboniferous) as opposed to the Middle Carbonifer-
ous Moscovian Stage. He placed the base of his Teguliferina recently (Goreva and Alekseev, 2001), and its correlation po-
Horizon at the limestone conglomerate in the base of the local
sharsha lithostratigraphic unit.
Macrofossil assemblages of the Teguliferina Horizon in the
type region, comprising mostly brachiopods and pelecypods,
have only local correlative potential. A more widely recog-
nizable denition of the Kasimovian Stage was proposed by
Rauser-Chernousova and Reitlinger (1954), with the rst oc-
currence of the fusulinid species Obsoletes obsoletes and Protrit-
icites pseudomontiparus.
Although these events are only found in the sharsha
unit of the upper Suvorovskya Formation of the lowermost
Kasimovian (i.e. a few meters above the original boundary pro-
posed by Ivanov, 1926), the base of the Kasimovian has conven-
tionally been placed at the conglomerate marking the base of
the local garnasha lithostratigraphic unit of the lower upper
Suvorovskya Formation, i.e. slightly below its original position.
The fusulinid denition proposed by Rauser-Chernousova
and Reitlinger (1954) for the Kasimovian has been accepted for
years in the shallow-marine sections in Eurasia. After the evo-
lution of Obsoletes and Protriticites became better understood
(Kireeva, 1964; Davydov, 1990; Remizova, 1992), it was sug-
gested that the MoscovianKasimovian boundary be placed
between the latest Moscovian Praeobsoletes burkemensis and
Protriticites ovatus fusulinid zone and the early Kasimovian
Obsoletes obsoletes and Protriticites pseudomontiparus fusulinid
zone. In the Moscow Basin, the boundary was placed 1.01.5 m
below the base of the garnasha lithostratigraphic unit, at
the base of the local lyska lithostratigraphic unit within the
upper Peskovskaya Formation, which traditionally has been
included in the uppermost Moscovian (Davydov, 1997). This
boundary coincides with a eustatic sea-level low, and, con-
sequently, with disconformities represented in many sections
around the world (Davydov, 1997, 1999; Ehrenberg et al., 1998;
Davydov and Krainer, 1999; Leven and Davydov, 2001). It
should be noted that in the North American midcontinent
this boundary occurs two major cycles below the previously
proposed upper Pennsylvanian major sequence boundary at
the base of Hepler Shales of the Pleasanton Group (Ross and
Ross, 1988; Heckel et al., 1998).
Although the working group of the ICS Subcommision for
the Carboniferous to establish the GSSP for the Moscovian
Kasimovian boundary has been active for more than ten years
and has gained signicant insight into boundary correlations
(Villa, 2001), no decision regarding denition of this boundary
has been forthcoming. The conodont species Streptognatho-
dus subexcelsus, that characterized the basal beds of the Kasi-
movian Stage in the Moscow Basin, has been described just
tential is not clear. Idiognathodus saggitalis and Idiognathodus
nodocarinatus, proposed as potential index taxa for a GSSP of
the MoscovianKasimovian boundary (Barrick and Lambert,
1999; Alekseev et al., 2002), appear well above the existing
boundary, and would cause a redenition of both the Mosco-
vian and Kasimovian Stages, and most likely the replacement
of the Kasimovian Stage with the Missourian and, correspond-
ingly, the Gzhelian Stage with the Virgilian.
An alternative denition of the GSSP within the evolu-
tionary chronocline of primitive and advanced fusulinids be-
longing in the genus Protriticites has been proposed recently
(Davydov et al., 1999b; Davydov, 2002). These fauna are widely
distributed throughout the Tethyan and Boreal biogeographic
provinces and have now also been found in the North Amer-
ican Great Basin within mid to upper Desmoinesian Strata
(Wahlman et al., 1997; Davydov et al., 1999b).
Although usage of benthic markers to dene a GSSP could
be considered a disadvantage, it is successfully used for the base
of the Visean (Sevastopulo et al., 2002). The proposed fusulinid
denition will keep the MoscovianKasimovian boundary at
its classical level and will provide stability of the generally
accepted Pennsylvanian scale.
In the ammonite zonation, the MoscovianKasimovian
boundary is set at the base of the DunbaritesParashumardites
Zone of Ruzhenzev (1955). However, this zone is different
from the Parashumardites Zone of Ramsbottom and Saun-
ders (1985), which characterizes the base of the Missourian.
The DunbaritesParashumardites Zone occurs at the base of
the Wewoka Formation of the upper Desmoinesian (Ruzhen-
zev, 1974). The base of the DunbaritesParashumardites Zone
most probably correlates with the Wewokites Subzone of
the Wellerites Zone of Boardman et al. (1994). A long-
standing suggestion from ammonoid study that the base of the

Kasimovian Stage lies within the upper Desmoinesian
(Ruzhenzev, 1974) is now supported by evidence from fusulin-
ids (Davydov, 1997; Davydov et al., 1999b; Wahlman et al.,
1997) and conodonts (Heckel et al., 1998).
GZHELIAN
The Gzhelian Stage, proposed in the late nineteenth century
(Nikitin, 1890), became widely used only in the middle of the
twentieth century, in connection with the fusulinid zonation
established in the Moscow Basin (Rauser-Chernousova, 1941)
and elsewhere in the Boreal and Tethyan faunal provinces.
The name of the stage comes from the small village of Gzhel,
famous for porcelain teapots and earthenware, produced from
the lower Gzhelian clay, which is still mined around this
area. A series of localities proposed by Nikitin as types of
the stage near the villages of Rusavkino, Amerevo, Pavlovo-
Posad and Noginsk, became type sections for a regional divi-
sion (i.e. horizons) of the stage (Rosovskaya, 1950; Makhlina
et al., 1979). The top of the Gzhelian has changed posi-
tion through time and has stabilized only recently when the
GSSP for the base of the Permian was ratied (Davydov et al.,
1998).
The base of the stage exposed near the village of Gzhel is an
unconformity (Makhlina et al., 1979), and is interpreted to be
a second-order sequence boundary (Briand et al., 1998). The
traditional lower boundary of the Gzhelian Stage is the rst
appearance of the fusulinid species Rauserites rossicus and R.
stuckenbergi (Rauser-Chernousova, 1941; Rosovskaya, 1950).
However, in the type location near Gzhel, only Rauserites
rossicus has been recovered. It is likely that R. stuckenbergi
appears slightly higher in the section (Rauser-Chernousova,
1958; Davydov, 1986). The rst appearance of the fusulinids
Daixina, Jigulites, and Rugosofusulina has also been proposed
as an operational index for the lower boundary of the Gzhelian
Stage (Rosovskaya, 1975; Rauser-Chernousova and Schegolev,
1979; Davydov, 1990). These genera are absent from the Amer-
icas, except for the Canadian Arctic.
The ICS working group for the MoscovianKasimovian
boundary is attempting to dene the KasimovianGzhelian
boundary. The rst appearance of Streptognathodus zethus, sup-
posedly found in the lowest Gzhelian (Rechitian Horizon) in
the Moscow Basin and in the Little Pawnee Shale Member of
the Haskell Formation in the North American midcontinent
(Heckel et al., 1998; Barrick and Heckel, 2000), was indicated
to be close to the KasimovianGzhelian boundary (Heckel et
al., 1998). However, the FAD of S. zethus is middle Kasimovian
(Chernykh, 2002) and cannot be used to dene the base of the
The Carboniferous Period 233
Gzhelian Stage. Villa (2001) suggested that either the rst ap-
pearance of S. zethus or the rst appearance of more advanced
Idiognathodus simulator (sensu stricto) could be used to mark the
KasimovianGzhelian boundary, and the latter option is now
being actively pursed by the working/task group.
On the Russian Platform, in the Donetz Basin, south-
ern Urals, and Central Asia, the base of the Gzhelian coin-
cides with a low sea-level sequence boundary (Alekseev et al.,
1996; Briand et al., 1998; Davydov et al., 1999b; Leven and
Davydov, 2001). On the North American midcontinent, the
Haskell Limestone is interpreted to represent the transition to
a highstand system tract-maximum ooding surface (Heckel,
1989; Ritter, 1995). Therefore, these two levels cannot be
isochronous. This evidence suggests that a proposed denition
of the base of Gzhelian and its correlation with the re-dened
base of Virgilian (at the Haskel Formation) requires further
consideration.
The ammonoid denition of the Gzhelian and its base is
not certain. The lower boundary of the ShumarditesVidrioceras
ammonoid zone has been conventionally placed at the base of
the Gzhelian Stage (Bogoslovskaya et al., 1999). However, the
genus Shumardites, in the southern Urals, ranges from the up-
per Gzhelian to the top of the Carboniferous (Popov et al., 1985;
Davydov, 2001) and has a similar stratigraphic distribution in
North America (Boardman et al., 1994). Several ammonoid
genera, which were considered to be typical Orenburgian
Virgilian (i.e. upper Gzhelian) were found recently in lower
Gzhelian, Kasimovian, and, even, Moscovian strata (Popov,
1992; Boardman et al., 1994).
1 5 . 2 C A R B O N I F E RO U S S T R AT I G R A P H Y
15.2.1 Biostratigraphy
B I O S T R AT I G R A P H I C Z O NAT I O N S O F A M M O N O I D S,
FORAMINIFERA, AND CONODONTS
Brachiopods were the rst fossil group used to calibrate the
Carboniferous stratigraphic sequence: for the Mississippian
in Western Europe (Delepine, 1911) and the Pennsylvanian
in Eastern Europe (Nikitin, 1890). Although brachiopods are
still used within certain regions (Carter, 1990; Legrand-Blain,
1990; Poletaev and Lazarev, 1994; etc.), their correlation po-
tential is considered to be more local.
Since the beginning of the twentieth century, the am-
monoid successions in the Mississippian and early Pennsyl-
vanian of western Europe (Wedekind, 1918; Bisat, 1924, 1928;
Schmidt, 1925; Ramsbottom and Saunders, 1985) and in the
entire Carboniferous in eastern Europe (Ruzhenzev, 1965;
234 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
Ruzhenzev and Bogoslovskaya, 1978) have served as chrono-
stratigraphic standards in inter-regional and global correlation
(Fig. 15.1).
Together with the ammonoid zonations, the foraminiferal
zonation established in the Mississippian (Lipina and
Reitlinger, 1970; Mamet and Skipp, 1970; Conil et al.,
1977) and Pennsylvanian (Rauser-Chernousova, 1941, 1949;
Rosovskaya, 1950; Solovieva, 1977; Ross and Ross, 1988) is the
most practical inter-regional biostratigraphic standard. How-
ever, because of signicant provincialism in both groups of
fossils, particularly at the time of assembly of Pangea, and the
beginning of the Carboniferous Gondwana glaciation, differ-
ent standard zonations are used for eastern and western hemi-
spheres (i.e. Eurasia and surrounding areas in the east versus
America in the west).
The conodont succession, although least studied and also to
some degree provincial, over the last three decades has become
the most reliable tool for the calibration and geochronological
boundary denition within the Carboniferous (Fig. 15.1). The
zonations established in the Mississippian and Pennsylvanian
in North America and Europe (Higgins, 1975; Sandberg et al.,
1978; Dunn, 1970; Lane et al., 1971, 1980; Barskov and Alek-
seev, 1975; Barskov et al., 1980) are used world-wide and are
actively rened (Nemirovskaya and Alekseev, 1995; Skompski
et al., 1995; Heckel et al., 1998; Nemirovskaya, 1999; Lambert
et al., 2001; Chernykh, 2002).
O T H E R M A R I N E M I C RO - A N D M AC RO FAU NA
( C O R A L S, R A D I O L A R I A , O S T R AC O D S )
The majority of the other biostratigraphical events are cal-
ibrated relative to ammonoid, conodont, and foraminiferal
scales. Although a global coral zonation has been proposed
(Sando, 1990), Mississippian corals have generally only re-
gional biostratigraphic signicance (Poty, 1985; Kossovaya,
1996; Bamber and Fedorowski, 1998), but great biogeographic
and paleoenvironmental utility.
Radiolaria as a pelagic microfossil group have high
biostratigraphic potential (Nazarov and Ormiston, 1985;
Holdsworth and Murchey, 1988; Gourmelon, 1987; Nazarov,
1988; Braun and Schmidt-Efng, 1993; Won, 1998; Chuvashov
et al., 1999). However, their zonation in the Carboniferous is
still poorly developed and has been utilized, generally, only at
regional levels.
Ostracods are widely distributed in the Carboniferous and
in several regions were utilized for detailed regional biostratig-
raphy (Chizhova, 1977; Gorak, 1977; Crasquin, 1985; Abushik
et al., 1990). However, the chronostratigraphic value of ostra-
cods is limited by paleoecological, facies, and paleoclimatic
factors.
Crinoids, because of the rare occurrence of complete spec-
imens, are not commonly used in Carboniferous biostratigra-
phy. However, an alternative classication of crinoid columnals
and stems and biostratigraphic zonation at the stadial level has
recently been proposed (Stukalina, 1988). Because of the on-
togenetical approach of this classication, it can potentially
be used for detailed biostratigraphy over large areas. Crinoid
stems occur in a wide variety of facies and environmental con-
ditions.
P L A N T S A N D PA LY N O L O G Y
Plants were one of the rst fossil groups utilized for dating
Carboniferous coal basins. The Carboniferous was a time of
considerable evolutionary activity in the creation of megataxa
and their provincial differentiations. Zonal oristic successions
have been proposed in several regions along the equatorial
climatic belt and were unied by Wagner (1984) as 16 oral
zones for the entire Carboniferous. Floral successions in the
higher latitudes, such as the Angara Province in the northern
hemisphere (Meyen et al., 1996) and the Gondwana Province in
the southern hemisphere (Archangelsky et al., 1995) are much
less developed.
Palynological assemblages provide one of the commonest
dating methods for Carboniferous coal elds and hydrocar-
bon deposits. Although the palynological spore assemblages
are different from region to region, they are successfully used
in several basins (Inosova et al., 1976; Clayton et al., 1977; Byv-
sheva et al., 1979; Owens, 1984; Higgs et al., 1988; Byvsheva
and Umnova, 1993; Peppers, 1996).
15.2.2 Physical stratigraphy
M AG N E T O S T R AT I G R A P H Y
The Carboniferous polarity scale is not yet well known, but
current views, based on composite sections, are summarized
in Fig. 15.1. The most signicant general feature of the Car-
boniferous magnetic eld is a long late Carboniferous interval
of reverse polarity that continues into the early Permian, form-
ing the Kiaman chron of predominantly reverse polarity.
The Mississippian and lower Pennsylvanian in terms of
magnetostratigraphic classication developed in the former
Soviet Union belong to the Donetzian mixed normalreversal
megazone with two superzones: Tikhvinian and Debaltze-
vian (Khramov and Rodionov, 1981). The former includes the
stratigraphic interval from the upper Devonian (mid Fransian)
 The Carboniferous Period 235

up to the base of the Serpukhovian. The Debaltzevian Super-

zone is equal to the SerpukhovianMoscovian stratigraphic Carboniferous geochemical trends
Temperature
13C
87 86
interval. The Tournaisian magneto-zonal portion of the scale Sr/ Sr trends

0.7075

0.7080

0.7085
AGE Stage (0/00 PDB) 18O (0/00 PDB)
is based on data from the far east of Russia and Belgian classical (Ma) 1 3 5 2 4 6

sections (Kolesov, 1984, 2001). Permian Cooler <> Warmer

300

Pennsylvanian
The ViseanSerpukhovianBashkirian part of the Gzhelian
305 Kasimovian
magneto-zonal scale is based on sections from northern and Moscovian
310
central Appalachia Pennsylvania, New Brunswick, Nova
315 Bashkirian
Scotia; (DiVenere and Opdyke, 1991a,b), Donetz Basin, and
320
Moscow Basin (Khramov et al., 1974; Khramov, 2000). Post- Serpukhovian
325
Bashkirian magnetostratigraphy is based on sections from 330

Mississippian
Australia, Donetz Basin, southern Urals, North Caucasus, and 335
Visean
Central Asia (Irving and Parry, 1963; Khramov and Davydov, 340
1984, 1993; Davydov and Khramov, 1991; Opdyke et al., 2000). 345
The late Pennsylvanian belongs to the Permo 350
Carboniferous Reversed Hyperchron interval, or Kiaman, Tournaisian
355

as originally described in Australia by Irving and Parry 360

(1963). The Kiaman Hyperchron is recognized as a very long Devonian

period of reversed polarity of Earths magnetic eld spanning Figure 15.3 Geochemical trends during the Carboniferous Period.
approximately 5060 Ma, and has been considered one of the The schematic carbon isotope curve is a 5-myr averaging of global
important Paleozoic magnetostratigraphic markers. The age data (Veizer et al., 1999) from Hayes et al. (1999; downloaded from
of the base of the Kiaman in terms of the chronological scale www.nosams.whoi.edu/jmh). The 87 Sr/86 Sr LOWESS curve for
has not been resolved. In Australia, the base of the Kiaman was the interval is based on the data of Denison et al. (1994) and other
originally dened immediately above the Paterson Volcanics sources see Chapter 7. The oxygen isotope curves (inverted scale)
beds dated as 309310 Ma (Palmer et al., 1985): i.e. as it was are derived from a 3-myr interval averaging of global data compiled
thought to be close to the base of Westphalian of the western by Veizer et al. (1999; as downloaded from www.science.uottawa.ca/
European stratigraphic scale, or to the base of Atokan in terms geology/isotope data/ in January 2003). Large-scale global shifts to
higher oxygen-18 values in carbonates generally are interpreted as
of North American scale. However the age of the Paterson
cooler seawater or glacial episodes, but there are many other
Volcanics has been reinterpreted recently as 328.5 1.4 Ma
contributing factors (e.g. Veizer et al., 1999, 2000; Wallmann, 2001).
(Claoue-Long et al., 1995), which would place the base of
the Kiaman in the type area within the Visean (Opdyke and
A single, but pronounced normal polarity zone within
Channell, 1996).
the lower Kiaman Hyperzone, which was originally found
The youngest pre-Kiaman normal polarity zone age has
in Donetz Basin (Khramov, 1963) was reported in southwest
been found within approximately Westphalian A Strata (i.e.
USA, Germany, Caucasus, southern Urals, and Central
mid Atokan and latest Bashkirian) in Nova Scotia and in the
Asia (Peterson and Nairn, 1971; Dachroth, 1976; Khramov
Northern Appalachians (DiVenere and Opdyke, 1991a). Simi-
and Davydov, 1984). This zone has been named the
larly, a normal polarity zone radiometrically constrained within
Kartamyshian (Davydov and Khramov, 1991). In the south-
317 and 313 Ma has been found recently in eastern New South
ern Urals and Central Asia, the Kartamyshian Zone has been
Wales, Australia (Opdyke et al., 2000), essentially at the same
precisely constrained within the uppermost Carboniferous
level as in the Northern Appalachians.
fusulinid zone Ultradaixiana sbytauensisSchwagerina robusta
Khramov (1987) found in Donetz Basin three normal
and, therefore, is an important magnetostratigraphic marker
polarity zones within the lowermiddle Moscovian. Opdyke
for separation of the Carboniferous and Permian Periods.
et al. (1993) re-studied BashkirianMoscovian sequences in
Donetz Basin but did not conrm the proposed magneto-
C H E M I C A L S T R AT I G R A P H Y: S TA B L E I S O T O P E S
zones as Moscovian. However, Khramov (2000) suggested that
O F S r, O, A N D C
the zones in the BashkirianMoscovian in Donetz Basin are
present in the siliciclastic rocks (siltstones and sandstones), In the Carboniferous, chemostratigraphy has only recently
which were not studied by Opdyke et al. (1993). become useful (Fig. 15.3). The degree of lithication
236 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
in many Palaeozoic rocks makes alteration of original
chemical signals a signicant problem (Grossman et al.,
1996).
For 87 Sr/86 Sr stratigraphy, the most useful fossils are bra-
chiopods with thick, large, non-luminiscent shells (Bruckschen
et al., 1999), but whole rocks have also proven useful in es-
tablishing trends (Denison et al., 1994). Conodonts, which
alter easily during burial diagenesis, have little potential for
chemostratigraphy unless they have a CAI of 1 (Martin and
Macdougall, 1995; Ruppel et al., 1996). The range of 87 Sr/86 Sr
in the Carboniferous is large (from 0.707 67 to 0.708 31;
Fig. 15.3) and denes a broad minimum between highs ap-
proximately coincident with the boundaries of the period.
The poor quality of the 87 Sr/86 Sr curve for the period owes
much to the difculty of correlating sections used in curve
construction.
Reconnaissance curves for 13 C and 18 O have been pro-
duced by Veizer et al. (1999; Fig. 15.3). Rened curves of
these isotopes precisely tied to the chronostratigraphic scale
have been published (Mii et al., 1999; Bruckschen et al., 1999;
Grossman et al., 2002; Saltzman, 2003).
Two major, possibly global, peaks in 13 C distribution
were found in the Carboniferous. A brief positive excursion
of 13 C up to +7% corresponds to the middle Tournaisian
(upper Kinderkhokian) S. isosticha conodont zone (lower Mc5
Zone) in southeast Idaho, southeast Nevada, northeastern
Utah, northern Iowa, and in the Dinant Basin, western Europe
(Bruckschen and Veizer, 1997; Mii et al., 1999; Saltzman,
2002). A large 13 C shift, of approximately +6% has been doc-
umented across the MississippianPennsylvanian transition
in the paleo-Tethyan regions (Popp et al., 1986; Bruckschen
et al. 1999; Mii et al., 1999; Grossman et al., 2002; Saltzman,
2003). In North America, this shift is late Chesterian and
early Morrowan (SerpukhovianBashkirian) and is reduced
by +1.52.5%, which most probably reects changes in ocean
circulation patterns associated with the closing of the equa-
torial seaway. Based on the timing of the 13 C divergence
between North America and Europe, the isolation of Paleo-
Tethys began in the late Serpukhovian. Similarly, the onset
of the provincialism of benthic fauna (western Euramerica
versus Paleo-Tethys) is coincident with this paleotectonic
event (equatorial seaway closure). All these data support a
scenario in which the closure of a subequatorial oceanic gate-
way during the assembly of Pangea altered the oceanic distri-
bution of nutrients and led to enhanced poleward transport
of heat and moisture. This change marks the transition
from a cool, moisture-starved Gondwana to the ice-house
world of the Pennsylvanian and Early Permian (Saltzman,
2003).
It should be noted that 13 C shifts preceded major coal
burial. The middle Tournaisian positive 13 C excursion is
56 myr earlier than late Tournaisian and early Visean coal
burial in the Moscow Basin, East Siberia, and Urals; the large
13 C shift across the MississippianPennsylvanian transition
also appears approximately 56 myr earlier than the major
coal burial in western Europe, Donetz Basin, the Appalachian
Basin, and northern China. If this is a general rule, then it
might be expected that for the Permian coal-forming episodes,
a 13 C shift in the ArtinskianKungurian would have pre-
ceded the burial of KungurianRoadian coal and a similar shift
in Capitanian time would have preceded Wuchiapingian coal
burial.
S E Q U E N C E S T R AT I G R A P H Y
Sequence stratigraphy is widely applicable to the Carbonifer-
ous cyclic sequences because they are generally considered to
be glacio-eustatic and therefore global in distribution (Rams-
bottom, 1977; Caputo and Crowell, 1985; Veevers and Powell,
1987). Ross and Ross (1987, 1988) proposed a global framework
of transgressiveregressive depositional cycles in the marine
shallow-water cratonic shelves of the CarboniferousPermian
tropical and subtropical regions.
It is generally accepted by most biostratigraphers and pa-
leontologists that sea-level uctuations are one of the major
factors that drive the evolution of marine organisms. Current
theory suggests that generally all zonal and/or stadial ben-
thic assemblages are bounded by unconformities (Ross and
Ross, 1994, 1995b, 1996). Based on this assumption we con-
clude that sea-level lowstands, represented in the sedimentary
record as sequence boundaries, coincide with major evolution-
ary extinctions of shallow-water fauna and that the origina-
tion of species is closely associated with the subsequent trans-
gression. As applied to foraminiferal zonation in the Russian
Platform and Urals regions, this model suggests that in most
cases foraminiferal zones are bounded by eustatic sequences al-
though some species may extend through several depositional
sequences. Another important insight derived from this model
is that many series and stage boundaries appear associated with
major and long hiatuses during times of lowered sea levels (Ross
and Ross, 1995a, p. 220).
Many geologists expect sequence boundaries to correspond
with system, series, and stage boundaries and foraminiferal
zonal subdivisions even when sedimentological evidence is
 The Carboniferous Period 237

Table 15.1 Comparison of age estimates and durations of 1 5 . 3 C A R B O N I F E RO U S T I M E S C A L E

Carboniferous sub-periods from selected time scales published in
15.3.1 Previous scales
recent years
There is very little agreement among recent reviews of the
Mississippian Pennsylvanian Carboniferous time scale in estimates of the boundary of
Base Top Duration Top Duration the two subsystems (Table 15.1), although new data suggest
(Ma) (Ma) (myr) (Ma) (myr) that at least the base and top of the Carboniferous may now
Harland et al. 362.5 322.8 39.7 290 32.8 achieve some measure of numerical age stability, as explained
(1990) below.
Young and 354 314 40 298 16 As with the Devonian, there is a limited number of good-
Laurie (1996) quality and chronostratigraphically precise dates within the
Tucker et al. 362
period. As a result, various assumptions have been made about
(1998)
Compston 359.6 the duration of stages or of zones. For example, GTS89 in
(2000a) Harland et al. (1990) assigned equal duration to 50 biochrons
Compston 362 from the foraminiferal zones in the Donetz Basin.
(2000b)
Ross and 360 320 40 286 34
Ross (1988) 15.3.2 Radiometric data
Jones (1995) 356 317 39 300 17
Menning et al. 354 312 42 292 20 The detailed and high-resolution conodontammonoid zona-
(2000)a tion for the Carboniferous, with over 3540 zones (Fig. 15.1)
Menning et al. 354 320 34 292 28 is in contrast to the 21 radiometric dates employed in Car-
(2000)b boniferous time scale building. With a duration of the Car-
Menning and 358 320 38 296 24 boniferous Period close to 60 myr, the average resolution of
Hendrich
a zone is equivalent to 1.51.0 myr, whereas the radiomet-
(2002)
Heckel (2002)c 320 290 30 ric resolution is much less. Worse, some stages have very few
GTS2004 359.2 318.1 41.1 299.0 19.1 dates. It is important that the 40 Ar/39 Ar age dates assigned
to well-constrained western European Namurian and West-
a Data from ArAr analyses only.
b
phalian stages be correlated with the standard marine stages of
Data from UPb, ArK, and RbSr analyses only.
c Includes sedimentation rate estimates. the Moscow syncline dened by conodonts, foraminifera, and
ammonoids. Correlation is much more difcult for the over-
lying continental Stephanian and may have to rely heavily on
lacking (Izart et al., 1998, 1999; Stemmerik et al., 1995; numerical dating.
Samuelsberg and Pickard, 1999). That this is not always the The Carboniferous time scale presented here must be con-
case is shown by the CarboniferousPermian boundary (base sidered tentative. The normalization and interpolation meth-
of the Asselian Stage). The global cyclic deposition model sug- ods and relative scaling of stages with conodont and ammonoid
gests that the base of the Asselian is a major sequence boundary. zones are explained below.
The boundary that has been established in the southern Urals Table 15.2 lists Carboniferous radiometric dates, with em-
is suggested to be synchronous with the Roca Shales, near the phasis on available 40 Ar/39 Ar, HRSIMS, and TIMS ages,
base of the Grenola Limestone in the midcontinent of North that were judged suitable for the Carboniferous time scale.
America, and with the base of Neal Ranch Formation, in West For most of the Mississippian, spanning 3035 myr, there
Texas (Ross and Ross, 1985, 1988). But recent conodont data are few age dates. Unlike the Ordovician through Devo-
suggest that the base of the Grenola Limestone correlates with nian, where detailed comparison of HRSIMS and TIMS
the uppermost Grey Limestone of the Gaptank Formation, ages was performed (see Chapters 1214, and Fig. 14.4),
West Texas, and with the uppermost Asselian, southern Urals there is no systematic comparison between these different
(Wardlaw and Davydov, 2000), and therefore differs from the types of dates that may assist, or at least lead to, an empir-
CarboniferousPermian boundary in the southern Urals by at ical calibration. Hence, the HRSIMS dates are used with
least 35 myr. caution.
Table 15.2 Selected isotopic radiometric age dates for the Carboniferous time scale using TIMS, HRSIMS, and 40 Ar/39 Ar methods

Range of the
horizontal error
bars for each age
date, in
Standard
Biostratigraphic Composite
No. Sample Locality Formation Comment Zone and age reliability References Age (Ma) Type Units (SCU)

1 Zircon Usolka Tuffaceous ID-TIMS date of 299.0 Four samples are precisely 1 Ramezani et al. 299.0 1.0 UPb 19141921
section, marls 1.0 Ma (2-sigma) for constrained within (2003); (2-sigma) (1917)
southern the youngest zircon AsselianGzhelian Chuvashov
Urals region, population transition: rst sample 1.0 et al. (1990a,b);
Russia m below base of the Davydov et al.
Permian; second, 0.4 m (2002)
below base; third, 0.05 m
above base of the Permian;
fourth, 1.5 m above the
base.
CarboniferousPermian
boundary precisely dened
in the basis of conodonts
2 Paleosol Sacramento Paleosol calcite 34 UPb dates on From regional correlations 3 Rasbury et al. 306.0 2.6 UPb 18371889
calcite Mts. from cycle 50, paleo-soil calcite give considered to be within (1998) (2-sigma) (1890)
Holder Fm 306.0 2.6 Ma (2-sigma) lower Virgilian; although
unknown biostratigraphic
constraints it is allowed here
with low weight in the
tting method
3 Sanidine Baden- Tuff ArAr plateau age of From inter-regional 3 Hess and 302.51 0.6 ArAr 18411907
Baden, SW Baden-Baden, sanidines from coal correlations considered to Lippolt (1986); (1-sigma) (1820)
Germany possibly upper tonsteins, proposed age be within lower to middle Davydov
Stephanian C, 300.3 0.6 Ma Gzhelian; although of poor (1990); Burger
but (1-sigma). Re-calibration biostratigraphic constraint et al. (1997)
stratigraphic with MMhb-1 of 523.1 it is allowed here with low
position yields an age of 302.51 weight in the tting method
uncertain 0.6 Ma (1-sigma)
4 Sanidine Saar, SW Tonstein 0, ArAr plateau age of From inter-regional 2 Burger et al. 304.22 0.6 ArAr 18091841
Germany Dilsburger Fm sanidines from coal correlations considered to (1997); (2-sigma) (1842)
of middle tonsteins of 302.0 0.6 be within lower Davydov
Stephanian A Ma (1-sigma). Kasimovian; although of (1992)
Re-calibration with poor biostratigraphic
MMhb-1 of 523.1 yields constraint it is allowed here
an age of 304.22 0.6 with low weight in the
Ma (1-sigma) tting method
5 Sanidine Donetz C2 6 (L) ArAr plateau age of Presence of Neognathodus 1 Hess et al. 307.75 1.5 ArAr 17451757
Basin, 3 km Formation, sanidines from coal atokaensis below Limestone (1999); (1-sigma)
north of l3 1 coal tonstein tonsteins of 305.5 1.5 L4 and appearance of Nemirovskaya
Lutugino, located Ma (1-sigma), calibrated Neognathodus medadultimus (1999);
Ukraine between against MMhb-1 of and N. colombiensis above Nemirovskaya
Limestone L4 520.4 1.7 Ma and Limestone L6 allow to et al. (1999);
and L5 BMus (laboratory correlation of Limestone Makhlina et al.
muscovite standard of L4 L6 interval with (2001)
326.2 1.9 Ma); middleupper Kashirian
re-calibration with (upper lower Moscovian) of
MMhb-1 of 523.1 yields Moscow Basin
an age of 307.75 1.5
Ma (1-sigma)
6 Sanidine Saar, SW Tonstein 1, ArAr plateau age of From inter-regional 2 Burger et al. 310.26 1.8 ArAr 17451783
Germany Heiligenwalder sanidines from coal correlations considered to (1997); (2-sigma)
Fm of lower tonsteins of 308.0 1.8 be close to lowerupper Nemirovskaya
Westphalian D Ma (1-sigma) was Moscovian boundary; (1999)
originally calibrated with although of poor
P-207 muscovite (82.6 biostratigraphic constraint
1.0 Ma), and with it is allowed here with low
MMhb-1 of 520.4 1.7 weight in the tting method
Ma; re-calibration with
MMhb-1 of 523.1 yields
an age of 310.26 1.8
Ma (2-sigma)
(cont.)
Table 15.2 (cont.)

Range of the
horizontal error
bars for each age
date, in
Standard
Biostratigraphic Composite
No. Sample Locality Formation Comment Zone and age reliability References Age (Ma) Type Units (SCU)

7 Sanidine Saar, SW Tonstein 3, ArAr plateau age of From inter-regional 2 Burger et al. 312.0 2.0 ArAr 17271757
Germany Sulzbacher Fm sanidines from coal correlations considered to (1997); (1-sigma)
of middle tonsteins of 309.7 2.0 be close to lowerupper Nemirovskaya
Westphalian C Ma (1-sigma), was Moscovian boundary; (1999)
originally calibrated with although of poor
P-207 muscovite (82.6 biostratigraphic constraint
1.0 Ma) and with it is allowed here with low
MMhb-1 of 520.4 1.7 weight in the tting method
Ma; re-calibration with
MMhb-1 of 523.1 yields
312.0 2.0 Ma (1-sigma)
8 Sanidine Ruhr Basin, Hagen 1; ArAr plateau age of No specics on 2 Burger et al. 311.78 1.6 ArAr 17221757
Nordrhein Dorstener Fm sanidines from coal biostratigraphy available; (1997); (1-sigma)
Westfalen, of Westphalian tonsteins of 309.5 1.6 lower Westphalian C; from Nemirovskaya
Germany C Ma (1-sigma), calibrated inter-regional correlation (1999)
with MMhb-1 of 520.4 considered to be within
1.7 Ma; re-calibration lower Moscovian; although
with MMhb-1 of 523.1 of poor biostratigraphic
yields 311.78 1.6 Ma constraint it is allowed here
(1-sigma) with low weight in the
tting method
9 Sanidine Ruhr Basin, Hagen 4 ArAr plateau age of No specics on 2 Burger et al. 313.0 1.0 ArAr 17151735
Nordrhein tonsteins; sanidines from coal biostratigraphy available; (1997); (1-sigma)
Westfalen, Dorstener Fm tonsteins of 310.0 1.0 lower Westphalian C; from Nemirovskaya
Germany of Westphalian Ma (1-sigma), calibrated inter-regional correlation (1999)
C with MMhb-1 of 520.4 considered to be within
1.7 Ma; re-calibration lower Moscovian; although
with MMhb-1 of 523.1 of poor biostratigraphic
yields 313.0 1.0 Ma constraint it is allowed here
(1-sigma) with low weight in the
tting method
10 Sanidine Seven Fire Clay Coal ArAr plateau age of Upper part of Diaboloceras 1 Kunk and Rice 313.18 0.8 ArAr 17151739
samples bed of sanidines from coal nermeiriBisatoceras (1994) (1-sigma)
collected Breathitt Fm tonsteins of 310.9 0.8 micrompalus ammonoid
along a 300 Ma (1-sigma), calibrated zone, middle Atokan (i.e.
km traverse with MMhb-1 early Moscovian) age
in the central hornblende and FCT-3
part of the sanidine; re-calibration
Appalachian with MMhb-1 of 523.1
Basin yields 313.18 0.8 Ma
(1-sigma)
11 Zircon Ruhr Basin, Z1 Tonstein, 40 UPb HRSIMS Z1 tonstein occurs 1 Claoue-Long 311.0 3.4 UPb 16981709
from Nordrhein Horster Fm of dates on 37 zircon grains immediately below Agir et al. (1995); (2-sigma)
tonstein Westfalen, Westphalian B give 311.0 3.4 Ma marine band (base of Nemirovskaya
Germany (2-sigma), calibrated to Westphalian C) with (1999);
standard zircon SL13; 6 conodonts Declinagnathodus Menning et al.
zircon grains have a marginadosus, Idiognathodus (2003)
variable and young aljutovensis, and I.
(Permian and tuberculatus. Uppermost
Cretaceous) apparent age Westphalian B (i.e.
uppermost Bashkirian)
12 Sanidine Ruhr Basin, Z1 Tonstein, ArAr plateau age of Z1 tonstein occurs 1 Burger et al. 313.0 1.3 ArAr 16981709
from Nordrhein Horster Fm of sanidines from coal immediately below Agir (1997); (1-sigma)
tonstein Westfalen, Westphalian B tonsteins of 310.7 1.3 marine band (base of Nemirovskaya
Germany Ma (1-sigma), calibrated Westphalian C) with (1999);
with MMhb-1 of 520.4 conodonts Declinagnathodus Menning et al.
1.7 Ma; re-calibration marginadosus, Idiognathodus (2001)
with MMhb-1 of 523.1 aljutovensis, and I.
Ma yields 313.0 1.3 tuberculatus. Uppermost
Ma (1-sigma) Westphalian B (i.e.
uppermost Bashkirian)
13 Zircon Harewood Arnsbergian UPb HRSIMS dates Upper part of 1 Riley et al. 314.45 4.6 UPb 15731599
from K- Borehole, Stage of on zircon grains give Euromorphoceras yatsae (1994) (2-sigma)
bentonite North England 314.4 4.6 and 314.5 (E2a3) Marine Band and
Yorkshire, 4.6 Ma (2-sigma), upper part of
UK calibrated to standard Cravenoceratoides nitidus
zircon SL13 (E2b2) Marine Band (i.e.
upper Arnsbergian and/or
uppermost Serpukhovian)
(cont.)
Table 15.2 (cont.)

Range of the
horizontal error
bars for each age
date, in
Standard
Biostratigraphic Composite
No. Sample Locality Formation Comment Zone and age reliability References Age (Ma) Type Units (SCU)

14 Sanidine Upper Ostrava Fm, ArAr plateau age of Middle Arnsbergian 2 Hess and 322.3 1.7 ArAr 15671592
from Silesian Poruba sanidines from coal boundary of Namurian A Lippolt (1986); (1-sigma) (1583)
tonstein Basin, Member; tonsteins of 319.9 1.7 (i.e. within upper Menning et al.
Ostrava, Samples Ma (1-sigma), was Serpukhovian) (1997)
Czech COT479-1 and originally calibrated with
Republic COT 479-2 P-207 muscovite (82.6
1.0 Ma), and with
MMhb-1 of 520.4 1.7
Ma; re-calibration with
MMhb-1 of 523.1 yields
an age of 322.3 1.7 Ma
(1-sigma)
15 Sanidine Upper Ostrava Fm, ArAr plateau analysis of Lower Arnsbergian of lower 2 Hess and 327.0 2.2 ArAr 15251570
from Silesian Jaklovec sanidines from coal Namurian A (i.e. within Lippolt (1986); (2-sigma) (1542)
tonstein Basin, Member; tonsteins of 325.4 2.5, lower Serpukhovian) Menning et al.
Ostrava, Samples 323.7 1.7, and 324.8 (2000)
Czech COT365-1, 1.2 Ma (all 2-sigma); was
Republic COT335-1, originally calibrated with
and COT335-2 P-207 muscovite (82.6
1.0 Ma), and with
MMhb-1 of 520.4 1.7
Ma; re-calibration with
MMhb-1 of 523.1 yields
an age of 327.0 2.2 Ma
(2-sigma)
16 Zircons Rheinisches Medebach UPb TIMS dates of The bentonite layer has 1 Trapp and 326.8 0.98 UPb 14291442
Schieferge- Formation, 326.8 0.98 Ma been found within G. Kaufmann (2-sigma) (1436)
birge, Lowermost (2-sigma) crenistria ammonoid zone of (2002)
Germany Brigantian lowermost Brigantian of
uppermost Visean
17 Zircons Harz, Lerbach TIMS dates of 334.25 Two bentonite layers were 1 Trapp and 334.25 UPb 13291336
Germany Formation, 0.95 Ma (2-sigma) and found in Gnathodus Kaufmann 0.95 (1332)
middle 334.0 0.56 Ma texanusGnathodus (2002) (2-sigma)
Holkerian (2-sigma) praebillineatus conodont
zones of middle Holkerian,
lower Visean
18 Ignimbrite Rouchel Curra Keith 56 UPb HRSIMS Ignimbrite lies between the 1 Roberts et al. 342.1 4.2 UPb 11821247
Block, Tongue, basal dates on zircon grains top of local brachiopod zone (1995a,b) (2-sigma) (1228)
Eastern unit of Native calibrated to standard S. burlingtonensis and the
Australia Dog zircon SL13; ve grains base of O. austarlis local
Ignimbrite have younger ages brachiopod zone and
Member of signicantly below correlated to a level closely
Isismurra Fm normal distribution line coincident with the
(NDL) and are TournaisianVisean
interpreted to have lost boundary
Pb subsequent to
crystallization; some
grains have older ages
signicantly above the
NDL and are identied
as xenocrysts
19 Zircons One of the Geomathematical FAD of Siphonella sulcata 1 See Chapters 8 359.2 2.5 UPb 992999
sections is statistical treatment of denes the D/C boundary, and 14 (2-sigma)
Hasselbach- latest Silurian through immediately below the
tal, earliest Carboniferous ammonoid Acumitoceras
Germany dates in Table 14.2 antecedens
calculated the Devonian
time scale, and yielded an
age of 359.2 2.5 Ma for
the Devonian
Carboniferous boundary
(see Chapters 8 and 14)

Position of stage boundaries in the composite scale (CU) of Figs. 15.4 and 15.5
Base of Asselian (Permian) 1933 CU
Base of Gzhelian 1838 CU
Base of Kasimovian 1796 CU
Base of Moscovian 1712 CU
Base of Bashkirian 1607 CU
Base of Serpukhovian 1472 CU
Base of Visean 1187 CU
Base of Tournaisian 992 CU
1 CU = 64.681 K
244 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
The rst HRSIMS is from the base of the Carboniferous
at Hasselbachtal, Germany, and the second from the Curra
Keith Tongue, Australia. Although biostratigraphic calibra-
tion of both dates is excellent, the analytical error of the applied
technique is relatively high (up to 3.2 myr, 2-sigma). Two new
TIMS dates from the Visean and Serpukhovian (dates No. 16
and 17 in Table 15.2) of the marine sequences of Germany
have recently been published (Trapp and Kaufmann, 2002).
More TIMS dates for northern Pangea are necessary in order
to build a reliable Carboniferous time scale. Variscan volcanic
activity in western and eastern Europe provide good potential
for that purpose.
Radiometric data for the SerpukhovianGzhelian interval,
spanning the younger part of Carboniferous time, lasting ap-
proximately 2535 myr, depending on the date for the base of
the Permian, mostly come from paralic successions of west-
ern Europe with marine horizons becoming scarce upwards.
Biostratigraphic correlation of these successions with the ma-
rine sections of eastern Europe continues to be a problem. The
recent discovery of numerous Pennsylvanian tuffs containing
high-quality zircons in the southern Urals provides an excep-
tional potential to build a reliable Late Carboniferous time
scale.
The 40 Ar/39 Ar dates cited for the Carboniferous in Table
15.2, which were calibrated against MMhb-1 at 520.4 Ma, were
re-calibrated to an MMhb-1 of 523.1 Ma, making those dates
0.74% older.
For the DevonianCarboniferous boundary, the age of
359.2 2.5 Ma, derived from interpolation of the Devonian
time scale, was used, as explained in detail in Chapters 8
and 14. For the CarboniferousPermian boundary, Ramezani
et al. (2003) report new dates from ash beds in the southern
Urals. One ash layer in the Usolka section lies 0.6 m above
the CarboniferousPermian boundary and contains the con-
odont Streptognathodus isolatus, the index species of the base
of the Permian. Preliminary results from conventional UPb
TIMS analyses of zircons from this and other ash beds sug-
gest an age of 299 1 Ma for the CarboniferousPermian
boundary.
15.3.3 Carboniferous and Permian composite
standard
In order to integrate and calibrate zonal successions of
foraminifera, conodonts, and ammonoids relative to each other,
and to construct the Carboniferous and Permian chronostrati-
graphic scale, graphic correlation was undertaken (Figs. 15.4
and 15.5). As explained in some detail in Chapter 3, graphic
correlation produces a composite standard that when cali-
brated in linear time yields the Carboniferous and Permian time
scale.
The composite standard (CS) for the Carboniferous in-
cludes data from most of the type and key sections of the
Serpukhovian through Gzhelian in the Russian Platform and
Urals, and also from well-studied regions such as Donetz Basin,
Central Asia, TimanPechora, Spitsbergen, and the subsur-
face of Barents Sea. In total, over 40 of the most complete
sections were composited. Three major fossil groups were in-
volved in the analysis: foraminifera (70% of the total data),
conodonts (25% of the total data), and ammonoid species
and genera (5% of the total data). Over 4000 taxa (predomi-
nantly species) were used. Uppermost DevonianTournaisian
and Visean data came mostly from Central Asia, Urals, and
Donetz Basin (12 sections). This part of the CS is less well
developed and is not calibrated against the stratotype sections
of the Tournaisian or Visean. Stratotypes of the Serpukhovian,
Bashkirian, Moscovian Kasimovian, and Gzhelian were used
as primary sections to build the entire CS. Most of the sections
may include potential defects, such as changes in sedimentation
rate, discontinuities, or an incomplete fossil record. Hence, the
resulting scale was adjusted by adding several more complete
sections from the Urals, Donetz Basin, Cantabrian Mountains,
and Central Asia. A second adjustment was done with intuitive
scaling of stages primarily based on evolution of foraminifera.
Integration of zonal successions in the Tournaisian and Visean
is less well developed, and the zonal scale there came from
the assumption of equal duration of conodont zones. Next,
the conodont zones were calibrated into the foraminiferal and
ammonoid zonation.
The composite standard (CS) for the Permian includes data
from most of the stratotype and key sections of the Cisuralian
Series of the Russian Platform and Urals, the Arctic, Central
Asia, and Donetz Basin; the Guadalupian Series includes data
from the Guadalupian Mountains, West Texas, Central Asia,
and South China; while the Lopingian Series includes data
from South China, Iran, and the Carnian Alps. Over 20 of
the most complete sections were composited. As for the Car-
boniferous, the same fossil groups were used for the compos-
ite section: foraminifera (50% of the total data), conodonts
(45% of the total data), and ammonoid species and genera
(5% of the total data) totaling over 2500 taxa (predominantly
species). The Cisuralian is well characterized by all three fossil
groups; the Guadalupian is well characterized by conodonts
and foraminifera and only poorly by ammonoids; the Lopin-
gian is basically characterized by conodonts and ammonoids
because foraminiferal data sets are poor. Because there are no
 1900
Melekhovian Pc19 Pf22
Triassic Pc18 Pf21 Pa12
Noginian
(Induan) Tc1 Ta1 Gzhelian Pavlovoposadian Pc17 Pf20

2650

1850
Lf4 Pf19 Pa11
Changhsingian La3 7 Rusavkian Pc16 Pf18
Lc7 Lf3 Pc15
Lc6 Dorogovilovian Pc14 Pf17
Khamovnichean Pc13 Pf16

2600
Lc5 Kasimovian Pf15 Pa10
6

1800
Lf2 La2 Krevyakian Pc12 Pf14
Lc4 Peskovian Pf13 Pa9

Wuchiapingian Lc3 Myachkovian Pc11 Pf12

Pa8

2550
Lc2 Podolskian Pc10 Pf11

1750
Lf1 La1 Moscovian Kashirian Pc9 Pf10
Pa7
Lc1
Tsninian Pc8 Pf9
5 Vereian Pc7 Pf8 Pa6

2500
Gc4

1700
Melekesian Pc6 Pf7 Pa5
Capitanian Gf6 Ga4 Cheremshanian Pc5 Pf6 Pa4

2450
Gc3 Prikamian Pc4 Pf5
Bashkirian Pa3

1650
Gf5 Severokeltmian Pc3 Pf4
Gf4 Ga3 Krasnopolyanian Pc2 Pf3 Pa2
Wordian Gc2
Gf3 Ga2 2400 4 Voznesenian Pc1 Pf 2
Pf 1 Pa1

1600
Gf2
Roadian Gc1 Zapaltjubian
Gf1 Ga1 Mc16 Mf17
2350

Cc12 Protvian Ma8

1550
Cf13 Ca6
Cc11
Carboniferous
Permian

Serpukhovian Mc15 Mf16

Kungurian Steshevian
2300

Cc10 Cf12 Ca5

1500
Tarussian Mc14 Mf15 Ma7
Cc9 Cf11 Ca4 3
2250

1450
Mc13
Cf10 Venevian Mf14
Artinskian Mc12
Cc8 Ca3
2200

Cf9

1400
Mikhalovian Mc11 Mf13 Ma6
2150

Aleksian Mf12

1350
Mc10
Cf8
Visean
2100

Cc7 Ca2 Tulian Mf11

1300
Sakmarian Ma5
Mf10
2050

Bobrikovian Mc9

1250
Cf7
Mf9
2000

Cc6 Cf6 Radaevian Mc8 Mf8 Ma4 1200

Cc5 2
Cf5 Mc7
Cc4 Ca1 Kosvinian Mf7
1950

Cc3 Cf4 Mc6

Asselian
1150

Cc2 Cf3 Mf6

Cf2 Kizelovian
Cc1 Cf1 Mc5 Mf5 Ma3
Cherepetian
Mf4
1100

Karakubian Mc4
Tournaisian
Upinian Mc3 Mf3 Ma2
1050

Malevian Mc2 Mf2

1000

Gumerovian Mc1 Mf1 Ma1

1
Devonian Ziganian

Figure 15.4 Relative zonal scale used to build the Carboniferous composite standard technique using graphic correlation. For details
time scale shown in Figure 15.5. The scale is build by means of a see text.
246 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

POSITION IN SCALED COMPOSITE SEQUENCE

950 1000 1050 1100 1150 1200 1250 1300 1350 1400 1450 1500 1550 1600 1650 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 2050 2100
280
Mississippian Pennsylvanian Cisuralian
Tournaisian Visean Serpukhovian Bashkirian Moscov. Kas. Gzhelian Asselian

290

Permian
300 1
Gzhelian 4
3
Kasimovian 5 5
MILLIONS OF YEARS BEFORE PRESENT

2
310 Moscovian 11 9 8
12 6
7
Bashkirian 10
13
320
Serpukhovian 14
16

330
15 Carboniferous
17
Visean
340 18

Tournaisian Radiometrically dated sample

350
Vertical error bars: two standard deviations
Horizontal error bars: range of placements within
best-fit solutions

360 19
Devonian

Figure 15.5 Construction of the Carboniferous time scale. The best-t line of the data is a cubic spline, minimally smoothed.
Radiometric age dates for the Carboniferous are given in Table 15.1 For details see text.
and are plotted against the relative zonal scale shown in Figure 15.4.

direct data between the Guadalupian and Lopingian shallow-
shelf foraminiferal succession for Tethys and the deeper-water
conodont succession of the newly established international
scale, these two biotic sequences were calibrated approximately
against each other.
The GraphCor software, developed by Hood (1977), has
been used in the compositing process. The process of composit-
ing was repeated several times, until fossil ranges stabilized.
The number of iterations varied from section to section, but
was generally between two and four. Although a mature CS is
considered to be time-signicant, it is only an idealized strati-
graphic section, and a proxy for a chronostratigraphic scale.
Comparison of the CS to sections yields lines of correlation
(LOCs) that are a function of the rock accumulation rates, not
linear time. That is, LOCs depict how rock accumulation rates
in one section differ relative to those in the CS. In order for a
CS to become a stratigraphic time scale, it must be calibrated
by radiometric dates tied to biostratigraphic boundaries. Un-
fortunately, almost none of the radiometric dates, with a few
exceptions from the Urals and South China, were directly in-
corporated in the CS.
A qualitative approach to LOC positioning was therefore
used. First and last appearance datums (FADs and LADs) of
all taxa were considered individually. Species ranges were eval-
uated according to their relative biostratigraphic importance.
Index taxa dening foraminiferal and/or conodont zones and
short-ranging species were given a greater weight in den-
ing the LOC position, while long-ranging species provided
supplementary information. FADs and LADs of taxa were
treated differently. For instance, the FAD of Raphconilia spp.
is an excellent marker for the base of the Gzhelian through-
out northern Pangea. However, the genus ranges at least
 The Carboniferous Period 247

Table 15.3 Ages and durations of Carboniferous stages

Age of base Est. myr Est. myr

Period Subperiod Stage (Ma) (2-sigma) Duration (2-sigma)

Permian 299.0 0.8

Carboniferous
Pennsylvanian
Gzhelian 303.9 0.9 4.9 0.1
Kasimovian 306.5 1.0 2.6 0.0
Moscovian 311.7 1.1 5.2 0.1
Bashkirian, base Pennsylvanian 318.1 1.3 6.4 0.2
Mississippian
Serpukhovian 326.4 1.6 8.4 0.2
Visean 345.3 2.1 18.9 0.7
Tournaisian, base Mississippian, 359.2 2.5 13.9 0.8
(base Carboniferous)
Devonian

through the Cisuralian, and the component species have strati-
graphic ranges exceeding one or more stages. The base of
each foraminiferal and/or conodont zone was included into
the database and treated as if it were a taxon; this was done
for two reasons. First, bases of these zones were used in the
correlation process in order to provide relative time indica-
tors on the graphs. Second, data points dening zonal bases
were critical in controlling LOC positions. The position of
a zonal base reects the summarized knowledge of a partic-
ular fossil assemblage. Zonal bases represent additional data
points on graphs and help to establish the most reasonable
LOC pattern even if index species were not recovered. This
approach decreases the inuence of local factors paleoenvi-
ronment, climate, facies, migration, etc. in establishing the
most reasonable correlation pattern. It is important to mention
that zonal bases alone cannot be successfully used in graphi-
cal correlation analysis because only a very general correlation
pattern can be inferred from such data. Unlike multiple tax-
onomic ranges, whose FADs and LADs represent continuous
succession of biostratigraphic events, zonal bases dene only
the presence of some parts of the corresponding biozones. For
instance, breaks in stratigraphic sections can be condently in-
ferred only if a zone is totally missing. That is, the use of zonal
bases alone does not allow interpretation of sedimentation pat-
terns within zones and amounts to little more than traditional
biostratigraphy. In addition to species ranges, generic ranges
were employed in order to increase the number of taxa utilized
in the correlation. The range of a genus, dened by the rst
and last appearance of its stratigraphically oldest and youngest
species, respectively, can be entered into the database as an
independent taxon, and thus used in the correlation process.
Stratigraphic ranges of genera are considerably longer than
those of component species and are less useful in determining
a LOC position. Nevertheless, they provide additional data
points on the graph and may be helpful in correlating sections
with inadequate sampling.
The quality of the CarboniferousPermian CS is vari-
able. The scale is shown in Fig. 15.4, with the composite
standard units (CU) needed for time scale calibration in-
serted in Table 15.2. The CS and the age dates were analyzed
mathematically to derive the Carboniferous and Permian time
scale.
15.3.4 Age of stage boundaries
The Carboniferous and Permian time scales were calculated si-
multaneously using the composite standard as explained above
and the radiometric data in Tables 15.2 and 16.1. The se-
lected radiometric age dates for the two periods were plotted
against the relative zonestage scale of Fig. 15.4 with radiomet-
ric and stratigraphic errors shown approximately. The best-t
line for the two-way plot in Fig. 15.5 of radiometric ages against
the zones and stages was calculated with a cubic spline that
combines stratigraphic uncertainty estimates with the 2-sigma
error bars of the radiometric data. This is achieved with
the Ripley MLFR procedure (See Chapter 8). A generalized
Devonian age uncertainty factor of 0.006 85 was also adopted
for the Carboniferous and Permian spline, with the excep-
tion of base-Triassic and base-Permian, which have their own
248 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
uncertainty factors derived from superior radiometric and
stratigraphic information.
Based on two successive chi-square tests, following the
procedure as used for the OrdovicianDevonian, several ages
were adjusted. The Rasbury age of 298.0 1.4 (Ma No. 9 in
Table 15.2) was given slightly higher CSU values to t the
spline better. Note its stratigraphic position is tentative and
subject to larger than average uncertainty. An external error of
1% was applied for the HRSIMS dates, as explained in Chap-
ter 6, and one 40 Ar/39 Ar 1-sigma value was enlarged (from 1.1
to 6.5 myr; No. 15 in Table 15.2). The nal spline curve is
nearly a straight line: its smoothing value was calculated with
the cross-validation technique.
The calculated duration and ages with estimates of uncer-
tainty (2-sigma) of the Carboniferous stages are given in Table
15.3. Uncertainty in stage duration is less than uncertainty in
the age of stage boundaries.
The total duration of the Carboniferous is just over 60 myr:
the Mississippian (Early Carboniferous) lasted 41 myr and the
Pennsylvanian (Late Carboniferous) 19 myr.
16 The Permian Period
. . , . , . .
269.1 Ma (mid-Permian)
Kungurian
Roadian
Wordian
Capitanian
Geographic distribution of Permian GSSPs that have been ratied
(diamonds) or are candidates (squares) on a mid-Permian map
Pangea moves north. Ice-house to greenhouse (humid to arid)
climate transition; dramatic reduction of coal swamps and amphibian
habitat; some spore-bearing plants extinct; major evaporites; changes
in internal and external carbonate invertebrate skeletons; major
diversication of fusulinid foraminifera, ammonoids, bryozoans,
and brachiopods, then major end-Permian extinction of fusulinid
foraminifera, trilobites, rugose and tabulate corals, blastoids, acantho-
dians, placoderms, and pelycosaurs; dramatic reduction of bryozoans,
brachiopods, ammonoids, sharks, bony sh, crinoids, eurypterids,
ostracodes, and echinoderms.
1 6 . 1 H I S T O RY A N D S U B D I V I S I O N S
In 1841, after a tour of Imperial Russia, R. I. Murchison, in col-
laboration with Russian geologists, named the Permian System
to take in the vast series of beds of marls, schists, limestones,
sandstones and conglomerates that surmounted the Carbonif-
A Geologic Time Scale 2004, eds. Felix M. Gradstein, James G. Ogg, and Alan
G. Smith. Published by Cambridge University Press.
c F. M. Gradstein,
J. G. Ogg, and A. G. Smith 2004.
Asselian
Changhsingian
Artinskian
Sakmarian
Wuchiapingian
(status in January, 2004; see Table 2.3). GSSPs for the
Changhsingian and Early Permian are not yet formalized.
erous System throughout a great arc stretching from the Volga
eastwards to the Urals and from the Sea of Archangel to the
southern steppes of Orenburg. He named it for the ancient
kingdom of Permia in the centre of that territory, and the city
of Perm that lies on the anks of the Urals. In 1845 he included
rocks now known as KungurianTatarian in age, and for a time
the underlying strata (Artinskian, etc.) were known as Permo-
Carboniferous, i.e. intermediate between Carboniferous and
Permian (Dunbar, 1940).
As early as 1822 (e.g. Conybeare and Phillips, 1822), the
Magnesian Limestone and New Red Sandstone of England
were well known, as were the equivalent German Rotliegendes
and Zechstein (a traditional miners name) with its valuable
Kupferschiefer. However, all these rocks lacked richly fossilif-
erous strata, were difcult to correlate, and unsuitable to justify
the erection of a new system in western Europe.
In North America, J. Mancou in 1853 recognized Permian
rocks in a large area from the Mississippi to the Rio Colorado
and noted two divisions analogous to those in western Europe.
He accordingly suggested the name Dyassic as more suitable
249
250 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
than Permian and proposed a combined Dyas and Trias as a
major period (Zittel, 1901). For further historical details on the
history of the Permian Period we refer to GTS89 (pp. 46 and
47). In Germany, the term Dyas is now being recommended
for the combined Rotliegendes and Zechstein (German Strati-
graphic Commission, 2002).
Permian biostratigraphy has been greatly rened over the
last two decades, especially through a detailed understanding
of the distribution of conodonts in relation to ammonoids and
fusulinids.
The Permian divides itself naturally into three series (Fig.
16.1). In the classic area of the southern Urals, the Upper
Carboniferous and Lower Permian (now Cisuralian) are well
represented by marine deposits and abundant biota. This ma-
rine dominance disappears in the Kungurian, and the Middle
Permian (now Guadalupian) and Upper Permian (now Lopin-
gian) are dominated by terrestrialmarginal-marine deposits.
The Guadalupian deposits of West Texas are dominated by
diversied and well-studied marine fossil assemblages, and the
deposits are the subject of seminal studies in sequence stratig-
raphy. China, Iran, and the Trans-Caucasian region are exem-
plary for their Upper Permian deposits and biota.
16.1.1 The Cisuralian Series: Lower Permian
The base of the Permian was originally dened in the Ural
Mountains of Russia to coincide with strata marking the ini-
tiation of evaporite deposition (Murchison, 1841), now recog-
nized as the Kungurian Stage. Since 1841, the base has been
lowered repeatedly to include a succession of fauna with post-
Carboniferous afnities. Karpinsky (1874) identied clastic
successions that Murchison had included in the British Mill-
stone Grit as being younger, transitional between Carbonif-
erous and Permian, and termed them the Artinskian Series.
His subsequent classic study of the abundant ammonoid fauna
(Karpinsky, 1889) led him to add the interval to the Per-
mian. Further study, especially of ammonoids, led Ruzhenzev
(1936) to recognize the Sakmarian as an independent lower
subdivision of the Artinskian. In turn, he subdivided the Sak-
marian, and referred the lower interval to the Asselian Stage
(Ruzhenzev, 1954). The base of the Asselian and of the Permian
period was dened by the appearance of the ammonoid fam-
ilies Paragastrioceratidae, Metalegoceratidae, and Popanocer-
atidae, concurrent with the rst inated fusulinaceans referable
to Schwagerina (i.e. Sphaeroschwagerina).
The base of the Asselian Stage, dened by reference to both
ammonoids and fusulinaceans, received progressively greater
recognition and eventually ofcial Russian status (Resolutions
of the Interdepartmental Stratigraphic Committee of Russia
and its Permanent Commissions Resolution on Carbonifer-
ous/Permian Boundary. St. Petersburg, 1992, pp. 5256) fol-
lowing Ruzhenzevs original proposal.
The Cisuralian was proposed by Waterhouse (1982) to com-
prise the Asselian, Sakmarian, and Artinskian Stages. The
Kungurian was included in the Cisuralian (Jin et al., 1997),
so that it corresponded to the Lower Permian as recognized in
Russia (Likharew, 1966; Kotlyar and Stepanov, 1984) and cor-
responded better to the Rotliegendes of Harland et al. (1990).
The Uralian Series, named by de Lapparent in 1900, inter-
preted by Gerasimov (1937) to include pre-Kungurian stages
of the Lower Permian, and utilized by Jin et al. (1994), has
been abandoned because the name caused too much confusion
from a history of varied usage.
ASSELIAN
The GSSP for the beginning of the Permian Period and of the
Asselian Stage is located at Aidaralash Creek, Atobe region,
northern Kazakhstan (Davydov et al., 1998). The section is
approximately 50 km southeast of the city of Atobe. A stone
and concrete marker with a plaque has been erected at the
Aidaralash section, marking the exact location of the GSSP, and
the boundary between the Carboniferous and Permian Periods.
The strata of Late Paleozoic age at Aidaralash Creek were
deposited on a narrow, shallow-marine shelf that formed the
western boundary of the orogenic zone to the east. The uvial
deltaic conglomeratesandstone successions grade upwards
into transgressive, marginal marine sequences (beach and up-
per shore face) that, in turn, grade upwards into massive
mudstonesiltstone and ne sandstone beds with ammonoids,
conodonts, and radiolaria, interpreted as maximum ooding
units. The maximum ooding zone is overlain by a regressive
sequence (progressively, offshore to shoreface to delta front),
which in turn is capped by an unconformity with an overlying
conglomerate. The critical GSSP interval is completely within
a maximum ooding unit; free of disconformities.
The position of the GSSP is at the rst occurrence of the
conodont Streptognathodus isolatus, which developed from an
advanced morphotype in the S. wabaunsensis chronocline. This
is located 27 m above the base of Bed 19, Airdaralash Creek
(Davydov et al., 1998).
The rst occurrences of Streptognathodus invaginatus and
S. nodulinearis, also morphotypes of the wabaunsensis mor-
phocline, nearly coincide with the rst occurrence of S. isolatus
in many sections, and can be used as accessory indicators for
the boundary.
Figure 16.1 Permian time scale and magnetic polarity, conodont, (1971), Khramov & Davydov (1984), Steiner (1988), Haag & Heller
fusulinid, ammonoid, vertebrate zonations, and general (1991), Heller et al. (1995), Opdyke & Channell (1996), and Opdyke
transgressiveregressive sequences. Magnetic polarity scale et al., (2000). A color version of this gure is in the color plate
compiled from Irving (1963), Khramov, (1963), Peterson & Nairn section.
252 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

Figure 16.1 (cont.)


The GSSP is 6.3 m below the traditional fusulinid bound-
ary, i.e. the base of the Sphaeroschwagerina vulgaris aktjubensis
S. fusiformis Zone (Davydov et al., 1998; Figs. 16.2 and 16.3).
The latter can be widely correlated with Spitsbergen, the Rus-
sian Platform, Urals, Central Asia, China, and Japan, and is of
practical value in identifying the boundary between the Oren-
burgian and overlying Asselian Stages.
The traditional ammonoid boundary, 26.8 m above the
GSSP, includes the termination of the ProuddenitesUddenites
lineage at the top of Bed 19, and the introduction of the Permian
taxa Svetlanoceras primore and Prostacheoceras principale in Bed
20 (Davydov et al., 1998; Figs. 16.2 and 16.3). The evolution
from Artinskia irinae to A. kazakhstanica may be a chronocline
that crosses the CarboniferousPermian boundary. A problem
with the ammonoid taxa is that they are relatively rare, and
many taxa may be endemic to the Urals.
Utilization of magnetostratigraphy to assist with recog-
nition and correlation of the CarboniferousPermian bound-
ary is difcult because it is in the Kiaman Long Reversed-
Polarity Chron (see the geologic time scale chart insert of this
book). However, Davydov et al. (1998) cite reports that show
that most of the Ultradaixina bosbytauensiSchwagerina robusta
fusulinid zone, just below the CarboniferousPermian bound-
ary in Aidaralash is characterized by normal polarity. That
same stratigraphic polarity relationship is also known else-
where from the southern Urals, and the northern Caucasus
and Donetz Basin, and possibly correlates with the normally
polarized magnetic zone in the Manebach Formation of the
Thuringian Forest (Menning, 1987).
The conodont succession observed at Airdaralash is dis-
played in several sections in the southern Urals, especially
the basinal reference section at Usolka. It is also displayed
in the Red Eagle cyclothem of the midcontinent of the USA
(Boardman et al., 1998), in the West Texas regional stratotype,
Wolfcamp Hills (Wardlaw and Davydov, 2000), and in China
(Wang, 2000), as well as in many other intervening localities,
and, therefore, serves as an excellent boundary denition.
SAKMARIAN
The proposed boundary for the Sakmarian Stage is very near
the level originally proposed by Ruzhenzev (1950b) in the same
section, Kondurovsky, Orenburg Province, Russia. A conodont
succession exhibiting the evolutionary change from Sweetog-
nathus expansus to S. merrilli at 115 m above the base (uppermost
Bed 11 of Chuvashov et al., 1993a,b) is the proposed denition.
The boundary originally proposed by Ruzhenzev (1950b) was
at the base of Bed 11, at an unconformable formation break and
The Permian Period 253
based on the change in fusulinaceans fauna, with Schwagerina
(Pseudofusulina) moelleri occurring above the break. The ac-
tual introduction of the S. moelleri group occurs in Beds
612 (Wardlaw et al., 1999), with traditional S. moelleri occur-
ring in Bed 12, just a few meters above the rst occurrence of
S. merrilli. Schwagerina merrilli is widespread and its FAD is
well constrained throughout Kansas in the upper part of the
Eiss Limestone of the Bader Limestone.
A RT I N S K I A N
The Artinskian Stage was proposed by Karpinsky in 1874, for
the sandstone of the Kashkabash Mountain on the right bank
of the Ufa River, near the village of Arty, as the stratotype.
Karpinsky (1891) studied abundant and diverse ammonoids in
several exposures and small quarries along the Ufa River. The
taxonomically diverse ammonoid assemblage from the Arty
area was distinctly more advanced than the Sakmarian one in
terms of cephalopod evolution and this stimulated Karpinsky
(1874) to dene two belts with ammonoids: the lower, at
Sakmara River, and the upper, at Ufa River.
The SakmarianArtinskian boundary deposits are well rep-
resented in the Dalny Tulkus section, a counterpart of the
Usolka section. The upper part of the Sakmarian Stage (Beds
2831) at the Usolka River and Bed 18 at the Dalny Tulkus
section are composed of dark-colored marl, argillite, and car-
bonate mudstone, or less commonly, detrital limestone with
fusulinids, radiolaria, rare ammonoids, and bivalves. The upper
part of the Sakmarian includes fusulinids characteristic of the
Sterlitamakian Horizon including Pseudofusulina longa, P. for-
tissima, P. plicatissima, P. urdalensis, and P. urdalensis abnormis.
The best GSSP section appears to be the Dalny Tulkus
section, in Russia, but a point cannot yet be dened precisely;
however, the denition will be placed at the FAD of Sweetog-
nathus whitei, derived from S. binodosus. The succession of S.
binodosus to S. whitei can also be recognized in the lower Great
Bear Cape Formation, southwest Ellesmere Island (Hender-
son, 1988; Beauchamp and Henderson, 1994; Mei et al., 2002)
and in the SchroyerFlorence Limestones of the Chase Group,
Kansas (Wardlaw et al., 2003).
KUNGURIAN
The stratotype of the Kungurian Stage was not dened when
the stage itself was established (Stuckenberg, 1890). Some-
time later, the carbonatesulphate section exposed along the
Sylva River, upstream of the town of Kungur, was arbitrarily
accepted for the stratotype. In line with the new position of
254 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
the Kungurian lower boundary at the base of the Sarana Hori-
zon (Chuvashov et al., 1999), the stratotype section in this area
consists of:
1. the Sarana Horizon, including the reefal limestone Sylva
Formation, and its lateral equivalent the Shurtan Forma-
tion, composed of marls and clayey limestone;
2. the Filippovskian Horizon; and
3. the Iren Horizon.
A disadvantage of the section is the poor fossil content of
the limey Kamai Formation underlying the Sarana Horizon; it
contains only small benthic foraminifera, bryozoans, and bra-
chiopods inappropriate for age determination. Nevertheless,
many features indicate that the formation corresponds to the
Sarana Horizon.
The Shurtan Formation and the lateral Sylva bioclas-
tic limestone facies yield conodonts of the Neostreptognatho-
dus pnevi Zone. However, another section of Artinskian
Kungurian boundary deposits, located near the Mechetlino
settlement on the Yuryuzan River, has good fauna both below
and above the boundary interval, and has been selected as the
probable stratotype of the Kungurian lower boundary.
The Cisuralian is divided into stages based on the FADs
of specic species from two lineages of conodonts. The rst,
the base of the Permian, and for that matter the zones of the
Asselian, is based on the widespread occurrence of Streptog-
nathodus species, as is most of the upper Pennsylvanian. The
members of the genus become progressively rarer and less
widespread after the beginning of the Sakmarian. The Sak-
marian through Kungurian stages are based on a lineage of
Sweetognathus and its derived daughter Neostreptognathodus.
The Asselian through Artinskian of the Uralian foredeep
can also be recognized by a conodont succession of Mesogon-
dolella species. These species are very common in the Urals,
but are rare elsewhere in the world.
16.1.2 The Guadalupian Series: Middle Permian
The Guadalupian was rst proposed by Girty at the turn of the
last century for the spectacular fossils found in the Guadalupe
and Glass Mountains of West Texas. These fauna have been
well documented and represent an unprecedented display in an
exhumed, well-preserved backreef, reef, and basin. The West
Texas depositional basins represent a tropical North Ameri-
can faunal suite, well removed from the more typical tropical
Tethyan fauna of Asia and Europe. The Middle Permian was
a time of strong provincialism and presents some complexities
for correlation. The formal establishment of the Guadalupian
and its constituent stages is based on the evolution of a single
genus of conodont, Jinogondolella. The genus has a limited
distribution, though it is common in West Texas and South
China.
ROA D I A N
The GSSP for the base of the Roadian Stage, Guadalupian
Epoch, Middle Permian, is in Stratotype Canyon, Guadalupe
Mountains National Park, Texas, USA. The marker horizon
is the rst evolutionary appearance of the conodont Jingondo-
lella nankingensis from its ancestor Mesogondolella idahoensis, at
42.7 m above the base of the black, thin-bedded limestones of
the Cutoff Formation, and 29 cm below a prominent shale band
in the upper part of the El Centro Member (Glenister et al.,
1999). This member consists of skeletal carbonate mudstone
with one shale bed, deposited in a basinal setting, proximal to
the slope. In terms of magnetostratigraphy, the Cutoff Forma-
tion indicates reversed polarity, and may fall in the Kiaman
reversed superchron. The GSSP of the Roadian Stage was
ratied in 2001.
WO R D I A N
The GSSP for the beginning of the Wordian Stage in the
Guadalupian Epoch is located in Guadalupe Pass, Texas; a
short distance from Stratotype Canyon. The marker horizon
for this stage is the rst evolutionary appearance of Jinogon-
dolella aserrata from its ancestor J. nankingensis at 7.6 m above
the base of the Getaway Ledge outcrop section in Guadalupe
Pass, Guadalupe Mountains National Park, Texas, USA. This
level is just below the top of the Getaway Limestone Member of
the Cherry Canyon Formation, a succession of skeletal carbon-
ate mudstone in a base of slope depositional setting (Glenister
et al., 1999). Like the Roadian sediments in the type area, the
Wordian Stage limestones of the Guadalupian National Park
also display reversed polarity. The GSSP of the Wordian Stage
was ratied in early 2001.
C A P I TA N I A N
Like the GSSPs for the Roadian and Wordian Stages in the
Middle Permian, the GSSP for the Capitanian Stage was also
selected in the Guadalupian National Park. The marker hori-
zon for the Capitanian Stage is the rst evolutionary appear-
ance of the conodont Jinogondolella postserrata within the lin-
eage nanginkensisaserratapostserrata. This level is at 4.5 m

in the outcrop section at Nipple Hill, in the upper Pinery
Limestone Member of the Bell Canyon Formation (Glenister
et al., 1999). The GSSP is in monotonous, pelagic carbonates,
representing a lower slope depositional setting. The level of
the date is 37.2 m below the base of the J. postserrata entry
(Bowring et al., 1998). Few samples in the Pinery Limestone
and overlying Lamar Limestone of the Bell Canyon Formation
display normal polarity, indicative of the approximate position
of the Illawara Reversal. The GSSP of the Capitanian Stage
was ratied in early 2001.
The abundant and well-preserved conodont fauna of West
Texas show that the genus of Jinogondolella and its species
evolved through short-lived transitional morphotypes, gen-
erally through a mosaic of paedomorphogenesis (retention
of juvenile characters in later and later growth stages). The
rst species of the genus, J. nankingensis, is also the marker
for the Guadalupian and its basal stage, the Roadian. The
species is abundant in West Texas and South China but oc-
curs rarely in several other sites (i.e. Canadian Arctic, Pamirs);
however, its distribution along the western coast of Pangea rep-
resents a geographical cline from the tropical Delaware Basin
(West Texas) to the upwelling-inuenced Phosphoria Basin
(Idaho) to temperate Canadian Arctic and exhibits overlap
with several genera, especially within the Phosphoria Basin
where it is abundant, and provides excellent correlation glob-
ally. The cline is conrmed to be geographic (nearly syn-
chronous) by the co-occurrence and coincident range with
Neostreptognathodus newelli in the Delaware and Phosphoria
Basins.
The Illawarra geomagnetic reversal is an important tie
point for the Guadalupian and the base of the Capitanian.
The Illawarra reversal is well known from the lower part of
the Tatarian in the Volga region of Russia (Gialanella et al.,
1997). It has also been documented from Pakistan. Haag and
Heller (1991) show that normal polarity starts at the base of the
Wargal Formation in the Nammal Gorge, Salt Range, which is
the base of the Illawarra reversal (F. Heller, pers. comm; 1998).
Peterson and Nairn (1971) record a reversal in West Texas
New Mexico that has been interpreted with additional study
by Menning (2000) to occur just below the Pinery Limestone
Member of the Bell Canyon Formation.
The ammonoid genus Waagenoceras has long been associ-
ated with the Guadalupian, and, in particular, the Wordian.
The distribution of the conodont Jinogondolella, which char-
acterizes the Guadalupian, is common in the tropical zone of
South China and West Texas and the upwelling area of the
Phosphoria Basin. Its rarer appearances around the margin
of the Tethyan tropical zone and temperate zones bordering
The Permian Period 255
the Tethys and the northern margin of Pangea links it to other
faunal provinces, making the Guadalupian an appropriate stan-
dard for the Middle Permian.
16.1.3 The Lopingian Series: Upper Permian
The Lopingian (Huang, 1932), Dxhulan (Furnish, 1973),
Transcaucasian, and Yichangian (Waterhouse, 1982) have been
proposed for the uppermost Permian series. Of these, the
Lopingian appears to be the rst formally designated series
name to be based on relatively complete marine sequences.
The Lopingian Series comprises two stages: the Wuchiapin-
gian and the Changhsingian.
The Tatarian of the traditional Volga region of Russia is
mostly a continental deposit and corresponds largely to the
upper Guadalupian; it does not serve in a comprehensive sub-
division of the upper Permian.
The upper boundary of the Permian (i.e. the base of the Tri-
assic) in the original type area, the Buntsandstein of Germany,
and in the Urals is non-marine and unsuitable for world-wide
correlation. The functional denition for the base of the Tri-
assic has been the base of the ammonoid Otoceras Zone of the
Himalayas (Griesbach, 1880). The rst appearance of the con-
odont Hindeodus parvus is more widespread than Otoceras and
provides a precise basis for base-Triassic (Chapter 17).
WUCHIAPINGIAN
The boundary between the Guadalupian and Lopingian Se-
ries and the base of the Wuchiapingian Stage was historically
designated to coincide with a global regression, i.e. with the
boundary surface between the Middle and the Upper Ab-
saroka Megasequences. Extensive surveys of marine sections
demonstrate that few sections can be considered to be contin-
uous across the GuadalupianLopingian boundary. Sections
with a complete succession of open-marine fauna are par-
ticularly rare. GuadalupianLopingian boundary successions
were reported from Abadeh and Jolfa in Central Iran, from
southwestern USA, and the Salt Range. The Laibin Syncline
in Guangxi Province, China, is unique among these sections
in that it contains a complete and inter-regionally correlat-
able succession of open-marine conodont zones and other di-
verse fossils. The GSSP for the Lopingian Series coincides
with the rst occurrence of Clarkina postbitteri postbitteri within
an evolutionary lineage from C. postbitteri hongshuiensis to C.
dukouensis at the base of Bed 6k of the Penglaitan section.
The Tieqiao (Rail-Bridge) section on the western slope of
the syncline is proposed as a supplementary reference section
256 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

( Jin et al., 2001). The Wuchiapingian GSSP was ratied in Artinskian, the Saranian, the last unit with a well-developed,
2004. fully marine fauna, was taken as a reliable horizon for world-
wide correlation. Further, the conodont succession from
CHANGHSINGIAN Neostreptognathodus pequopensis to Neostreptognathodus pnevi
was taken as a reliable evolutionary event to establish a base
Initially, the GSSP for the Changhsingian Stage was formally
for the Kungurian (Chuvashov et al., 2002). This boundary,
recommended as the horizon between the Clarkina orientalis
discussed under the Kungurian of the Cisuralian in Section
and the Clarkina subcarinata Zones, which was located at the
16.4, corresponds to a Neostreptognathodus evolutionary event
base of Bed 2, the base of the Changxing Limestone in Section
in the regional stratotype of the Leonardian, which indicates
D at Meishan, Changxing County, Zhejiang Province, China
that the newly revised Kungurian and the Leonardian are
(Zhao et al., 1981). Further research suggests that the base of
basically equivalent.
the Changhsingian Stage should be dened within the Clarkina
The Umian has been abandoned by the All Russian
longicuspidataClarkina wangi lineage based on a better un-
Stratigraphic Commission because the Umian represents ter-
derstanding of conodont taxonomy and evolution. It is pro-
restrial and marginal-marine facies of the upper Kungurian
posed that the GSSP for the Changhsingian now be dened by
(the Solikamian, lower Umian) and the lower Kazanian (the
the rst occurrence of C. wangi within Bed 4 in Section D at
Sheshmian, upper Umian). However, there is no known sec-
Meishan, Changxing County, China.
tion that shows Sokian (lower Kazanian) lying on Irenian
The change in the proposed boundary is slight, from the
(upper Kungurian), so problems still exist in interpreting this
base of Bed 2 to within Bed 4. The basal part of the Changx-
boundary interval, even if it is only in perception.
ing Limestone, and, therefore, the boundary interval of the
The Tatarian, basically a series of stacked soils in its type
WuchiapingianChanghsingian, is marked by the occurrence
area, is difcult to correlate. It does contain the Illawarra Ge-
of advanced forms of Palaeofusulina, and the ammonoid fami-
omagnetic Reversal in its lower part, which ties that part to
lies Tapashanitidae and Pseudotirolitidae, which still mark the
the upper WordianCapitanian interval. How young the upper
lower Changhsingian in the new denition.
Tatarian is, is an open question. Sequence stratigraphy sug-
The Dzhulan and Dorashamian Stages of Transcau-
gests that the Tatarian and Capitanian are roughly equivalent.
casia correspond, respectively, to the Wuchiapingian and
There is a sharp changeover in fossil species at the Tatarian
Changhsingian. However, the successions in the basal part of
Vetluzhian boundary suggesting a signicant unconformity
the Dzhulan Stage and the top portion of the Dorashamian
(Fig. 16.3).
Stage are not as well developed in their type areas as corre-
sponding intervals in the standard succession of South China
(IranianChinese Research Group, 1995). 16.2.2 Germanic Basin

The Germanic Basin is only briey dealt with here. Zechstein 1

1 6 . 2 R E G I O NA L C O R R E L AT I O N S
16.2.1 Russian Platform
Increased research on the Permian of Russia (e.g. Chuvashov
and Nairn, 1993; Esaulova et al., 1998; Chuvashov et al.,
2002) has led to signicant changes from the traditional strati-
graphic scheme for the Russian platform, discussed earlier. The
scheme was largely based on the distribution of ammonoids.
For the Lower Permian, i.e. Cisuralian, the much more com-
mon fusulinids and conodonts now provide a rened zonation.
The traditional Upper Permian units of Russia have much
less common ammonoids, fusulinids, and conodonts than the
Cisuralian, but detailed work has greatly improved biostrati-
graphic correlation (Figs. 16.2 and 16.3).
The Kungurian is sparsely fossiliferous at best. To im-
prove its correlatability, the upper horizon of the traditional
contains a fairly good marine fauna that includes Merrillina
divergens (Fig. 16.2). This occurs above the Illawarra Reversal,
which is within the upper part of the Rotleigendes. Both tie
Zechstein 1 to the Capitanian. How much time is reected
in the remaining Zechstein units is unknown; the evaporites
could represent very short depositional intervals between long
hiatuses or a very short interval similar to that of the Ochoan
of West Texas.
16.2.3 Pamirs
The fusulinids and, to a lesser extent, the ammonoids
(Fig. 16.4) are well known from the Pamirs. The fusulinid
zonation serves as the standard for the Permian of the Tethyan.
Conodonts appear to indicate some correlation potential and
need signicant investigation.
 The Permian Period 257

Permian Regional Subdivisions

AGE Epoch/Stage Boundary- Russian Platform Germanic Pamirs Salt Range South West Texas
(Ma) defining event Basin China
Vetluzhian Buntsand-
250 Triassic stein
Kathwai
251.0 0.4 FAD H. parvus
Chang-
Changhsingian Chhidru singian
253.8 0.7 FAD C. wangi
Lopingian

Kalabagh
255
Pamirian
Wuchia-
Wuchiapingian Wargal pingian

260
260.4 0.7 FAD C. postbitteri Ochoan

Vyatian Zechstein
Tatarian

Capitanian Pamirian Lengwuan Capitanian

Guadalupian

Wargal

265 Severodvian
265.8 0.7 FAD J. postserrata
Urzhumian
Wordian Murgabian Wordian
Povolzhian Amb
268 0.7 FAD J. aserrata Kuhfen-
Kaz.

Sokian Kuber- gian

Roadian gandian
Roadian
270
Ufim.

270.6 0.7
FAD Sheshmian
J. nankingensis
Kung.

Iren. Solikamian
Bolorian
Fillipovian
Kungurian Luodianian Leonardian
Saranian
275
275.6 0.7

Sarginian
Artinskian

Yakhtashian
280 Artinskian Irginian

Rotliegend
Burtsevian Longlinian
Cisuralian

284.4 0.7
285

Wolf-
Sterlitamakian
campian
Sakmarian

Sakmarian Khoridzhian
290

Tastubian

294.6 0.8 FAD S. merrilli

295
Shikhanian
Oren. Asselian

Zisongian
Asselian Uskalykian Sebisurkhian
Sjuranian
299 0.8 FAD S. isolatus
300 Melekhovian "Gaptank"
Carboniferous Dastarian
Nogingian

Figure 16.2 Correlation chart of the Permian with international selected regional stage and substage nomenclature. Vertical pattern
subdivisions and boundary-dening events (left columns) and indicates a widespread regional hiatus.
258 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

Russian
Ma Platform Conodonts Fusulinids Ammonoids

Vetluzhian
250

260
Vyatian
Tatarian

Severodvian
Urzhumian
Povolzhian Merrillina divergens
Kung. Kaz.

Sokian Kamagnathus volgensis Sverdrupites amundseni

270 Sheshmian Kamagnathus khalimbadzhae Sverdrupites harkeri
Uf.

Irenian Solikamian Tumaroceras zavadovskyi

Epijuresanites musaltini
Fillipovian Uraloceras tschuvaschovi
Neostreptognathodus pnevi
Saranian Propinacoceras aktjubensis
Parafusulina solidissima Neocrimites fredericksi
Artinskian

Sarginian Parafusulina jenkinsi

Neostreptognathodus
pequopensis Parafusulina lutugini
280 Irginian Pseudofusulina solida Popanoceras annae
Popanoceras tschernowi
Burtsevian Pseudofusulina pedisequa
Sweetognathus whitei Pseudofusulina concavutas

Sterlitamakian Mesogondolella bisselli Pseudofusulina urdalensis

Sakmarian

Pseudofusulina plicatissima Preshumardites sakmarae

290 Synartinskia principalis
Mesogondolella visibilis
Schwagerina verneuili
Tastubian Mesogondolella lata
Mesogondolella uralensis Schwagerina moelleri Svetlanoceras strigosum
M. pseudostriata Sphaeroschwagerina gigas
Oren. Asselian

Shikhanian St. postfusus-M. striata

St. fusus M. simulata Pseudoschwagerina robusta Svetlanoceras serpentinum
Uskalykian St. constrictus M. adentata Schwagerina nux
Sphaeroschwagerina fusiformis
St. cristellaris St. isolatus Sphaeroschw. vulgaris aktjubensis Svetlanoceras primore
Sjuranian
Streptognathodus wabaunsensis Utradaixina bosbytauensis Shumardites aktjubensis
300 Melekhovian Daixina sokensis
St. elongatus Shumardites confessus
Noginian St. ruzhenzevi Daixina ruzhenzevi
Carboniferous
Figure 16.3 Regional correlation chart for the Russian Platform with conodont, fusulinid, and ammonoid zonations.
 The Permian Period 259

Ma Pamirs Conodonts Fusulinids Ammonoids

(insufficiently studied)

Induan
250

Colaniella parva
Clarkina subcarinata
Shindella pamirica
Pamirian Palaeofusulina fusiformis
Clarkina leveni
Paradunbarula arpaensis
260
Jinogondolella altudaensis Lepidolina aff. multiseptata
Pamirian Yabeina opima
Mesogondolella siciliensis Neoschwagerina margaritae
Neoschwagerina deprati
Murgabian Neoschwagerina simplex
Cancellina cutalensis Paraceltites edelsteini
270
Kubergandian Misellina ovalis Stacheoceras discoidale
Misellina parvicostata Daraelites pamiricus
Bolorian Neostreptognathodus
Misellina dyhrenfurthi Propinacoceras asiaticum
exsculptus
Chalaroschwagerina vulgaris Bamyaniceras bomemani
Thalassoceras mediteraneum
Pamirina darvasica Eothinites schabalkini
Darvasites contractus Kargalites latus
Yakhtashian
280 Chalaroschwagerina solita
Pamirina chinlingensis

Schwagerina moelleri Propinacoceras sangobensis

Robustaschwagerina Vanartinskian asiana

schellwieni
290 Khoridzhian
Zellia heritchi Medlicotia sp.
Paraschwagerina inflata Paragastrioceras sp.
Darvasites parvus
Sphaeroschwagerina gigas
Zigarella postcallosa, Psfus. sulcatiformis
Pseudoschwagerina robusta Svetlanoceras notium
Sebisurkhian Pseudoschwagerina saibulakensis
Sphaeroschwagerina fusiformis
Sphaeroschwagerina darvasica
Likharevites inglorius
Properrinites dmitrievi
Ultradaixina bosbytauensis
300
Dastarian Daixina sokensis
D. enormis, Schagonella implexa

Figure 16.4 Regional correlation chart for the Pamirs with conodont, fusulinid, and ammonoid zonations.

16.2.4 Salt Range major importance is the overlapping of ranges of Merrillina

divergens, Neoschwagerina margaritae, and the Illawarra Re-
The Salt Range (Fig. 16.5) does not serve as a regional stan- versal within the lower part of the Wargal Limestone, below
dard, but has inter-bedded temperate and Tethyan fauna. Of a signicant unconformity within that formation, indicating
260 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

Ma Salt Range Conodonts Fusulinids Ammonoids

250 Kathwai Hindeodus parvus Ophiceras

Hindeodus typicalis
Chhidru Cyclolobus
Clarkina longicuspidata Colaniella pseudolepida
Kalabagh Colaniella minima
Clarkina guangyuanensis Reichelina aff. cribroseptata
Wargal C. leveni Merrillina n. sp.
Clarkina asymmetrica
260 Clarkina dukouensis
Reichelina aff. simplex

Wargal Codonofusiella schuberteloides

Neoschwagerina margaritae
Merrillina divergens
Codonofusiella laxa
Amb
Merrillina acucristata Monodiexodina kattaensis
270
Figure 16.5 Regional correlation chart for the Salt Range with conodont, fusulinid, and ammonoid zonations.

that all are at least part Capitanian. Above the unconfor- Wuchiapingian is based on the rst occurrence of the
mity occur common Iranognathus and a succession of Clarkina conodont genus Clarkina.
species. Changhsingian is based on the rst occurrence of the
conodont Clarkina subcarinata (sensu latu) near the base
of the Changxing Limestone.
16.2.5 South China
Both the Wuchiapingian and Changhsingian denitions have
The regional stages developed for South China (Fig. 16.6) are
been modied and proposed as potential stratotypes and are
very much dened by their fossil constituents. From Sheng
dealt with under the Lopingian (Upper Permian).
and Jin (1994) the following can be discerned:

Zisongian is based on the fusulinid Pseudoschwage-

rina uddeniP. texana Zone and the Sphaeroschwagerina
zone.
Longlinian is based on the biostratigraphic sequence be-
tween the last Pseudoschwagerina and the rst Misellina
(not an easy concept to establish as a stage).
Luodianian is based on the fusulinid Misellina Zone.
Xiangboan is based on the fusulinid Cancellina Zone.
Kuhfengian is based on the rst occurrence of the con-
odont Jinogondolella nankingensis (the same denition of
the Roadian).
Lengwuan includes the ranges of the conodonts Jinogon-
dolella shannoni and J. xuanhanensis and is based on the
rst occurrence of J. postserrata (the same denition of
the Capitanian).
16.2.6 West Texas
Both the Wolfcampian and Ochoan (Fig. 16.7), one based on a
sequence of delta front conglomerates, sands, and silts, and one
based on basin-lling evaporites, pose problems for correlation.
Conodonts from scattered units in the Wolfcampian suggest
that the top bed of the Grey Limestone Member of the Gaptank
Formation contains Streptognathodus isolatus Zone conodonts
and, therefore, signies the base of the Permian. The overly-
ing Neal Ranch Formation has conodont and fusulinid fauna
in scattered limestones, and contains Streptognathodus isolatus
and S. barskovi (Wardlaw and Davydov, 2000). The upper part
of the Neal Ranch Formation and the lower part of the overlying
Lenox Hills Formation yield only sparse fauna. Sweetognathus
whitei is present along with common fusulinids in the upper
 The Permian Period 261

Ma South China Conodonts Fusulinids Ammonoids

Induan
250 Hindeodus parvus Otoceras
C. changxingensis Paleofusulina sinensis Rotodiscoceras
Pseudotirolites Pleuronodoceras
Changhsingian C. wangi
C. subcarinata
Paleofusulina minima Pseudostephanites Tapashanites
Iranites-Phisonites
C. orientalis Sanyangites

Clarkina
C. transcaucasica Nanlingella simplex Araxoceras Konglingites
C. guangyuanensis
Wuchiapingian C. leveni
C. asymmetrica
Anderssonoceras Prototoceras
Codonofusiella kwangsiana
C. dukouensis
C. postbitteri
Roadoceras Doulingoceras
260
J. altudaensis
Metadoliolina multivoluta Shouchangoceras
Jinogondolella

Lengwuan Shangraceras
J. postserrata Yabeina gubleri

Neoschwagerina margaritae
J. aserrata Guiyangoceras
Kuhfengian Neoschwagerina craticulifera
Neoschwagerina simplex Altudoceras Parceltites
270 J. nankingensis Cancellina neoschwagerina Shaoyangoceras
Misellina claudia Pseudohalorites
Luodianian
Mesogondolella gujioensis M. (Brevaxina) dyhrenfurthi Metaperrinites shaiwaensis
Popanoceras ziyunense

Chalaroschwagerina vulgaris
Propinacoceras simile
280
Sweetognathus whitei Darvasites ordinatus
Longlinian
Pamirina chinlingensis
Pamirina darvasica Popanoceras kueichowense
Propinacoceras nandanense
290 Darvasites parvus
Mesogondolella bisselli Zellia elatior
Robustaschwagerina schellwieni

Sphaeroschwagerina gigas
Zisongian Z. postcallosa, Ps. sulcatiformis
S. barskovi Sphaeroschwagerina moelleri
Streptognathodus isolatus Sphaeroschwagerina kolvica Properrinites plummeri
300 S. wabaunsensis Ultradaixina bosbytauensis Eoasianites subhanieli
Schellwienia huanglienhsiaensis

Figure 16.6 Regional correlation chart for South China with conodont, fusulinid, and ammonoid zonations.

part of the Lenox Hills Formation. The Skinner Ranch and equivalents of the Vidrio Formation and Capitan Limestone
Cathedral Mountain Formations (Leonardian) yield an abun- also yield excellent fauna.
dance of fauna. Similarly, the Road Canyon and Word For- In the base of the Skinner Ranch Formation, below the
mations yield abundant and diverse fauna. Slope and basinal rst occurrence of common Neostreptognathodus exsculptus
262 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

Ma West Texas Conodonts Fusulinids Ammonoids

250

260 Ochoan
Clarkina postbitteri ParaboultoniaLantschichites Strigogoniatites
Jinogondolella altudaensis Reichelina lamarensis
Capitanian Yabeina texana
Jinogondolella poserrata Polydiexodina shumardi Timorites
Parafusulina antimonioensis
Wordian Jinogondolella aserrata Parafusulina P. sellardsi Waagenoceras
P. trumpyi
Roadian Jinogondolella nankingensis
270 P. boesei
P. rothi Demarezites, Paraceltites
N. sulcoplicatus P. leonardensis P. durhami
P. vidriensis
Leonardian N. prayi P. spissisepta
P. deltoides
Perrinites
N. 'exsculptus' Parafusulina allisonensis
Neostreptognathodus Schwagerina crassitectoria
pequopensis Chalaroschwagerina nelsoni
Sweetognathus whitei Schwagerina crebrisepta
280

Wolfcampian

290

Pseudosch. parabeedei
Streptognathodus barskovi Pseudoschwagerina uddeni

Streptognathodus isolatus
Triticites creekensis, Uddenites, Shumardites,
300 "Gaptank" T. ventricosus Marathonites

Figure 16.7 Regional correlation chart for West Texas with conodont, fusulinid, and ammonoid zonations.

are sparse fauna of N. pequopensis. In the Tansill Formation found overlying the evaporites of the Ochoan stage, within the
(the shelf equivalent of the Lamar Limestone Member of the Rustler Formation (above the Castille and Salado Formations),
Bell Canyon Formation), there are sparse fauna dominated by a implying that the deposition of the basin-lling evaporites oc-
species of Sweetina (Croft, 1978). Virtually the same species is curred in less than one conodont zone.

1 6 . 3 P E R M I A N S T R AT I G R A P H Y
16.3.1 Biostratigraphy
C O N O D O N T Z O NAT I O N
Since conodont biostratigraphy is critical to this construction
of a Permian time scale, it is briey reviewed here (Fig. 16.1).
The Lower Permian (Cisuralian Series) conodont zona-
tion is derived from a variety of published and unpublished
sources. The Asselian and Sakmarian zonation, based on the
succession of Streptognathodus species, is from Chernykh et al.
(1997), Boardman et al. (1998), and Wardlaw et al. (1999). This
succession is well represented in Kansas and the southern Ural
Mountains of Russia.
The Artinskian zonation is based on species of Sweetog-
nathus, Streptognathodus, and Neostreptognathodus and reects
the major changeover in the forms dominating shelf fauna dur-
ing this interval. It is largely based on unpublished material
from the southern Urals, Russia, and Kazhastan, and the Great
Basin, USA.
The Kungurian zonation is based on the succession of
Neostreptognathodus species modied from Wardlaw and Grant
(1987) from West Texas, USA.
The Middle Permian (Guadalupian Series) conodont zona-
tion is from Wardlaw and Lambert (1999) and Wardlaw
(2000), except that the rapid succession of upper Guadalupian
Jinogondolella (altudaensis, prexuanhanensis, xuanhanensis, and
crofti) are all overlapped by J. altudaensis and considered as
subzone indicators of that zone. This succession is well repre-
sented in West Texas and South China.
The Upper Permian (Lopingian Series) conodont zonation
of successive Clarkina species from Mei et al. (1994a, 1998a),
as modied by Wardlaw and Mei (1998), reects the current
compromise (Henderson et al., 2001) for denition for the base
of the Lopingian based on the redened C. postbitteri postbit-
teri. Also, even though the classic denition of the Changhsin-
gian has been the rst appearance of C. subcarinata, a dramatic
changeover in fauna occurs within Bed 4 in the Changxing
Limestone from one dominated by C. orientalis and longicus-
pidata (Wuchiapingian) to one dominated by C. wangi (Mei
et al., 2001), which marks a boundary closer to the base of
the formation and more acceptable to non-conodont workers.
This succession is well represented in both South China and
the Dzhulfa area of Iran and Transcaucasia.
F U S U L I NAC E A N Z O N E S
In the southern Urals, sequence boundaries coincide with the
bases of several fusulinacean zones. Lowstands correspond to
The Permian Period 263
signicant fusulinacean extinction. The base of the Asselian
(i.e. the base of the Permian), the base of the Sakmarian, and
some fusulinacean zones coincide with highstands. Therefore,
fusulinacean speciation appears to be associated with both
highstands and lowstands. Sea-level lowstands may have been
very stressful for global fusulinacean assemblages and may have
been a catalyst for both speciation and extinction. Highstands
also may have created environmental opportunities and appear
to be more closely associated with fusulinacean speciation than
extinction. Sequence boundaries located within fusulinacean
zones, perhaps reect local tectonism or local climatic changes.
16.3.2 Physical stratigraphy
T H E I L L AWA R R A G E O M AG N E T I C P O L A R I T Y
REVERSAL
As mentioned earlier, the Illawarra geomagnetic reversal is an
important tie point for the Guadalupian series and the base
of the Capitanian Stage. The reversal is near the top of the
J. aserrata Zone in West Texas and near the top of the M.
praedivergens Zone in the Salt Range.
In the Guadalupe Mountains, a tuff at or about the pro-
jected position of the Illawarra, within the top of the range of
J. aserrata, just below the rst occurrence of J. postserrata, the
indicator for the Capitanian, yields a date of 265.3 Ma.
G E O C H E M I S T RY
The seawater 87 Sr/86 Sr curve (Fig. 16.8) indicates a minimum
value for all of Phanerozoic time occurred in the Capitanian.
The driving mechanism of the late Permian variations appears
to have been climate change rather than tectonic; Pangea was
assembled and fairly stable through this interval. The period of
decreasing seawater 87 Sr/86 Sr for the EarlyMiddle Permian
is associated with a waning ice age, as well as high continental
aridity and low external runoff attributed to the huge Pangean
landmass. Though not apparent in the oxygen-18 curve, there
is faunal evidence for signicant cooling after the Roadian in the
Sverdrup Basin, continuing for most of the rest of the Permian
(Henderson, 2002) and cooling in the middle to late Wuchi-
apingian in the Salt Range, indicating bipolarity in cooling at
this time.
Marine extinctions began in a step-wise function following
the Guadalupian (Jin, 1994; Zhou et al., 1996). This suggests
that global cooling and the begining of mass extinction coin-
cided with the increase in 87 Sr/86 Sr. This further suggests an
amelioration of the climate with the cooling event, which led
264 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

dard technique of graphic correlation was undertaken. Graphic

Permian geochemical trends correlation produces a composite standard that when inter-
13C 87Sr / 86Sr Temperature
trends preted chronostratigraphically, and calibrated with selected

0.7070

0.7075

0.7080
AGE Epoch/Stage (0/00 PDB)
(Ma) 18O (0/00 PDB)
0 2 4 2 4 6 radiometric age dates, yields a linear time scale.
Triassic Cooler <> Warmer The composite standard technique was applied to a joint
250
Guadalupian Lopingian

Changhsingian CarboniferousPermian data set that is discussed in Chapter

255
Wuchiapingian 15 (Figs. 15.4 and 15.5).
260
Capitanian
265
Wordian
270 Roadian
16.4.2 Radiometric age dates
Kungurian
275

280 Artinskian Although precise age constraints are in place for the base and
top of the Permian, the Permian time scale is among the least in-
Cisuralian

285

290 Sakmarian
295
Asselian
300
305
Carboniferous
Figure 16.8 Geochemical trends during the Permian Period. The
schematic carbon isotope curve is a 5-myr averaging of global data
(Veizer et al., 1999) from Hayes et al. (1999; downloaded from
www.nosams.whoi.edu/jmh). The 87 Sr/86 Sr LOWESS curve for
the interval is based on the data of Denison et al. (1994) and Martin
& Macdougall (1995) see Chapter 7. The oxygen isotope curves
(inverted scale) are derived from a 3-myr interval averaging of global
data compiled by Veizer et al. (1999; as downloaded from
www.science.uottawa.ca/geology/isotope data/, January 2003).
Large-scale global shifts to higher oxygen-18 values in carbonates
are generally interpreted as cooler seawater or glacial episodes, but
there are many other contributing factors (e.g. Veizer et al., 1999;
Wallman, 2001).
to a decrease in continentality, an increase in precipitation, and
an overall declining sea level in the Upper Permian, with more
area exposed to erosional processes.
There is a signicant carbon excursion just below the
PermianTriassic boundary. This excursion is intimately re-
lated to the nal extinction event of the Permian, but it is
unclear just how or what it completely reects (Erwin, 1993,
1995). However, it does indicate a sharp decrease in produc-
tivity and burial of organic carbon at the very end of the
Permian.
16.4 PERMIAN TIME SCALE
16.4.1 Permian composite standard
In order to integrate and calibrate zonal successions of
foraminifera, conodonts, and ammonoids, and to construct a
Permian composite biostratigraphic scale the composite stan-
ternally constrained in the Phanerozoic. Table 16.1 lists eleven
stratigraphic levels with radiometric dates, and only two (items
4 and 5) that are not in the uppermost and lowermost stages of
the Permian. What is required are many more stratigraphically
precise and analytically accurate radiometric dates. Until such
time, the intra-Permian scale is heavily dependent on relative
zonal scaling and is approximate at best.
Chuvashov et al. (1996) report one biostratigraphically
well-constrained UPb HRSIMS date of 290.6 3.0 Ma
in the Usolka section of the southern Urals for the base of the
constrictus Zone (and corresponding local fusulinid zone) in
lower Middle Asselian. This is one conodont zone above the
CarboniferousPermian boundary.
Ramezani et al. (2003) have collected volcanic ash beds
within mid-ramp carbonate as well as offshore mixed
carbonatesiliciclastic successions in three southern Urals sec-
tions: Usolka, Dalny Tulkus road cut, and Dalny Tulkus
quarry. One ash layer in the Usolka section is 0.6 m above
the CarboniferousPermian boundary. It contains numerous
zircons and the conodont Streptognathodus isolatus the index
species of the base of the Permian. Preliminary results from
TIMS analyses of the UPb ratios in zircons from this
ash, and others stratigraphically just above and below the
CarboniferousPermian boundary, suggest an age of 299 Ma
for the boundary, to which we assign an uncertainty of 1 myr.
Continuing paleontologic and geochronologic studies in the
southern Urals should provide a robust data set for precise
calibration of the Upper Carboniferous through Cisuralian in-
terval of the time scale.
By comparison with the observed trend in the Ordovician
through Devonian (Chapters 1214) that HRSIMS dates fall
up to 1.3% behind TIMS dates for the same interval, the
Chuvashov et al. (1996) date of 290.6 3.0 Ma might even be
as old as 297.4 Ma. Thus, this date might not disagree with
the new age estimate for the CarboniferousPermian boundary
near 299 Ma.
Table 16.1 Selected UPb radiometric dates for the Permian time scale

Range and
centre point of
the horizontal
error bars for
each date in
Composite
Biostratigraphic Standard Units
No. Sample Locality Formation Comment Zone and age reliability Reference Age (Ma) Type (CSU)a

1 Zircons Meishan section, Grayish ash, Set of TIMS zircon Closely sampled across the 1 Bowring 251.0 0.2 UPb 26372657
the GSSP of the illite dates obtained at MIT PermianTriassic boundary et al. (1998), (2-sigma); (2647)
base of the montmorillonite geochronological section; Clarkina Jin et al. see Chapter
Triassic; clay, white laboratory. See changsingensis conodont (2000) 19 and
Changhsing, bentonite; Chapter 17 and zone and into basal range of Table 19.1
Zhejiang Changhsing and Table 17.1 H. parvus
Province, S. Chinglung Fms
China
2 Zircons Matan section, Pyroclastic Set of TIMS zircon Closely sampled across the Bowring UPb
near Heshan, deposits, Talung dates obtained at MIT PermianTriassic boundary et al. (1998),
Guangxi Formation geochronological section; Clarkina Jin et al.
Province, S. laboratory. See changsingensis conodont (2000)
China Chapter 17 and zone and into basal range of
Table 17.1 H. parvus
3 Zircons Penglaitan Yellow bentonite TIMS dates were Ammonoids Rotodiscoceras 1 Bowring 253.4 0.2 UPb 26262650
section, banks of obtained at MIT and Pleuronodoceras are et al. (1998), (2-sigma) (2629)
Hong Shui River geochronological found beneath this unit, Jin et al.
near town of laboratory conrming a late (2000)
Labin, S. China Changhsingian age
4 Zircons Ash bed occurs Grayish-green TIMS dates were Sample collected 20 m 1 Bowring 265.3 0.2 UPb 24352445
between the bentonite obtained at MIT below the base of the et al. (1998) (2-sigma) (2438)
Hegler and geochronological Jinogondolella postserrata
Pinery laboratory conodont zone that denes
Limestone the base of the Capitanian
Members of the stage of the Guadalupian
Bell Canyon Series
Formation;
Nipple Hill,
Guadalupe
Mountains
National Park,
Texas
(cont.)
Table 16.1 (cont.)

Range and
centre point of
the horizontal
error bars for
each date in
Composite
Biostratigraphic Standard Units
No. Sample Locality Formation Comment Zone and age reliability Reference Age (Ma) Type (CSU)a

5 Zircons Belaya River Bentonite HRSIMS monitor These two samples are 1 Roberts 280.3 2.5 UPb 21322197
section and Sim standard age not precisely constrained within et al. (1996), (2-sigma) (2148)
section, available. The dates were late Sakmarian based on Chuvashov
southern Urals obtained at the ammonoids and fusulinids et al. (1996)
region, Russia Australian Geological
Organization, hence it is
assumed here that the
HRSIMS age was
calibrated to standard
zircon SL13. The UPb
date of the zircon grains
is 280.3 2.5 Ma
(2-sigma)
6 Zircons Usolka section, Tuffaceous HRSIMS monitor These samples are precisely 1 Roberts 290.15 UPb 19491968
southern Urals marls standard age not listed. constrained within early et al. (1996), 2.26 (1958)
region, Russia The UPb zircon dates middle Asselian based on Chuvashov (2-sigma)
of 290.0 3.2 and conodonts, ammonoids, and et al. (1996),
290.3 3.2 Ma (all fusulinids Davydov
2-sigma) were obtained et al. (2002)
at the Australian
Geological Organization,
hence it is assumed here
that the HRSIMS age
was calibrated to
standard zircon SL13.
The average age is 290.15
2.26 Ma (2-sigma)
7 Zircons LodeveBecken, Tuff, TIMS date of 295.53 Viala Formation from the 3 Trapp & 295.53 UPb 19502000
Frankreich LowerMiddle 0.54 Ma (2-sigma) for regional correlation is Kaufmann 0.54 (1975)
Germany Viala Formation, the youngest zircon placed in the uppermost (2002) (2-sigma)
Lower population Lower Rotliegendes.
Rotliegendes Schneider and Roscher
(2002) correlate this
formation with
Nikitovskaya and
Slavyansjkaya, Formations
of Donetz Basin, assigned a
middle to late Asselian age
(Davydov, 1990).
8 Zircons Saar, SW Pappelberg tuff 34 UPb HRSIMS Based on plants and 3 Koniger 297.0 3.2 U 19402027
Germany horizon of dates on zircon grains considered to be within the et al. (2002), (1-sigma) ThPb (1960)
Jeckenbach unit give 297.0 3.2 Ma CarboniferousPermian Davydov
of Meisenheim (1-sigma) calibrated to transition (uppermost (1992)
Fm of Lebach standard zircon SL13 Gzhelianlowermost
Group of Lower and AS3 Asselian); although of poor
Rotliegend biostratigraphic constraint,
it is allowed here with low
weight in the tting method
9 Paleosol Subsurface, Paleosol calcite 7 UPb TIMS dates on Biostratigraphic constraints 3 Rasbury 298.0 1.4 UPb 19562044
calcite UNOCAL well, from cycle 0, paleosol calcite give 298.0 of these samples provided et al. (1998) (2-sigma) (1992)
Central Basin UNOCAL core 1.4 Ma (2-sigma) from unpublished data and
Platform, West from regional correlations
Texas considered to be within
lower Wolfcampian and
somewhere above the
Permian base; although
poor biostratigraphic
constraint, it is allowed here
with low weight in the
tting method
(cont.)
Table 16.1 (cont.)

Range and
centre point of
the horizontal
error bars for
each date in
Composite
Biostratigraphic Standard Units
No. Sample Locality Formation Comment Zone and age reliability Reference Age (Ma) Type (CSU)a

10 Zircon Usolka section, Tuffaceous ID-TIMS date of 299.0 Four samples are precisely Ramezani 299.0 1.0 UPb 19141921
southern Urals marls 1.0 Ma (2-sigma) for constrained within et al. (2003), (2-sigma) (1917)
region, Russia the youngest zircon AsselianGzhelian Chuvashov
population transition: rst sample et al.
1.0 m below base of the (1990a),
Permian; second, 0.4 m Davydov
below base; third, 0.05 m et al. (2002)
above base of the Permian;
and fourth, 1.5 m above the
base.
CarboniferousPermian
boundary precisely dened
in the basis of conodonts,
ammonoids, and fusulinids

a Position of stage boundaries in composite standard scale units (CSU)

Base of Induan (Triassic), 2654 CSU
Base of Changhsingian, 2616 CSU
Base of Wuchiapingian, 2516 CSU
Base of Capitanian, 2434 CSU
Base of Wordian, 2400 CSU
Base of Roadian, 2361 CSU
Base of Kungurian, 2284 CSU
Base of Artinskian, 2148 CSU
Base of Sakmarian, 1987 CSU
Base of Asselian (Permian), 1916 CSU
 The Permian Period 269

POSITION IN SCALED COMPOSITE SEQUENCE

1900 1950 2000 2050 2100 2150 2200 2250 2300 2350 2400 2450 2500 2550 2600 2650 2700 2750 2800

Cisuralian Guadalupian Lopingian

250 Asselian Sakmarian Artinskian Kungur. Rd. Wr. Capitanian Wuchiap. Ch. Triassic
Changhsingian 1-2
3
Wuchiapingian
260
MILLIONS OF YEARS BEFORE PRESENT

Capitanian
4
Wordian
Roadian
270

Kungurian
Permian
5
280 Artinskian

?
Sakmarian
7(6)
290 Radiometrically dated sample
Vertical error bars: two standard deviations
8 Horizontal error bars: range of placements within
As. best-fit solutions

300 9 10

Carboniferous

Figure 16.9 Construction of the Permian time scale. Radiometric relative zonal scale of Figure 15.4. For details see text.
age dates for the Permian in Table 16.1 are plotted against the

Chuvashov et al. (1996) also report less well-constrained
HRSIMS ages for the uppermost Sakmarian (280.3 2.4 Ma)
and the lowermost Artinskian (280.3 2.6 Ma). We project
an age of 283 Ma for the SakmarianArtinskian boundary as
dened by conodonts, which falls close to the margin of error
for both dates.
Bowring et al. (1998) discuss several important TIMS
dates, of which a few are well constrained within the pro-
posed stratotypes for the Middle and Late Permian. In par-
ticular, an age of 265.3 0.2 Ma from just below the re-
cently approved GSSP for the base of the Capitanian coincides
with the estimated age of 265 Ma by Menning (1995) for the
Illawarra reversal. Menning (in Glenister et al., 1999) places
the Illawarra reversal within this important section between the
isotopically dated horizon and the conodont-dened base of the
Capitanian.
Uraniumlead dating of zircons in a volcanic ash in the
lower unit of the Bell Canyon Formation, below the Pinery
Limestone Member in the Capitanian type section, yields a
date of 265.3 0.2 Ma, which provides an estimate for the
base of the Capitanian Stage.
Bowring et al. (1998) report several TIMS dates from the
Meishan section in China, including the lower boundary of
the Changhsingian Stage. A date of 253.4 0.2 Ma is derived
from Bed 7, above the rst occurrence of Clarkina wangi (top of
Bed 4) and immediately below the rst occurrence of Clarkina
subcarinata (sensu strictu) (Bed 8). Extrapolation for the sedi-
ment rate for the C. subcarinata and C. changxingensis Zones
places the age of the base of the wangi Zone and the base of the
Changhsingian Stage at about 254 Ma.
Computation of the age of the PermianTriassic bound-
ary, based on two series of consecutive TIMS age dates of
Bowring et al. (1998) at the GSSP sections at Meishan and a
correlative locality near Heshan in China is reported in Table
17.1. The nal estimate for the age of the boundary is 251.0
0.2 Ma.
270 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

Table 16.2 Ages and durations of Permian stages

Est. myr Est. myr

Period Epoch Stage Age of base (Ma) (2-sigma) Duration (2-sigma)

Triassic 251.0 0.4

Permian
Lopingian
Changhsingian 253.8 0.7 2.8 0.1
Wuchiapingian 260.4 0.7 6.6 0.1
Guadalupian
Capitanian 265.8 0.7 5.4 0.1
Wordian 268.0 0.7 2.2 0.0
Roadian 270.6 0.7 2.5 0.1
Cisuralian
Kungurian 275.6 0.7 5.0 0.1
Artinskian 284.4 0.7 8.8 0.2
Sakmarian 294.6 0.8 10.2 0.2
Asselian,
(base of Permian) 299.0 0.8 4.4 0.1
Carboniferous

16.4.3 Age of stage boundaries
This study indicates that the Permian lasted from 299 to 251
Ma, with the Sakmarian and Artinskian being the longest stages
(Table 16.2). Calculated uncertainty estimates of the age of
stage boundaries and duration of stages, to a considerable ex-
tent, is dependent on the stratigraphic precision of the Per-
mian composite standard. Changes to zonestage and zone
age date calibrations will produce shifts in interpolated ages
of stage boundaries. The calculated error bars will decrease
with more TIMS type radiometric dates; at least one or two
per stage is a desirable goal. Uncertainty in stage duration is
always less than uncertainty on the age of stage boundaries.
More details on methodology, plotted in Fig. 16.9, are given in
Chapter 15.
With the base of the Permian at 299 Ma, at the base of the
isolatus conodont zone, and the top of the Permian, at the base
of the parvus conodont zone at 251.0 Ma, the Permian lasted
52 myr. The Cisuralian and Early Permian lasted 28.4 myr, the
Guadalupian and Mid Permian 10.2 myr, and the Lopingian
and Late Permian 10.4 myr. Permian conodont zones appear
to range in age from 0.7 to 3.0 myr.
17 The Triassic Period
. .
226 Ma (mid-Triassic)
Anisian
Ladinian
Geographic distribution of Triassic GSSPs that have been ratied
(diamonds) or are candidates (squares) on a mid-Triassic map
The Mesozoic begins with a gradual recovery of plant and animal life
after the end-Permian mass extinction. Ammonites and conodonts
are the main correlation tools for marine deposits. The Pangea su-
percontinent has no known glacial episodes. The modulation of its
monsoonal climate by Milankovitch cycles left sedimentary signa-
tures useful for high-resolution scaling. Dinosaurs begin to dominate
the terrestrial ecosystems in latest Triassic. A relatively quiet period
in Earth history.
1 7 . 1 H I S T O RY A N D S U B D I V I S I O N S
The Trias of Friedrich August von Alberti (1834), director
of the salt mines in the Wurttemberg district of southern
Germany, united a trio of formations widespread in south-
ern Germany a lower Buntsandstein (colored sandstone),
Muschelkalk (clam limestone), and an upper Keuper (non-
marine reddish beds). These continental and shallow-marine
A Geologic Time Scale 2004, eds. Felix M. Gradstein, James G. Ogg, and Alan
G. Smith. Published by Cambridge University Press.
c F. M. Gradstein,
J. G. Ogg, and A. G. Smith 2004.
271
Induan
Carnian
(status in January 2004; see Table 2.3). Only the base-Triassic has a
formalized GSSP.
formations were difcult to correlate beyond Germany; there-
fore, most of the traditional stages (Anisian, Ladinian, Carnian,
Norian, Rhaetian) were named from ammonoid-rich succes-
sions of the Northern Calcareous Alps of Austria. However,
the stratigraphy of these Austrian tectonic slices proved un-
suitable for establishing formal boundary stratotypes, or even
deducing the sequential order of the stages (Tozer, 1984). For
example, the Norian was originally considered to underlie the
Carnian Stage, but after a convolute scienticpolitical debate
(reviewed in Tozer, 1984), the Norian was established as the
younger stage. Over 50 different stage names have been pro-
posed for subdividing the Triassic (tabulated in Tozer, 1984).
In 1992, the Subcommission on Triassic Stratigraphy (In-
ternational Commission on Stratigraphy) adopted a suite of
seven standard Triassic stages. However, the general lack of
unambiguous historical precedents for placement of Triassic
stage boundaries has retarded establishment of formal GSSPs.
(Table 17.1). Substages with geographic names are commonly
used by European stratigraphers, whereas North American
stratigraphers prefer a generic lower/middle/upper nomen-
clature (e.g. Fassanian substage versus Lower Ladinian).
Table 17.1 Triassic stage denitions (GSSP assignments or status) and informal division into substages

Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point

Stage boundary General references

Stage Substage base Status Location and point Primary markers Other correlations Comments (GSSP, correlations)

Upper Triassic
Rhaetian Upper
Rhaetian/Norian Guide event is Key sections in Austria, Near lowest occurrence New task group being
undecided Canada (NW Moresby of ammonoid organized for this
Island, Queen Charlotte Cochloceras, conodonts boundary. Non-marine
Islands, British Misikella spp. and auxiliary GSSP
Columbia), and Turkey Epigondolella mosheri, sections have been
and radiolarian identied. No substages
Proparvicingula anticipated
moniliformis

Norian Upper
Middle Informal European
usage
Norian/Carnian Guide event is Candidates include Base of Klamathites Halobia bivalves, British Columbia Krystyn and Gallet
undecided Canada (Black Bear macrolobatus or especially the FAD of section has superb fossil (2002), Krystyn et al.
Ridge in NE B.C. or Stikinoceras kerri H. austriaca, may succession, but Sicily (2002)
NW Moresby Island, ammonoid zones and provide a means of section has
Queen Charlotte the Metapolygnathus base-Carnian magnetostratigraphic
Islands, British communisti or M. correlation in Tethyan record that permits
Columbia); Sicily primitius conodont strata that lack correlation to
(Pizzo Mondello); zones ammonoids non-marine Newark
Slovakia (Silicka successions in eastern
Brezova section), USA. Decision
Turkey (Antalya anticipated in 2004. A
Taurus), and Oman non-marine auxiliary
GSSP candidate is at
Petried Forest Park,
New Mexico, USA
Carnian Upper Informal European
usage
Middle
Carnian/Ladinian Guide event is Candidate section at Near rst occurrence of Better fossiliferous
undecided Prati di Stuores, the ammonoids successions are present
Dolomites, northern Daxatina or in condensed sections
Italy. Important Trachyceras, and of the in Spiti in the
reference sections in conodont Himalayas, although
Spiti (India) and New Metapolygnathus access is not so good.
Pass, Nevada (USA) polygnathiformis Decision on this
boundary will probably
be delayed beyond 2003

Middle Triassic
Ladinian Upper
Middle Informal European
usage
Ladinian/Anisian Guide event is Leading candidates are Alternate levels include Hungarian section is Muttoni et al. (1996),
undecided Bagolino (Italy) and base of Reitzi, nicely prepared and has Palfy and Voros (1998)
Felsoons (Hungary). Secedensis, or Curionii radiometric dates and
Important reference ammonite zone; or near ammonoid stratigraphy,
sections in the rst occurrence of the but the preferred
Humboldt Range, conodont genus boundary level is not
Nevada (USA) Budurovignathus favored by some
workers

Anisian Upper Informal European Upper substage of

usage Anisian is sometimes
called Illyrian
Middle Informal European Middle Anisian
usage substage subdivided
informally into a lower
Bithynian and an
upper Pelsonian

Anisian/Olenekian Proposed 2002 Candidate section Ammonite, near lowest Proposed level is Lower substage of Muttoni et al. (1995,
probable at Desli Caira, occurrences of genera slightly below the base Anisian is sometimes 1998), Orchard and
Dobrogea, Romania; Japonites, of a normal-polarity called Aegean Tozer (1997a,b)
signicant sections in Paradanubites, and magnetic zone
Guizhou Province Paracrochordiceras; and
(China) of the conodont
Chiosella timorensis
(cont.)
Table 17.1 (cont.)

Global boundary stratotype section and point

Stage boundary General references

Stage Substage base Status Location and point Primary markers Other correlations Comments (GSSP, correlations)

Lower Triassic
Olenekian Upper Informal Originally dened (base Ammonite, lowest Olenikites pilanticus Spathian and Smithian Tozer (1967)
Spathian/ of Olenikites pilaticus occurrence of Tirolites (informal boundary are the informal name
Smithian ammonite zone of and Columbites species marker in Canadian for the lower and upper
substage boundary Tozer) at Cape Arctic) resembles a substages of the
Stallworthy of Axel member of Columbites Olenekian Stage
Heiberg Island, fauna of Idaho (USA).
Canadian Arctic, at The Columbites beds
approximately 25 m include Tirolites
above base of Lower illyricus, indicating at
Shale Member of the least an approximate
Blaa Mountain correlation with the
Formation Tirolites cassianus
ammonite zone of the
Mediterranean region

Olenekian/Induan Guide event is Candidates include Near lowest occurrence Magnetostratigraphy Kiparisova and Popov
undecided Russia (South of Hedenstroemia or across the (1964), Zakharov et al.
Primorye, near Meekoceras gracilitatis InduanOlenekian (2000, 2002)
Vladivostock) or China ammonites, and of the transition at South
(either in Anhui or conodont Neospathodus Primorye yielded only
Guizhou Provinces). waageni normal polarity
Important sections also (Zakharov et al., 2000);
in Spiti but is reported as near
the top of a
normal-polarity zone in
China. Carbon isotopes
may have a broad
positive peak at
boundary interval, then
a major negative
excursion in lower
Olenekian (Chinese
Lower Triassic
Working Group, 2002)
Induan Upper Informal Originally dened Ammonite, lowest Boundary between Griesbachian and Tozer (1967)
Dienerian/ south of Diener Creek, occurrence of abundant Otoceras and Dienerian are the
Griesbachian which drains into Otto Proptychites species Meekoceras beds in informal name for the
substage boundary Fiord on Ellesmere (base of Proptychites Himalayas, and between lower and upper
Island, Canadian Arctic candidus zone of Tozer) Ophiceras connectens bed substages of the Induan
(80.95 N, 88.83 W) at and Gyronitidae family and the Lower Ceratite Stage; but former
approximately 120 m Limestone in the Salt lower Griesbachian is
above base of Blind Range (Pakistan) now within uppermost
Fiord Formation Permian

Triassic/Permian Ratied 2001 Meishan Section D, Conodont, lowest Termination of major Meishan section is very Yin et al (1996, 2001),
(=base of about 2 km SE of occurrence of negative carbon isotope compact basal Yin (1996), Kozur
Mesozoic Era) Meishan town, 0.5 km Hindeodus parvus within excursion. About 1 myr Triassic H. parvus Zone (1998)
N of Baoqing village phylomorphogenetic after peak of Late spans only 8 cm, and
(119.72 E, 31.07 N), lineage H. typicalisH. Permian extinctions. two brief late Permian
Changxing County, latidentatus Base of Otoceras conodont zones (but
Zhejiang Province, praeparvusH. woodwardi ammonite not latest Permian) are
southern China. Middle parvusH. postparvus zone (Tethyan) and top absent. A non-marine
of Bed 27 (base of 27c), of Otoceras boreale Zone auxiliary section may be
about 15 cm above base (Boreal) are projected selected in the future,
of Yinkeng Formation just above this level. with candidates from
End of fungi spike are China and South Africa
projected just below. being documented
Fusulinid foraminifera
become extinct in latest
Permian. In continental
settings, this boundary
is close to the
disappearance of typical
Permian Dicynodon
tetrapods after a
interval of
co-occurrence with
Triassic Lystrosaurus
276 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
Important sources for this summary of Triassic subdivi-
sions, biostratigraphic zonations, and correlation of individual
stages include the Albertiana newsletters of the Subcommis-
sion on Triassic Stratigraphy (ICS) and Tozer (1967, 1984).
17.1.1 End-Permian ecological catastrophes and the
base of the Mesozoic
The Paleozoic Era terminated in a complex environmental
catastrophe and mass extinction of life. This sharp evolutionary
division led J. Phillips (1840, 1841), a British paleontologist,
to introduce Mesozoic (middle animal life, with Triassic at the
base) between the Paleozoic (old animal life, ending with the
Permian) and Kainozoic (recent animal life, after the Creta-
ceous). The latest Permian to earliest Triassic events include
pronounced negative carbon isotope and strontium isotope
anomalies, a positive sulfur isotope excursion, immense sub-
aerial volcanism covering Siberia, widespread anoxic oceanic
conditions, a major sea-level regression and exposure of shelves
followed by a major transgression, and the progressive disap-
pearance of up to 80% of marine genera (see reviews by Holser
and Magaritz, 1987; Erwin, 1993; Kozur, 1998; Hallam and
Wignall, 1999; Erwin et al., 2002).
Even though many of the ecological features resemble the
aftermath of the asteroid impact that concluded the Mesozoic,
the end-Paleozoic strata have not yielded unambiguous sig-
natures of a bolide catastrophe. A common hypothesis is that
release of aerosols and/or greenhouse gases associated with the
enormous Siberian continental ood basalts and oceanic feed-
backs dramatically altered global climate. A combination of
enhanced greenhouse warming punctuated by cold volcanic
winter episodes with a progressive transgression of low-oxygen
seas into shallow-water environments precipitated a progres-
sion of environmental and ecological feedbacks. Ecological re-
covery was delayed until the later half of the Early Triassic, and
up to half of the genera that seemed to have disappeared at the
PaleozoicMesozoic boundary interval re-emerged (Lazarus
taxa; e.g. see reviews by Kozur, 1998; Erwin et al., 2002).
R E D E F I N I N G T H E PA L E O Z O I C M E S O Z O I C
B O U N DA RY
The mass disappearance of Paleozoic fauna and ora, cou-
pled with the widespread occurrence of a major regression
transgression unconformity in most regions, led to a dilemma.
It was easy to recognize the bleak nal act of the Permian, but
how should the beginning of the Mesozoic be dened? The base
of the Bundsandstein in south west Germany dened the origi-
nal Trias concept (Alberti, 1834), but it is a diachronous bound-
ary within continental beds, now assigned to the upper Per-
mian. Similarly, the base of the Werfen Group (base of Tesero
Oolite) in the Italian Alps is a diachronous facies boundary.
Ammonoids are the common biostratigraphic tool throughout
the Mesozoic, and the Otoceras ammonoid genus was long con-
sidered to be the rst Triassic form. Therefore, Griesbach
(1880) assigned the Triassic base to the base of the Otoceras
woodwardi Zone in the Himalayan region, but this species is
only known from the Perigondwana paleomargin of eastern
Tethys (e.g. Iran to Nepal). The rst occurrence of Otoceras
species in the Arctic realm (Otoceras concavum Zone) was used
by Tozer (1967, 1986, 1994a) for a Boreal marker of the base
of the Triassic, but is now known to appear signicantly prior
to Otoceras woodwardi in the Tethyan realm (Krystyn and Or-
chard, 1996). The progressive evolution of the conodont Hin-
deodus genera through the PermianTriassic boundary interval
provided global correlation markers with no obvious facies de-
pendence; however, conodont biostratigraphy requires special
processing and identication experience. Non-biological cor-
relation markers, such as carbon isotope excursions or magnetic
polarity changes are conclusive when preserved (e.g. Newell,
1994), but can suffer from diagenetic overprints.
In 2000, the Triassic subcommission chose the rst
occurrence of the conodont Hindeodus parvus (equivalent
to Isarcicella parva of some earlier conodont studies) within
the evolutionary lineage Hindeodus typicalisH. latidentatus
praeparvusH. parvusH. postparvus as the primary correla-
tion marker for the base of the Mesozoic Era and Triassic
Period. This biostratigraphic event is the rst cosmopolitan
correlation level associated with the initial stages of recovery
following the end-Permian mass extinctions and environmen-
tal changes. Global correlations indicate that this conodont
species appears just after the carbon isotope minimum and
end of a widespread spike in marine fungi abundance events
considered as possible proxies of minimum biological abun-
dance in both marine and terrestrial settings (H. Kozur pers.
comm., 2001). This level is slightly lower than the base of the
Otoceras woodwardi ammonoid zone of the Himalayas. The re-
vised denition assigns the Otoceras concavum and lowermost
portion of Otoceras boreale ammonoid zones of the Arctic (the
lower part of the Griesbachian substage of Tozer, 1967) into
the Permian (Orchard and Tozer, 1997 a,b). In continental set-
tings, the conodont event is close to the disappearance of typical
Permian Dicynodon tetrapods after an interval of co-occurrence
with Triassic dicynodont Lystrosaurus (Kozur, 1998).

However, the choice of this conodont to serve as the pri-
mary marker for the base of the Triassic implies that former
traditional concepts of the PermianTriassic boundary, such
as the disappearance of typical Permian marine fauna, rapid
facies changes, extensive volcanism, and isotope anomalies are
now assigned to the latest Permian.
PA L E O Z O I C M E S O Z O I C B O U N DA RY S T R AT O T Y P E
( BA S E O F T H E T R I A S S I C )
The GSSP for the base of the Triassic is at Meishan, Zhejiang
Province, southern China, where it coincides with the rst
occurrence of conodont Hindeodus parvus (Yin et al., 2001).
Approximately 18 cm below the GSSP is the former
boundary clay bentonite (Bed 25), which has yielded high-
resolution 40 Ar/39 Ar and UPb ages coinciding with the main
phase of Siberian ood basalts at approximately 251 Ma (Renne
et al., 1995; Bowring, 1998; Metcalfe et al., 1999; Erwin et al.,
2002; Kamo et al., 2003). This boundary clay is now placed
approximately two conodont zones below the new base of the
Triassic. Another ash clay approximately 8 cm above the GSSP
(Bed 28) has yielded zircon UPb ages approximately 0.7 myr
younger than the Bed 25 bentonite (Bowring, 1998; Metcalfe
et al., 1999; Section 17.3.1).
Other important reference sections for the events across
the PermianTriassic boundary are located in the Dolomites
of Italy (e.g. Broglio Loriga and Cassinis, 1992; Wignall and
Hallam, 1992), in the Canadian Arctic (e.g. Tozer, 1967), in
the Salt Ranges of Pakistan (e.g. Baud et al., 1996), and the
Dzhulfa section of Armenia. However, older literature about
these sections commonly used placements for the Permian
Triassic boundary that are not coincident with the GSSP level
in Meishan (e.g. see review in Kozur, 1998).
17.1.2 Lower Triassic
A multitude of stage and substage nomenclatures have been
applied to the Lower Triassic interval. The Triassic subcom-
mission adopted the current subdivision into a lower Induan
Stage and an upper Olenekian Stage in 1992. The Induan and
Olenekian stages of Kiparisova and Popov (1956, revised in
1964) were named after exposures in the Indus river basin in
the Hindustan region of Asia and in the lower reaches of the
Olenek River basin of Arctic Siberia, respectively.
A suite of four ammonoid-zoned substages is widely
used. In an imaginative procedural twist, these Griesbachian,
Dienerian, Smithian, and Spathian substages are named after
The Triassic Period 277
exposures along associated small creeks on Ellesmere and
Axel Heiberg Islands in the Canadian Arctic, which in turn
were named after important Triassic paleontologists (Tozer,
1965).
I N D UA N
The Induan Stage is informally divided into two substages. The
lower substage, Griesbachian, is named after Griesbach Creek
on northwest Axel Heiberg Island. The Dienerian substage
is named after Diener Creek of northwest Ellesmere Island.
The GriesbachianDienerian boundary is marked by the ap-
pearance of Gyronitidae ammonoids. This substage boundary
is recognized in Canada and the Himalayas as the boundary
between Otoceras and Meekoceras ammonoid-bearing beds of
Diener (1912) and in the Salt Range of Pakistan at the base of
the Lower Ceratite Limestone (Tozer, 1967).
The redenition of the PermianTriassic boundary implies
that the lower portion of the original Griesbachian of Tozer
(1965, 1967) is now assigned to the uppermost Permian.
OLENEKIAN
History, denition, and boundary stratotype candidates The
Olenekian Stage was dened in Arctic Siberia, whereas the
Induan Stage was dened in the Hindustan region of Pakistan
India. Neither region has fossiliferous strata spanning their
mutual boundary the Induan in the Olenek River basin is
marginal marine to lagoonal, and ammonoids in the transitional
interval in the Hindustan region are rare or absent (Zakharov,
1994). The lower Olenekian is marked by the appearance of a
diverse ammonoid assemblage of Hedenstroemia, Meekoceras,
Juvenites, Pseudoprospingites, Arctoceras, Flemingites, and Eu-
emingites. A sea-level regression caused a scarcity of age-
diagnostic conodonts and bivalves during the latest Induan
to earliest Olenekian, but the transition seems to be within the
lower portion of the Neospathodus pakistanensis conodont zone
(Zakharov, 1994; Paull, 1997: Orchard and Tozer, 1997a,b).
Proposed biostratigraphic denitions of the stage bound-
ary are the highest occurrence of the ammonoid Gyronites sub-
dharmus and the lowest occurrence of the representatives of
the Meekoceras or Hedenstroemia ammonoid genera (Zahkarov
et al., 2000, 2002) or the lowest occurrence of the conodont
Neospathodus waageni. Two candidate GSSPs for this transition
are in the South Primorye region of southeast coastal Siberia
near Vladivostok Tri Kamnya Cape to Orel cliff section and
the Abrek Bay section (Zahkarov et al., 2000, 2002). A third
278 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
candidate is a roadside outcrop near Chaohu city in the Anhui
Province of eastern China (Jinnan et al., 2001; Chinese Lower
Triassic Working Group, 2002).
Smithian and Spathian substages The two informal substages
of the Olenekian Stage are named after Smith and Spath
creeks on Ellesmere Island of the Canadian Arctic. The base
of the Smithian substage was originally dened as the base of
a broad Euemingites romunderi ammonoid zone (Tozer, 1965,
1967), then the biostratigraphy was revised to add a Heden-
stroemia hedenstroemi ammonoid zone (e.g. Orchard and Tozer,
1997a,b).
The Spathian substage is characterized by Tirolites,
Columbites, Subcolumbites, Prohungarites, and Keyserlingites am-
monoid genera. The SmithianSpathian boundary was placed
at the base of the Olenekites pilaticus ammonoid zone, but there
appears to be a missing biostratigraphic interval in the type
region (Tozer, 1967; Orchard and Tozer, 1997a,b), An alter-
nate proposed nomenclature of a lower Ayaxian and an upper
Russian substage (Zakharov, 1994) would have the same lim-
its as the current Smithian and Spathian subdivisions.
17.1.3 Middle Triassic
ANISIAN
History, denition, and boundary stratotype candidates The
Anisian Stage was named after limestone formations near
the Enns (= Anisus) River at Grossreiing, Austria (Waagen
and Diener, 1895). The original Anisian stratotype lacks am-
monoids in the lower portion, and the lower limit was later
claried in the Mediterreanean region (Assereto, 1974). The
appearance of a number of ammonoid genera, like Aegeiceras,
Japonites, Paracrochordiceras, and Paradanubites, may be used
to dene the base of the Anisian (e.g. Gaetani, 1994). This level
is slightly preceded by the lowest occurrence of the conodont
Chiosella timorensis and by the base of a normal-polarity mag-
netic zone (Muttoni et al., 1995, 1998). The conodont Chiosella
timorensis provides a correlation to North American stratigra-
phy (Orchard and Tozer, 1997a,b).
The leading candidates for the base-Anisian GSSP are
Desli Caira in Dobrogea, Romania, and in the Guizhou
Province of China (M. Orchard, pers. comm., 2002).
Anisian substages The Anisian Stage has three to four infor-
mal substages. The Lower Anisian (also called Aegean or
Egean) was originally dened in beds with Paracrochordiceras
ammonoids at Mount Marathovouno on Chios Island (Greece)
in the Aegean Sea by Assereto (1974). The Middle Anisian is
sometimes subdivided into two substages: a lower Bithynian,
named after the Kokaeli Peninsula (Bithynia) of Turkey by As-
sereto (1974), and an upper Pelsonian, from the Latin name
for the region around Lake Balaton in Hungary (Pia, 1930)
spanning the Balatonites balatonicus ammonoid zone (Assereto,
1974). The Upper Anisian is also called Illyrian after the
Latin term for Bosnia (Pia, 1930).
LADINIAN
History, denition, and boundary stratotype candidates The
Ladinian Stage arose after a heated semantic argument of Was
ist norisch? (Bittner, 1892), when it was realized that most
of the strata that had dened a pre-Carnian Norian Stage
(Mojsisovics, 1869) were actually deposited after the Carnian
(Mojsisovics, 1893). This debate and the emergence of the La-
dinian Stage split the Vienna geological establishment (vividly
reviewed by Tozer, 1984). The Ladinian, after the Ladini in-
habitants of the Dolomites region of northern Italy, encom-
passed the Wengen and Buchenstein beds (Bittner, 1892).
Major revision and even partial inversion of the upper Tri-
assic stratigraphy, coupled with uncertainties about correla-
tion potentials and denition of ammonoid zones, contributed
to a delay in assigning the basal limit of the Ladinian Stage.
The base of the Ladinian is still a topic of intense debate
(e.g. Gaetani, 1993; Brack and Rieber, 1994, 1996; Mietto and
Manfrin, 1995; Palfy and Voros, 1998).
There are four contenders for the primary correlation cri-
teria to assign the LadinianAnisian boundary. In sequential
order upwards:
1. Lowest occurrence of representatives of the ammonoid
genus Kellnerites (denes the base of Reitziites reitzi am-
monoid zone of Voros et al., 1996), which coincides with
a widespread ammonoid and radiolarian turnover (e.g.
Voros et al., 1996; Palfy and Voros, 1998).
2. Lowest occurrence of the Nevadites ammonoid genus (de-
nes base of Nevadites secedensis Zone), which corresponds
to a major radiation in ammonoids.
3. Lowest occurrence of Eoprotrachyceras ammonoid genus
(denes the base of Eoprotrachyceras curionii Zone in Italy
Hungary and the base of Protrachyceras subasperum am-
monoid zone in Nevada), which is the only ammonoid
marker whose identity has remained stable (e.g. Brack and
Rieber, 1994, 1996).
4. Lowest occurrence of the Budurovignathus conodont
genus, which is found in most sections (e.g. Muttoni et al.,
1996; Orchard and Tozer, 1997a,b).

At a working group meeting in 2002, two other proposals
arose:
5. First occurrence of Reitziites reitzi ammonoid (which does
not correspond to the base of the R. reitzi Zone).
6. The rst occurrence of Aplococeras avisianum ammonoid
(N. Preto, pers. comm., December 2002).
All the lowest occurrences of ammonoid genera may have
only local chronostratigraphic precision, because none of the
western Tethys ammonoid species, with the possible exception
of A. avisianum, are recorded in either Nevada or the Cana-
dian Rocky Mountains. Also, well-established Jurassic exam-
ples suggest that rst appearances of genera in Europe and in
North America may be offset by as much as one ammonoid
zone (Palfy and Voros, 1998, p. 25).
Two potential GSSP localities are: (a) the historically im-
portant Felsoo rs section in the Balaton Highland of Hungary;
and (b) the section of Bagolino in the Lombardian Alps, west
of the Dolomites region of northern Italy. The former section
only adequately exhibits the lowest correlation criteria (base of
Kellnerites, e.g. Voros et al., 1996; Kovacs et al., 1994); whereas
the Bagolino section is the most complete one for the entire
boundary interval, yields radiometric ages, and can be directly
tied to nearby magnetostratigraphy (e.g. Brack et al., 1995;
Muttoni et al., 1996).
Important reference sections for Ladinian ammonoid
conodont correlation to North America are found in the Hum-
boldt Range, Nevada, USA.
Ladinian substages von Mojsisovics (1893) divided the La-
dinian into two substages: the Lower, or Fassanian (named
after Val di Fassa in northern Italy, where it was equated to
the Buchenstein Beds and Marmolada Limestone), and Up-
per, or Longobardian (named after the Langobard people of
northern Italy, and spanning the Wengen Beds). The substage
boundary is approximately at the base of the Eoprotrachyc-
eras gredleri ammonoid zone in the Alpine zonation or the
base of Meginoceras meginae ammonoid zone in the Canadian
zonation.
17.1.4 Upper Triassic
The Upper Triassic consists of three stages Carnian, No-
rian, and Rhaetian that were originally dened by charac-
teristic ammonoids (Mojsisovics, 1869). However, these units
were originally recognized in different locations in the north-
ern Alps of Austria with uncertain stratigraphic relationships.
Indeed, until 1892, Norian units were considered to underlie
The Triassic Period 279
the Carnian, and it was only after a major geological contro-
versy was the name Norian applied to the same units after
recognition that they were younger than Carnian (reviewed in
Tozer, 1984). No formal denitions have yet been agreed for
these stage boundaries.
CARNIAN
History, denition, and boundary stratotype candidates The
Carnian Stage, either named after localities in the Karnten
(Carinthia) region of Austria or after the nearby Carnian Alps,
was originally applied to Hallsatt Limestone beds bearing
ammonoids of Trachyceras and Tropites (Mojsisovics, 1869,
p. 127). The rst occurrence of ammonoid Trachyceras (= base
of Trachyceras aon Zone in Tethys or Trachyceras desatoyense
in Canada) was the traditional base, although it appears that a
Trachyceras datum would be asynchronous and not cosmopoli-
tan (e.g. Mietto and Manfrin, 1999). Mojsisovics (1893) in-
cluded the St. Cassian beds of northern Italy in a revised Car-
nian subdivision, therefore the level with rst occurrence of
the cosmopolitan ammonoid Daxatina at the Prati di Stuores
type locality in the Dolomites has been proposed for the base-
Carnian GSSP (Broglio Loriga et al., 1998). The Daxatina
appearance would imply lowering of the base of the Carnian
Stage to the middle of the Ladinian Frankites regoledanus am-
monoid zone. This high-sedimentation-rate Prati di Stuores
section has a magnetostratigraphy that can be correlated to a
more extensive section in Austria, but the conodont succession
is very diluted. Two other potential GSSPs with multiple bio-
stratigraphic successions (status from 2002 Annual Report of
Subcommission on Triassic Stratigraphy) are in Spiti, Himalaya,
northwest India (Balini et al., 1998, 2001), and New Pass sec-
tion, Nevada, USA.
Carnian substages Mojsisovics (1893) subdivided the Car-
nian into three substages (Cordevolian, Julian, and Tuvalian)
corresponding to three ammonoid zones, but later stratig-
raphers combined their lower two substages. The boundary
between the Lower Carnian (or Julian, named after the
Julian Alps region of southern Austria) and the Upper Carnian
(or Tuvalian, named after the Tuval mountains, the Roman
term for the region between Berchtesgaden and Hallein near
Salzburg, Austria) is traditionally placed at the rst occurrence
of Tropites ammonoids (i.e. the base of the Tropites subbullatus
ammonoid Zone of Tethys and Tropites dilleri Zone of Canada).
The ammonoid change at this substage boundary is more sig-
nicant than at the base of the Carnian or at the base of the
overlying Norian (Tozer, 1984).
280 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

NORIAN Sagenites quinquepunctatus ammonoid zone, but there is no con-

sistent usage (Kozur, 1998).
History, revised denition, and boundary stratotype candidates
Norian derives its name from the Roman province south of
the Danube (Mojsisovics, 1869), and the stratigraphic extent RHAETIAN

of strata given this name had a contorted history (reviewed in
Tozer, 1984). Ammonoid successions in Nevada and British
Columbia led to a proposal that the base of the Norian be as-
signed to the base of the Stikinoceras kerri ammonoid zone,
overlying the Klamathites macrolobatus Zone (Silberling and
Tozer, 1968). This level is approximately coeval with a Tethyan
placement between the Anatropites and Guembelites jandianus
ammonoid zones (Krystyn, 1980; Orchard et al., 2000). How-
ever, this ammonoid-based level does not correspond to an
unequivocal microfossil signal, whereas the base of the K.
macrolobatus ammonoid zone is coincident with the rst oc-
currences of conodont Metapolygnathus communisti and some
radiolarian species (Orchard et al., 2000). A potential GSSP
for this lowered base of the Norian (M. communista datum)
is at Black Bear Ridge on Williston Lake, northeast British
Columbia (Orchard et al., 2001), although it did not yield mag-
netostratigraphy. Other candidate sections are Pizzo Mondello
in Sicily (Muttoni et al., 2001) or Silicka Brezova section in
Slovakia, both of which have yielded magnetic polarity patterns
and conodonts (e.g. Krystyn and Gallet, 2002; Krystyn et al.,
2002).
Norian substages The Norian is traditionally subdivided into
three substages, following Mojsisovics (1893). The boundary
between the lower Norian (or Lacian, after the Roman name
for the Salzkammergut region of the northern Austrian Alps)
and middle Norian (or Alaunian, named for the Alauns, who
lived in the Hallein region of Austria during Roman times)
is the base of the Tethyan Cyrtopleurites bicrenatus ammonoid
zone. The base of the upper Norian (or Sevatian, after the
Celtic tribe who lived between the Inn and Enns Rivers of Aus-
tria) is generally assigned as the base of the North American
Gnomohalorites cordilleranus ammonoid zone or the Tethyan
The Rhaetian, the rst Triassic stage to be established, has led
a vague existence. Carl Wilhelm Riter von Gumbel (1861) de-
ned the Rhaetian as equivalent to strata with the Rhaetavicula
contorta ammonoid zone, with the Kossen Beds of Austria re-
garded as typical. The acceptance of the Norian stage (1895)
and later biostratigraphic investigations of the Kossen Beds
suggested signicant overlap, and the Rhaetian was eliminated
in some Triassic time scales (e.g. Zapfe, 1974; Palmer, 1983;
Tozer, 1984). In 1991, the Subcommission on Triassic Stratig-
raphy decided to retain the Rhaetian as an independent stage,
but there is no agreement on its extent (e.g. Krystyn, 1990;
Tozer, 1990; Kozur, 1999). Potential biostratigraphic levels
for the base of the Rhaetian include the highest occurrence of
Monotis bivalves or the lowest occurrence of ammonoid Cochlo-
ceras, of conodont Epigondolella mosheri, or a Misikella species,
or of radiolarian Proparvicingula moniliformis.
1 7 . 2 T R I A S S I C S T R AT I G R A P H Y
The ammonoid successions of the Alps and Canada have his-
torically served as global primary standards for the Triassic (re-
views in Tozer, 1967, 1984). Biostratigraphic, magnetostrati-
graphic, chemostratigraphic, and other events are typically
calibrated to these standard ammonoid zones. An extensive
compilation and inter-correlation of Triassic stratigraphy of
European basins was coordinated by Hardenbol et al. (1998)
and is partially summarized in Fig. 17.1.
17.2.1 Marine macrofossils
Ammonoids dominate the historical zonation of the Trias-
sic, but conodonts have become a major tool for global cor-
relation. Thin-shelled bivalves (e.g. Daonella, Halobia, etc.)

Figure 17.1 Triassic time scale with selected biostratigraphic zonations, magnetic polarity chrons, and major depositional sequences. Potential
denitions of stage boundaries are indicated by dashed lines, with our selected assignment for the main Phanerozoic time scale drawn as the
horizontal; but the nal decisions will be made by the International Commission on Stratigraphy after 2003 (see text for full discussion and ICS
site at www.stratigraphy.org for current status). Uncertainties on computed ages of stage boundaries are the estimated 95% condence limits
(see text). Details on sources, calibrations, and scaling of ammonoid scales are given in the text. Datums in the pollen-spore column were
selected from a compilation by Hochuli et al. (in Hardenbol et al., 1998). Land vertebrate scale of global assemblage zones is from Lucas (1999).
Major ooding or regressive trends of depositional sequences as recognized in Alpine and Boreal regions are labeled at the sequence boundary
immediately preceding the maximum lowstand of the respective third-order sequence (generalized from Hardenbol et al., 1998). A color
version of this gure is in the plate section.
 The Triassic Period 281

Triassic Time Scale

Ammonoid zones Other selected zonations Main
AGE Stage Polarity Seq.
Chron Alpine British Conodonts Pollen- Land
(Ma) Columbia Spores Vertebrates T R
Schlotheirnia angulata
Jurassic

<= Magneto-bio, Europe

Alsatites liasicus
Protosuchus
(Hettangian) Extinction of
(crocodylo-
morph)
Psiloceras planorbis
199.6 0.6 Conodonts He1
200 Choristoceras Limbosporites

Chor. marshi
marshi Misikella lundbladii,
Choristoceras posthernsteini Ricciisporites

Apachean
crickmayi tuberculatus,
E21 E22 E23 E24

Rhaetian Vandaites
stuerzenbaumi
Rhaetipollis
germanicus
Epigondolella Redonda-
202.3 1.5 Sagenites Paracochloceras mosheri saurus
Rhabdoceras suessi

reticulatus amoenum (phytosaur)

203.6 1.5
Sevatian

Sagenites
U quinque- Gnomohalorites
cordilleranus
Epigondolella
Rhaetipollis
205 punctatus bidentata
germanicus
No2
E20

Halorites Epigondol. serrulata

? macer
E18 19
Alaunian

Mesohimavatites Epigondol. postera

columbianus
M Himavatites Epigondol. elongata
hogarti

Revueltian
E17

Epigondol. spiculata
210 Norian
Cyrtopleurites Drepanites Epigondolella Limbosporites
bicrenatus rutherfordi multidentata lundbladii,
Ricciisporites
E16

tuberculatus No1
Juvavites magnus
Epigondolella
triangularis
Malayites Malayites
E15

paulckei dawsoni
Lacian

Epigondolella
L quadrata

215
E14

Guembelites Stikinoceras Pseudo-

jandianus kerri Metapolygnathus Chasmato- palatus
primitius sporites (phytosaur)
spp.
216.5 2.0
Klamathites
217.4 2.0 macrolobatus Metapoly. communisti
E13

Anatropites
Adamanian

spinosus Corollina
spp.
Carnian Tropites Metapolygnathus
U
Tuvalian

welleri
E11 E12

nodosus
No Data

Infernopollenites
Tropites spp.
subbullatus
220
282 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

Triassic Time Scale

Ammonoid zones Other selected zonations Main
AGE Stage Polarity Seq.
Chron Alpine British Conodonts Pollen- Land
(Ma) Columbia Spores Vertebrates T R

E12
Infernopollenites
Tropites Tropites spp.
Metapolygnathus

Adamanian
220 subbullatus welleri
Tuvalian

No Data
nodosus
U E11
Car3
Tropites dilleri
E10

Carnian Sirenites
nanseni
E9

Austro- Rutiodon
trachyceras (phytosaur)
austriacum Austro-
Julian

225 trachyceras Metapolygnathus

L obesum polygnathiformis

Otischalkian
E8

Paleorhinus
Trachyceras

(phytosaur)
aonoides
Trachyceras
desatoyense
Trachyceras
E7n E7n? E7r

aon
228.0 2.0
Daxatina I. chitonoides,
canadensis Paragondolella Echinitosporites
229.6 2.0 Frankites
inclinata iliacoides Major
sutherlandi
Frankites Dinosaurian
230 lineages
Longobardian

regoledanus
E6 established Lad3
"Protrachy." Macl. maclearni Paragondolella n.sp.S (228 Ma
neumayri
E5 Meginoceras age on strata
U Paragondolella

Berdyankian
Protrachy. with primitive
Protrachyceras

longobardicum meginae foliata dinosaurs in

E4
Argentina)
E3
"Eoprotrachy."
Ladinian E2 gredleri
Tuchodiceras Budurovignathus
Echinitosporites
iliacoides
poseidon hungaricus
Cycle-scaled Newark basin, USA =>

Protrachy. (lower part of zone)

margaritosum
Greece, Italy, Austria and Turkey
Fassanian

235 L Mastodon-
Eoprotrachyceras Eoprotrachyceras saurus
curionii matutinum (temno-
spondyl)
Budurovignathus
237 2.0
Illyrian

Frechites chischa
Nevadites
U secedensis Paragondolella
Perovkan

ex gr. excelsa
Partitisporites
240
Anisian 240 2.0 Apl. avisianum
spp.
Hungar.

Eogymnotoceras
241 2.0 Reitz. reitzi
deleeni
Paraceratites

Figure 17.1 (cont.)

 The Triassic Period 283

Triassic Time Scale

Ammonoid zones Other selected zonations Main
AGE Stage Polarity Seq.
Chron Alpine British Conodonts Pollen- Land
(Ma) Columbia Spores Vertebrates T R
Mastodon-
237 2.0 Budurovignathus saurus
(temno-
spondyl)

Illyrian
Frechites chischa
Nevadites
U secedensis Paragondolella
ex gr. excelsa
Partitisporites
240 2.0 spp.
240 Apl. avisianum

Hungar.
Anisian 241 2.0 Reitz. reitzi
Eogymnotoceras
deleeni

Perovkan
Paraceratites
Albania, Greece,
Aeg. Bithy./Pels.

and Poland

Balatonites Hollandites minor

Ana. varium
balatonicus
Tetsaoceras
M hayesi
Kocaelia Buddhaites hagei
Neogondolella Densosporites
nejburgii Shansiodon
Paracrochordi- Lenotropites caurus regale (dicynodontl)
L ceras Silberlingites mulleri I. chitonoides
245 245 1.5 (un-named)
Ol4
Keyser. subrobustus
Neospathodus
Spathian

Toziceras triangularis

pakistanum Neospath. crassatus
U Olenikites pilaticus

Nonesian
Canadian Arctic

Olenekian Tirolites cassianus (un-named)

Ol1
Smith.

(mixed assemblage) Anawasatch. tardus Neospathodus Cynognathus

L Meekoceras Eufleming. romunduri
waageni
(cynodontl)
gracilitatis Heden. hedenstroemi Neosp. pakistanensis
249.7 0.7 Neospath. cristagalli Lundbladispora
Gr. Di.

Flem. rotundatus Vavil. sverdrupi

Lootsb.
250 U Gyronites frequens Neospath. kumelli spp. (common) Lystrosaurus
Induan L Ophiceras spp.
Proptych. candidus
B. strig./Oph. commun. Neogond. carinata
Hindeodus parvus
(dicynodontl)
In1

251 0.4 Otoceras woodwardi Otoceras boreale

meishanensis
H. latidentatus

Otoceras concavum
H. typicalis
praeparvus

C. chalasta
Clarkina

Pseudotirolites Luecki-
Permian Paratirolites Paratirolites
sporites

(Changhsingian)
Figure 17.1 (cont.)

provide important regional markers. During much of the Trias- Despite their historical importance in subdividing the Tri-
sic, the sedimentary record across the Pangea supercontinent assic, there is not yet a standardized ammonoid zonation (or
was dominated by terrestrial deposits, therefore widespread nomenclature) for Alpine regions. For example, Mietto and
tetrapod and plant remains are important for global correlation. Manfrin (1995) proposed a generalized standard for the Mid-
dle Triassic of the Tethyan realm that utilized rst appear-
ances of widespread genera to dene zones and major species
AMMONOIDS
to dene subzones. But this zonal scheme was immediately
Ammonoids experienced their maximum variety during the rejected by some Alpine workers (e.g. critiques by Brack and
Triassic, reaching a peak in the middle Norian before being Rieber, 1996, and Voros et al., 1996). A Triassic succession and
decimated at the end of the Triassic. Only a single major gen- nomenclature for Canada was compiled by Tozer (1967) with
era, Phylloceras, seems to have survived into the basal-Jurassic later modications (e.g. Tozer, 1994b).
to enable the rapidly evolving ammonites to reconquer the The ammonoid scale in Fig. 17.1 displays a hybrid selec-
Jurassic seas. tion, rather than an international standard. These calibrations
284 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
of the component ammonoid zones to each other and the scal-
ing to absolute time involved various sources and methods.
The Alpine ammonoid scale is modied from a compilation by
van Veen and Gianolla (1998). The inter-calibrated Canadian
ammonoid and conodont scales are modied from Orchard
and Tozer (1997b). Estimated ages of Early Triassic Canadian
ammonoid zones are derived from graphic-correlation scaling
of associated conodont datums (Sweet and Bergstrom, 1986).
Age estimates for Anisian and for Rhaetian Tethyan ammonoid
zones are derived by proportional scaling to number of compo-
nent subzones. Ages of Ladinian through Norian Tethyan am-
monoid zones are assigned through bio-magnetostratigraphic
calibration to the Milankovitch-scaled magnetic polarity time
scale derived from the Newark basin of eastern USA (see
Section 17.2.4), and their correspondingly more precise ab-
solute age assignments are indicated by solid lines in Fig. 17.1.
Suggested correlations of Arctic and Tethyan ammonoid zones
are mainly from van Veen (1998) and Ginolla, de Zanche and
Mietto (1998), and the relatively higher-precision correlations
levels are shown as solid lines. The extensive biostratigraphic
chart series by Hardenbol et al. (1998) contains detailed in-
formation and correlation on ammonoid subzones and other
biostratigraphic events, but there is no consensus on aspects
of the nomenclature and inter-correlations. Ammonoid bio-
zone names and associated assigned ages are summarized in
Table 17.3.
CONODONTS
Conodonts are distinctive variations in the phosphatic jaws
of an enigmatic pelagic swimmer and enable widespread cor-
relation of Triassic strata. After surviving the end-Permian
mass extinctions, the conodonts mysteriously vanished at the
end of the Triassic. Compilations of the calibrations among
conodont zones and ammonoids have been accomplished for
several realms, including Canada (e.g. Orchard and Tozer,
1997a,b), Tethys region (e.g. Muttoni et al., 1998; Krystyn
et al., 2002), and European basins (Vrielynck, 1998).
B I VA LV E S
A succession of thin-shelled clams (pectinacean pterioid bi-
valves) were largely restricted to deeper-water settings and tend
to occur in high densities on certain bedding planes (Hallam,
1981a). These genera (Claria, Enteropleura, Daonella, Halo-
bia, Monotis, etc.), which have no modern counterparts, are
valuable for global Triassic correlations. Their Jurassic and
Cretaceous relatives (Bositra, Buchia, inoceramids) occupied
the same settings.
17.2.2 Terrestrial macrofossils
T E T R A P O D S A N D D I N O S AU R S T R AT I G R A P H Y
The Triassic non-marine strata of Pangea was divided
into eight land-vertebrate faunachrons (LVFs) by Lucas
(1998a,b, 1999), indicating an inter-continental correlation po-
tential equivalent to ammonoid-based stage-level units (Fig.
17.1). The rst appearance of the dicynodont Lystrosaurus
(a plant-eating, semi-aquatic mammal-like reptile) marks
the base of the Triassic. The Lower and Middle Triassic
can be subdivided by a progressive succession of rst occur-
rences of other mammal-like reptiles of cynodont and di-
cynodont types followed by the temnospondyl Mastodonsaurus
amphibian. The Late Triassic has four LVFs dened by pro-
gressive rst occurrences of crocodile-like phytosaur genera.
The earliest dinosaurs are known from Carnian strata
across Pangea, and represent a small-sized, yet diverse, compo-
nent of late Carnian tetrapod fauna (Heckert and Lucas, 1999).
The major dinosaur lineages were already established by the be-
ginning of the Carnian, as indicated by a 227.8 0.3 Ma date on
the Ischigualasto assemblage of Argentina. Dinosaurs became
dominant land reptiles in the Norian, and evolved their charac-
teristic large size. It is uncertain whether this major turnover in
terrigenous ecosystems was restricted to non-marine settings
or was also a major marine extinction event (e.g. Benton, 1993).
P L A N T S, P O L L E N, A N D S P O R E S
Spores and pollen are important for correlation of marine and
terrestrial strata. Selected compilations of Triassic palynology
and plant ecosystem evolution are given in Traverse (1988)
and Wing and Sues (1992). In contrast to the end-Permian
mass extinctions of shallow-marine fauna, terrestrial plants
experienced only a minor decline in diversity. Widespread ma-
rine clastics of lower Triassic (Olenekian to lower Induan)
record a uniquely cosmopolitan acritarch spike assem-
blage of lycopsid spores, small acanthomorph acritarchs, and
Lunatisporites coniferalean pollen (Balme and Foster, 1996).
Palynoora zonations for Triassic strata have been com-
piled for the Alpine and Germanic region (e.g. Brugman, 1986;
Hochuli, 1998), Australia (Helby et al., 1987), southwest USA
(Litwin et al., 1991; Cornet, 1993), Newark Basin of eastern
USA (e.g. Cornet, 1977; Cornet and Olsen, 1985), and the
Arctic (Van Veen et al., 1998).
Palynoora correlations are particularly important in re-
solving the succession of ecosystem and volcanic events as-
sociated with the latest Triassic mass extinctions and the
transition to the Jurassic recovery, although aspects of the

precision of inter-continental correlations and the calibration
to marine-based chronostratigraphy remain unresolved (e.g.
Morbey, 1975; Fisher and Dunay, 1981; Cornet and Olsen,
1985; Hallam, 1990; Fowell and Olsen, 1993, 1995; van Veen,
1995, and references there in). In particular, Newark rift basins
in eastern USA display a transition from diverse assemblages
of monsaccate and bisaccate pollen to palynoora containing
6090% Corollina meyeriana spores that occur slightly below
ood basalts dated at approximately 202 Ma and was assigned
as a regional marker for the TriassicJurassic boundary (e.g.
Cornet, 1977, pp. 175184; Cornet and Olsen, 1985; Fowell
and Olsen, 1993). However, similar palynological changes are
recorded near the base of the typical Rhaetian of Europe (e.g.
Schuurman, 1979; Orbell, 1983; van Veen, 1995, and written
comm., January 1994). This Newark palynology episode and
associated volcanics may correspond to the onset of the series
of mass extinctions during the latest Norian and Rhaetian that
precede the marine TriassicJurassic boundary as dened by
the rst occurrence of Hettangian ammonite genus Psiloceras
at 199.6 0.3 Ma (e.g. Palfy et al., 2000b).
17.2.3 Marine microfossils
Except for radiolaria, marine microfossil biostratigraphy has
not yet been developed as a widespread correlation tool within
the Triassic. In contrast to Permian and Jurassic syntheses,
the benthic foraminifera stratigraphy of the Triassic has not
been compiled on a global scale. A stratigraphic summary of
larger benthic foraminifera of the Tethyan realm is illustrated
by Peybernes (1998a,b).
Calcareous nannofossils are only known from Carnian and
younger strata, and the rst real coccoliths appear in the western margin of the future Central Atlantic accumulated
Norian (von Salis, 1998). Records of dinoagellates are also
rare, and the oldest representative of this group may be middle
Triassic (Hochuli, 1998).
Radiolarian datums and zonations have been compiled
from alpine exposures (e.g. De Wever, 1982, 1998; Kozur and
Mostler, 1994), Japan (e.g. Sugiyama, 1997) and western North
America (e.g. Blome, 1984; Carter, 1993; Carter and Orchard,
2000).
17.2.4 Physical stratigraphy
M AG N E T O S T R AT I G R A P H Y
Throughout the Triassic, there are about twofour magnetic
polarity zones per million years with no evident polarity bias or
extended intervals of constant polarity. A concentrated effort
The Triassic Period 285
by paleomagnetists during the 1990s led to a composite mag-
netic polarity scale that has been calibrated to ammonoid and
conodont zones, and partially to sequence stratigraphy and or-
bital cycles (Fig. 17.1). The reference Early Triassic magnetic
polarity time scale derived from Canadian Arctic sections that
included substage stratotypes (Ogg and Steiner, 1991) has been
correlated to sections in the Italian Dolomites, Spitsbergen,
Poland Buntsandstein, China, southwest USA, and Iran (e.g.
Steiner et al., 1988, 1993; Graziano and Ogg, 1994; Heller et al.,
1995; Hounslow et al., 1996; Nawrocki, 1997; Gallet et al., 2000;
Scholger et al., 2000). A composite Anisian through lowermost
Carnian polarity pattern has been progressively resolved from
studies in Greece, Italy, Albania, Poland, and Turkey (e.g. sum-
maries by Gallet et al., 1998; Muttoni et al., 1998; Nawrocki
and Szulc, 2000), although some details from these discontin-
uous sections are uncertain. Except for a small interval in the
middle Carnian, the Carnian through lower Rhaetian polarity
pattern has been calibrated to biostratigraphy from sections in
Turkey, Italy, and Austria (Gallet et al., 1992; Muttoni et al.,
2001; Krystyn et al., 2002).
The Triassic magnetic polarity scale shown in Fig. 17.1
(right-hand column of polarity scales) is a spliced composite of
other compilations: (a) Lower Triassic from Ogg and Steiner
(1991), with compensation for sedimentation rate variations
by Graziano and Ogg (1994); (b) uppermost Spathian through
lower Ladinian from Muttoni et al. (1998) and Nawrocki and
Szulc (2000); (c) upper Ladinian through lowermost Carnian
from Gallet et al. (1998); (d) lower Carnian from Gallet et al.
(1992); and (e) upper Carnian to lower Rhaetian from Krystyn
et al. (2002).
During the late Triassic, a series of rift valleys along the
very thick successions of lacustrine deposits that recorded
climatic responses to Milankovitch orbital cycles. Drilling of
these Newark Basin strata has yielded a complete 30-myr cycle-
scaled pattern of the magnetic reversal history during the late
Triassic (Kent et al., 1995). The uppermost polarity chron
E23 of the Newark polarity sequence is overlain by the Or-
ange Mountain basalts, part of the onset of a regional Cen-
tral Atlantic Magmatic Province dated at 201.5 1 Ma (e.g.
Sutter, 1988; Dunning and Hodych, 1990). Therefore, Kent
and Olsen (1999; and on-line version, 2002) assign an age
of 202 Ma to the top of E23 and tuned the cyclic stratigra-
phy using the 404-kyr eccentricity cycle and a 1.75-myr long
modulating cycle to project the ages of the late Triassic po-
larity pattern (Fig. 17.1). According to palynology, the base of
the Norian is within Newark polarity chron E13 (Olsen et al.,
1996).
286 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

Correlation between the cycle-scaled Newark polarity

pattern and the composites of biostratigraphiccalibrated Triassic geochemical trends
portions of the Ladinian through Rhaetian is difcult. The cor- 13C 87Sr / 86Sr Temperature
trends
(0/00 PDB)

0.7070

0.7075

0.7080

0.7085
AGE Stage 18O (0/00 PDB)
relation has been hindered by variable sedimentation and tec- (Ma) 1 3 5 0 2 4 6

tonic distortions of several sections, taxonomic disagreements 195 Sinemurian Cooler <> Warmer
Hettangian
on biostratigraphic age assignments and absence of unambigu- 200
Rhaetian
ous polarity pattern (Muttoni et al., 2001; Krystyn et al., 2002). 205

The potential correlation illustrated in Fig. 17.1 was initially 210 Norian
suggested during a combined scaling process: (a) using a 202 215

Ma age for the top of Newark polarity chron E23 and as- 220
Carnian
signing an age of 199.6 Ma to the top of the Triassic (Palfy 225

et al., 2000b), (b) scaling relative durations of Ladinian through 230

Ladinian
Rhaetian ammonoid zones according to the number of compo- 235

nent subzones, (c) plotting the composite polarity patterns of 240

Anisian
the Tethyan region within each ammonoid zone as displayed 245

in published compilations, and (d) constraining the base of
the Norian to be near Newark polarity chron E13. Several
potential correlations were suggested visually by the relative
alignment of intervals dominated by normal or by reversed po-
larity (e.g. normal-polarity dominance of Newark chrons E15
through E17n compared to lower Norian pattern, and reverse-
polarity dominance of middle Carnian compared to polarity
bias in upper Lower Carnian) and the apparent frequency of
reversals (e.g. rapid reversals during Newark polarity chrons
E2E6 compared to the middle Ladinian pattern). Based on
these visual matches and age constraints, the relative place-
ments of ammonoid zones were adjusted while retaining the
within-zone polarity scaling as tentatively suggested by previ-
ous compilations.
C H E M I C A L S T R AT I G R A P H Y
Recognition of global excursions in carbon and strontium iso-
topes during the Triassic is relatively less developed than in
adjacent geological periods owing to a dearth of extended sec-
tions with high-resolution biostratigraphy and unambiguous
global correlation, especially within the Middle and Upper
Triassic. Only the PermianTriassic boundary interval has a
well-documented suite of chemical signatures with global cor-
relation potential.
Stable isotopes of carbon and oxygen The end-Permian mass
extinctions are coincident with an abrupt negative excursion
in carbon isotopes in both marine and terrestrial settings. This
excursion may have been caused by a combination of decreased
marine productivity and an inux of light carbon from volcanic,
soil-carbon or methane sources (e.g. Holser and Magaritz,
1987; Baud et al., 1989; Krull and Retallack, 2000; Yin et al.,
2001; Erwin et al., 2002; Sephton et al., 2002a). The base of
250
E. Triassic
255 Permian
260
(Changhsingian)
Figure 17.2 Triassic trends and excursions in carbon and oxygen
stable isotopes and in marine 87 Sr/86 Sr ratio from calcareous fossils
and bulk carbonate. The schematic carbon isotope curve is a 5-myr
averaging of data (Veizer et al., 1999) from Hayes et al. (1999;
downloaded from www.nosams.whoi.edu/jmh), with details on the
end-Permian and end-Triassic excursions generalized from Erwin
et al. (2002) and Jenkyns et al. (2002), respectively. The strontium
isotope curve is based on a LOWESS t to data of Koepnick et al.
(1990), Korte et al. (2003), and other sources see text and also
Chapter 7. The oxygen isotope curve (inverted scale) is derived from
a 3-myr interval averaging of global data compiled by Veizer et al.
(1999; as downloaded from
www.science.uottawa.ca/geology/isotope data/ in January 2003).
Large-scale global shifts to higher oxygen-18 values in carbonates
are generally interpreted as cooler seawater or glacial episodes, but
there are many other contributing factors (e.g. Veizer et al., 1999,
2000; Wallmann et al., 2001). Gaps in curves indicate absence of
isotope data in these compilations.
the Triassic is just after this carbon isotope minimum, but the
carbon isotope values never return to the relatively heavy 13 C
of +4 per mil that characterizes the Late Permian (Fig.17.2).
Carbon isotopes generally remain in the +1.5 to +2.0 per
mil range throughout the majority of the Triassic except for
a possible broad 13 C peak to +3 per mil in upper Carnian
and lower Norian (Veizer et al., 1999; Hayes et al., 1999). A
brief positive 13 C peak observed in organic carbon compo-
nents at the NorianRhaetian boundary has been tentatively
attributed to widespread oceanic stagnation coincident with
extinction of deep-water invertebrate fauna (Sephton et al.,
2002b). The late Rhaetian (end-Triassic) mass extinctions co-
incide with a negative carbon isotope excursion, which, like

the end-Permian event, may be linked to widespread volcan-
ism, oceanic productivity collapse, and release of methane (e.g.
Palfy et al., 2001; Ward et al., 2001; Hesselbo et al., 2002). How-
ever, the interpretation of these carbon isotope records may be
distorted by facies variations in some sections (Morante and
Hallam, 1996).
Oxygen isotope trends and other paleoenvironmental evi-
dence indicate a general progressive cooling from Late Permian
through the Triassic. The global oxygen-18 pattern suggests a
total cooling of about 4 C in tropical seas (Veizer et al., 2000;
Wallmann, 2001).
Strontium isotope ratios The curve of marine 87 Sr/86 Sr
through the Triassic (Fig. 17.2) is a broad trough bounded by
twin peaks in the earliest and latest Triassic. Values of 87 Sr/86 Sr
show a sharp rise through the latest Permian into an earliest
Triassic maxima (0.708 22) and a major decline from the very
latest Triassic maxima (0.707 95) through the earliest Jurassic
(Koepnick et al., 1990; Korte et al., 2003).
The major rise in marine 87 Sr/86 Sr during the late Permian
and earliest Triassic may be a long-term response to increased
continental weathering following the glacial climates of the
early Permian (Martin and Macdougall, 1995). The abrupt
initiation of the end-Triassic downturn in marine 87 Sr/86 Sr
coincided with major ood basalt outpouring along the future
Central Atlantic seaway, and the prolonged decline in 87 Sr/86 Sr
continued to the end of the Pliensbachian (Jones et al., 1994a;
McArthur et al., 2001; Jenkyns et al., 2002). The extra-ordinary
double-peaked shape of the Triassic 87 Sr/86 Sr curve is shown
by the data of both Koepnick et al. (1990) and Korte et al.
(2003); in the former it is dened by analysis of whole rocks
and in the latter by analysis of conodonts, which are not robust
to alteration. It therefore remains to be seen whether the twin
peaks are real. If they are, the rate of change of 87 Sr/86 Sr
through the interval offers some promise for global correlation
at high-resolution, especially in the regions of the maxima,
where 87 Sr/86 Sr changes rapidly with time.
C YC L E S T R AT I G R A P H Y
Late Triassic lacustrine sediments and Middle Triassic carbon-
ate platforms have been classic locations in recognition of Mi-
lankovitch orbital-climate cycles and developing cyclostratig-
raphy techniques and applications.
The thick Newark group of lacustrine sediments accumu-
lated in a series of closed rift basins in eastern North Amer-
ica during the initial phases of the break-up of Pangea. Dur-
ing the late Ladinian through earliest Jurassic, environments
within these tropical basins oscillated between semi-stagnant
The Triassic Period 287
deep lakes and arid playas as the intensity of monsoonal
rains responded to Earths precession modulated by short-
term (100 kyr) and long-term (400 kyr) eccentricity cycles.
Spectral analysis of sediment facies successions in a series
of deep-drilling cores enabled compilation of a cycle-scaled
record and magnetic polarity time scale that is unprecedented
in its 30-myr temporal span (e.g. Kent et al., 1995; Olsen et al.,
1996; Kent and Olsen, 1999). As noted in the Triassic magne-
tostratigraphy discussion, the exact calibration of this polarity
pattern to marine-based Triassic chronostratigraphy is contro-
versial, but this remarkable cyclic deposit will be an important
component of any late Triassic time scale.
The Latemar massif in the Italian Dolomites was an atoll-
like feature with a core of at-lying Anisian and Ladinian
platform carbonates. Oscillations in sea level created over 500
thin depositional cycles (Goldhammer et al., 1987). Stacking
patterns and spectral analysis indicate that the sea-level os-
cillations were driven by precession modulated by short-term
(100 kyr) eccentricity, implying that the Latemar deposit spans
approximately 10 myr (Goldhammer et al., 1990; Hinnov and
Goldhammer, 1991). In contrast, UPb ages from coeval tuff-
bearing basinal deposits appear to constrain the Latemar plat-
form to span only 24 myr (e.g. Brack et al., 1996, 1997; Mundil
et al., 1996; Hardie and Hinnov, 1997). Possible solutions to
this disparity include a very high rate of platform construc-
tion (200 m/myr) that recorded sub-Milankovitch sea-level
oscillations or reworked zircons in the tuffs.
Studies of similar facies oscillations in upper Triassic plat-
form carbonates in the Austrian Alps played an important role
in developing fundamental concepts of cyclostratigraphy (e.g.
Fischer, 1964), but the reality of regular cyclicity in these same
deposits has also been questioned (e.g. Satterley, 1996). Inter-
bedded marls and limestones of shallow-marine origin span-
ning the PermianTriassic boundary interval in these Austrian
Alps display cycles with ratios matching Milankovitch eccen-
tricity, obliquity, and precession periodicity, and which indicate
that the latest Permian extinction and negative carbon isotope
spike spanned less than 30 kyr (Rampino et al., 2000, 2002).
S E Q U E N C E S T R AT I G R A P H Y
Triassic sea-level trends have been compiled for Boreal basins
(e.g. Embry, 1988; Mrk et al., 1989; Skjold et al., 1998),
the classic Germanic Trias (e.g. Aigner and Bachmann, 1992;
Geluk and Rohling, 1997), the Dolomites and Italian Alps (e.g.
De Zanche et al., 1993; Gaetani et al., 1998; Gianolla et al.,
1998), and other regions. Many of these sea-level trends ap-
pear to correlate on an inter-basin to global scale (e.g. Haq
et al., 1988; Hallam, 1992b; Embry, 1997; Gianolla and Jacquin,
288 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
1998). Some common features are schematically illustrated in
Fig. 17.1, based on a graphical summary and systematic num-
bering system derived from several studies (Jacquin and Vail,
1998).
The Triassic sea-level trend is dominated by a single cycle
a progressive transgression that began in the latest Permian and
peaks in the AnisianLadinian boundary interval, followed by
a regression to the Late Norian (sequence boundary No2 on
Fig. 17.1). A second major transgression begins in the Rhaetian
that peaks in the late Jurassic. The initiation of each major
transgressive episode coincides with a major mass extinction
(end-Permian and end-Triassic) and widespread anoxic envi-
ronments on the shelves (e.g. Hallam and Wignall, 1999). Su-
perimposed on these main cycles are at least four second-order
facies cycles (major sequence boundaries Ol4 in uppermost
Olenekian, Lad3 in uppermost Ladinian, Car3 in mid-Carnian,
and No2 in uppermost Norian), and up to 23 third-order se-
quences (Gianolla and Jacquin, 1998).
O T H E R M A J O R S T R AT I G R A P H I C E V E N T S
The main pulses of the voluminous Siberian Trap ood basalts
are approximately coeval with the latest Permian mass extinc-
tions, and the waning stages of this volcanic activity may have
continued into the earliest Triassic (e.g. Renne et al., 1995;
Erwin et al., 2002, and references therein).
Two major events punctuated the Late Triassic one of the
largest ood basalt episodes during the Phanerozoic and a ma-
jor impact. The Central Atlantic Magmatic Province, with ages
centered on 200 Ma (just before the TriassicJurassic bound-
ary as recognized in the marine realm), has a total extrusive
volume approaching 4 million cubic kilometers (e.g. Marzoli
et al., 1999; Hames et al., 2000). These extensive volcanics have
mostly normal magnetic polarity, and were probably mainly
emplaced within less than 2 myr during polarity chrons E23n
E24n of the Newark Basin geomagnetic polarity time scale
(Olsen and Kent, 2001). The waves of mass extinctions during
the latest Triassic may have been partially linked to the envi-
ronmental side-effects of these continental ood basalts (e.g.
Olsen, 1999).
The 100-km diameter Manicouagan impact structure of
Quebec has a UPb age of 214 1 Ma (Hodych and Dun-
ning, 1992). This impact event and associated environmental
catastrophe may have contributed to the large-scale turnover of
continental tetrapods at the CarnianNorian boundary inter-
val, during which dinosaurs attained dominance over compet-
ing families of carnivorous, the condontians and mammal-like
reptiles (e.g. Benton, 1986, 1993). It is ironic that both the be-
ginning and the end of the reign of the dinosaurs may have
been delimited by major impacts. However, there has not yet
been global recognition of the ejecta or other evidence of the
Manicouagan impact in the stratigraphic record.
17.3 TRIASSIC TIME SCALE
Only four clusters of radiometric ages constrain the Triassic
time scale base of Triassic at 251 0.4 Ma, mid-Middle Trias-
sic (base of Nevadites secedensis ammonoid zone) at 240 1 Ma,
volcanics at the top of Newark polarity chron E23 at 202 Ma
1 Ma, and the TriassicJurassic boundary at 199.6 0.3 Ma
(2-sigma; Table 17.2). Different dating methods yield gener-
ally consistent results for each interval, but there are disagree-
ments on the precise ages. Most Triassic stage boundaries and
the relative ages of biostratigraphic zones within stages must
be interpolated using scaling from cycle stratigraphy, graph-
ical correlation, or other assumptions. The age estimates and
derivation procedures for the selected primary biostratigraphic
scales are summarized in Table 17.3, and the stage boundaries
and durations are summarized in Table 17.4.
17.3.1 Base-Triassic to lower Ladinian
The PermianTriassic boundary is 251.0 0.4 Ma (95% con-
dence). We derived this age using a cubic-spline interpolation
with a monotonic t on the stratigraphic set of eight TIMS
ages on zircons in tuff beds across the PermianTriassic bound-
ary at the GSSP section of Meishan and at a coeval locality
in China (Bowring et al., 1998; see Table 17.2 under column
Used in Ch. 8). Zircons from a bentonite (Bed 25) located
18 cm below the base-Triassic GSSP (Bed 27c) at Meishan,
China, has yielded consistent UPb ages by HRSIMS (251.1
3.6 Ma; Claoue-Long et al., 1991, 1995) and TIMS (251.4
0.3 Ma; Bowring et al., 1998), which is about 1 myr older than
40
Ar/39 Ar ages from sanidine feldspar in the same bed (249.9
0.15 Ma, or 1.5 myr if uncertainties in standards are incor-
porated) (Renne et al., 1995). Zircons from a bentonite located
8 cm above the GSSP in this section yield a UPb (TIMS
method) age of 250.7 0.3 Ma (Bowring et al., 1998).
An alternate selection of the zircon data from 8 cm above the
GSSP could imply an older age of 252.5 0.3 Ma for this level,
thereby extrapolating an age of 253 Ma for base-Triassic
(Mundil et al., 2001c). These authors concluded that scatter be-
yond analytical uncertainty due to Pb loss or subtle reworking
of zircons creates inhomogenous zircon populations. However,
the 251 Ma age for the base-Triassic is consistent with zircon-
derived ages obtained from independent PermianTriassic
Table 17.2 Selected radiometric ages that constrain the Mesozoic time scale [see Footnote a]

Primary Primary and Uncertainty

control on Dated Comments (age, reliability, reviews, review Revised (myr) & type Method,
STAGE GTS2004 material Formation and location Zone and age etc.) references age (Ma) (if not 1-sigma) calib.

Cretaceous-Paleogene Boundary Interval

secondary Bentonite Z-Coal, Hell Creek, Just above K-P boundary. Rb-Sr and U-Pb are only 1.5% Baadsgaard & 63.6 0.2 Rb-Sr
guide biotite and Montana younger than K-Ar on same bed by Lerbekmo, in
sanidine OB93 (given below), but error bars NDS82.
do not overlap. This was noted by
Odin-Obradovich in NDS82.
secondary Zircon from Z-Coal, Hell Creek, Just above K-P boundary. Baadsgaard & 63.6 0.4 U-Pb
guide bentonite Montana Lerbekmo, in
NDS82.
x Bentonite K-P Boundary, Z-Coal Just above K-P boundary. Source publication has U-Pb, Rb-Sr Baadsgaard et al., 65.4 1.1 K-Ar
biotite (Hell Creek, Montana), and K-Ar (sanidine) on 3 separate 1988
Nevis Coal (Red Deer deposits, and effectively replaces the
Valley, Alberta), Ferris earlier Baadsgaard & Lerbekmo dates
Coal (Frenchman River, in NDS82.
Saskatchewan)
secondary Weighted Weighted mean is from following suite of Baadsgaard et al., 64 1.2 95%
guide mean Baadsgaard et al., 1988. 1988
Sanidine Z-coal, Hell Creek, Z-coal bentonite.  64.6 1.0 95% K-Ar
Montana
Biotite  63.7 0.6 95% Rb-Sr
Zircon  63.9 0.7 95% U-Pb
Sanidine Red Deer Aalley, Alberta Nevis coal bentonite.  64.8 1.4 95% K-Ar
Biotite  63.9 0.6 95% Rb-Sr
Zircon  64.3 0.7 95% U-Pb
Sanidine Frenchman River, Ferris coal bentonite.  65.8 1.2 95% K-Ar
Saskatchewan
Biotite  64.5 0.4 95% Rb-Sr
Zircon  64.4 0.7 95% U-Pb
x Sanidine Red Desert Obradovich et al. 65.5 1.0 Ar-Ar
1986.
x Bentonite Denver Fm, Golden, Obradovich, 65.85 0.8 Ar-Ar (1)
sanidine Colorado 1984; OB93.
x Sanidine Z-coal, Hell Creek, Danian or Maastrichtian. Obradovich, 66.05 0.9 Ar-Ar (1)
Montana 1984; OB93.
x Bentonite Z-coal, Hell Creek, Z-coal bentonite. OB93 65.40 0.31 95% Ar-Ar (1),
sanidine Montana Laser
fusion
x Bentonite OB93 65.48 0.21 95% Ar-Ar (1),
sanidine Laser
fusion
(cont.)
Table 17.2 (cont.)

Primary Primary and Uncertainty

control on Dated Comments (age, reliability, reviews, review Revised (myr) & type Method,
STAGE GTS2004 material Formation and location Zone and age etc.) references age (Ma) (if not 1-sigma) calib.

x Tektite Beloc, Haiti Haitian tektites. K/P boundary weighted mean of OB93 65.02 0.29 95% Ar-Ar (1),
tektite-sanidine set is 65.4 Ma Laser
(+/ 0.1 m.y. 95% condence) fusion
OB93, pg. 394. However, comparing
to his table, this mean seems to
exclude the tektite ages.
x Tektite OB93 65.24 0.45 95% Ar-Ar (1),
Laser
fusion
CRETACEOUS
Maastrichtian
x Bentonite Kneehills Tuff, Alberta Dinosaur zone of Triceratops, base. OB93 66.85 1.1 95% Ar-Ar (1),
sanidine Probably corresponds to Late Laser
Maastrichtian. fusion
x Bentonite Red Bird section, Baculites clinolobatus ammonite OB93 69.47 0.37 95% Ar-Ar (1),
sanidine Wyoming zone, top (therefore, upper limit of Laser
Early Maastrichtian). fusion
Campanian
x Bentonite Bearpaw Shale, Baculites compressus ammonite zone OB93 73.40 0.39 95% Ar-Ar (1),
sanidine Montana (second zone below B. reesidei, Laser
second zone above E. jenneyi). fusion
x Bentonite upper Mancos Shale, Exiteloceras jenneyi ammonite zone. OB93 74.81 0.45 95% Ar-Ar (1),
sanidine Colorado stepwise
heating
x Bentonite Foreman, Arkansas Within foraminifer zone of OB93 75.42 0.39 95% Ar-Ar (1),
sanidine Globotruncanita calcarata (ammonite Laser
zone not known). fusion
x Bentonite Lewis Shale, New Baculites scotti ammonite zone (zone OB93 75.94 0.72 95% Ar-Ar (1),
sanidine Mexico below D. nebrascense Zone). Laser
fusion
x Bentonite Ardmore Bentonite, Baculites obtusus ammonite zone. OB93 80.60 0.55 95% Ar-Ar (1),
sanidine Wyoming Laser
fusion
x Bentonite Ardmore Bentonite, Elk Baculites obtusus ammonite zone. Hicks et al. 80.77 0.55 95% Ar-Ar (1),
sanidine Basin, Wyoming (1993) Laser
fusion
x Bentonite Eagle Sandstone, Scaphites hippocrepis II ammonite OB93 81.77 0.34 95% Ar-Ar (1),
sanidine Montana zone, lower part (third zone above Laser
Campanian/Santonian boundary in fusion
North American Western Interior
zonation).
Santonian
x Bentonite Telegraph Creek Fm., Desmoscaphites bassleri ammonite zone OB93 83.97 0.43 95% Ar-Ar (1),
sanidine Montana (uppermost zone of Santonian in North Laser
American Western Interior zonation). fusion
x Bentonite Tombigbee Sand Mbr. 20m below Boehmoceras fauna of OB93 84.15 0.40 95% Ar-Ar (1),
sanidine of Eutaw Fm., Upper Santonian Laser
Mississippi fusion
x Bentonite Austin Chalk, Texas Top of Cladoceramus undulatoplicatus Top of C. undulatoplicatus is potential OB93 84.94 0.28 95% Ar-Ar (1),
sanidine inoceramus bivalve zone (Early Middle/Lower Santonian marker. stepwise
Santonian). heating
Coniacian
x Bentonite Cody Shale, Montana Scaphites depressusProtexanites OB93 86.98 0.39 95% Ar-Ar (1),
sanidine bourgeoisianus ammonite zone Laser
(uppermost Coniacian in N. American fusion
Western Interior zonation).
x Bentonite Marias River Shale, Forresteria alluaudiScaphites OB93 88.40 0.60 95% Ar-Ar (1),
sanidine Montana preventricosus ammonite zone. Laser
fusion
Turonian
x Bentonite Mancos Shale, New Top of Prionocyclus macombi ammonite OB93 90.27 0.72 95% Ar-Ar (1),
sanidine Mexico zone (middle of Upper Turonian in Laser
North American Western Interior fusion
zonation).
x Bentonite Ferron Sandstone, Utah Prionocyclus hyatti ammonite zone OB93 90.57 0.45 95% Ar-Ar (1),
sanidine (zone below P. macombi Zone). Laser
fusion
x Bentonite Mancos Shale, Arizona Base of Vascoceras (Greenhornoceras) OB93 93.47 0.63 95% Ar-Ar (1),
sanidine (correlated to bed birchbyi ammonite zone (middle Laser
PCB-17 at top of lower Middle Turonian in North American fusion
Bridge Creek Limestone Western Interior zonation).
Mbr, Pueblo, Colorado)
x Bentonite Mancos Shale, New Pseudaspidoceras exuosum ammonite OB93 93.32 0.55 95% Ar-Ar (1),
sanidine Mexico (correlated to zone (zone below V. birchbyi Zone). Laser
bed PBC-17 at Pueblo) fusion
Cenomanian
x Bentonite Greenhorn Limestone, Upper third of Neocardioceras juddii This suite of three ages by OB93 in OB93 93.37 0.40 95% Ar-Ar (1),
sanidine Nebraska ammonite zone (one zone below the N. juddii ammonite zone places a Laser
Cenomanian/Turonian boundary in narrow constraint on the fusion
North American Western Interior Cenomanian/Turonian boundary.
zonation).
x Bentonite San Juan County, New N. juddii ammonite zone. OB93 93.85 0.49 95% Ar-Ar (1),
sanidine Mexico Laser
fusion
x Bentonite San Juan County, New N. juddii ammonite zone. OB93 93.66 0.58 95% Ar-Ar (1),
sanidine Mexico Laser
fusion
(cont.)
Table 17.2 (cont.)

Primary Primary and Uncertainty

control on Dated Comments (age, reliability, reviews, review Revised (myr) & type Method,
STAGE GTS2004 material Formation and location Zone and age etc.) references age (Ma) (if not 1-sigma) calib.

x Bentonite Mancos Shale, Arizona Euomphaloceras septemseriatum OB93 93.56 0.89 95% Ar-Ar (1),
sanidine (correlated to bed ammonite zone (two zones below N. Laser
PBC-4 at Pueblo) juddii Zone). fusion
x Bentonite Mancos Shale, Arizona Vascoceras diartianum portion of OB93 93.97 0.72 95% Ar-Ar (1),
sanidine (correlated to bed Sciponoceras gracile ammonite zone Laser
PBC-1 at Pueblo) (below E. septemseriatum Zone). fusion
x Bentonite Frontier Fm., Wyoming Dunveganoceras pondi portion of OB93 94.70 0.61 95% Ar-Ar (1),
sanidine S. gracile ammonite zone. Laser
fusion
x Bentonite Frontier Fm, Wyoming Acanthoceras amphibolum ammonite OB93 95.00 0.53 95% Ar-Ar (1),
sanidine zone. Laser
fusion
x Bentonite Graneros Shale, Conlinoceras tarrantense (=Conlinoceras OB93 95.85 0.61 95% Ar-Ar (1),
sanidine Colorado gilberti) ammonite zone. Laser
fusion
x Bentonite Frontier Fm, Wyoming 27m below C. gilberti zone. OB93 95.93 0.45 95% Ar-Ar (1),
sanidine Laser
fusion
x Bentonite Casper, Wyoming Top of Mowry Shale. OB93 97.24 0.69 95% Ar-Ar (1),
sanidine Laser
fusion
x Bentonite Colorado Shale, Neogastroplites cornutus ammonite zone OB93 98.59 0.41 95% Ar-Ar (1),
sanidine Montana (zone above N. hassi Zone). Laser
fusion
x Bentonite Thermopolis Shale, Neogastroplites haasi ammonite zone Obradovich et al., 2002: Entire OB93 98.61 0.70 95% Ar-Ar (1),
sanidine Wyoming (basal zone of Cenomanian in North Neogastroplites succession in the Laser
American Western Interior ammonite Western Interior would most likely be fusion
zonation). of late M. saxbii and/or M. dixoni
ages [of European zonation.]
x Bentonite Thermopolis Shale, N. haasi zone? OB93 98.81 0.59 95% Ar-Ar (1),
sanidine Wyoming Laser
fusion
x Sanidine middle part of Yezo Mantelliceras saxbii ammonite subzone. Obradovich 99.05 0.38 95% Ar-Ar (1),
from tuff Group, Hokkaido, Japan et al., 2002 Laser
fusion
x Sanidine middle part of Yezo Graysonites woodridgei ammonite zone Obradovich et al., 99.23 0.37 95% Ar-Ar (1),
from tuff Group, Hokkaido, Japan (equivalent to European subzone of 2002 Laser
Neostlingoceras carcitanense). fusion
Albian
secondary Bentonite Hulcross Fm, British Pseudopulchellia pattoni zone of North OB93 107.2 0.3 95% Ar-Ar (1),
guide sanidine Columbia American Western Interior. Correlated Laser
to mid-Middle Albian, Euhoplites fusion
loricatus zone of Europe.
Aptian
secondary Bentonite Sarstedt, near Hannover Parahoplites nuteldiensis ammonite OB93 114.1 1.3 95% Ar-Ar (1),
guide sanidine zone. Laser
fusion
secondary Sanidine Fullers Earth, Sandgate Parahoplites nuteldiensis ammonite Large K-Ar range on sanidines from Jeans et al., 1982; 112 1 Ar-Ar (3),
guide Beds, Petteson Court, zone. redeposited volcaniclastics (secondary OB93. stepwise
Redhill, Surrey, England bentonites) (Jeans, 1977, evaluated as heating
NDS147). [See Footnote b]
x Plagioclase MIT guyot, western MIT seamount basalt at Paleomagnetics were originally Pringle & 124.6 0.2 Ar-Ar (2);
separates Pacic reversed-upward-to-normal polarity interpreted as upper polarity zone Duncan, 1995; stepwise
from basalt transition; overlain by Lower Aptian M1r, but is re-assigned as top of Pringle et al. heating
marine sediments. Interpreted as top of Chron M0r (see text of M-sequence 2003.
Chron M0r. calibration).
derived Barremian-Aptian boundary. Projected ODP Leg 144 125.0 0.5
product age of base of polarity chron M0r
(denes base of Aptian) based on dating
of reversed-polarity basalt on MIT
Guyot. Chron M0r is 0.38 myr in
duration.
Barremian
secondary Barremian or Hauterivian. Resolution Chron M3r may be an alternative ODP Leg 145 127.6 0.2
guide Guyot polarity zone, interpreted as assignment?
chron M5r, hence uppermost
Hauterivian.
Hauterivian
Valanginian
Berriasian
secondary Zircon Grindstone Creek tuff, latest Berriasian or lower Valanginian. This 137 Ma age is difcult to Bralower et al. 137.1 0.6 U-Pb
guide from tuff Great Valley sequence, Tuff in mudstone is assigned to Buchia reconcile with E.Cret. cycle 1990.
California uncitoides and B. pacica bivalve zones stratigraphy constraints and the 125
and NK2A nannofossil zone. Ma age for base-Aptian. Zircons may
Nannofossil taxa suggests correlation to have some Pb loss, as is common for
interval of polarity chrons M15 to M16 Jurassic from this region (see Palfy
of latest Berriasian. et al. 2000cs comment on Josephine
and Galicia formations in California).
JURASSIC
Tithonian
secondary Bentonite Brushy Basin Member Kimmeridgian to Tithonian. Set of 6 The suite of 6 ages from the Brushy Kowallis et al., 148.1 1 95% Ar-Ar,
guide sanidine 6, upper Morrison stratigraphic intervals in upper part of Basin Member are stratigraphically 1998; Palfy et al., Laser
Formation Brushy Basin member above a change consistent, but there is no reliable 2000c. fusion
in clay mineralogy, considered to be a correlation to marine biostratigraphy.
regional hiatus. Ostracod and [See Footnote 7]
charophyte assemblages suggest
Kimmeridgian in lower part to
Tithonian in upper part.
secondary Bentonite Brushy Basin Member   Kowallis et al., 149 .8 95% Ar-Ar,
guide sanidine 5, upper Morrison 1998; Palfy et al., Laser
Formation 2000c. fusion
(cont.)
Table 17.2 (cont.)

Primary Primary and Uncertainty

control on Dated Comments (age, reliability, reviews, review Revised (myr) & type Method,
STAGE GTS2004 material Formation and location Zone and age etc.) references age (Ma) (if not 1-sigma) calib.

secondary Bentonite Brushy Basin Member   Kowallis et al., 149.3 1 95% Ar-Ar,
guide sanidine 4, upper Morrison 1998; Palfy et al., Laser
Formation 2000c. fusion
secondary Bentonite Brushy Basin Member   Kowallis et al., 149.3 1.1 95% Ar-Ar,
guide sanidine 3, upper Morrison 1998; Palfy et al., Laser
Formation 2000c. fusion
secondary Bentonite Brushy Basin Member   Kowallis et al., 150.2 1 95% Ar-Ar,
guide sanidine 2, upper Morrison 1998; Palfy et al., Laser
Formation 2000c. fusion
secondary Bentonite Brushy Basin Member   Kowallis et al., 150.3 .5 95% Ar-Ar,
guide sanidine 1, upper Morrison 1998; Palfy et al., Laser
Formation 2000c. fusion
Kimmeridgian
secondary Bentonite Tidwell Member, lower Late Oxfordian or Early  Kowallis et al., 154.9 1 95% Ar-Ar,
guide sanidine Morrison Formation, Kimmeridgian. Morrison Formation is 1998; Palfy et al., Laser
Utah above a regional unconformity on 2000c. fusion
Stump Formation, which has middle
Oxfordian carioceratid ammonites.
Lower Morrison could be Early
Kimmeridgian in age.
x Celadonite ODP Site 765, Argo Oxf/Kimm boundary interval. Constrains M-sequence magnetic Ludden, 1992; 155.3 3.4 63% K-Ar
vein in Abyssal Plain, off NW Magnetic anomaly M26. polarity time scale through Palfy et al.,
oceanic Australia assumption of constant Pacic 2000c.
basalt spreading rate to anomaly M0r (base
Aptian). [See Footnote c]
Oxfordian
Callovian
secondary Zircon Chacay Melehue 2, Near boundary of the regional Published only in newsletter. Palfy Odin, G.S., 160.5 0.3 95% U-Pb
guide from tuff Neuquen Basin, bodenbenderi and proximum zones, that (pers. commun., 2001) expressed et al., 1992; Palfy
layer Argentina is approximately equated to the Boreal concerns about this age constraint. et al., 2000c.
calloviense Zone or Mediterranean
gracilis Zone of late Early Callovian
(Riccardi et al., 1991).
Bathonian
secondary Zircon Chacay Melehue 1, Near boundary of the regional Published only in newsletter. Palfy Odin et al., 1992; 161 0.5 95% U-Pb
guide from tuff Neuquen Basin, steinmanni and vergarensis ammonite (pers. commun., 2001) expressed Palfy et al.,
layer Argentina zones, that is equated to the concerns about this age constraint. 2000c.
Bathonian-Callovian boundary
(Riccardi et al., 1991).
 secondary Zircons Copper River, Ashman Ash is in ammonite-rich strata yielding Palfy et al., 162.6 +2.9/7.0 95% U-Pb
guide from Formation, NW British Late Bathonian to Early Callovian 2000b; Palfy
reworked Columbia assemblages. et al., 2000c.
volcanic
ash
x Oceanic ODP Site 801, western Lower basalt is probably Bajocian or ODP Site 801 is about 100 km beyond Pringle 1992; 167.7 1.4 95% Ar-Ar (4)
thoeiitic Pacic Bathonian. [See Footnote d] anomaly M41 on the Sager et al. SEPM95; Palfy
basalt (1998) deep-tow magnetic prole et al., 2000c.
trending toward this site.
[See Footnote d]
Bajocian
secondary Bentonite Gunlock, Carmel Bivalve correlation of Carmel Age is slightly older than previously Kowallis et al., 166.3 0.8 95% Ar-Ar
guide sanidine Formation, Utah, USA Formation to ammonite-bearing Twin determinations using K-Ar and 1993; Palfy et al.,
Creek Formation indicates an age of Rb-Sr methods. [See Footnote 7] 2000c.
late Early to early Late Bajocian
(according to Imlay, 1967, 1980).
Aalenian
secondary Zircons Treaty Ridge, Salmon Late Aalenian to Early Bajocian. Friedman & 177.3 0.8 95% U-Pb
guide from felsic River Formation, Iskut Underlying mudstone is Upper Anderson,
volcanic River map area, British Aalenian (Erycitoides cf. howelli unpub. data,
unit Columbia ammonite zone of western North 1997; Palfy et al.,
America zonation), and overlying 2000c.
siltstone is Lower Bajocian.
secondary Rhyolite Eskay rhyolite east, Late Toarcian or Aalenian. Childe, 1996; 174.1 +4.5/1.1 95% U-Pb
guide Eskay Creek gold mine, Flow-banded rhyolite is overlain by Palfy et al.,
Iskut River map area, Upper Aalenian strata (Erycitoides cf. 2000c.
NW British Columbia howelli ammonite zone of western
North America zonation).
secondary Rhyolite Eskay rhyolite west, Late Toarcian or Aalenian. Same Childe, 1996; 175.1 4.7 95% U-Pb
guide Eskay Creek gold mine, rhyolite unit as PSM35, and considered Palfy et al.,
Iskut River map area, similar in age. 2000c.
NW British Columbia
Toarcian
x Zircons Julian Lake dacite, Submarine ow overlain by volcanic Several hundred meters upsection, Mortensen & 178 1 95% U-Pb
from Salmon River sandstones of uppermost Toarcian another dacite ow yielded an age of Lewis, unpub.
dacite ow Formation, Iskut River (Yakounensis ammonite zone of western 172.3 Ma (1.0), but lacks adequate data, 1996; Palfy
area, NW British North America). biostratigraphic constraints. et al., 2000c.
Columbia
x Zircons Yakoun River, Queen Volcanic ash layer near base of Palfy et al., 1997; 181.4 1.2 95% U-Pb
from Charlotte Islands, Crassicosta ammonite zone (late Middle Palfy et al., 2000c.
volcanic British Columbia Toarcian) at type section of this
ash regional western North American zone.
x Zircons Mount Brock volcanics Early to early Middle Toarcian Palfy et al., 180.4 +11.2/0.4 95% U-Pb
from felsic within Hazelton Group, (Kanense to Planulata ammonite zones 2000b; Palfy
crystal tuff Mount Brock, British of western North America). et al., 2000c.
Columbia
x Zircons McEwan Creek pluton, Intrudes volcanics with intercalated Evenchick & 183.2 0.7 95% U-Pb
from Spatsizi River map area, sediments of Early Toarcian. Pluton is McNicoll, 1993;
quartz NW British Columbia perhaps co-magmatic with volcanism. Palfy et al.,
monzonite 2000c.
(cont.)
Table 17.2 (cont.)

Primary Primary and Uncertainty

control on Dated Comments (age, reliability, reviews, review Revised (myr) & type Method,
STAGE GTS2004 material Formation and location Zone and age etc.) references age (Ma) (if not 1-sigma) calib.

Pliensbachian
x Dacite tuff Whitehorse, Late Pliensbachian (Kunae ammonite Hart, 1997; Palfy 184.1 +5.8/1.6 95% U-Pb
Nordenskiold volcanics, zone of western North America). et al., 2000c.
Yukon
x Zircon Skinhead Lake, NW Late Pliensbachian (Kunae ammonite Palfy et al., 184.7 0.9 95% U-Pb
from British Columbia zone of western North America). 2000b; Palfy
rhyolite et al., 2000c.
tuff
x Zircon Atlin Lake (Copper Late Pliensbachian (Kunae ammonite Johannson & 185.8 0.7 95% U-Pb
from Island), Laberge Group, zone of western North America). McNicoll, 1997;
crystal tuff NW British Columbia Palfy et al.,
2000c.
x Zircon Atlin Lake (East shore), Early Pliensbachian (Whiteavesi Mihalynuk & 187.5 1 95% U-Pb
from tuff Laberge Group, NW ammonite zone of western North Gabites, unpub.
British Columbia America). data, 1996; Palfy
et al., 2000c.
Sinemurian
x Zircon Telkwa Range 1, Telkwa Late Sinemurian with ammonite Appendix text in Palfy et al. (2000c, Palfy et al., 192.8 +6.4/0.6 95% U-Pb
from Formation, British assemblages characteristic of item 1718) seems to cite this age as 2000b; Palfy
dacite tuff Columbia Plesechioceras? harbledownense 194.0 Ma (+9.1, 1.8). et al., 2000c.
ammonite zone of western North
America.
x Zircons Ashman Ridge 2, Andesite ow is immediately below Palfy et al., 192 Min. age U-Pb
from Telkwa Formation, sandstone with early Late Sinemurian 2000b; Palfy
andesite British Columbia ammonites (Varians assemblage). et al., 2000c.
ow
Hettangian
x Zircon Puale Bay 3, Talkeetna Middle to upper Hettangian Palfy et al., 1999; 197.8 +1.1/0.4 95% U-Pb
from tuff Formation, Alaska (Franziceras or Pseudoaetomoceras Palfy et al., 2000c.
Peninsula ammonite zone, western North
America zonation).
x Zircon Puale Bay 2, Talkeetna Middle to upper Hettangian Palfy et al., 1999; 197.8 1 95% U-Pb
from tuff Formation, Alaska (Franziceras or Pseudoaetomoceras Palfy et al., 2000c.
Peninsula ammonite zone, western North
America zonation).
TRIASSIC
Rhaetian
x Zircon Kunga Island, British Latest Rhaetian. Tuff layer interbedded Palfy et al., 199.6 0.4 95% U-Pb
from tuff Columbia in marine sediments of uppermost 2000a; Palfy
Triassic, immediately below the et al., 2000c.
Triassic-Jurassic boundary dened by
conodonts, radiolarians and ammonites.
 secondary Zircon and Palisades sill, Newark Rhaetian to earliest Hettangian. Dunning & 200.9 1 95% U-Pb
guide badde- Basin, eastern U.S. [See Footnote e] Hodych, 1990;
leyite from Palfy et al.,
basalt 2000c.
secondary Zircon Gettysburg sill, Newark [Same as above]. Dunning & 201.3 1 95% U-Pb
guide from basalt Basin, eastern U.S. Hodych, 1990;
Palfy et al.,
2000c.
secondary Zircon North Mountain basalt, Rhaetian to earliest Hettangian. [See Hodych & 201.7 +1.4/1.1 95% U-Pb
guide from basalt Fundy Basin Footnote e] Dunning, 1992;
Palfy et al.,
2000c.
Norian
Carnian
Ladinian
secondary Predazzo volcanics, Ladinian or younger. Palfy et al. (2003) Brack et al., 237.3 +0.4/1.0 U-Pb
guide Dolomites, Italy tentatively assign to the Regoledanus 1997, Geology,
ammonite zone (highest zone of 25: 471-472.
Ladinian).
x Zircon Upper Bandekalke, Upper Ladinian. Strata has Daonella Mundil et al., 238.0 +0.4/0.7 95% U-Pb
below onset of late lommeli bivalves (just above highest 1996; Brack
Ladinian pillow basalts, Daon. pichleri) and corresponds to et al., 1996.
49 m level in Seceda Protrachyceras archelaus ammonite
section, NW Dolomites, zone [probably Protrachyceras
N Italy longobardicum ammonite subzone in
other Ladinian schemes].
x Zircon upper Buchenstein Middle Ladinian. Strata has Daonella Mundil et al., 237.9 +1.0/ 0.7 95% U-Pb
Beds, 85.5 m level in pichleri and D. indica bivalves and is 1996; Brack
Bagolino section, assigned to lowermost Protrachyceras et al., 1996.
eastern Lombardian archelaus amonite zone [probably
Alps, N Italy. Protrachyceras longobardicum ammonite
subzone in other Ladinian schemes].
x Zircon middle Buchenstein Lower Ladinian. Above are beds with statistically indistinguishable from Mundil et al., 238.8 +0.5/0.2 95% U-Pb
Beds, 72.2 m level in Eoprotrachyceras margaritosum the dates of the underlying four 1996; Brack
Bagolino section, ammonites, and below ones with subzones of the Reitzi Zone [Palfy et al., 1996; Palfy
eastern Lombardian Arpadites and Protrachyceras, therefore et al., 2003]. et al., 2003.
Alps, N Italy. probably in Protrachyceras gredleri
ammonite zone. [Palfy et al., 2003,
suggest it is uppermost portion of
P. gredleri zone.].
x Zircons Neptunian dyke into Redeposited tuff in neptunian dyke that Palfy et al., 2003. 238.7 0.6 95% U-Pb
from tuff Tagyon Dolomite, Liter contains ammonite assemblage assigned (TIMS)
dolomite quarry, Balaton to upper Protrachyceras gredleri
Highlands, Hungary ammonite zone.
Anisian/Ladinian Boundary interval
secondary Sanidine Tuff in bituminous Daonella lamellibrach species are High sanidine (water-clear) ages from Hellmann & 233 2.5 Ar-Ar
guide from shales (Grenzbitumen 150 cm below lowest dated sample. Ar-Ar plateau agree with conventional Lippolt, 1979, stepwise
bentonite horizon), Bed 71, Monte Assigned to lower Nevadites secendensis K-Ar. 9 tuff samples, 5 outcrops. 1981; Hellmann, heating,
San Giorgio, Lake ammonite zone by Brack et al., 1996. in NDS82. plus K-Ar
Lugano, Switzerland
(cont.)
Table 17.2 (cont.)

Primary Primary and Uncertainty

control on Dated Comments (age, reliability, reviews, review Revised (myr) & type Method,
STAGE GTS2004 material Formation and location Zone and age etc.) references age (Ma) (if not 1-sigma) calib.

x Zircon Tuff in bituminous Lower Nevadites secedensis ammonite Mundil et al., 241.2 0.8 95% U-Pb
shales (Grenzbitumen zone. Same level as NDS196 bentonite 1996; Brack
horizon), Bed 71, with Ar-Ar age. et al., 1996.
Miniera Val Porina,
820m elevation, Monte
San Giorgio, Lake
Lugano, Switzerland
x Zircon Tc tuffs at base of Lower Nevadites secedensis ammonite Mundil et al., 241.2 +0.8/0.6 95% U-Pb
Knollenkalke, lower zone. 1996; Brack
Buchenstein Beds, et al., 1996.
9.35 m level in Seceda
section, NW Dolomites,
N Italy
x Zircons Vaszoly Formation, Upper part of R. reitzi subzone, third [See Footnote f] Palfy et al., 2003; 240.4 0.4 95% U-Pb
from tuff Forras Hill, Felsoo rs, of four subzones within Reitziites reitzii L. Hinnov, (TIMS)
Balaton Highlands, ammonite zone. pers.comm.,
Hungary 2002.
x Zircons Vaszoly Formation, Near base of R. reitzi subzone, third of Palfy et al., 2003, 240.5 0.5 95% U-Pb
from tuff Forras Hill, Felsoo rs, four subzones within Reitziites reitzii J. Geol. Soc. (TIMS)
Balaton Highlands, ammonite zone. London,
Hungary 160:271284.
x Zircons Vaszoly Formation, Near base of Hyparpadites liepoldti Palfy et al., 2003. 241.2 0.4 95% U-Pb
from tuff Forras Hill, Felsoo rs, subzone, second of four subzones (TIMS)
Balaton Highlands, within Reitziites reitzii ammonite zone.
Hungary
x Zircons Vaszoly Formation, Middle part of Kellnerites felsoeoersensis Palfy et al., 2003. 241.1 0.5 95% U-Pb
from tuff Forras Hill, Felsoo rs, subzone, rst (lowest) of four subzones (TIMS)
Balaton Highlands, within Reitziites reitzii ammonite zone.
Hungary Would correlate to Kellnerites beds at
Bagolino, or to the lower Contrin Fm.
at Seceda (L. Hinnov, pers. comm.
2002).
Anisian
Early Triassic
Permian/Triassic Boundary interval
x Zircon Bed 36 (6.7 m above Bed Lower Triassic. Within Claraia bivalve Mundil et al. (2001) suggest zircon Bowring et al., 250.2 0.2 95% U-Pb
25), Meishan quarry D, and H. parvus conodont zone (lower population is characterized by 1998; Mundil TIMS
SE China Triassic). 6.7 m above P-T boundary. non-analytical scatter, possibly mainly et al., 2001.
from xenocrystic contamination.
x Zircon Bed 33 (2.25 m above Basal Triassic. Within Claraia bivalve Mundilet al. (2001) suggest set Bowring et al., 250.4 0.5 95% U-Pb
Bed 25), Meishan and H. parvus conodont zone (lower appears to be slightly biased by Pb 1998; Mundil TIMS
quarry D, SE China Triassic). 2.25 m above P-T boundary. loss. et al., 2001.
 x Zircon Bed 28, Meishan quarry Bed 28 is 8 cm above Permian-Triassic [See Footnote g] Bowring et al., 250.7 0.3 95% U-Pb
Z, SE China GSSP. 1998; Metcalfe & TIMS
Mundil, 2001.
secondary Zircon Bed 28, Meishan quarry Basal Triassic. Bed 28 is 8 cm above Mundil et al., 252.5 0.3 U-Pb
guide Z, SE China Permian-Triassic GSSP. 2001; Metcalfe & TIMS
Mundil, 2001.
PERMIAN
top of x Zircon Bed 25 volcanic clay, Uppermost Permian. Bed 25, a 5-cm Bowring et al., 251.4 0.3 95% U-Pb
Permian Meishan quarry D volcanic clay, is the approximate 1998; Metcalfe & TIMS
(GSSP), SE China culmination of the late-Permian mass Mundil, 2001.
extinction. This former boundary
clay level, is 18 cm below GSSP Bed
27c at Meishan D section,
corresponding to rst appearance of
conodont Hindeodus parvus.
secondary Zircon Bed 25 volcanic clay,  Re-evaluation of zircon U-Pb data Mundil et al., > 254 U-Pb
guide Meishan (GSSP), SE suggests complex behaviors, and an 2001; Metcalfe & TIMS
China age can not be reliably assigned other Mundil, 2001.
than greater than 254 Ma.
secondary Zircon Bed 25 volcanic clay,  Mundil et al. (2001) consider that this Mundil et al., 249.0 0.8 95% U-Pb
guide Meishan (GSSP), SE age is clearly too young. They 2001. TIMS
China suggest either ash is older than about
257 Ma (the apparent age of the two
oldest concordant grains) or if these
two grains are xenocrysts, that the ash
is slightly older than 254 Ma.
secondary Zircon Bed 25 volcanic clay,  Claoue-Long 251.1 3.6 95% U-Pb,
guide Meishan (GSSP), SE et al., 1991; 1995; HR-SIMS
China Metcalfe &
Mundil, 2001.
secondary Sanidine Bed 25 volcanic clay,  Z. Zichao, in 250 3 Rb-Sr
guide Meishan (GSSP), SE Odin, 1992.
China
secondary Sanidine Bed 25 volcanic clay,  Internal error. Estimated external Renne et al. 249.9 0.15 95% Ar-Ar (5)
guide Meishan (GSSP), SE error that incorporated uncertainty 1995; Metcalfe &
China in the standards age is 1.52 myr Mundil, 2001.
(Renne et al., 1995).
secondary Sanidine Bentonite in Shangsi Approx. 5 cm below former Internal error. Estimated external Renne et al. 250.0 0.36 95% Ar-Ar (5)
guide section, Sichuan paleontologically-dened boundary. If error that incorporated uncertainty 1995.
province, China similar stratigraphic-thickness trends in the standards age is 1.13 myr
as Meishan GSSP, then this is probably (Renne et al., 1995).
20 cm below revised base-Triassic
denition.
x Zircon Graded beds of silicic Corresponds to upper part of When combined with the Meishan Bowring et al., 251.6 0.1 95% U-Pb
pyroclstic rocks, Talung Changhsing Fm. Just below base of dates, the many independent Heshan 1998. TIMS
Formation, 2 km from Triassic. Approximately correlative samples indicate that base of Triassic
town of Heshan, with Bed 25 at Meishan. is near 251 Ma (see Chapter 8).
Guangxi Province, S.
China
(cont.)
Table 17.2 (cont.)

Primary Primary and Uncertainty

control on Dated Comments (age, reliability, reviews, review Revised (myr) & type Method,
STAGE GTS2004 material Formation and location Zone and age etc.) references age (Ma) (if not 1-sigma) calib.

x Zircon Graded beds of silicic Same level as Bowring H-Matan96-7 Bowring et al., 251.7 0.2 95% U-Pb
pyroclstic rocks, Talung (just below base of Triassic). 1998. TIMS
Formation, 2 km from
town of Heshan,
Guangxi Province, S.
China
x Zircon Graded beds of silicic Below Bowring H-Matan96-7 and Bowring et al., 251.6 0.1 95% U-Pb
pyroclstic rocks, Talung 96-6, but in same pyroclastic sequence. 1998. TIMS
Formation, 2 km from
town of Heshan,
Guangxi Province, S.
China
secondary Zircon and Norilsk-1 gabroic Siberian Traps. Age is from Norilsk-1 Kamo et al. 1996; 251.2 0.3 95% U-Pb
guide Badellyite intrusion gabbroic intrusion, which cuts lower Bowring et al.,
third of the Traps. 1998.
secondary Biotite Norilsk-1 gabroic Siberian Traps. Age is from Norilsk-1 Ar-Ar on bulk hornblende sample Renne, 1995. 250.1 1.5 95% Ar-Ar
guide intrusion gabbroic intrusion, which cuts lower yielded isochron of 249.3 1.6 Ma.
third of the Traps.
secondary Hornblende, Siberian Traps Siberian Traps. Increased uncertainty on recalculated Renne & Basu, 250 1.6 95% Ar-Ar (6)
guide Whole age incorporated uncertainty in the 1991; Renne
Rock standards age (Renne et al., 1995). 1995.
Internal error was only 0.30 myr.
Changhsingian
x Zircon Tuff in Bed 20, 4.3 m below base-Triassic GSSP. Mundil et al. (2001) conclude this age Bowring et al., 252.3 0.3 95% U-Pb
mid-Beishan Member, Upper Changhsingian. is statistically robust 1998; Mundil TIMS
Meishan quarry Z, SE et al., 2001.
China
x Zircon 9 m-thick pyroclastic Ammonoids Rotodiscoceras and Bowring et al., 252.4 0.2 95% U-Pb
sequence, Penglaitan, Pleuronodoceras indicate within late 1998. TIMS
banks of Hong Shui Changhsingian stage, but its exact
River, town of Laibin, S. location relative to the conodont
China zonation is uncertain.
x Zircon Clay within Bed 15 at 17.3 m below base-Triassic GSSP. Age is extremely difcult to Mundil et al., 252.0 0.4 95% U-Pb
Meishan section, SE reconcile with the results [by Mundil 2001. TIMS
China et al.] from the other analyzed
horizons .. ca. 255 Ma would be
expected.
 x Zircon
x Zircon
9-cm-thick tuffaceous
sandstone (Bed 7) near
the base of the Baoqing
Member (lower unit of
Changhsing Fm.),
Meishan quarry D, SE
China
Ash layer between Bed 3
and Bed 4, near base of
Baoqing Member, lower
unit of Changhsing Fm,
Meishan, SE China
Basal part of Clarkina subcarinata Mundil et al. (2001) suggest zircons Bowring et al., 253.4 0.2 95% U-Pb
conodont zone. First occurrence of affected by signicant amounts of Pb 1998; Mundil TIMS
conodont Clarkina wangi is at top of loss, and an age of 254.7 0.2 Ma et al., 2001.
Bed 4. Immediately below may be considered as a minimum age
dated-sample is the rst occurrence of for this horizon.
Clarkina subcarinata (sensu strictu)
(Bed 8). Extrapolation for the
sediment rate for the subcarinata and
changxingensis zones places the age of
the base of the C. wangi Zone and the
base of the Changhsingian at about 254
Ma. (see chapter on Permian).
Basal part of Clarkina subcarinata Age of the oldest crystal (257.2 0.7 Mundil et al., 257.2 0.7 95% U-Pb
conodont zone. 41 m below Ma) is the best estimate of the 2001. TIMS
base-Triassic GSSP, and 7 m above minimum age of this unit.
Clarkina orientalis zone of uppermost
Wuchiapingian stage.

Footnotes:
(a) The main requirements for this selection of Mesozoic ages used for constructing an absolute time scale were utilization of Ar-Ar or U-Pb methods, adequate stratigraphic control (to within a substage), and low
uncertainties. Radiometric ages from intrusions, Rb-Sr or K-Ar methods, and material that publications have indicated may have signicant Pb loss or other problems were generally omitted. A secondary suite
that aided in indicating approximate ages for some geologic stages, but did not have adequate stratigraphic or radiometric control, is also listed. In Cretaceous entries, reference OB93 is Obradovich (1993).
(b ) [Aptian] Jeans et al. (1982) later concluded from sanidine separations that the Fuller Earth ages represent variable mixtures of 300 Ma sanidines into these re-deposited ash layers. Therefore, Jeans et al. (1982)

selected the youngest date as most reliable. Fullers Earth seams are local deposits . . . carried into shallow marine environments by small rivers, draining areas rich in freshly fallen ash. (NDS147, by Kreuzer,
in NDS82). OB93 cites Fullers Earth as reworked ash fall so some concern is expressed about the result.
(c ) [Kimm. Site 765] An additional Ar/Ar (incremental heating) analysis of basalt did not yield a plateau age, but gave a total fusion age of 155 Ma 6 (2-sigma), which Palfy et al. (2000c, p. 930) consider disputable.
(d ) [Bathonian ODP Site 801] Revised age of 166.8 Ma is adjusted for Milankovitch-calibrated Ar-Ar monitor standard, following Larson & Erba (1999). The 167.7 Ma age is based on new basalt analyses by Koppers

et al. (2004). Incorporation of external errors would increase the uncertainty. The dated basalts are overlain by alkaline off-ridge basalt with Ar-Ar age of 157.4 Ma (+/ 0.5), which is overlain (or, perhaps,
intruded into) radiolarian claystones with disputed calibration to geological stages (Bajocian to Oxfordian, see discussion of radiolarian stratigraphy in Jurassic chapter).
(e) [Rhaetian] Palisades and Gettysburg sills are considered to be feeders for regional basalt that immediately overlies a turnover in palynology and vertebrate assemblages that was tentatively considered equivalent

to Triassic-Jurassic boundary. Base of North Mountain basalt ows are 20 m above a similar turnover. (See discussion in Triassic chapter.)
( f ) [Anisian/Ladinian boundary] L. Hinnov (pers. comm. 2002) comments that the set of U/Pb ages from Hungary and N. Italy would imply an implausible rapid rate of carbonate platform growth of the Latemar

buildup in the Italian Dolomites; indeed, the fastest in the geological record. Alternatively, there is a signicant amount of inherited older zircons within the series of regional tuffs.
(g ) [Permian/Triassic boundary, China] Metcalfe & Mundil (2001) conclude isotopic ages reported by Bowring et al. (1998) for individual layers from Meishan appear to be underestimated by as much as 1%.

However, the suite is fully consistent, agrees with dating in Heshan, and implies the base of Triassic is older than 250.7 Ma.

Notes in Methods & calibration column:

(1) TCR monitor age of 28.32 Ma converted to 28.34 Ma.

(2) TCR monitor age of 27.92 Ma. Recomputed for 28.34 Ma.
(3) Steiger & Jaeger (1977) decay constants.
(4) Recalibrated to FCT-3 biotite (28.04 0.18 Ma) by Koppers et al., 2004.
(5) FCT = 28.03 Ma. Renne et al., 1998 suggest increasing this uncertainty on basal-Triassic Ar/Ar ages to 4.6 myr to compensate for possible Ar/Ar systematic errors.
(6) FCT monitor age of 27.84 Ma converted to 28.03 Ma.
(7) [Late Jurassic] Palfy et al. (2000c) suggested increasing all Ar/Ar uncertainties by an additional 2.5 myr to indicate external errors due to calibration of radiometric decay constants and other factors.
302 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

Table 17.3 Triassic time scale for Alpine and/or Tethyan ammonite zonesa

Age of base of
Stage, substage Ammonite zone (Alpine or Tethyan) zone (Ma) Comments

Hettangian (top) 196.5 Cycle-scaled linear Sr isotope trend

Schlotheimia angulata 197.7
Alsatites liasicus 198.8
Psiloceras planorbis 199.6
TRIASSIC (Rhaetian) (top) 199.6 Radiometric age control
Choristoceras marshi 201.0 Rhaetian zones are given equal duration
Vandaites stuerzenbaumi 202.3 Considered subzone of larger C. marshi Zone in
some schemes
Sagenites reticulatus 203.6 Formerly considered Norian. Tentative
magnetostratigraphy correlation to middle of
Chron E22 of Newark polarity pattern
Norian Ages of Norian, Carnian, and uppermost
Ladinian ammonite zones (Alpine/Tethyan) are
from tentative magnetostratigraphy correlations
to the Newark polarity pattern that is scaled by
Milankovitch cycles (see Fig. 17.1). Potential
chron assignments are listed
Sevatian
Sagenites quenquepunctatus 205.7 mid-Chron E20r
Alaunian
Halorites macer 207.5 base Chron E19r
Himavatites hogarti 210.0 base Chron E17r
Cyrtopleurites bicrenatus 211.3 mid-Chron E16n
Lacian
Juvavites magnus 212.2 lower Chron E16n
Malayites 214.0 base Chron E15n
Guembelites jandianus 216.5 base Chron E14n
Carnian
Tuvalian
Anatropiites 218.7 lower Chron E13n
Tropites subbullatus 221.0 uncertain (no magnetostratigraphy)
Tropites dilleri 222.7 uncertain (no magnetostratigraphy)
Julian
Austrotrachyceras austriacum 225.7 mid-Chron E8r
Trachyceras aonoides 226.8 T. aonoides and T. aon are combined into a general
Trachyceras Zone in some zonal schemes.
Mid-Chron E8n
Trachyceras aon 228.0 upper Chron E7n
Ladinian
Longobardian
Daxatina cfr. canadensis 229.6 lower Chron E7n
Protrachyceras (Frankites regoledanus s.z.) 230.4 upper Chron E6n
(Protrachyceras neumayri s.z.) 231.1 lower Chron E5r
(Protrachyceras longobardicum s.z.) 232.1 upper Chron E3r
(Eoprotrachyceras gredleri s.z.) 233.2 Just below base of Newark pattern
(Protrachyceras margaritosum s.z.) 234.7
Fassanian
Eoprotrachyceras curionii 237.0 Radiometric age (1.5 myr)
Anisian
Illyrian
Nevadites 240.0 Radiometric age (1 myr)
 The Triassic Period 303

Table 17.3 (cont.)

Age of base of
Stage, substage Ammonite zone (Alpine or Tethyan) zone (Ma) Comments

Hungarites (Aplococeras avisianum s.z.) 240.3

(Reitziites reitzi s.z.) 241.0 Radiometric age (1 myr)
Paraceratites 242.1
Pelsonian Lower Anisian zones were proportionally scaled
according to component subzones
Balatonites 243.1
Bithynian
Kocaelia 244.1
Aegean
Paracrochordiceras 245.2
Olenekian Olenekian and Induan zones were scaled relative
to published potential correlations to conodont
zones. The composite conodont scale for Early
Triassic (Sweet and Bergstom, 1986) was linearly
scaled between base-Triassic and base-Anisian
Spathian
[gap zone] 245.5
Toziceras pakistanum 247.1
Tirolites cassianus 248.1
Smithian
Wasatchites spiniger + A. pluriformis + A. 249.0
prahlada
Meekoceras gracilitatis 249.7

Induan
Dienerian
Flemingites rohilla 250.1
Gyronites frequens 250.3
Griesbachian
Ophiceras connectens + Ophiceras tibeticum 250.8
Otoceras woodwardi (upper) 251.0

Late Permian 251.0 Radiometric age on GSSP

Otoceras woodwardi (lower) 251.2 Continued same scaling into uppermost Permian
Otoceras concavum 251.7
Paratirolites

a The method and computation/interpolation details incorporated for the assignment of each age for primary ammonite zones and associated stage boundaries are
briey noted. The ages assigned to other Triassic events were generally relative to this ammonite scale.

boundary sections (Bowring et al., 1998; Table 17.2). As
pointed out by Kamo et al. (2003), a signicantly older age in-
terpretation for the PermianTriassic boundary would causally
separate the end of the Permian mass extinction event and the
Siberian ood-volcanic rocks that largely extruded between
251.4 and 251.1 Ma. Therefore, Kamo et al. (2003) also favor
an age for the PermianTriassic boundary near 251 Ma.
The base of the Middle Triassic Nevadites secedensis am-
monoid zone is assigned as 240 1 Ma. Uraniumlead ages
from a sequence of tuffs within the underlying Reitziites reitzi
ammonite zone in Hungary (equivalent to the Hungarites am-
monoid zone of Mietto and Manfrin (1995)) range downward
from 240.4 0.4 to 241.1 0.5 Ma (Palfy et al., 2002a). How-
ever, this age succession is slightly younger than a pair of 241.2
0.8 Ma (95% condence limit) ages from the lower Nevadites
secedensis Zone in Italy and Switzerland (Mundil et al., 1996;
Brack et al., 1996). One possibility is that some of the dated
zircons are recycled older material, therefore a generalized age
304 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

Table 17.4 Ages and durations of Triassic stages [see footnote]

Estimated Estimated
uncertainty uncertainty
Age on age Duration on duration Status; primary Calibration and
Boundary Stage (Ma) (2-sigma) (myr) (2-sigma) marker comments
JURASSIC
(Hettangian)
Top of TRIASSIC 199.6 0.6 Not dened, but traditionally is U-Pb age on tuff near candidate GSSP level
(base of Hettangian) the rst occurrence of the is 199.6 0.3 Ma(2-sigma); increased to
smooth planorbis group within 0.6 (2-sigma) to incorporate potential
the ammonite genus Psiloceras. external errors.
Rhaetian 4.0 1.0
Base of Rhaetian 203.6 1.5 Not dened. Assigned here as Age of stage boundary estimated according
base of Sagenites reticulatus to matching magnetostratigraphy to
ammonoid zone and rst cycle-scaled magnetic polarity chrons of
occurrence of conodont Newark series. Estimated placement is lower
Epigondolla mosheri (assumed to part of Newark Chron E22n.
be coincident)
Norian 13.2 0.5 Duration and associated uncertainty
assumes that the magnetostratigraphic
correlation of stage boundary to Newark
polarity scale is accurate.
Base of Norian 216.5 2.0 Not dened. Assigned here as Age of stage boundary estimated according
bases of Klamathites to matching magnetostratigraphy to
macrolobatus and Stikinoceras cycle-scaled magnetic polarity chrons of
kerri ammonoid zones Newark series. Estimated placement is base
(assumed to be coincident) of Newark Chron E14n.
Carnian 11.5 0.5 Duration and associated uncertainty
assumes that the magnetostratigraphic
correlation of stage boundary to Newark
polarity scale is accurate.
Base of Carnian 228.0 2.0 Not dened. Assigned here as Age of stage boundary estimated according
rst occurrences of Trachyceras to matching magnetostratigraphy to
ammonite genus and conodont cycle-scaled magnetic polarity chrons of
Metapolygnathus Newark series. Estimated placement is
polygnathiformis. upper Newark Chron E7n.
Ladinian 9.0 0.5 Duration and associated uncertainty
assumes that the magnetostratigraphic
correlation of stage boundary to Newark
polarity scale is accurate.
Base of Ladinian 237.0 1.5 Not dened. Assigned here as Age of stage boundary estimated by
base of Eoprotrachyceras curionii assigning equal ammonite subzones between
ammonite zone, and near rst base of Nevadites secedensis zone (U-Pb age
occurrence of Budurovignathus of 240 1 Ma) through top of Protrachyceras
conodont genus. margaritosum ammonoid zone, which has a
projected age of 233 1 Ma from
cycle-scaled magnetic polarity chrons.
Anisian 8.0 1.5
Base of Anisian 245.0 1.5 Not dened. Assigned here as Age estimated from proportional scaling of
rst occurrence of early Anisian (below 240 1 Ma U-Pb age
Paracrochordiceras ammonite at base of Nevadites secedensis ammonoid
genus. zone) relative to Early Triassic (basal age of
251.0 0.4 Ma (95% condence limit))
according to component ammonite subzones
Olenekian 4.7 1.0 Olenekian and Induan scaling within Early
Triassic is from the composite standard of
conodont zones derived from graphic
correlation of several sections by Sweet &
Bergstrom (1986).
Base of Olenekian 249.7 0.7 Not dened. Assigned here as Age derived from relative position on
slightly above rst occurrence composite standard. Relatively low

Table 17.4 (cont.)
Estimated
uncertainty
Age on age Duration
Boundary Stage (Ma) (2-sigma) (myr)
0.7
Induan 1.3
Base of TRIASSIC 251.0 0.4
(base of Induan)
PERMIAN
Only the base of the Triassic has a ratied international denition, therefore the computed ages are for the selected potential denitions (as indicated). The estimates
age of other potential markers are shown in Fig. 17.1. See text for derivation of uncertainty estimates.
of 240 1 Ma (95% condence) was assigned to the base of
the N. secedensis ammonoid zone.
Ages derived by both the 40 Ar/39 Ar and KAr methods
on feldspars from the same lower N. secedensis tuff in Switzer-
land yielded 233 5 Ma (Hellman and Lippolt, 1981; 95%
condence limit), which had been a key control age in ear-
lier Triassic time scales (e.g. Harland et al., 1990; Gradstein
et al., 1994b, 1995). The cause of the discrepancy among
ages in the upper Anisianlower Ladinian interval obtained
by different UPb studies and the 40 Ar/39 Ar versus UPb re-
sults is not resolved (e.g. Hardie and Hinnov, 1997; Brack et al.,
1997).
There are no other signicant well-constrained radiometric
ages between the base-Triassic and the lower-Middle Triassic.
Therefore, the ages of intervening datums were extrapolated
by utilizing a composite standard from graphical correlation of
Lower Triassic sections (Sweet and Bergstrom, 1986) and by
proportional scaling of ammonite zones according to subzones.
The age of the base of the Anisian (245 Ma) was proportion-
ally assigned between the 251 and 240 Ma control ages accord-
ing to the relative number of ammonoid subzones in the Early
Triassic (17 subzonal units) and in the pre-Nevadites secedensis
Anisian subzonal count (15 subzonal units). Subzone counts
were from van Veen (compiled for Gradstein et al., 1995), and
ammonite zones that had no subzonal divisions were arbitrarily
assigned a 1.5 subzonal equivalent. Pre-Nevadites secedensis
ammonoid zones in the Anisian were proportionally scaled ac-
cording to their relative number of subzones.
Substage and ammonoid zone boundaries within the Early
Triassic were proportionally assigned according to the rela-
tive spacing of major conodont datums computed from global
graphic correlation (Sweet and Bergstom, 1986). The calibra-
tion of Canadian ammonoid zones to these conodont datums
The Triassic Period 305
Estimated
uncertainty
on duration Status; Calibration and
(2-sigma) primary marker comments
of conodont Neosp. uncertainty due to precision of
pakistanensis, or approximately base-Triassic.
at base of Meekoceras gracilitatis
ammonite zone.
0.3
GSSP, lowest occurrence of Bracketing U-Pb ages on tuffs near GSSP
conodont Hindeodus parvus. level.
was from Orchard and Tozer (1997a,b). The apparent compact
Induan Stage (only 1.3 myr duration) compared to the over-
lying Olenekian Stage (4.7 myr duration) reects the relative
thicknesses of strata in sections used for the graphic correlation
of conodont datums, even though the Induan and Olenekian
stages have approximately equal numbers of ammonoid sub-
zones. Perhaps the Induan experienced a relatively rapid evo-
lution of ammonoids and corresponding zones of shorter du-
ration following the near-extinction of ammonoids at the end
of the Permian.
17.3.2 Upper Ladinian to base-Jurassic
Ages for Upper Ladinian through Norian substages and
Tethyan ammonite zones were assigned from their apparent
magnetostratigraphic correlations to the cycle-scaled Newark
Basin magnetic polarity time scale, as previously explained in
the Triassic magnetostratigraphy section. The volcanic ows
that cap the main Newark Basin lacustrine succession (top of
polarity chron E23) are part of the extensive Central Atlantic
Magmatic Province (CAMP) that erupted at 202 1 Ma
(Olsen and Kent, 2001; Olsen et al., 2003), therefore the
ages of the Newark polarity pattern are relative to this con-
trol age (Fig. 17.1). This magnetostratigraphy correlation ex-
tends downward to the base of the Eoprotrachyceras gredleri
ammonoid zone, and ages of individual ammonoid zones were
read from the associated absolute age scale.
Ages for the ammonite zones in the uppermost Anisian
and Lower Ladinian (base of Nevadites secedensis at 240 Ma
through top of Protrachyceras margaritosum ammonoid zone at
233 Ma) were computed according to the relative number of
component subzones. Rhaetian ammonoid zones were given
equal durations.
306 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
The JurassicTriassic boundary is tightly constrained by
a UPb age of 199.6 0.3 Ma (95% condence limits) from
zircons in a tuff directly below the TriassicJurassic boundary
in British Columbia (Palfy et al., 2000b).
17.3.3 Estimated uncertainties on stage ages
and durations
In contrast to the Paleozoic stages, in which ages of stages
are interpolated by spline tting of multisection composite
standards derived from constrained optimization (CONOP)
or graphical correlation techniques to an array of radiometric
dates, the Mesozoic time scales have integrated several tech-
niques with varying degrees of precision. Therefore, the un-
certainties on the calculated ages of stages vary greatly among
intervals. In the following discussion of Triassic ages, all un-
certainties are 95% condence (2-sigma) limits.
The Early Triassic ages were scaled between a precise age
of 251.0 0.4 Ma for the base-Triassic and a less precise
age of 240 1 Ma for the base of the Nevadites secedensis
ammonoid zone. Therefore, the base-Anisian age of 245 Ma
extrapolated from proportional scaling to ammonite subzones
will have a larger uncertainty (estimated as 1.5 myr) than ei-
ther of these equal-distant constraints. The duration of the
relatively short-duration Induan Stage of the basal-Triassic is
tightly constrained by the composite standard, so would have
an uncertainty (estimated as 0.7 myr) closer to the 0.4-myr
uncertainty for the base-Triassic.
The Late Triassic is governed by the potential magne-
tostratigraphic correlations to the Newark magnetic polarity
pattern, which is precisely scaled by Milankovitch cycles. The
assigned ages for this Newark reference scale are tied to the
202 Ma for the overlying basalts, which Olsen and Kent (2001)
suggested had an uncertainty of 1 myr, therefore a conser-
vative uncertainty of 1.5 myr (for base-Rhaetian) to 2 myr
was assigned for the set of derived ages. However, this is a
systematic uncertainty, and the durations of the stages have a
much lower uncertainty (assigned as 0.5 myr; which implicitly
assumes that the suite of magnetostratigraphic correlations are
correct). The top of the Triassic is taken to be 199.6 0.6 myr,
after adjustment of the published uncertainty (0.3 myr) to
partially incorporate potential systematic errors (see Chapter
6), therefore the uncertainty on the duration of the Rhaetian
Stage is relatively large.
An increase in the accuracy of the Triassic time scale re-
quires a veried magnetostratigraphic correlation within the
upper Triassic to the Newark magnetic reference pattern. At
least one high-precision radiometric age with tight biostrati-
graphic constraints is required within the NorianCarnian,
and an independent set of radiometric ages are needed within
the lower Triassic through Ladinian that are outside of the
ItalianHungary region. The studied section in the latter re-
gion may have re-worked zircons hampering detailed age dates.
Application of Milankovitch cycle scaling to lower Triassic de-
posits is highly desirable.
17.3.4 Triassic time scale summary
The Triassic Period spans 51.4 myr, between 251.0 0.4 and
199.6 0.6 Ma. The Early, Middle, and Late Triassic Epochs
have quite unequal durations of 6, 17, and 28.4 myr, respec-
tively, which is a rather odd division of time for a tripartite
period. Stages within the Triassic range from one of the short-
est in the Phanerozoic (Induan Stage of 1.3-myr duration), to
two of the longest (Carnian of 11.5-myr and Norian of 13-myr
durations).
18 The Jurassic Period
. .
172 Ma (mid-Jurassic)
Pliensbachian
Kimmeridgian
Sinemurian
Bajocian
Aalenian
Hettangian
Geographic distribution of Jurassic GSSPs that have been ratied
(diamonds) or are candidates (squares) on a mid-Jurassic map
(status in January 2004; see Table 2.3). Overlaps in Europe have
obscured some GSSPs, and not all candidate sections are indicated
Dinosaurs dominated the land surface. Ammonites are the main fossils
for correlating marine deposits. Pangea supercontinent began to break
up, and at the end of the Middle Jurassic the Central Atlantic was
born. Organic-rich sediments in several locations eventually became
the source rocks helping to fuel modern civilization.
1 8 . 1 H I S T O RY A N D S U B D I V I S I O N S
18.1.1 Overview of the Jurassic
The term Jura Kalkstein was applied by Alexander von
Humboldt (1799) to a series of carbonate shelf deposits exposed
in the mountainous Jura region of northernmost Switzerland,
and he rst recognized that these strata were distinct from
the German Muschelkalk (middle Triassic), although he erro-
A Geologic Time Scale 2004, eds. Felix M. Gradstein, James G. Ogg, and Alan
G. Smith. Published by Cambridge University Press.
c F. M. Gradstein,
J. G. Ogg, and A. G. Smith 2004.
Callovian
Oxfordian
(see Table 18.1 for more extensive listing). GSSPs for the
base-Jurassic, Late Jurassic stages, and some Middle Jurassic stages
are undened. The projection center is at 30 E to place the center
of the continents in the center of the map.
neously considered his unit to be older. Alexander Brongniart
(1829) coined the term Terrains Jurassiques when correlat-
ing the Jura Kalkstein to the Lower Oolite Series (now as-
signed to Middle Jurassic) of the British succession. Leopold
von Buch (1839) established a three-fold subdivision for the
Jurassic. The basic framework of von Buch has been retained
as the three Jurassic series, although the nomenclature has var-
ied (BlackBrownWhite, LiasDoggerMalm, and currently
LowerMiddleUpper).
The immense wealth of fossils, particularly ammonites, in
the Jurassic strata of Britain, France, Germany, and Switzer-
land was a magnet for innovative geologists, and modern con-
cepts of biostratigraphy, chronostratigraphy, correlation, and
paleogeography grew out of their studies. Alcide dOrbigny
(184251, 1852), a French paleontologist, grouped the Jurassic
ammonite and other fossil assemblages of France and England
into ten main divisions, which he termed etages (stages).
Seven of dOrbignys stages are used today, but none of them
has retained its original stratigraphic range. Simultaneously,
307
308 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
Quenstedt (1848) subdivided each of the three Jurassic series
of von Buch of the Swabian Alb of southwestern Germany
into six lithostratigraphic subdivisions, which he character-
ized by ammonites and other fossils and denoted by Greek
letters (alphazeta; Geyer and Gwinner, 1979). Alfred Oppel
(18568), Quenstedts pupil, subdivided the Jurassic stages
into biostratigraphic zones, was the rst to correlate Jurassic
units successfully among England, France, and southwestern
Germany, and modied dOrbignys stage framework.
Ammonites have provided a high-resolution correlation
and subdivision of Jurassic strata throughout the globe (e.g.
Arkell, 1956). The bases of nearly all Jurassic stages and sub-
stages are traditionally assigned to the base of ammonite zones
in marginal-marine sections in western Europe (e.g. Oppel,
18568), and this philosophy was formalized at the Colloque
du Jurassique a` Luxembourg 1962 (Maubeuge, 1964; see also
Morton, 1974), where the majority of the current suite of
eleven Jurassic stages were dened in terms of component
ammonite zones. Therefore, the process of assigning bases of
Jurassic stages at GSSPs continues this historical practice, in
which the GSSP placement is commonly locked into recog-
nizing or dening the basal ammonite horizon of the lowest
component zone. However, much of the historical subdivision
of the Jurassic was limited to shallow-marine deposits of the
northwest European region (England to southwest Germany),
therefore, establishing reliable high-resolution correlation to
tropical (Tethyan), Pacic, deep-sea, continental, and other
settings has commonly remained tenuous. In particular, this
difculty in global correlation has frustrated efforts to dene
with GSSPs both the base and the top of the Jurassic and the
bases of the Kimmeridgian and Tithonian stages.
Detailed reviews of the history, subdivisions, biostrati-
graphic zonations, and correlation of individual Jurassic stages
are compiled in several sources, including Arkell (1933, 1956),
Cope et al. (1980a,b), Harland et al. (1982, 1990), Krymholts
et al. (1982, 1988), Burger (1995), and Groupe Francais
dEtude du Jurassique (1997), and our brief summaries have
been distilled from their narratives.
18.1.2 Lower Jurassic
A marine transgression in northwest Europe during the latest
Triassic and earliest Jurassic resulted in widespread clay-
rich calcareous deposits. These distinctive strata in southwest
Germany were called the Black Jurassic (schwarzen Jura) by
von Buch (1839), and were called Lias in southern England by
Conybeare and Phillips (1822). The base of the historical Het-
tangian Stage is the initial inux of ammonites into southern
England during the early stages of the transgression. This se-
ries was subdivided into three stages (Sinemurian, Liasian, and
Toarcian) by dOrbigny (184251, 1852), then Oppel (18568)
replaced the Liasian with the Pliensbachian Stage and Renevier
(1864) separated the lower Sinemurian as a distinct Hettangian
Stage. Widespread hiatuses or condensation horizons mark the
bases of the classical Sinemurian, Pliensbachian, and Toarcian
stages.
T R I A S S I C J U R A S S I C B O U N DA RY A N D T H E
H E T TA N G I A N S TAG E
The original Sinemurian Stage of dOrbigny (184251, 1852)
extended to the base of the Jurassic. Indeed, the Lower Juras-
sic tentatively included the Rhaetian (Bonebed of southwest
Germany, portions of Penarth Beds in England, Rhatische
Gruppe of German and Austrian Alps, etc.), which is now
assigned to the uppermost Triassic. Overlying this basal unit,
Oppel (18568) assigned the base of his Jurassic to the lowest
ammonite assemblage which is characterized by the planorbis
species, and referred to characteristic coastal sections in south-
ern England including Lyme Regis in Dorset and Watchet in
Somerset.
Renevier (1864) proposed the Hettangian Stage to encom-
pass the Psiloceras planorbis and Schlotheimia angulatus am-
monite zones as interpreted by Oppel. The stage was named
after a quarry near the village of Hettange-Grande in Lorraine
(northeastern France), 22 km south of Luxembourg, although
the strata in this locality are primarily sandstone with no fossils
in the lowermost part.
The latest Triassic and TriassicJurassic boundary inter-
val span one of the ve most signicant mass extinctions of the
Phanerozoic, including termination of conodonts and major
declines of ammonites and bivalves (e.g. Hallam, 1996; Bloos,
1999). This progressive decline, coupled with the low-diversity
survivor fauna and transgressive facies migration during the
early Hettangian, has greatly limited the choice of markers for
dening the base of the Jurassic. The base of the Hettangian
is traditionally assigned to the rst occurrence of the smooth
planorbis group within the ammonite genus Psiloceras, which
are ubiquitous from the eastern Pacic and Tethys to the Euro-
pean Boreal province. Ammonite diversity was very low in late
Rhaetian time (Choristoceras marshi Zone), and the Hettangian
genus Psiloceras must be derived from the Triassic genera of
the family Discophyllitidae, which lives mainly in the open sea
(von Hillebrandt, 1997). The TriassicJurassic boundary, as
recognized in the marine realm, is within the earliest stages of
a transgression following a major sequence boundary (He1 in
 The Jurassic Period 309

Fig. 18.1) and eustatic lowstand (Hesselbo and Jenkyns, 1998;
Hallam and Wignall, 1999).
The age of the TriassicJurassic boundary is constrained
by a UPb zircon age of 199.6 0.3 Ma on a tuff layer in the
uppermost Rhaetian (top of Triassic) on Kunga Island (Palfy
et al., 2000a). A oral turnover and peak in tetrapod extinc-
tion in eastern North America, that had been considered to
coincide with the TriassicJurassic boundary (e.g. Fowell and
Olsen, 1993), has an age no younger than 200.6 Ma; therefore,
this continental level appears to represent part of the progres-
sive loss of diversity within the latest Triassic (Palfy et al.,
2000a,b). Olsen et al. (2003) favor an age of 202 Ma for this
continental TriassicJurassic boundary, based on the aver-
age of ages from the overlying basalts in the Newark Basin
successions.
There are four main candidates for the placement of the
base-Jurassic GSSP (Warrington, 1999, 2003; Table 18.1):
(1) Chilingote, Peru, on the west side of the Utcubamba Valley;
(2) southeast shore of Kunga Island, Queen Charlotte Islands,
British Columbia, Canada; (3) Muller or New York Canyon
area, Gabbs Valley Range, Nevada; and (4) St. Audries Bay,
Somerset, England. Only the Peru and Nevada sections con-
tain ammonite assemblages of both the uppermost Rhaetian
and lowermost Hettangian; but St. Audries Bay has magne-
tostratigraphy and Kunga Island has dated tuff layers.
There is no accepted grouping into substages of the three
Hettangian ammonite zones (Psiloceras planorbis, Alsatites lia-
sicus, and Schlotheimia angulata).
SINEMURIAN
History, denition, and boundary stratotype The Sinemurian
Stage was named by dOrbigny (184251, 1852) after the town
of Semur-en-Auxois (Sinemurum Briennense castrum in
Latin) in the Cote dOr department of eastern central France.
After the establishment of the Hettangian Stage removed
the lower ammonite zones (Renevier, 1864), the base of the
Sinemurian was traditionally assigned to the proliferation of
the Arietitidae ammonite group, particularly the lowest occur-
rence of the early genera Vermiceras and Metophioceras (base
of Metophioceras conybeari subzone of the Arietites bucklandi
Zone. However, the stage boundary was never dened by a
generally accepted species or assemblage (Sinemurian Bound-
ary Working Group, 2000). In addition, a gap exists between
the Hettangian and Sinemurian throughout most of northwest
Europe.
Only in rapidly subsiding troughs in western Britain
was sedimentation continuous across the boundary interval.
Therefore, the boundary GSSP was placed in inter-bedded
limestone and claystone at coastal exposures near East Quan-
toxhead, Somerset, England (Page et al., 2000; Sinemurian
Boundary Working Group, 2000; Bloos and Page, 2002;
Table 18.1). The GSSP is at the lowest occurrence of arieti-
tid ammonite genera Vermiceras and Metophioceras. This level
is just below the highest occurrence of the ammonite genera
Schlotheimia that is characteristic of the uppermost Hettan-
gian. This turnover of ammonite genera is a global event that
marks the boundary interval (Sinemurian Boundary Working
Group, 2000; Bloos and Page, 2002).
Sinemurian substages The Sinemurian has two substages.
The Colloque du Jurassique a` Luxembourg 1962 (Maubeuge,
1964) assigned the base of an upper stage, called Lotharingian
(named by Haug, 1910, after the Lorraine region of France), to
the base of the Caenisites turneri ammonite zone. However, cur-
rent usage follows Oppel (18568) in assigning the base of the
Lotharingian substage at the base of the overlying Asteroceras

Figure 18.1 Jurassic time scale with selected biostratigraphic zonations, magnetic polarity chrons, and major depositional sequences. The
primary absolute-age stratigraphic scales are the ammonite zonations of northwest Europe for Hettangian through Bajocian and of the
sub-Mediterranean province for the Bathonian stage (modied from J. Thierry in Hardenbol et al., 1998, pp. 776777), and the M-sequence
magnetic polarity chrons for Callovian through Tithonian stages. Ages of stage boundaries and other stratigraphic events are from their direct
calibration to the primary stratigraphic scale (e.g. magnetostratigraphic correlation of proposed basal-Tithonian ammonite zone boundary) or
extrapolated from published correlation estimates (e.g. Mesozoic chronostratigraphy charts of Hardenbol et al., 1998) see text for details.
Uncertainty estimates for stage boundaries are given at 95% condence limits. Dashed lines denote relatively uncertain calibrations of
other biostratigraphic events to the primary scale, or intervals in which ammonite zones have been arbitrarily scaled proportional to the
relative number of subzones. Most subzonal units are omitted, and only a generalized ammonite stratigraphy is given for some intervals
(see biostratigraphic chart series in Hardenbol et al., 1998, for full listing and correlation web). Ammonite biozone names and associated
assigned ages are summarized in Table 18.2. Major ooding or regressive trends of depositional sequences of northwest Europe are labeled at
the sequence boundary immediately preceding the maximum lowstand of the respective third-order sequence (extracted from Hardenbol et al.,
1998). A color version of this gure is in the plate section.
310 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

Jurassic Time Scale

Ammonite zones Microfossil datums Main
AGE Stage Polarity sub-Mediter- Northwest Dinoflagellate Calcareous Seq.
(Ma) Chron ranean Europe cysts (Boreal) Foraminifera nannoplankton T R
Nannoconus

CC1
CRETACEOUS Sub. lamplughi Calpionellid colomii,

B. jacobi
Berr. grandis steinmannii
(Berriasian) M18 zones

Gvi
Subcraspedites Nannoconus
145 Berr. jacobi preplicomphalus steinmanni
Calpionella B
145.5 4.0 M19 alpina min.
Durangites Sub. primitivus Gochteodinia (intermediate
villosa spherical variety)
Ti/Be
Para. oppressus
U A

NJ17
Micracanthoceras T. anguiformis
microcanthum Ga. kerberus
M20 T. carpathica

Dpa
M. ponti / Burck. Ga. okusensis Occi- (smallest variety)

Chitinoidella
Simoceras Gl. glaucolithus sucysta
admirandum / Pro. albani balios Stephanolithion
atmetros
Tithonian M21
S. biruncinatum
Richterella
Virgatopav. fittoni
Pav. rotunda Chitinoidella sp.
richteri P. pallasioides Dichado-
L S. semiforme P. pectinatus gonyaulax

Gdi
P. hudlestoni culmula Conusphaera
S. darwini mexicana Ti2
M22 P. wheatleyensis

NJ16
150 (Tethyan)
Hybonoticeras P. scitulus
P. elegans
Smaller
hybonotum Rotelapillus
150.8 4.0 M22A
Aulacostephanus
autissiodorensis Endo-
Benthic helotatus
Hybonoticeras scrinium Foraminifera
luridum
M23 beckeri Aulacostephanus
eudoxus
Hexapodo-
rhabdus
Aula. eudoxus cuvillieri

Kimmeridgian M24 Asp. acanthicum Aulacostephanoides Haplophragmoides

Elu
canuiformis
Crussol. divisum mutabilis
M24A

NJ15b
Ataxioceras
M24B hypselocyclum Cribro-
Tethyan Rasenia peridinium
154.55 4.0 M25 Sutneria platynota
cymodoce
longicorne
M25A Subnebrodites
155 planula
M26 Pictonia baylei Scrinio-
155.65 4.0 Boreal M27 dinium
Epipeltoceras Ringsteadia crystallinum Lenticulina Lotharingius
bimammatum pseudocordata oxfordiana mg S. crucicentralis
Scr

U M28
Per. cautisnigrae Nodosaria plicatilis Ox6
Per. bifurcatus

NJ15a
M29 Gregoryceras Perisphinctes L. ectypa
pumilus
Oxfordian M M30
M31
transversarium Liesbergia
scarburgh-
ensis
costata mg M.

Perisphinctes (A.) plicatilis

Lsc

M33
160 Cardioceras cordatum Leptodinium
T. agglutinans NJ14
L M34 subtile Stephanolithion
bigotii
Quenstedtoceras (Q.) mariae Wanaea Wfi maximum
161.2 4.0 M36 fimbriata
Frondicularia
Wth

Quenstedtoceras (L.) lamberti molleri

U M37 Ansulasphaera Call5
Pelto. athleta
NJ13

Pelto. athleta
southern England and

Wanaea helvetica
Ery. coronatum Ery. coronatum thysanota,
Burgundy, France

M Citharina macilenta, Stephanolithion

Composite from

Callovian Rein. anceps Kosmo. jason Limbodinium

Cco

absidiatum Triplasia bartensteini, bigotii bigotii

Sig. calloviense Flabellammina althoffi,
Macrocephalites
NJ12a12b

(Dolikephalites) Proplanulites Frondicularia

L gracilis koenigi Ctenido- franconica Pseudoconus
dinium enigma
Bull. bullatus Macro. herveyi
165 164.7 4.0 Clydoniceras (C.) discus
combazii A. irregularis
Ansulasphaera
Valvae-
Hecticoceras (P.) Oxycerites orbis helvetica
U retrocostatum
odinium
Cse

Pro. hodsoni spinosum

Cado. bremeri
Bathonian Carpatho- Tristix
NJ11

M. morrisi / T. subcontractus Bat3

dinium acutangulum
Procerites (P.) progracilis predae
L Pro. aurigerus A. tenuiplicatus
 The Jurassic Period 311

Jurassic Time Scale

Ammonite zones Microfossil datums Main
AGE Polarity sub-Mediter- Northwest Dinoflagellate Calcareous Seq.
(Ma) Stage Chron ranean Europe cysts (Boreal) Foraminifera nannoplankton T R
Carpatho-

NJ11
M. morrisi / T. subcontractus Bat3
dinium

Cse
Bathonian L Procerites (P.) progracilis
Pro. aurigerus A. tenuiplicatus
predae Tristix
acutangulum
Zigzagiceras zigzag Acanthaulax Pseudoconus

Composite from
167.7 3.5

southern Spain
crispa enigma
Parkinsonia (P.) parkinsoni
L. argonauta mg P.
U Garantiana garantiana

Acr

NJ10
Nannoceratopsis
Strenoceras niortense gracilis (common),
Durotrigia L. galeata mg P.,
170
Bajocian Stephan. humphriesianum
daveyi
A. crispa
L. polymorpha mg P. Stephano-
lithion
S. propinquans (= zone E. (O.) sauzei) speciosum

NJ9
Nannocera-
L Witchellia laeviuscula topsis Ellipsagelo-
dictyambonis sphaera
Hyperlioceras discites britannica
171.6 3.0 Durotrigia
daveyi Spectre
U Graphoceras concavum d'orbignyi

NJ8b
Brasilia
Switzerland
southern

bradfordensis Nodosaria regularis

Ludwidgia Aa2
Aalenian M murchisonae Ludwidgia
Lotharingius
contractus
murchisonae

175 L Leioceras opalinum

NJ8a
175.6 2.0

Ngr
Pleydellia aalensis
Nanno- Spectre tenuistriata
Composite from central-west France,

Dumortieria pseudoradiosa ceratopsis Retecapsa

southern Switzerland and Spain

dicty- incompta
ambonis
Phlyseogrammoceras dispansum
U (= zone E. insigne)

NJ7
Spectre d'orbignyi
Toarcian Grammoceras thouarsense
180
Haugia variabilis Phallocysta Biscutum
eumekes striatum
Hildoceras bifrons D. utriculata,
L. pennensis mg L.M.
Harpoceras serpentinum

NJ6
L (= zone Harpo. falciferum) Spectre chicheryi
Carinolithus
superbus
Luehndea Calcivascu-
Dacty. (Ortho.) tenuicostatum
183.0 1.5 spinosa Lent. obonensis, etc. laris

NJ5b
(common) jansae
Pl8
Axopodorhabdus
northern Italy, and Paris Basin

Pleuroceras spinatum atavus,

Bussonius prinsii
Domerian

southern Switzerland,

D. obscura,
NJ5a

D. terquemi,
Lsp

185 U Lenticulina speciosa

mg M., L. carinata Lotharingius
hauffii
Amaltheus margaritatus

Pliensbachian Luehndea
NJ4b

Bolivina liassica
spinosa,
Nanno- Marginulina
Prodactylioceras davoei ceratopsis interrupta
gracilis Crepidolithus Pl3
Carixian

pliensbach-
Tragophylloceras ibex D. varians, ensis
Lva

L D. tenuistriata
4a

Similiscutum
Uptonia jamesoni cruciulus
Liasidium
189.6 1.5 variabile

Figure 18.1 (cont.)

312 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

Jurassic Time Scale

Ammonite Zones Microfossil Datums Main
AGE Stage Polarity sub-Mediter- Northwest Dinoflagellate Calcareous Seq.
(Ma) Chron ranean Europe cysts (Boreal) Foraminifera Nannoplankton T R
Crepidolithus Pl3

Carixian
Tragophylloceras ibex D. varians, pliensbach-
D. tenuistriata

4a
Pliensbachian ensis
Similiscutum
Uptonia jamesoni cruciulus

189.6 1.5

Lva
Liasidium
190 variabile
Lotharingian

Echioceras raricostatum Marginulina

spinata

NJ3
(not calibrated to ammonite zones)

U Oxynoticeras oxnotum
I. sulcata,
I. muelensis,
Liasidium L. inaequistriata
Asteroceras obtusum variabile mg P. Crepidolithus
western Austria

Sinemurian crassus

NJ2b
Si3
Caenisites turneri Dapcodinium
priscum L. radiata
L. mg M.
(rare) quadricostata
Arnioceras semicostatum mg M.
L Parhabdolithus

NJ2a
195 marthae
Coroniceras (Arietites) Dapcodinium N. issleri,
bucklandi priscum D. fasciata Parhabdolithus

Dpr
(common) liasicus
196.5 1.0
Vaginulina subporrecta
Schlotheirnia angulata Ichtyolaria xyphoidea

NJ1
Hettangian Alsatites liasicus Lenticulina
quadricosta mg M.
Lingulina striata, Schizo-
Psiloceras planorbis L. collenoti, Lenticulina sphaerella
punctulata
Eastern U.S.A.

austroalpina mg L.
199.6 0.6 He1
England &

Rhaeto-
200 gonyaulax
Triassic rhaetica,
Suessia
Rr

swabiana
(Rhaetian)

Figure 18.1 (cont.)

obtusum Zone (e.g. Krymholts et al., 19828; Groupe Francais
dEtude du Jurassique, 1997). The lower substage does not
have a secondary name, and there is no recommendation for a
potential GSSP for the substage boundary.
P L I E N S BAC H I A N
History, denition, and boundary stratotype The Pliens-
bachian Stage was proposed by Oppel (18568) to replace the
Liasian stage of dOrbigny, which lacked a type locality for its
base. The stage was named after the outcrops along the Pliens-
bach stream near the village of Pliensbach (Geppingen, 35 km
southeast of Stuttgart) in the BadenWurttemberg district of
Germany. Even though this section lies unconformably on the
underlying Sinemurian, the lowest ammonite subzone (Phri-
codoceras taylori subzone of the Uptonia jamesoni Zone) in this
section is traditionally used as the base of the Pliensbachian
Stage (e.g. Dean et al., 1961; Meister, 1999a,b).
At this level, the Psiloceratoidea ammonites, which domi-
nated the Hettangian and Sinemurian, disappear and the Eode-
roceratoidea superfamily diversies and dominates the north-
east European fauna of the Pliensbachian Stage (Meister et al.,
2003). This faunal event occurs globally, but a stratigraphic gap
between the Pliensbachian and Sinemurian sequences is a com-
mon feature. Of 27 regions considered by the Pliensbachian
boundary working group, only a single candidate in York-
shire, England, was satisfactory for a potential GSSP (Meister,
1999a,b; Meister et al., 2003). At the clay-rich coastal section
of Wine Haven at Robin Hoods Bay, Yorkshire, the GSSP
coincides with the lowest ammonite occurrences of Bifericeras
donovani species and of Apoderoceras genera (Table 18.1). A
section at Aselngen in the BadenWurttemberg district of
Table 18.1 Jurassic stage denitions (GSSP assignments or status) and informal division into substages. Stages are ordered stratigraphically (youngest at top)

Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point

References
Stage boundary (GSSP,
Stage Substage base Status Location and point Primary markers Other correlations Comments correlations)
Upper Jurassic
Tithonian Upper Informal usage Base of Micracanthoceras At this level there is a major turnover Groupe Francais
within microcanthum ammonite zone. in ammonite assemblages and
dEtude du
sub-Mediter- calpionellid microfossils become Jurassique, 1997.
ranean important in the biostratigraphic
province correlation of pelagic limestone.
(Tethyan Calibrated to base of normal-polarity
faunal domain) Chron M20n.
Tithonian/ Candidate Southeastern France Ammonite, simultaneous Base of normal-polarity Chron Traditional placement of Atrops, 1982,
Kimmeridgian sections Crussol mountain on the lowest occurrence of the M22An. Kimmeridgian-Tithonian boundary 1994
Rhone river just west of ammonites Hybonoticeras aff in sub-boreal realm is at base of
Valence, and a quarry at hybonotum and Glochiceras Pectinatites (Virgatosphinctoides)
Canjuers or in Swabia lithographicum (base of H. elegans ammonite zone, but this
region of southern hybonotum Zone), datum is known to be younger than
Germany. immediately followed by the the sub-Mediterranean denition of
lowest occurrence of the the boundary.
Gravesia genera.
Kimmeridgian Upper Informal usage Base of Aulacostephanoides Probably near the base of In the sub-Mediterranean realm, the Groupe Francais
within mutabilis ammonite zone. normal-polarity Chron M24Bn. base of an Upper Kimmeridgian
dEtude du
sub-Boreal substage is typically assigned to the Jurassique, 1997.
province base of the Aspidoceras acanthicum
(Boreal faunal Zone. Magnetostratigraphy suggests
domain) that this level (lower part of Chron
M24r) is about 0.9 myr younger than
the sub-Boreal assignment (Ogg, Coe
& Atrops, in preparation).
Kimmeridgian/ Candidate Crussol mountain on the Ammonite, base of Sutneria Just above base of reversed-polarity Crussol candidate yielded Melendez &
Oxfordian sections Rhone river just west of platynota Zone. Chron M25r. magnetostratigraphy. Chateauneuf Atrops, 1999;
(traditional Valence, and dOze candidate did not yield a Atrops, 1994.
Tethyan Chateauneuf dOze in magnetostratigraphy, but appears
placement) the Haute Provence more suitable for microfossil
district biostratigraphy (dinoagellate cysts)
and chemostratigraphy.
Magnetostratigraphy, sequence
stratigraphy and ammonite
constraints indicate that the base of
the S. platynota zone approximately
correlates with the middle of the
Rasenia cymodoce Zone of the
sub-Boreal province (Boreal faunal
realm) (Ogg & Coe, in preparation).
(cont.)
Table 18.1 (cont.)

Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point

References
Stage boundary (GSSP,
Stage Substage base Status Location and point Primary markers Other correlations Comments correlations)
Kimmeridgian/ Candidate Stafn Bay (Isle of Skye, Ammonite, concident bases of The base of the P. baylei zone is Magnetostratigraphy, sequence Melendez &
Oxfordian section northwest Scotland) Pictonia baylei Zone commonly a minor hiatus at a stratigraphy and ammonite Atrops, 1999;
(traditional (Subboreal province) and maximum ooding surface (Coe, constraints indicate that the base of Wright, 1973,
Boreal Amoeboceras bauhini Zone 1995). In the Stafn Bay section, the the P. baylei zone approximately 1989; Riding &
placement) (Boreal province) Kimmeridgian-Oxfordian boundary correlates with the base of the Thomas, 1997;
is just above the base of a Taramelliceras haufanum Subzone of Wierzbowski,
reversed-polarity zone assigned to uppermost Epipeltoceras bimammatum 2002, 2003.
lower part of polarity Chron M26r Zone of the sub-Mediterranean
(Ogg & Coe, 1997 and in preparation). province (Tethyan faunal realm) (Ogg
& Coe, in preparation).
Oxfordian Upper Informal usage Base of Perisphinctes cautisni- In the sub-Mediterranean province Groupe Francais
within grae ammonite zone. (Tethyan domain), the base of an
dEtude du
sub-Boreal Upper Oxfordian substage is Jurassique, 1997.
province commonly assigned to the base of the
(Boreal faunal Perisphinctes (Dichotomoceras)
domain) bifurcatus Zone, and this level is
probably slightly older than the Boreal
placement. Base of P. bifucatus is
within a normal-polarity zone that is
correlated to magnetic Chron M29n.
Middle Informal Base of Perisphinctes Base of P. plicatilis Zone is within a Groupe Francais
European (Arisphinctes) plicatilis brief normal-polarity magnetic zone
dEtude du
usage ammonite zone. that is correlated to marine magnetic Jurassique, 1997.
anomaly M33b(n) (Ogg & Coe, 1997
and in preparation).
Oxfordian/ Site of GSSP Leading candidates in Ammonite, Brightia Boundary interval is contact of range Candidate GSSP sections in France Melendez, 1999;
Callovian is undecided. Tethyan realm are thuouxensis Horizon at base of zone of Quenstedtoceras mariae to did not preserve a primary Fortwengler &
Thuoux and Savournon the Cardioceras scarburgense underlying range zone of Q. lamberti. magnetostratigraphy, and other faunal Marchand, 1994.
near Serres (Provence, Subzone (Quenstedtoceras The French candidate section has groups or chemostratigraphy are not
Chaines Subalpin) in mariae Zone). dinoagellate markers, but no other documented.
southeast France. A macrofossils or microfossils. The
candidate in Boreal boundary in England coincides with a
realm is a coastal section maximum ooding surface (Coe,
(Ham Cliff) near 1995) and is within a brief
Weymouth (Dorset) in normal-polarity magnetic zone that is
southern England. correlated to M-sequence marine
magnetic anomaly M36An (Coe &
Ogg, in preparation).
Middle Jurassic
Callovian Upper Informal Base of Peltoceras (Peltoceras) In the sub-Mediterranean province, Groupe Francais
European athleta ammonite the Middle/Upper Callovian
dEtude du
usage zone(Kosmoceras boundary is placed at the base of the Jurassique, 1997.
(Lobokosmoceras) phaeinum Peltoceras (Peltoceras) athleta
Subzone). Zone(Hecticoceras (Orbignyiceras)
trezeense Subzone), or approximately
a subzone higher than in the
sub-Boreal province.
Middle Informal usage Base of Kosmoceras Lower/Middle Callovian substage In the sub-Mediterranean province, Groupe Francais
within (Zugokosmoceras) jason boundary coincides with a moderate the Lower/Middle Callovian
dEtude du
sub-Boreal ammonite zone (at base of sequence boundary (Call3 of boundary is placed at the base of the Jurassique, 1997.
province Kosmoceras Hardenbol et al., 1998). Reineckeia anceps ammonite zone
(Boreal faunal (Zugokosmoceras) medea (Reineckeia stuebeli Subzone), which is
domain) Subzone). considered approximately coeval with
the sub-Boreal substage boundary
placement.
Callovian/ Candidate Excavated section of Ammonite, lowest occurrence In the sub-Mediterranean province The Macrocephalen-Oolith Dietl, 1994;
Bathonian section Macrocephalen-Oolith of the genus Kepplerites (southern Paris Basin to north Africa formation, a condensed facies of Callomon, 1999;
formation in forest (Kosmoceratidae), which and Italy, the basal Callovian zone is iron-oolite-bearing clay to marly Callomon &
preserve Quellgebiet denes the Kepplerites the Bullatimorphites (Kheraiceras) limestone, is easily eroded, therefore Dietl, 2000
des Roschbachs in the (Kepplerites) keppleri horizon bullatus Zone dened by the range of the complete Roschbachs section is
upper Eyach valley, at base of K. keppleri Subzone the index species. A major latest only exposed by escavation, then
about 1 km west of of Macrocephalites herveyi Bathonian sequence boundary (Bat5 reburied after sampling to prevent
Pfefngen village in the Zone in the sub-Boreal of Hardenbol et al., 1998) is removal of its rich ammonite fauna by
Albstadt district of the province (Great Britain to widespread in lower C. discus amateur fossil collectors. The
Swabian Alb (30 km southwest Germany). Subzone, and a minor sequence at-lying section is similar to the
south of Tubingen, boundary (Call0) coincides with the prole of Macrocephalen-Ooliths
southwest Germany). Bathonian-Callovian boundary level. diagrammed by Dietl (1994, g. 4),
[See footnote a] but the relative thicknesses are
different. [See footnote a]
Bathonian Upper Informal usage Base of Hecticoceras Approximately coincides with minor In the Northwest European province Groupe Francais
within sub- (Prohecticoceras) retrocostatum sequence boundary (Bat4 of (Boreal domain), a substage boundary
dEtude du
Mediterranean ammonite zone. Hardenbol et al., 1998) in NW is commonly assigned to the base of Jurassique, 1997.
province European basins. the Procerites (Procerites) hodsoni
(Tethyan Zone, which is a signicantly older
faunal domain) level. This level is just above a major
sequence boundary (Bat3 of
Hardenbol et al., 1998, see Figure
12.1) in NW European basins.
Middle Informal Base of Procentes progracilis
European ammonite zone.
usage
(cont.)
Table 18.1 (cont.)
Stage boundary
Stage Substage base Status Location and point
Bathonian/ Proposed in Ravin du B`es-Bas Auran
Bajocian 1988, but may near Digne, 4 km west of
not be suitable Barreme, Basses-Alpes, (base of Parkinsonia
for GSSP. southeast France.
Proposed GSSP was
base of Bed 23 of
Sturani (1967) in section
of interbedded
limestone and marl.
Another candidate
GSSP is at Cabo
Mondego, Portugal.
Bajocian Upper Informal
European
usage
Bajocian/ Ratied 1996 Cabo Mondego, Ammonite, lowest occurrence
Aalenian Portugal (Murtinheira
coastal section at the foot
of Cabo Mondego cliff,
southwest of the village
of Murtinheira, 40 km
west of Coimbra and 7
km north of Figueira da
Foz). GSSP is base of
Bed AB11 (section of
Henriques et al., 1988,
which corresponds to
Bed M337 of Henriques
et al., 1994) at 77.8 m
level as measured from
the base of the coastal
section in rhythmic
alternations of gray
limestone and marl.
Aalenian Upper Informal
European
usage
Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point
Primary markers
Ammonite, base of the
Zigzagiceras zigzag Zone
(Gonolkites) convergens
Subzone) as marked by the
lowest occurrence of
Parkinsonia (G.) convergens,
P. (P.) pachypleura and
Morphoceras parvum.
Base of Strenoceras
(Strenoceras) niortense
ammonite zone.
of the genus Hyperlioceras
(Toxolioceras), which denes
the base of the Hyperlioceras
discites Zone.
Base of Graphoceras concavum
ammonite zone.
Other correlations
Just prior to the peak of a major
transgression trend in NW Europe
Major turnover of ammonite genera
occurs at this level as Teloceras
disappear, and Perisphinctaceae,
Leptosphinctes, Strenoceras and
Garantiana (Orthogarantiana) appear
with some overlap.
The GSSP is just below the lowest
occurrences of calcareous
nannofossils Watznaueria communis
and W. fossacincta. The GSSP at Capo
Mondego coincides with the
boundary between a reversed-polarity
zone in the uppermost Aalenian to a
normal-polarity zone spanning the
lowermost H. discites Zone (Henriques
et al., 1994), which is consistent with
a composite magnetic pattern derived
from other AalenianBajocian studies
(e.g., compilation by Ogg, 1995,
shown in Figure 12.1). Boundary is
near a major sequence boundary (Bj1
of Hardenbol et al., 1998) in NW
European basins.
Transgression above major lowstand
(Aa2) in NW European basins
References
(GSSP,
Comments correlations)
Strata at proposed GSSP did not Mangold, 1999;
preserve a primary Innocenti et al.,
magnetostratigraphy, are barren of 1988.
dinoagellate cysts, and the
uppermost Bajocian (Parkinsonia
(Parkinsonia) bomfordi Subzone) may
be absent. A nearby auxiliary GSSP
section of La Palud near Castellane
places the P. bomfordi-P. convergens
subzone boundary at Bed 44 (rather
than Bed 39, as placed in Innocenti
et al., 1988) (Mangold, 1999).
Krymholts et al.,
1982/1988;
Groupe Francais
dEtude du
Jurassique, 1997.
Auxiliary Stratotype Point is at Henriques et al.,
Bearreraig Bay, about 10 km north of 1994; Pavia &
Portree on the eastern coast of the Isle Enay, 1997;
of Skye in western Scotland. The enhanced
boundary level is at the base of Bed CD-ROM from
U10 in the lower Udairn Shale M.H. Henriques
Member, 12.4 m above the base of the (hhenriq@cygn
section as revised by Morton (in Pavia us.ci.uc.pt)
et al., 1995). Base of the Bajocian in
this section is marked by radiation of
gonyaulacacean dinoagellate cysts, is
within the NJ8b nannofossil Subzone,
and is just above the lowest
occurrence of inoceramid bivalve
Mytiloceramus polyplocus.
 Middle Informal Base of Ludwigia murchisonae Just above a major sequence boundary
European ammonite zone. (Aa1 of Hardenbol et al., 1998) in NW
usage European basins.
Aalenian/ Ratied 2000 Fuentelsalz at Nuevalos, Ammonite, lowest occurrence Evolution of the ammonite Subfamily Wittnau at Freiburg in south Goy et al., 1994,
Toarcian Spain, in central sector of genus Leioceras (base of Grammoceratinae and Leioceratinae. Germany was the other main GSSP 1996; Cresta
of the Castelian Branch Leioceras opalinum Zone), Boundary interval is within a candidate (Ohmert, 1996). et al., 2001.
of the Iberian Range, which evolved from normal-polarity magnetozone which,
about 170 km ENE of Pleydellia. with the underlying reversed-polarity
Madrid and 30 km north magnetozone in the lower part of the
of Molina de Aragon). Pleydellia aalensis zone (uppermost
GSSP is base of zone of Toarcian). Diversity changes
calcareous Bed 107 are recorded by brachiopods, bivalves,
within an expanded benthic foraminifera, ostracods and
uppermost calcareous nannofossils in the
Toarcian-lowermost Fuentelsaz section; although the most
Aalenian succession of signicant faunal events generally
at-lying rhythmic take place in the uppermost Toarcian
alternations of marl and before the boundary (Goy et al.,
limestone. 1996). The boundary interval is the
lower part of a minor trangressive
systems tract (Hardenbol et al., 1998).
Lower Jurassic
Toarcian Upper Informal Base of Grammoceras An alternate two-fold subdivision of Groupe Francais
European thouarsense ammonite zone. Toarcian places an Upper/Lower
dEtude du
usage substage boundary at the base of the Jurassique, 1997
Haugia variabilis ammonite zone.
Middle Informal Base of Hildoceras bifrons Major maximum ooding surface in Groupe Francais
European ammonite zone. NW European basins.
dEtude du
usage Jurassique, 1997
Toarcian/ Location and Main candidate prole Ammonite, lowest occurrence Toarcian-Pliensbachian boundary Widespread condensation or gaps at Elmi, 1999, 2003.
Pliensbachian global for the GSSP is Ponte of a diversied Eodactylites interval is marked by a massive surge the base of the Toarcian strata
correlation da Trova-Cruz dos fauna (Simplex horizon, of Dactylioceratide (Eodactylites) and (Dactylioceras tenuicostatum ammonite
debated. Remedios secton at sensu Goy et al., 1997) with Hildoceratide ammonite families of zone) necessitated selection of
Peniche, Portugal. the association Paltarpites- Tethyan origin and extinction of candidate GSSPs in the
Another candidate is at Tiltoniceras-Eodactylites, Boreal amaltheid family. Base of Mediterranean region where gaps in
At Moussa in the which correlates with the Toarcian is an important maximum the succession are less pronounced
Middle Atlas of northwest European ooding surface above a major
Morocco. Palterpites paltus sequence boundary (Pl8) and
horizon/subzone. minimum in seawater
strontium-isotope ratios.
Pliensbachian Upper Informal Base of Amaltheus Appearance of the Amaltheus The Domerian is the informal name Colloque du
(Carixian European margaritatus ammonite zone. ammonite genera (typically Amaltheus for the lower substage of Jurassique a`
substage) usage stokesi). Pliensbachian. Luxembourg
1962 (1964)
(cont.)
Table 18.1 (cont.)

Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point

References
Stage boundary (GSSP,
Stage Substage base Status Location and point Primary markers Other correlations Comments correlations)
Pliensbachian/ ICS voting Wine Haven section of Ammonite, lowest Lowest occurrences of ammonites Of 27 regions considered by the Meister, 1999a,b,
Sinemurian 2003 claystone, Robin Hoods occurrences of Bifericeras Apoderoceras nodogigas, A. leckenbyi, Pliensbachian boundary working 2001; Hesselbo
Bay, Yorkshire, England. donovani and of genera Tetraspidoceras quadrarmatum, and group, only a single candidate in et al., 2000,
GSSP is at base of clay Apoderoceras and Gleviceras. P. taylori. Uppermost Sinemurian has Yorkshire, England, appeared to be Meister et al.,
Bed 73b, 6 cm above a the disappearance of the satisfactory for a potential GSSP. A 2003.
thin calcareous nodule Echioceratidae ammonite family. section at Aselngen in the historical
Bed 72 of Hesselbo and Dinoagellate cysts are absent, area in southwest Germany is
Jenkyns (1995). microfauna studies have not been condensed limestone and clay with
published, and magnetostratigraphy rare ammonites, but allows calibration
is unavailable. The potential boundary of secondary markers in ostracods and
level displays a seawater 87Sr/86Sr dinocysts (Meister, 1999a). Boundary
ratio of 0.707425 and oxygen isotopes corresponds to Strontium 87/86 ratio
from belemnites suggest a local of 0.707425 0.000021.
seawater temperature drop of about 5
C (Hesselbo et al., 2000; Meister,
2001). This level is just below a
maximum ooding surface in British
sections (Hesselbo & Jenkyns, 1998).
Sinemurian Upper Informal Base of Asteroceras obtusum Just above a major sequence boundary Lower substage of Sinemurian does Krymholts et al.,
(Lotharingian European ammonite zone. (Si3) in NW European basins. not have a secondary informal name. 1982/1988;
substage) usage Groupe Francais

dEtude du
Jurassique, 1997
Sinemurian/ Ratied 2000 East Quantoxhead Ammonite, lowest occurrence Sinemurian-Hettangian boundary is This turnover of ammonite genera is a Page et al., 2000;
Hettangian section of interbedded of arietitid genera within a transgressive episode world-wide event that marks the Sinemurian
limestone and claystone Metophioceras s. str., and following a latest Hettangian lowstand boundary interval (Sinemurian Boundary
at the coastal exposures Vermiceras (base of in British sections (Hesselbo & Boundary Working Group, 2000). Working Group,
500m north of court Metophioceras conybearoides Jenkyns, 1998). Foraminifer Lingulina 2000; Bloos &
house of village of subzone of Coroniceras tenera plex (latest Hettangian) and Page, 2002.
Quantocks Head, 6 km (Arietites) bucklandi appearance of Planularia inaequistriata
east of Watchet, ammonite zone). Just below and the Frondicularia terquemi plexus
southern coast of the the highest occurrence of the group (basal Sinemurian). There are
Bristol Channel, West genera Schlotheimia that is no conspicuous changes in ostracods,
Somerset, England. characteristic of the palynology, pelecypods or
Within a bituminous uppermost Hettangian. brachiopods across the boundary
shale between calcareous interval, and magnetostratigraphy
claystone Beds 145 and was not successful.
146 of Whittaker and
Green (1983).
Hettangian No
recommended
substages
Hettangian/ Debated Four main candidates: Ammonite, rst occurrence of Extinction of conodonts. Radiolarian The Planorbis ammonite group is Bloos, 1999;
Rhaetian (= criteria and (1) Chilingote, Peru on the smooth planorbis group assemblages (top of the latest Triassic described under several names Warrington,
base of Jurassic) location the west side of the within the ammonite genus Globolaxtorum tozeri zone and base of (planorbis, tilmanni, pacicum, 1999; Page &
Utcubamba Valley Psiloceras. earliest Hettangian Conoptum merum calliphyllum, etc.), which probably Bloos, 1998;
(Hillebrandt, 1997, zone) (e.g., Carter et al., 1998). characterize local morphologic Palfy et al.,
1994), (2) southeast Earliest stage of transgression after varieties of a single species or closely 2000a.
shore of Kunga Island, major eustatic lowstand. related coeval species (Guex et al.,
Queen Charlotte 1997). Peru and Nevada sections
Islands, British contain ammonite assemblages of
Columbia, Canada both the uppermost Rhaetian and
(Tipper et al., 1994; lowermost Hettangian. Only the
Carter et al., 1998), (3) uppermost Triassic of the Somerset
New York Canyon area, section has a published magnetic
Gabbs Valley Range, polarity stratigraphy (Briden and
Nevada (Guex et al., Daniels, 1999), but an expanded
1997; Guex, 1995), and bio-magnetostratigraphy for that
(4) St. Audries By, section is forthcoming (cited by
Somerset, England Warrington and Bloos, 2001). Age of
(Warrington et al., 1994; the TriassicJurassic boundary is
Page and Bloos, 1998). constrained by a U-Pb zircon age of
199.6 0.3 Ma on a tuff layer in the
uppermost Rhaetian (top of Triassic)
at the Kunga Island (British
Columbia) section (Palfy et al.,
2000a).

Footnotes:
a [Callovian/Bathonian candidate GSSP] Most of the K. keppleri Subzone (basal Callovian) is encompassed within 70 cm and overlies a 8-cm-thick bed of uppermost Bathonian (the hockstetteri horizon (var.
hockstetteri of Clydoniceras discus) of the C. discus Subzone. The boundary stratigraphic interval is bounded by unconformities the basal Callovian keppleri Subzone is overlain by the Kepplerities (Gowericeras)
gowerianus Subzone of the Proplanulites koenigi Zone implying omission of the two upper subzones of the M. herveyi Zone, and the uppermost Bathonian hockstetteri Horizon overlies the Hecticoceras (Prohecticoceras)
blanazense Subzone of the Oxycerites orbis Zone implying omission of the majority of the C. discus Zone. Preliminary magnetostratigraphy of the candidate GSSP section at Roschbachs (Ogg and Dietl, unpublished)
suggests signicant omission surfaces where polarity zone and ammonite biozone boundaries coincided, including the BathonianCallovian contact, although the main polarity pattern may provide a useful
secondary correlation tool for the boundary interval into other provinces.
320 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
Germany comprises condensed limestone and clay with rare
ammonites, but allows calibration of secondary markers in os-
tracods and dinocysts (Meister, 1999a,b).
Pliensbachian substages The Pliensbachian has two substages.
The lower substage of Carixian was named by Lang (1913) after
Carixia, the Latin name for Charmouth, France. The upper
stage was named Domerian by Bonarelli (1894, 1895) after the
type section in the Medolo formation at Monte Domaro in the
Lombardian Alps of northern Italy.
The Colloque du Jurassique a` Luxembourg 1962 (1964) as-
signed the boundary between the Carixian and Domerian sub-
stages to the base of the Amaltheus margaritatus ammonite zone,
at the appearance of the Amaltheus genera (typically Amaltheus
stokesi). This level is just below the sequence boundary (Pl5
of Hardenbol et al., 1998) in British sections (Hesselbo and
Jenkyns, 1998; Fig. 18.1).
T OA RC I A N
History, denition, and boundary stratotype candidates The
Toarcian Stage was dened by dOrbigny (184251, 1852) at
the Vrines quarry, 2 km northwest of the village of Thouars
(Toarcium in Latin) in the Deux-Sevres region of west-central
France. The thin-bedded succession of blue-gray marl and
clayey limestone spans the entire Toarcian with 27 ammonite
horizons grouped into eight ammonite zones (Gabilly, 1976).
The ToarcianPliensbachian boundary interval marks a
major extinction event in western Europe among rhynchonel-
lid brachiopods, ostracod fauna, benthic foraminifera, and bi-
valves, and turnover in ammonites and belemnites, but the ex-
tinction event appears to be a phenomenon of regional, not
global, extent (Hallam, 1986). The base of the Toarcian is
marked by a massive surge of Dactylioceratide (Eodactylites)
ammonites and extinction of the Boreal amaltheid family. Sea-
water strontium isotope ratios, which had been declining since
the Hettangian, reach a minimum in the latest Pliensbachian.
The base of the Toarcian strata at Thouars, and throughout
northwest Europe, is an important maximum ooding surface
and associated condensation or gaps above a major sequence
boundary (Pl8 in Fig. 18.1) in the Dactylioceras tenuicostatum
ammonite zone. This widespread hiatus necessitates selection
of candidate GSSPs in the Mediterranean region where gaps in
the succession are less pronounced (Elmi, 1999). The primary
marker of the Toarcian GSSP will be the lowest occurrence
of a diversied Eodactylites ammonite fauna (Simplex horizon,
sensu Goy et al., 1996; Table 18.1). The best prole currently
available is in Peniche, Portugal, where the Tethyan Eodactylites
fauna is succeeded by an English Orthodactylites succession
(Elmi, 2003).
Toarcian substages There is no agreement on the number
of substages of the Toarcian. A binary subdivision follow-
ing that by Oppel (18568) places a substage boundary at
the base of the Haugia variabilis ammonite zone, at the ap-
pearance of abundant Phymatoceratinae group of ammonites,
particularly the Haugia genus (e.g. Krymholts et al., 1982
8; Burger, 1995). An alternate three-substage division (e.g.
Groupe Francais dEtude du Jurassique, 1997) groups the
Haugia variabilis and underlying Hildoceras bifrons Zones into
a Middle Toarcian, and places the limit of an Upper Toarcian
at the base of the Grammoceras thouarsense Zone. There are
no recommendations for a potential GSSP(s) for the substage
boundary(s).
18.1.3 Middle Jurassic
The black clays that are typical of the Early Jurassic (Schwarzer
Jura) are overlain in southwestern Germany by strata contain-
ing clayey sandstone and brown-weathering ferruginous oolite.
Therefore, these strata were grouped as the Brown Jurassic
(Brauner Jura) by von Buch (1839), and this lithologic change
has been retained in the assignment of the base of the Mid-
dle Jurassic (the base of the Aalenian). This Middle Juras-
sic interval is characterized by shallow-marine carbonates and
siliciclastics in southern England, which comprised the Lower
Oolite group of Conybeare and Phillips (1822) or the expanded
Bathonian Stage of dOmalius dHalloy (1868, p. 470).
The lower portion (Lower Oolite or Dogger strata) of this
Bathonian of southern England was classied as a separate
Bajocian Stage by dOrbigny (184251, 1852). In turn, Mayer-
Eymar (1864) separated the lower portion of dOrbignys
Bajocian into a distinct Aalenian Stage.
The upper limit of the Middle Jurassic or Dogger of Op-
pel (18568) was placed at the base of the Kellaway Rock of
England, hence at the base of the associated Callovian Stage
of dOrbigny (184251, 1852). The Colloque du Jurassique a`
Luxembourg 1962 (Maubeuge, 1964) reassigned the Callovian
Stage into the Middle Jurassic series as preferred by Arkell
(1956).
The bases of the Aalenian and Bajocian stages (and probably
soon the Bathonian) have been marked by GSSPs in expanded
sections of rhythmic alternations of limestone and marl. The
placement of a base for the Callovian Stage has been hindered
by a ubiquitous condensation or hiatuses in strata of northwest
Europe.

AALENIAN
History, denition, and boundary stratotype The Aalenian
Stage was proposed by C. Mayer-Eymar (1864) for the lowest
part of the Braunjura in the vicinity of Aalen at the northeast-
ern margin of the Swabian Alb (southwestern Germany) where
iron ore was mined from the associated ferruginous oolite sand-
stones (Dietl and Etzold, 1977; Rieber, 1984). His lithologic-
based denition truncated the Bajocian Stage of dOrbigny
(184251, 1852) at the base of the Sonninia sowerbyi ammonite
zone.
The biostratigraphic recognition of the base of the Mid-
dle Jurassic was traditionally assigned to the evolution of the
ammonite subfamily Grammoceratinae and Leioceratinae, in
particular the rst occurrence of species of the genus Leio-
ceras, which evolved from Pleydellia. The Aalenian GSSP in
the Fuentelsaz section in Spain corresponds to this ammonite
marker (Goy et al., 1994, 1996; Cresta et al., 2001; Table 18.1).
This section of alternating marl and limestone yielded a magne-
tostratigraphy that could be correlated to a composite magnetic
pattern derived from other sections in Europe. A secondary
reference section for the base of Aalenian is at Wittnau, near
Freiburg, south Germany (Ohmert, 1996).
Aalenian substages The four ammonite zones of the Aale-
nian are grouped into three substages: the Lower Aalenian is
equivalent to the Leioceras opalinum Zone, the Middle Aalenian
comprises the Ludwigia murchisonae and Brasilia bradfordensis
Zones, and the Upper Aalenian is the Graphoceras concavum
Zone.
BA J O C I A N
History, denition, and boundary stratotype The Bajocian
Stage was named by dOrbigny (184251, 1852) after the town
of Bayeux, Normandy (Bajoce in Latin). The abandoned quar-
ries from which the stage was rst described are now over-
grown, and the nearby coastal cliff section of Les Hachettes
indicates that most of the lower Bajocian is a hiatus and ero-
sional surface, and the upper Bajocian is largely condensed in a
15-cm-thick layer (Rioult, 1964). Ammonite lists of dOrbigny
indicate that he erroneously assigned species of the upper Toar-
cian to the lower Bajocian and vice versa. This confusion was
one reason why Mayer-Eymar (1864) distinguished the Aale-
nian Stage for the deposits between the Toarcian and Bajocian.
The Colloque du Jurassique a` Luxembourg 1962
(Maubeuge, 1964) dened the Bajocian Stage to begin at the
base of the Sonninia sowerbyi ammonite zone and to extend to
The Jurassic Period 321
the top of the Parkinsonia parkinsoni Zone. However, the holo-
type of the Sonninia sowerby index species was later discov-
ered to be a nucleus of a large Sonniniidae (Papilliceras) from
the overlying Otoites sauzei Zone (Westermann and Riccardi,
1972). Therefore, the basal ammonite zone of the Bajocian
was redened as the Hyperlioceras discites Zone, with the zonal
base marked by the lowest occurrence of the ammonite genus
Hyperlioceras (Toxolioceras), which evolved from Graphoceras
(both in ammonite family Graphoceratidae).
Two sections recorded this ammonite datum with sup-
plementary biostratigraphic and magnetostratigraphic data:
Murtinheira at Cabo Mondego, Portugal (selected for the
GSSP), and Bearreraig Bay on the Isle of Skye, Scotland (se-
lected as an auxiliary stratotype point), (Pavia and Enay, 1997).
The GSSP at coastal Cabo Mondego (Table 18.1) comprises
rhythmic alternations of gray limestone and marl (Henriques,
1992; Henriques et al., 1994), and was ratied in 1996 (Pavia
and Enay, 1997).
Bajocian substages The base of the Upper Bajocian is the base
of the Strenoceras (Strenoceras) niortense ammonite zone. (In
older literature, the base was assigned as the base of the Streno-
ceras subfurcatum Zone, until it was recognized by Dietl (1981)
that the holotype of the index species belongs to Garantiana
and had originated from the overlying zone, therefore this zone
became invalid.) A major turnover of ammonite genera occurs
at this level (Table 18.1).
BAT H O N I A N
History, denition, and proposed boundary stratotype The for-
mer Bathonian Stage of dOmalius dHalloy (1843) was named
after the town of Bath in southern England, where strata char-
acterized by oolitic limestone are exposed in a number of quar-
ries, but these are incomplete and lack adequate characteri-
zation by ammonites (Torrens, 1965). The lower half of the
originally Bathonian exposed in Normandy was reclassied
as the Bajocian Stage in the system of dOrbigny (184251,
1852), but he did not specify a revised stratotype for the short-
ened Bathonian, nor provide an unambiguous lower bound-
ary. Indeed, dOrbignys description suggests that he included
the present Lower Bathonian substage within his Bajocian
(Rioult, 1964). A century of confusion ended when the base
of the Bathonian Stage was dened by the Colloque du Juras-
sique a` Luxembourg 1962 (Maubeuge, 1964) as the base of the
Zigzagiceras zigzag ammonite zone.
The basal-Bathonian is well developed in southeastern
France. A GSSP was suggested within inter-bedded limestone
322 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
and marl at Ravin du B`es-Bas Auran, near Digne, Basses-Alpes
(Innocenti et al., 1988; Table 18.1). However, the strata do not
preserve a primary magnetostratigraphy and are barren of di-
noagellate cysts (Mangold, 1999). In addition, the uppermost
Bajocian (Parkinsonia (Parkinsonia) bomfordi subzone) may be
absent, indicating that the proposed GSSP level is a hiatus
(Dietl, 1995, as reported by Mangold, 1997). Another GSSP
candidate is Cabo Mondego, Portugal, the same section that
denes the base of the underlying Bajocian, but its uppermost
Bajocian zone is poorly preserved (Fernandez-Lopez, 2003).
Bathonian substages The Bathonian is generally divided into
three substages, with the base of the Middle Bathonian placed
at the base of the Procentes progracilis ammonite zone.
A divergence of ammonite assemblages in the upper Middle
Bathonian has resulted in different bases of an Upper Batho-
nian substage in each province. In the sub-Mediterranean
province (Tethyan domain), a MiddleUpper Bathonian
boundary is assigned to the base of the Hecticoceras (Prohectico-
ceras) retrocostatum Zone. In the northwest European province
(Boreal domain), a substage boundary is commonly assigned
to the base of the Procerites (Procerites) hodsoni Zone, which is
a signicantly older level (Groupe Francais dEtude du Juras-
sique, 1997).
C A L L OV I A N
History, denition, and proposed boundary stratotype The
Callovian Stage was named by dOrbigny (184251, 1852) af-
ter the village of Kelloway, Wiltshire, England, 3 km north-
east of Chippenham. The Kelloways Stone contains abun-
dant cephalopods, including Ammonites calloviensis (Sigaloceras
calloviensis in current taxonomy), and dOrbigny considered
Calloviens to be a derivative of Kelloway. Oppel (18568)
placed the base of his Kelloway gruppe at the base of the
Macrocephalites macrocephalus Zone, or at the lithologic con-
tact of the Upper Cornbrash with the underlying Forest Marble
Formation (currently the upper part of the Clydoniceras discus
subzone of uppermost Bathonian). At this contact, ammonites
of the genus Macrocephalites replace Clydoniceras, but much
of the upper Cornbrash is condensed and/or a deposit rep-
resenting but a fraction of the time-intervals involved (Cope
et al., 1980a).
Callomon (1964, 1999) noted that the base of the Macro-
cephalites macrocephalus subzone in standard chronostratig-
raphy was initially dened by Arkell (1956) as the base of
Bed 4, at the Sutton Bingham section, near Yeovil, Somerset,
England; therefore, this served as the de facto GSSP for the
base of the Callovian Stage. However, the lowest occurrence
of Macrocephalites genera was later discovered to be in strata
equivalent to the Upper Bathonian (Dietl, 1981; Dietl and Cal-
lomon, 1988), therefore the standard Macrocephalites macro-
cephalus Zone was abandoned, and the base of the Callovian
was assigned to the lowest occurrence of the genus Kepplerites
(Kosmoceratidae), which dened a basal horizon of Kepplerites
(Kepplerites) keppleri (base of K. keppleri subzone of Macro-
cephalites herveyi Zone) in the sub-Boreal province (UK to
southwest Germany). The uppermost Bathonian is the hock-
stetteri horizon (var. hockstetteri of Clydoniceras discus) of the C.
discus subzone, C. discus Zone.
A continuous transition between the uppermost Batho-
nian and basal-Callovian is rarely preserved. A proposed
GSSP with an apparently complete boundary at the resolu-
tion level of ammonite successions is in the Albstadt district
of the Swabian Alb, southwest Germany (Dietl, 1994; Cal-
lomon and Dietl, 2000; Table 18.1). The Macrocephalen
Oolith Formation (Unit of the Brown Jura facies) is a
condensed facies of iron-oolite-bearing clay to marly lime-
stone, and the compact BathonianCallovian boundary interval
is bounded by unconformities and may contain minor hia-
tuses (Table 18.1). Therefore, this suggested GSSP has not
yet been adopted by the International Stratigraphic Com-
mission.
In the sub-Mediterranean province (southern Paris Basin
to north Africa and Italy), the basal-Callovian zone is the Bul-
latimorphites (Kheraiceras) bullatus Zone dened by the range
of the index species (Groupe Francais dEtude du Jurassique,
1997). Strong ammonite biogeographic differences required
these two regions to have distinct and poorly correlated zona-
tions until the middle of the Callovian.
Callovian substages The Callovian Stage is generally divided
into three substages. The substage boundaries correspond to
two important changes in ammonite fauna, but ammonite
provincialism and utilization of different faunal successions led
to different placements within each realm that do not necessar-
ily coincide (Groupe Francais dEtude du Jurassique, 1997).
In the sub-Boreal province, the LowerMiddle Callovian
boundary is placed at the base of the Kosmoceras (Zugokosmo-
ceras) jason Zone (base of Kosmoceras (Zugokosmoceras) medea
subzone), above the Sigaloceras (Sigaloceras) calloviense Zone
(Sigaloceras (Catasigaloceras) enodatum subzone). In the sub-
Mediterranean province, the LowerMiddle Callovian bound-
ary is placed at the base of the Reineckeia anceps Zone (Reineck-
eia stuebeli subzone), above the Macrocephalites (Dolikephalites)

gracilis Zone (Indosphinctes patina subzone). These two levels
are considered approximately coeval.
The MiddleUpper Callovian boundary in the sub-Boreal
province is assigned to the base of the Peltoceras (Peltoceras)
athleta Zone (Kosmoceras (Lobokosmoceras) phaeinum subzone),
above the Erymnoceras coronatum Zone (Kosmoceras (Zugokos-
moceras) grossouvrei subzone). The MiddleUpper Callovian
boundary in the sub-Mediterranean province is assigned to
the base of the Peltoceras (Peltoceras) athleta Zone (Hectico-
ceras (Orbignyiceras) trezeense subzone), above the Erymnoceras
coronatum Zone (Rehmannia (Loczyceras) rota subzone), or ap-
proximately a subzone higher than in the sub-Boreal province
(Groupe Francais dEtude du Jurassique, 1997).
18.1.4 Upper Jurassic
The brownish-weathering deposits of the Middle Jurassic
(Brauner Jura) in southwestern Germany are overlain by units
dominated by calcareous claystone and limestone. Therefore,
these carbonates were grouped as the White Jurassic (Weisser
Jura) by von Buch (1839), and the base of the current Upper
Jurassic (the base of the Oxfordian) coincides approximately
with this lithologic change. This Upper Jurassic interval, or for-
mer Malm, is approximately equivalent to the Middle and
Upper Oolite group of Conybeare and Phillips (1822) in Eng-
land. Both the White Jurassic of southwest Germany and the
English strata undergo a shallowing upward in the latest Juras-
sic, and are erosionally truncated or are overlain by non-marine
deposits. Southern England provided the reference sections
when dOrbigny (18421851, 1852) subdivided the Upper
Jurassic into four stages (Oxfordian, Corallian, Kimmeridgian,
and Portlandian), and designated the base of the Cretaceous as
the Purbeck Stage, followed by the Neocomian Stage. Oppel
(18561858) eliminated dOrbignys Corallian and Portlandian
Stages, and extended the Kimmeridgian to the base of the
Purbeckian (also considered to be Cretaceous). Oppel left an in-
terval unassigned between his Oxfordian and Kimmeridgian
groups (his Diceras arietina Zone, approximately equivalent to
the Upper Calcareous Grit Formation of Dorset, England).
Later, Oppel (1865) created a new uppermost Jurassic stage,
the Tithonian, in the Mediterranean region that encompassed
the upper part of his previous Kimmeridgian group and ex-
tended to the base of the Neocomian Stage. However, Oppel
did not specify the limits or reference sections for the Titho-
nian Stage concept. The situation was further distorted when
the Berriasian Stage of Coquand (1871) came into common
use to designate the lowermost Cretaceous, even though it over-
lapped with the original concept of the Tithonian Stage.
The Jurassic Period 323
The combination of (1) the shufing of Upper Jurassic
stage nomenclature coupled with imprecise denitions, (2) a
pronounced faunal provincialism during the majority of the
Upper Jurassic that precluded precise correlation even within
northwest Europe, and (3) widespread hiatuses in the refer-
ence sections resulted in a proliferation of regional stage and
substage nomenclature. Finally, after a century of debate, the
Colloque du Jurassique a` Luxembourg 1962 (1964) voted to
return to the original sense of this stage [Oxfordian] as de-
ned by A. dOrbigny and given precision by W. J. Arkell
and to discontinue regional usage of a Purbeckian Stage, be-
cause it was primarily a local facies. However, the controversy
over other Upper Jurassic stage denitions or the placement of
the JurassicCretaceous boundary led the Collogue to refer
the question back for consultation among interested special-
ists. During the 1980s and 1990s, the International Subcom-
mission on Jurassic Stratigraphy established that the Upper
Jurassic consists of the Oxfordian, Kimmeridgian, and Titho-
nian stages. Through a fortunate episode of biogeography, an
inter-regional biostratigraphic denition of the base of the Ox-
fordian is well established with ammonites. However, it has
proven difcult to correlate potential denitions for the bases
of the Kimmeridgian and Tithonian stages, and long-held tra-
ditions of regional equivalence have proven to be erroneous.
OX F O R D I A N
History, denition, and boundary stratotype candidates The
Oxfordian Stage of dOrbigny (184251, 1852) was named
after the town of Oxford, Oxfordshire, England, with refer-
ence to the Oxford Clay Formation, and was overlain by his
Coralline Stage. Oppel (18568) incorporated the majority
of the Corallian Stage into his expanded Oxfordian group.
Oppel assigned the base of his Oxfordian Stage to both the
contact between the Oxford Clay Formation and the underly-
ing Kelloway Rock in Yorkshire (now considered to be approx-
imately the LowerMiddle Callovian boundary) and to the top
of the Peltoceras athleta ammonite zone (now considered to be
middle of the Upper Callovian). He also left unassigned a
suite of strata between his Oxfordian and overlying Kim-
meridgian Stage.
Ammonites across the CallovianOxfordian boundary in-
terval were studied by Arkell (1939, 1946), who placed the
boundary at the contact of the range zones of Vertumniceras
mariae (now placed in the Quenstedtoceras genus) above Quen-
stedtoceras lamberti, or the base of the Oxford Clay Formation
in Yorkshire. This is consistent with the historical usage in
324 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
southwest Germany, where the Upper or White Jurassic
begins just above the Lamberti Knollen bed. The Colloque
du Jurassique a` Luxembourg 1962 (Maubeuge, 1964) selected
Arkells biostratigraphic denition for the base of the Oxfor-
dian Stage. The Colloque also assigned the upper limit of the
Oxfordian as the top of the Ringsteadia pseudocordata ammonite
zone in the Boreal realm.
The ammonite succession across the Q. lambertiQ. mariae
interval has been studied in expanded dark clay sections in
southeast France (e.g. Fortwengler and Marchand, 1994) and
two complementary sections were recommended as basal-
Oxfordian GSSPs (Melendez, 1999; Table 18.1). The basal-
Oxfordian was proposed as the Brightia thuouxensis Horizon at
base of the Cardioceras scarburgense subzone (Quenstedtoceras
mariae Zone), above the uppermost Callovian Cardioceras pau-
cicostatum Horizon. However, except for dinoagellates, these
French sections have not yet proved suitable for other strati-
graphic correlation methods, therefore the GSSP proposal was
suspended (e.g. Melendez, 2002, 2003). A coastal section near
Weymouth (Dorset, southern England) is in a facies suitable
for magnetostratigraphy, where the base of the Oxfordian is
correlated to a brief normal-polarity marine magnetic anomaly
M36An (Coe and Ogg, unpublished), and is being considered
as a reference section for the CallovianOxfordian boundary
in the Boreal domain (Melendez, 1999; Table 18.1).
Oxfordian substages Traditionally, the base of the Middle
Oxfordian substage is placed at base of the Perisphinctes
(Arisphinctes) plicatilis Zone.
Beginning with the Middle Oxfordian, faunal differentia-
tion in separate basins became more pronounced and has in-
hibited standardization and correlation of regional ammonite
zones. In addition, even though regional zonal nomenclatures
have commonly remained constant, the assigned boundaries of
biostratigraphic units have undergone re-denition (e.g. Glow-
niak, 1997; Groupe Francais dEtude du Jurassique, 1997).
In the sub-Mediterranean province (Tethyan domain), the
base of an Upper Oxfordian substage is commonly assigned to
the base of the Perisphinctes (Dichotomoceras) bifurcatus Zone. In
the sub-Boreal province (Boreal domain), this substage bound-
ary is assigned to the base of the Perisphinctes cautisnigrae Zone.
These two levels may be approximately synchronous (Groupe
Francais dEtude du Jurassique, 1997).
KIMMERIDGIAN
History, revised denition, and boundary stratotype candidates
The Kimmeridgian Stage was named by dOrbigny (184251,
1852) after the coastal village of Kimmeridge in Dorset, Eng-
land, where the spectacular cliffs of dark gray Kimmeridge
Clay expose a continuous record of that interval. Oppel (1856
8) expanded the Kimmeridgian downward by incorporating
a portion of dOrbignys former Corallian Stage, but, rather
than assign a boundary between the Oxfordian and Kimmerid-
gian, he left the intervening Upper Calcareous Grit Formation
unassigned. Oppel initially indicated that the Kimmeridgian
group would continue upward to the base of the Purbeck
(his base of the Cretaceous), but later, Oppel (1865) inserted
a Tithonian Stage as the uppermost Jurassic stage. Therefore,
neither boundary of the Kimmeridgian Stage was adequately
dened.
The OxfordianKimmeridgian boundary was dened by
Salfeld (1914) after studying the Perisphinctidae ammonite
succession from the boundary interval. He proposed that the
boundary should be placed between the Ringsteadia anglica
Zone (now called Ringsteadia pseudocordata Zone) in the up-
permost Oxfordian and the appearance of Pictonia at the base
of the Kimmeridgian. The Colloque du Jurassique a` Lux-
embourg 1962 (Maubeuge, 1964) xed the base of the Kim-
meridgian as the base of the Pictonia baylei Zone. However,
due to faunal provincialism that began in the middle Oxfor-
dian, the ammonite zonation of England (Boreal domain) could
not be correlated to the sub-Mediterranean province (Tethyan
domain). The Colloque du Jurassique a` Luxembourg 1962
(Maubeuge, 1964) indicated that this level was equivalent to the
base of the Sutneria platynota Zone of the sub-Mediterranean
province.
However, this presumed equivalence was later demon-
strated to be incorrect from comparisons of dinoagellate
cyst assemblages (Brenner, 1988; Melendez and Atrops, 1999)
and rare incursions of ammonites from the Boreal domain
into the sub-Mediterranean successions in Poland and the
Swabian Alb (Atrops et al., 1993; Matyja and Wierzbowski,
1997; Schweigert and Callomon, 1997). The chain of logic
from ammonite assemblages is (1) ammonite Pictonia densi-
costata (S) occurs in the lower Pictonia baylei Zone,
which is the basal zone of the Kimmeridgian Stage as cur-
rently used in sub-Boreal province, in Dorset; (2) Pictonia den-
sicostata occurs with Amoeboceras bauhini (O) in South
Ferriby in eastern England and on the Isle of Skye in northwest
Scotland; and (3) Amoeboceras bauhini occurs in the Taramel-
liceras haufanum subzone of the Epipeltoceras bimammatum
Zone (middle of the upper Oxfordian as currently used in
the sub-Mediterranean province) in southwest Germany and
in Poland. Assuming a narrow and synchronous range of A.
bauhini among these localities, then the current placement

of the base of the Kimmeridgian Stage in Britain is sig-
nicantly younger (approximately one-and-a-half ammonite
zones, or about 1 myr) than the base of the Kimmeridgian
Stage as used in the sub-Mediterranean province (Fig. 18.1).
This biostratigraphic conclusion is supported by comparing
magnetostratigraphy and sequence stratigraphy patterns of the
UK with different regions in the sub-Mediterranean province
(Ogg and Coe, 1997, and in prep.).
This temporal offset has created a dilemma in selecting a
GSSP for the base of the Kimmeridgian Stage, because an ini-
tial choice must be made between faunal provinces and the cor-
responding denition of the OxfordianKimmeridgian bound-
ary (reviewed in Atrops, 1999; Melendez and Atrops, 1999; and
Wierzbowski, 2001).
In the Boreal realm, the leading candidate for a GSSP is
the coincident base of the Pictonia baylei Zone (sub-Boreal
province) and Amoeboceras bauhini Zone (Boreal province)
in a succession of medium-gray clays at Stafn Bay (Isle of
Skye, northwest Scotland) containing abundant ammonites
and dinoagellate cysts (Wright, 1973, 1989; Riding and
Thomas, 1997; Melendez and Atrops, 1999; Wierzbowski,
2002, 2003). At this Stafn Bay section, the base of the P.
baylei Zone is just above the base of a reversed-polarity zone
assigned to lower Chron M26r (Ogg and Coe, 1997, and in
prep.).
In the sub-Mediterranean province, southwestern France
has two main candidates for a GSSP at the base of the S.
platynota Zone in inter-bedded limestone and marl: Crussol
mountain on the Rhone river just west of Valence (Atrops, 1982,
1994) and Chateauneuf dOze in the Haute Provence district
(Atrops, 1994; Melendez and Atrops, 1999). The base of the
S. platynota Zone at Crussol is just above the base of reversed-
polarity zone M25r (Ogg and Atrops, in prep.). Chateauneuf
dOze did not yield a magnetostratigraphy, but appears more
suitable for microfossil biostratigraphy (dinoagellate cysts)
and chemostratigraphy.
Kimmeridgian substage The dichotomy in dening the base of
the Kimmeridgian Stage among paleogeographic faunal realms
precludes standardizing substages. Traditional usage places a
base of an Upper Kimmeridgian substage in the sub-Boreal
realm at the base of the ammonite Aulacostephanoides mutabilis
Zone, whereas in the sub-Mediterranean realm it is typically as-
signed to the base of the Aspidoceras acanthicum Zone. Magne-
tostratigraphy suggests that the sub-Mediterreanean substage
base is about 0.9 myr younger than the sub-Boreal assignment
(Ogg et al., in prep.).
The Jurassic Period 325
TITHONIAN
History and revised denition In an enlightened departure
from the stratotype concept, Oppel (1865) dened the Titho-
nian Stage solely on biostratigraphy. In mythology, Tithon is
the spouse of Eos (Aurora), goddess of dawn, and Oppel used
this name in a poetic allusion to the dawn of the Cretaceous. He
referenced characteristic Tithonian sections in western Europe
from Poland to Austria.
The base of Oppels Tithonian was placed at the top of
the Kimmeridgian Aulacostephanus eudoxus ammonite zone,
which can be recognized in both the sub-Boreal and sub-
Mediterranean realms. Later, Neumayr (1873) established the
Hybonoticeras beckeri Zone above the A. eudoxus in the sub-
Mediterranean realm and also assigned it to the Kimmeridgian
Stage.
Neumayrs revised placement of the Tithonian
Kimmeridgian boundary corresponded closely with the
boundary between the Portlandian and Kimmeridgian
stages as initially assigned by Alcide dOrbigny (184251,
1852), who had assigned des Ammonites giganteus et Irius as
Portlandian index fossils. However, dOrbigny did not visit
England, and he inadvertently combined fossil assemblages
from outcrops at Bologna in Italy with a name derived from
a type section on the Isle of Portland in England. The
Ammonite irius is one representative of the Gravesia genera,
which have a lowest occurrence in the basal Hybonoticeras
hybonotum Zone of the revised Tithonian. Accordingly, the
Gravesia gravesiana ammonite zone was assigned as the
basal zone of the British Portlandian (Tithonian) Stage
by Salfeld (1913). Following Salfelds oral presentation to
the Geological Society of London, it was noted that the
chronostratigraphic term Kimmeridgian only partially
encompassed the Kimmeridgian Clay Formation, therefore
it was recommended that Salfeld should invent a dual
nomenclature one for the stratigraphical and another
for the zoological sequence and replace Kimmeridgian
Stage with a new name (in Salfeld, 1913). Unfortunately,
this enlightened recommendation was not pursued, and a
confusing equivalence of a Kimmeridgian Stage with the
Kimmeridge Clay Formation and associated lifting of the
base of dOrbignys Portlandian Stage became common
usage in England, but a lower TithonianKimmeridgian
boundary was used elsewhere in Europe. The Kimmeridge
Clay Formation was arbitrarily subdivided into a lower and
upper member at the approximate KimmeridgianTithonian
boundary level at the lowest occurrence of Gravesia gravesiana
at the Maple Ledge bed (reviewed in Cox and Gallois, 1981).
326 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
The Tithonian was formally adopted as the name of the
uppermost stage of the Jurassic by a vote of the International
Commission on Stratigraphy in September 1990.
The Second Colloquium on the Jurassic System, held in
Luxembourg in 1967, recommended that the top of the Kim-
meridgian be assigned to the base of the Gravesia gravesiana
Zone (Anonymous, 1970). However, Cope (1967) subdivided
the lowermost Tithonian portion of the Upper Kimmeridge
Clay into several ammonite zones based on successive species of
his reconstituted Pectinatites genera and abandoned Salfelds
two Gravesia Zones. Cope raised the upper limit of the up-
permost Kimmeridgian Aulacostephanus autissiodorensis Zone
to the base of his new Pectinatites (Virgatosphinctoides) elegans
Zone, thereby effectively lifting the associated biostratigraphic
division between Lower and Upper Kimmeridge Clay. Cox and
Gallois (1981) note that the top of the international Kimmerid-
gian Stage now falls within the middle of Copes expanded A.
autissiodorensis Zone in the sub-Boreal realm, therefore, they
suggest reinstating a truncated Gravesia gravesiana Zone below
the P. (V.) elegans Zone.
Boundary stratotype candidates The Tithonian
Kimmeridgian boundary interval in the Tethyan faunal
realm is marked by the simultaneous lowest occurrence of
the ammonites Hybonoticeras aff. hybonotum and Glochiceras
lithographicum (the base of the H. hybonotum Zone), imme-
diately followed by the lowest occurrence of the Gravesia
genera. Candidate sections in southeast France for the GSSP
include thick pelagic limestone outcrops at Crussol mountain
on the Rhone river just west of Valence (Atrops, 1982, 1994)
and at a quarry at Canjuers (Var district, southeast; France;
Atrops et al., in prep.). The base of H. hybonotum Zone is at
the base of normal-polarity Chron M22An at Crussol (Ogg
and Atrops, in prep.). The Canjuers quarry did not yield a
magnetostratigraphy, but its ammonite succession is better
established. Other potential GSSP sections are in the Swabian
region of southern Germany.
Tithonian substages In the Tethyan faunal domain, the base
of an Upper Tithonian substage is traditionally assigned to a
major turnover in ammonite assemblages at the base of the Mi-
cracanthoceras microcanthum Zone. This level is approximately
where calpionellid microfossils become important in the bio-
stratigraphic correlation of pelagic limestone and is at the base
of normal-polarity Chron M20n.
In the Boreal realm, the boundary between Lower and Mid-
dle Volgian regional substages assigned at the base of the
Dorsoplanites panderi ammonite zone may be approximately
coeval. However, in the sub-Boreal faunal province in Britain,
the base of the Portlandian regional stage is traditionally
placed at the base of the Progalbanites albani ammonite zone,
at the base of the Portland Sand Formation, which may be
signicantly higher.
BolonianPortlandian and Volgian regional stages of Europe
The century of controversy over the subdivision and nomen-
clature for the uppermost Jurassic and lowermost Cretaceous
stages, coupled with markedly distinct ammonite assemblages
in different regions of Europe, led to extensive usage of regional
stages (see Fig. 19.2).
Though the Portlandian was used in Russia, the Volgian
Stage was later established in western Russia by Nikitin (1881),
capped by a Ryazanian horizon (Bogoslovsky, 1897), and ex-
tended downward so as to equate with the Tithonian (Res-
olution, 1955; reviewed in Krymholts et al., 19828). The
Volgian is zoned by continuous ammonite assemblages (but
generally containing several stratigraphic breaks) that are ex-
tensively distributed in the Boreal faunal realm, therefore it
became another widely used standard in the northern high
latitudes outside of Britain. In 1996, the Russian Interdepart-
mental Stratigraphic Committee resolved to equate the Lower
and Middle Volgian (Ilowaiskya klimovi through Epivirgatites
nikitini ammonite zones) to the Tithonian Stage, assign the
Upper Volgian (Kachpurites fulgens through Craspedites nodiger
ammonite zones) to the lowermost Cretaceous, and use only
Tithonian and Berriasian as chronostratigraphic units in the
Russian geological time scale (Rostovtsev and Prozorowsky,
1997).
The Bolonian and Portlandian have been promoted as
secondary standard stages of a Tithonian superstage for
usage in English and French regional geology, especially in
Dorset (e.g. Cope 1993, 1995, 2003; Taylor et al., 2001). The
Bolonian is equivalent to the upper Kimmeridgian Clay For-
mation between the TithonianKimmeridgian boundary and
the base of the Portland Sand, or Pectinatites (Virgatosphinc-
toides) elegans through Virgatopaviovia ttoni ammonite zones.
The overlying Portlandian is traditionally equivalent to the
Portland Group in Dorset, or Progalbanites albani through the
Titanites anguiformis ammonite zones.
1 8 . 2 J U R A S S I C S T R AT I G R A P H Y
The ammonite successions of Europe have historically served
as the global primary standard for the Jurassic. Biostrati-
graphic, magnetostratigraphic, chemostratigraphic, and other
events are typically calibrated to these standard European

ammonite zones. However, especially during the middle Ox-
fordian through Tithonian, different faunal assemblages occur
in the various paleogeographic realms, such as Boreal (Arc-
tic and northernmost Europe), sub-Boreal (northern Europe),
sub-Mediterranean (southern Europe), and Tethyan (south-
ernmost Europe and margins of the former Tethys seaway). An
extensive compilation and inter-correlation of Jurassic stratig-
raphy of European basins was coordinated by Hardenbol et al.
(1998), and Fig. 18.1 is a summary of a portion of their com-
prehensive chart series. These European basins contain the
majority of the proposed GSSP sites and alternative sites for
the chronostratigraphic framework of the Jurassic.
18.2.1 Macrofossil zonations
Ammonites dominate the historical zonation of the Jurassic.
Brachiopod and bivalve assemblages provide important re-
gional markers. Terrestrial biostratigraphy of dinosaurs and
palynology has a less-precise calibration to the marine stratig-
raphy.
AMMONITES
Alfred Oppel (18568) developed the concept of a biostrati-
graphic zone, and used ammonites to dene two-thirds of his
33 Jurassic zones. Jurassic ammonite zonations have undergone
constant revision since Oppel, and the Jurassic is currently
subdivided into 7080 zones and typically has 160170 sub-
zones in each faunal realm. Reviews of the development, de-
nitions, and inter-correlation of European ammonite zonations
are presented in Thierry (in Hardenbol et al., 1998, pp. 776
777 plus correlation charts), Krymholts et al. (19828), and
Groupe Francais dEtude du Jurassique (1997). Correlation
of the regional ammonite zones of western North America to
the northwest European standard is summarized in Palfy et al.
(2000a).
In contrast to standard biostratigraphic usage and most
Cretaceous ammonite zones, the index or name species valved, calcied shells, which are a major constituent of
of some Jurassic ammonite zones is not always an indicator
of the denition of those zones. The biostratigraphic range of
an index species, such as Aulacostephanoides mutabilis, can be
entirely independent of the limits of the designated mutabilis
Zone (Callomon, 1985, 1995). Partly to alleviate the resulting
confusion, several British workers have advocated designating
standard chronozones with regional equivalents of GSSPs
to replace the former associated ammonite zones (e.g. see tables
in Cox, 1990). It was believed that the evolutionary rates of the
ammonites were relatively fast that so there was no practical
The Jurassic Period 327
difference between an ammonite-based biostratigraphy (zona-
tion) and chronostratigraphy. Therefore, a standard Eudoxus
Chronozone (capitalized, non-italics, no genus designation)
of the Kimmeridgian in southern England has a base dened
at bed E1 at a quarry near Westbury, Wiltshire (Birkelund
et al., 1983), and continues to the base of the Autissiodorensis
Chronozone, which is assigned as the top of Flats Stone Band
bed at beach exposures of the Kimmeridge Clay near Kim-
meridge village, Dorset (Cox and Gallois, 1981; Cox, 1990).
However, the base of the Eudoxus ammonite assemblage
zone, as independently used in France has been assigned to
the lowest occurrence of Orthaspidoceras orthocera, which is
signicantly lower than the base of the Eudoxus Chronozone
of England (Ogg et al., in prep.), and neither is delimited by
the observed range (biozone) of Aulacostephanus eudoxus. Both
systems the nomenclature of Jurassic ammonite assemblage
zones and the regional designation of standard chronozones
have defenders (mainly Jurassic ammonite specialists) and crit-
ics. For clarity in the chart in Fig. 18.1 (see also Table 18.2),
we have included the genera of the ammonite index species,
but with caution that these are not always the guide species
of the named zone.
O T H E R M A R I N E M AC RO FAU NA
Brachiopod zonations for northwest Europe and for the north-
ern part of the Tethyan province provide important mark-
ers within individual basins and approach the resolution of
ammonite zones in some stages of the Jurassic (e.g. Almeras
et al., 1997; Laurin, 1998). The correlation potential of bra-
chiopods and the slower-evolving successions of bivalves and
gastropods are compromised by their benthic habits which can
be reected in ecological-facies associations and provincialism
(reviewed in Cope et al., 1980b). Belemnite zones within the
Jurassic can provide correlation to the stage or substage level
(e.g. Combemorel, 1998).
Ostracodes are small (0.21.5 mm) crustaceans with bi-
shallow-marine and brackish benthic fauna. Ostracode datums
can approach the resolution of ammonite zones, especially
within portions of the Lower and Middle Jurassic (e.g. see
reviews by Cox, 1990; Colin, 1998).
D I N O S AU R S A N D O T H E R V E RT E B R AT E S
Dinosaurs are the most famous Jurassic fauna. This summary
of major trends is from Lucas (1997). Dinosaurs dominated the
land herbivores and carnivores during the Early and Middle
Table 18.2 Jurassic time scale for ammonite zonesa

Age Age
Zone: Boreal (or (base of (base of
Cosmopolitan for zone) Zone: Tethyan zone)
Stage early Jurassic) Method Calibration (Ma) Comments (sub-Mediterranean) Method Calibration (Ma) Comments

Berriasian Berriasian
Subcraspedites magstrat M18n.2 144.5 Berriasella jacobi magstrat M19n.2n.55 144.5
(Volgidiscus) (0.5) (0.05)
lamplughi

JURASSIC (Tithonian) (top) 145.5 Base of B. jacobi Zone JURASSIC (Tithonian) (top) 145.5
Subcraspedites magstrat M19n.3 145.6
(S.) (0.2)
preplicomphalus
Subcraspedites magstrat M19r.8 146.0
(Swinnertonia) (0.5,
primitivus hiatus)
Paracraspedites magstrat M20n.1n.5 146.3 Base Oppressus = Base Durangites magstrat M19r.1 146.1 Base Calpionellid Zone
oppressus (0.5, est.) of Lulworth Beds (0.2) A2 is base of
(Purbeck) in Dorset; but Durangites Zone
usefulness of this zone is
disputed
Titanites magstrat M20n.2n.7 146.7 Anguiformis = Portland
anguiformis (0.2) Freestone Member in
Dorset
Galbanites magstrat M20n.2n.2 147.0 Kerberites = Upper
(Kerberites) (0.2) Cherty Beds in Dorset
kerberus
Galbanites magstrat M20r.6 147.4 OkusensisGlaucolithus =
okusensis (0.1) West Weare sandstone
(dolomite) and overlying
Lower Cherty Member
in Dorset
Glaucolithites magstrat M20r.1 147.7
glaucolithus (0.1)
 Progalbanites magstrat M21n.7 148.0 Albani = basal-Portland Micracanthoceras magstrat base M20n 147.2 Base Calpionellid Zone
albani (0.1) Sand = Black Noire and microcanthum (lower (0.1) A1 is just above base
Exogyra Bed in Dorset, subzone is of Microcanthum Zone
hiatus is common Simplisphinctes and upper
is Paraulacosphinctes
transitorius)
Virgatopavlovia magstrat M21n.3 148.3 Base of V. ttoni = top of Micracanthoceras magstrat M20r.5 147.5
ttoni (top of ( 0.1) Kimmeridge Clay pontiBurckhardticeras (0.1)
Kimmeridge Clay formation in Dorset
formation)
Pavlovia rotunda magstrat M21r.8 148.6
(0.3, est.)
Pavlovia magstrat M22n.95 149.0 Simoceras magstrat M21n.4 148.2 Base Chitinoidella is
pallasioides (0.1) admirandumSimoceras (0.1) near top of
biruncinatum Admirandum Zone
Pectinatites (P.) magstrat M22n.7 149.3 Richterella richteri magstrat M22n.95 149.0
pectinatus (0.1) (0.05)
Pectinatites magstrat M22n.45 149.6 Semiformiceras semiforme magstrat M22n.6 149.4
(Arkellites) (0.1) (= zone of Haploceras (0.1)
hudlestoni (Volanites) verruciferum)
Pectinatites (Vir- magstrat M22n.2 150.0 Semiformiceras darwini magstrat M22n.25 149.9
gatosphinctoides) (0.1) (= zone of (0.05)
wheatleyensis Virgatosimoceras
albertinum)
Pectinatites (Vir- magstrat M22r.8 150.3
gatosphinctoides) (0.2, est)
scitulus
Pectinatites (Vir- magstrat M22r.2 150.6 Projects to middle of Hybonoticeras hybonotum magstrat base M22An 150.8
gatosphinctoides) (0.2, est) M22r (0.1)
elegans

Kimmeridgian (top) 150.8 Kimmeridgian (top) 150.8

Aulacostephanus magstrat M23n.5 151.2 Hybonoticeras beckeri magstrat M23r.2r.1 152.2
autissiodorensis (for zone (0.5, est.) (0.05)
base)
Aulacostephanus magstrat M24n.5 152.4 Aulacostephanus eudoxus magstrat M24r.1r.8 152.6
eudoxus (0.1)
Aspidoceras acanthicum magstrat M24r.2r.6 153.1
(0.1)
(cont.)
Table 18.2 (cont.)

Age Age
Zone: Boreal (or (base of (base of
Cosmopolitan for zone) Zone: Tethyan zone)
Stage early Jurassic) Method Calibration (Ma) Comments (sub-Mediterranean) Method Calibration (Ma) Comments

Aulacostephanoides magstrat base M24Bn 153.9 Crussoliceras divisum magstrat M24Ar.7 153.4
mutabilis (0.3) (0.1)
(estimate)
Ataxioceras (A.) magstrat M25n.8 154.1
hypselocyclum (0.1)
Sutneria platynota magstrat M25r.1 154.5
(0.1)

Rasenia cymodoce magstrat base 155.0 Oxfordian 154.5

M25An.3n (sub-Mediterranean
(0.1) usage) (top)
Pictonia baylei magstrat M26r.2 155.7 Marine anomaly model is Subnebrodites planula magstrat base 155.4 Marine anomaly
(0.2) uncertain for M26 M26n.3n model is uncertain for
subchrons (0.1) M26 subchrons

Oxfordian (sub-Boreal usage) (top) 155.7

Ringsteadia magstrat base M28Bn 156.8 Epipeltoceras magstrat base M28Cn 157.0
pseudocordata (estimate) bimammatum (0.1)
Perisphinctes magstrat base 157.2 Perisphinctes magstrat M29n.1n.1 157.4
cautisnigrae M28Dn (Dichotomoceras) (0.2)
(estimate) bifurcatus
Perisphinctes magstrat M31r.5 158.6 Assumed to be same as Gregoryceras magstrat M31r.5 158.6
pumilus (0.2) base of Transversarium transversarium (0.2)
Perisphinctes magstrat M33Bn.3 159.5 Perisphinctes 159.5
(Arisphinctes) (0.2) (Arisphinctes) plicatilis
plicatilis
Cardioceras (C.) magstrat M34Bn.1r.3 160.6 Cardioceras (C.) 160.6
cordatum (0.3) cordatum
Quenstedtoceras magstrat base M36An 161.2 Quenstedtoceras (Q.) 161.2
(Q.) mariae (0.3) mariae
Callovian (top) Callovian = 161.2 Callovian (top) 161.2
18 subzones
Quenstedtoceras magstrat M37.2n.3 162.0 Lamberti (2 subzones) Quenstedtoceras 162.0
(Lamberticeras) (0.2) base set by magstrat. (Lamberticeras) lamberti
lamberti Rest of Callovian zones
proportioned to
subzones (16 subzones)
Peltoceras (P.) equal 162.5 AthletaCoronatum zonal Peltoceras (P.) athleta 162.3
athleta subzones boundary in Boreal
zonation is placed one
subzone lower than in
Tethyan
Erymnoceras equal 162.9 Erymnoceras coronatum 162.9
coronatum subzones
Kosmoceras equal 163.2 Reineckeia anceps 163.2
(Zugokosmoceras) subzones
jason
Sigaloceras (S.) equal 163.5
calloviense subzones
Proplanulites equal 164.2 Macrocephalites 164.4
koenigi subzones (Dolikephalites) gracilis
Macrocephalites equal 164.7 Bullatimorphites 164.7
herveyi subzones (Kheraiceras) bullatus

Bathonian (top) Bathonian 164.7 BajoBathCallov zones Bathonian (top)

= 15 are proportionally scaled
subzones according to their
component subzones
Clydoniceras (C.) equal 165.1 Clydoniceras (C.) discus 165.1
discus subzones
Oxycerites orbis equal 165.5 Hecticoceras 165.7
subzones (Prohecticoceras)
retrocostatum
Procerites (P.) equal 166.1 Cadomites (C.) bremeri 166.1
hodsoni subzones
Morrisiceras (M.) equal 166.3 Morrisiceras (M.) morrisi 166.3
morrisi subzones
Tulites (T.) equal 166.5 Tulites (T.) subcontractus 166.5
subcontractus subzones
Procerites (P.) equal 166.9 Procerites (P.) progracilis 166.9
progracilis subzones
(cont.)
Table 18.2 (cont.)

Age Age
Zone: Boreal (or (base of (base of
Cosmopolitan for zone) Zone: Tethyan zone)
Stage early Jurassic) Method Calibration (Ma) Comments (sub-Mediterranean) Method Calibration (Ma) Comments

Asphinctites equal 167.1 Procerites (Siemiradzkia) 167.3

tenuiplicatus subzones aurigerus
Zigzagiceras (Z.) equal 167.7 Zigzagiceras (Z.) zigzag 167.7
zigzag subzones

Bajocian (top) Bajocian 167.7 Bajocian (top)

= 20
subzones
Parkinsonia (P.) equal 168.3 Tethyan zones are the same as Boreal zones from Hettangian through Bajocian
parkinsoni subzones
Garantiana (G.) equal 168.9
garantiana subzones
Strenoceras (S.) equal 169.6
niortense subzones
Stephanoceras (S.) equal 170.2
humphriesianum subzones
Sonninia equal 170.6
propinquans (= subzones
former zone of
Emileia (Otoites)
sauzei)
Witchellia equal 171.2
laeviuscula subzones
Hyperlioceras equal 171.6
(H.) discites subzones

Aalenian (top) Total 171.6

duration of
Aalenian set
by cycle
stratigraphy
as 4 myr
 The Jurassic Period 333

Table 18.2 (cont.)

Zone: Boreal (or Cosmopolitan Age (base of

Stage for early Jurassic) Method Calibration zone) (Ma) Comments

Graphoceras concavum equal subzones 172.5

Brazilia bradfordensis equal subzones 173.4
Ludwigia murchisonae equal subzones 174.7
Leioceras opalinum equal subzones 175.6

Toarcian (top) Duration of Toarcian is set 175.6

by cycle stratigraphy
Pleydellia aalensis equal subzones 176.6
Dumortieria pseudoradiosa equal subzones 177.6
Phlyseogrammoceras dispansum equal subzones 178.5
Grammoceras thouarsense equal subzones Control on upper Toarcian 180.5
equal-subzone scale
Haugia variabilis Linear Sr isotope trend 180.7
Hildoceras bifrons Linear Sr isotope trend 181.2
Harpoceras serpentinum (= Linear Sr isotope trend 182.7
former zone of Harpoceras
falciferum)
Dactylioceras (Orthodactylites) Linear Sr isotope trend 183.0
tenuicostatum

Pliensbachian (top) Cycle-scaled linear Sr 183.0

isotope trend
Pleuroceras spinatum Linear Sr isotope trend 184.2
Amaltheus margaritatus Linear Sr isotope trend Control on lower 187.0
Pliensbachian equal-subzone
scale
Prodactylioceras davoei equal subzones 187.7
Tragophylloceras ibex equal subzones 188.5
Uptonia jamesoni equal subzones 189.6

Sinemurian (top) Cycle-scaled linear Sr 189.6

isotope trend
Echioceras raricostatum equal subzones 191.2
Oxynoticeras oxnotum equal subzones 192.0
Asteroceras obtusum equal subzones 193.3
Caenisites tuneri equal subzones 194.1
Arnioceras semicostatum equal subzones 195.3
Coroniceras (Arietites) bucklandi equal subzones 196.5

Hettangian (top) Cycle-scaled linear Sr 196.5

isotope trend
Schlotheimia angulata equal subzones 197.7
Alsatites liasicus equal subzones 198.8
Psiloceras planorbis equal subzones 199.6

TRIASSIC (Rhaetian) (top) Radiometric age 199.6

a Methodology for deriving each age for primary ammonite zones and associated stage boundaries are given with summary of computational details. For ammonite
zones that are scaled using relative numbers of subzones, these subzonal counts are from compilation by J. Thierry (in Gradstein et al., 1994a, 1995, and illustrated
in Hardenbol et al., 1998).
334 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
Jurassic, but left only a sketchy record. In contrast, rich fossil
deposits of the Late Jurassic document the evolution of the
largest land animals that ever lived. Plant eaters included huge
sauropods, large stegosaurids, and moderate-sized ornithopids
(iguanodontids and hypsilophodontids). The kings of the car-
nivores were allosaurid theropods.
18.2.2 Microfossil zonations
Major microfossil biostratigraphic zonations for the Juras-
sic incorporate dinoagellate cysts, calcareous nannoplankton,
benthic foraminifera, calpionellids, and radiolaria.
D I N O F L AG E L L AT E C YS T S
Organic-walled cysts of dinoagellates are an important cor-
relation tool for the North Sea, and the datums are correlated
directly to ammonite zones of the Boreal realm (e.g. Wool-
lam and Riding, 1983; Riding and Ioannides, 1996). A few
selected markers and associated dinoagellate zones for the
Boreal realm are shown in Fig. 18.1 (extracted from Ioannides
et al., 1998). Several of these markers also occur in the Tethyan
realm, but the ranges and correlation to ammonite zones are not
as well established (Habib and Drugg, 1983; Ioannides et al.,
1998). Independent dinocyst zonations have been developed
for the Jurassic of Australia (Helby et al., 1987), for the Upper
Jurassic of New Zealand (Wilson, 1984), and for other basins.
C A LC A R E O U S NA N N O F O S S I L S
The beginning of the major transgression during the late Tri-
assic coincides with the earliest known calcareous nannofos-
sils. The major radiation of Jurassic placolith coccoliths (plates
from coccolithophorid algae) took place during the late Sine-
murian to Pliensbachian (reviewed in de Kaenel et al., 1996).
A major re-organization of Tethyan nannofossil assemblages
took place in the late Tithonian, followed by the initiation of
the nannofossil-rich limestone that characterizes the pelagic
realm in the Cretaceous. Jurassic nannofossil zonations and
markers in the Borealsub-Boreal realm are calibrated to am-
monite zones in northwestern Europe (e.g. Bown et al., 1988;
Bown, 1998), and the generalized scale in Fig. 18.1 is modied
from the compilation by von Salis et al. (1998). Nannofossil
datums in the Tethyansub-Mediterranean realm are partially
calibrated to ammonite zones (de Kaenel et al., 1996) and to
latest Jurassic magnetic polarity zones (e.g. Bralower et al.,
1989).
FORAMINIFERA AND CALPIONELLIDS
Planktonic foraminifera did not evolve until the Middle
Jurassic and are localized in occurrence, therefore Jurassic
foraminifera assemblages are dominated by calcareous and ag-
glutinated benthic forms. Compilations of foraminifer zona-
tions and events are available for the British and North Sea re-
gion (e.g. Copestake et al., 1989), for larger benthic foraminifera
in the Tethyan domain (Peybernes, 1998b), and generalized for
smaller benthic foraminifera in European basins (Ruget and
Nicollin, 1998). The benthic foraminifer zonation in Fig. 18.1
is generalized from the later compilation.
Calpionellids are vase-shaped pelagic microfossils of uncer-
tain origin, which appeared in the late Tithonian and continued
until the middle of the Early Cretaceous (Remane, 1985). They
provide important correlation markers, especially in pelagic
carbonates of the TethyanAtlantic seaway (reviewed by Re-
mane, 1998).
RADIOLARIA
Siliceous radiolaria are a major component of Jurassic pelagic
sediments deposited under high-productivity conditions, but
their tests are rarely preserved jointly with aragonitic am-
monite shells. Detailed radiolarian zonations for the Middle
and Late Jurassic have been developed for the western margin
of North America (e.g. Pessagno et al., 1993), for Japan (Mat-
suoka and Yao, 1986; Matsuoka, 1992), for the former Tethyan
seaways exposed in Europe (Baumgartner, 1987; INTERRAD
JurassicCretaceous Working Group, 1995; De Wever, 1998),
and for the North Sea (Dyer and Copestake, 1989; Dyer, 1998).
These zonations can be partially correlated to each other (e.g.
Pessagno and Meyerhoff Hull, 1996).
However, calibration of the radiolarian assemblages to stan-
dard geological stages and reference ammonite scales of Europe
has been challenging and controversial. An example is the di-
vergent correlations for the radiolarian assemblage overlying
basalt at Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) Site 801, which pro-
vided a key age control on the CallovianOxfordian portion of
the marine magnetic anomaly M-sequence and global spread-
ing rates. The basal sediment assemblages were originally in-
terpreted as late Bathonianearly Callovian (Shipboard Sci-
entic Party, 1990; Matsuoka, 1992; reviewed in Ogg et al.,
1992), interpreted as equivalent to the middle Oxfordian
of western North America by Pessagno and Meyerhoff Hull
(1996), and assigned to Bajocian in the zonal calibrations
developed by the INTERRAD JurassicCretaceous Working
Group (1995) for the Mediterranean region (Bartolini et al.,

2000; Bartolini and Larson, 2001). Possible contributing fac-
tors to this divergence are diachroneity of radiolarian or am-
monite datums and ranges among basins, errors in taxonomy
assignments, imprecise correlation of radiolarian markers to re-
gional ammonite stratigraphy, and miscorrelation of ammonite
assemblages among paleogeographic provinces (Pessagno and
Meyerhoff Hull, 1996).
18.2.3 Physical stratigraphy
M AG N E T O S T R AT I G R A P H Y
The M-sequence of marine magnetic anomalies is the tem-
plate for calibrating magnetostratigraphy from Upper Juras-
sic fossiliferous sections. Several high-resolution studies of
Kimmeridgian and Tithonian strata have correlated am-
monites, calpionellids, and calcareous nannofossils from the
sub-Mediterranean faunal province and DSDP cores from the
central Atlantic to polarity chrons M25 through M18 (e.g.
Bralower et al., 1989: syntheses in Ogg, 1988; Ogg et al., 1991a;
Ogg and Atrops, in prep.). Calibration of Boreal sections to
this magnetic time scale has been partially achieved for the
Tithonian (Ogg et al., 1994) and the middle Kimmeridgian
(Ogg and Coe, in prep.). (Based upon magnetostratigraphy of
coastal sections along the French side of the English Channel
(Ogg and Wimbledon, in prep.), the reversed-polarity inter-
val of the Progalbanites albani ammonite zone at the base of
the Portland Sand is now assigned as Chron M20r, instead
of M21r as interpreted by Ogg et al. (1994).) The suite of
calibrations shown in Fig. 18.1 is scaled to a variable spread-
ing model of the Pacic M-sequence during the Kimmerid-
gian through lower Cretaceous (see Chapters 5 and tables
therein). These calibrations constrain the relative duration of
each ammonite zone within the Kimmeridgian and Tithonian
stages.
The oldest magnetic anomaly that is documented in all
ocean basins is M25, which has been correlated to the base
of the Sutneria platynota Zone, which is the base of the Kim-
meridgian as traditionally assigned in the sub-Mediterranean
province (Ogg et al., 1984; Ogg and Atrops, in prep.). Mag-
netic proles over pre-M26 oceanic crust in the Pacic (Hand-
schumacher et al., 1988) have been supported and extended
by deep-tow surveys (Sager et al., 1998), thereby indicating a
possible set of between 50 and 100 polarity chrons within the
Callovian and Oxfordian stages. In contrast to the well-resolved
major magnetic anomalies younger than M25, it is uncertain
how many of the modeled short-duration, low-amplitude po-
larity intervals in the deep-tow data are paleomagnetic intensity
The Jurassic Period 335
uctuations rather than actual geomagnetic reversals. An ar-
ray of magnetostratigraphic studies in Oxfordian strata with
sub-Mediterranean ammonite zonation in Spain and Poland
yielded reversal patterns that were consistent with the extended
Pacic model (e.g. Steiner et al., 1986; Juarez et al., 1994, 1995;
Ogg and Gutowski, 1996). The magnetostratigraphy of a suite
of overlapping sections in Great Britain with sub-Boreal and
Boreal ammonite zones, coupled with a revised correlation of
the OxfordianKimmeridgian boundary interval between the
sub-Mediterranean and Boreal provinces, enabled construc-
tion of a complete Oxfordian magnetic polarity time scale for
the combined Boreal and Tethyan faunal realms and corre-
lation to the main features of the Pacic magnetic anomaly
pattern from M25 through M36 (Ogg and Coe, 1997; Ogg
and Coe, in prep.). This calibrated M-sequence scale for the
Oxfordian is illustrated in Fig. 18.1 with ammonite zones of
both faunal realms scaled to a spreading-rate model for M25
through M41 (see Chapter 5). Minor divergences of the mag-
netostratigraphic pattern (right-hand scale) with the modeled
deep-tow signature (left-hand scale) are generally consistent
with uncertainties in the marine magnetic model (Sager et al.,
1998).
The magnetostratigraphy of the Upper Callovian in Euro-
pean sections is also consistent with the simple marine mag-
netic anomaly pattern of M36 through M38. However, the
marine magnetic proles of the presumed Callovian portion
of the Jurassic Quiet Zone older than M38 display a very
low-amplitude short-wavelength oscillation of magnetic inten-
sity of uncertain origin (Sager et al., 1998). Magnetographic
investigations of Lower and Middle Callovian strata in Eng-
land, France, and Poland (e.g. Ogg et al., 1991b; Belkaaloul
et al., 1995, 1997; Ogg with Garcia, Coe, and Dietl, unpub-
lished) are generally dominated by normal polarity with only
a few correlative reversed-polarity intervals, mainly within
the Macrocephalites (Dolikephalites) gracilis and Clydoniceras
discus ammonite zones. Therefore, it remains to be demon-
strated that the modeled short-wavelength uctuations over
Pacic crust older than Late Callovian are a reliable indicator
of the history of the geomagnetic eld. Figure 18.1 displays
the tentative common polarity pattern derived from French
and English sections scaled to equal-duration ammonite
subzones.
The Early and Middle Jurassic magnetic polarity patterns
are primarily compiled from ammonite-bearing sections in Eu-
rope. A suite of Bathonian and Bajocian sections in Spain dis-
plays a rapidly changing magnetic polarity pattern (Steiner
et al., 1987), but this has not yet been fully veried else-
where.
336 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

The Aalenian, Toarcian, and Pliensbachian polarity pattern

is primarily derived from a detailed study in southern Switzer- Jurassic geochemical trends
land (Horner, 1983; Horner and Heller, 1983). This pattern has 13C 87Sr/ 86Sr Temperature
trends
(0/00 PDB)

0.7070
0.7072
0.7074
0.7076
0.7078
AGE
(Ma) Stage 18O (0/00 PDB)
been consistent with later magnetostratigraphy work across the 2 4 6 2 0 2 4

base-Bajocian GSSP at Cabo Mondego, Portugal (Henriques 140 Cooler <> Warmer
Berriasian
et al., 1994; Pavia and Enay, 1997), the base-Aalenian GSSP 145
Tithonian
at Fuentelsaz, Spain (Goy et al., 1996; Cresta, 1999), and the 150

relatively condensed type Toarcian section at Thouars, France
(Galbrun et al., 1988, using the inter-province ammonite zone
correlation in Hardenbol et al., 1998). The Pliensbachian por-
tion has been enhanced and recalibrated using boreholes in the
Paris Basin (Moreau et al., 2002; Fig. 18.1).
The Hettangian and Sinemurian stages have not yet yielded
a veried magnetostratigraphy. The Sinemurian and Hettan-
gian appear to be dominated by reversed polarity (Steiner
and Ogg, 1988; Gallet et al., 1993), with perhaps several mi-
nor normal-polarity zones (Yang et al., 1996), and the basal-
Hettangian may be dominated by normal polarity (Kent et al.,
1995; Yang et al., 1996; Posen et al., 1998; Kent and Olsen,
1999). Only a possible schematic pattern, not correlated to
biostratigraphy, is shown in Fig. 18.1.
Polarity chrons prior to the Callovian do not have a cor-
responding marine magnetic anomaly sequence to provide
an independent nomenclature or scaling system. A compi-
lation by Ogg (1995) suggested using abbreviations derived
from the corresponding ammonite zones or stage. However,
until the polarity pattern spanning each stage has been ade-
quately veried, a standardized nomenclature system is not
possible.
C H E M I C A L S T R AT I G R A P H Y
A comprehensive review of Jurassic chemostratigraphy trends
and excursions is compiled by Jenkyns et al. (2002). Only the
major features are summarized below.
Stable isotopes of carbon Two major negative excursions in
carbon isotopes, accompanied by an abundance of organic-
carbon-rich sediments, are recognized in the Jurassic in the
Toarcian and Oxfordian, and lesser anomalies occur in other
intervals (reviewed in Jenkyns et al., 2002; Fig. 18.2).
Lower Toarcian pelagic limestone in the upper Har-
poceras serpentinus ammonite zone (also known as upper Har-
poceras falciferum ammonite zone) display a major positive
carbon-13 excursion (e.g. Jenkyns and Clayton, 1986, 1997).
High-resolution isotope stratigraphy (McArthur et al., 2000)
suggests that the positive excursion consists of multiple os-
155
Kimmeridgian
160
Oxfordian
Callovian
165
Bathonian
170 Bajocian
175
Aalenian
180 Toarcian
185
Pliensbachian
190
Sinemurian
195
Hettangian
200
Rhaetian-
205 Norian
Figure 18.2 Smoothed trends and excursions in carbon and oxygen
stable isotopes and in marine 87 Sr/86 Sr ratio during the Jurassic. The
schematic carbon isotope curve is generalized from the compilations
in Bartolini et al. (1996) and Jenkyns et al. (2002), with details on the
complex Toarcian and the Oxfordian excursions from McArthur
et al. (2000) and Padden et al. (2001), respectively. The strontium
isotope curve is a LOWESS t to data from several sources see
text and Chapter 7. The schematic oxygen isotope curve is mainly
from belemnites from Europe, but the main trends are also observed
in New Zealand (late Jurassic) and Canada (middle Jurassic) (from
Jenkyns et al., 2002). Overall global shifts to higher oxygen-18
values in carbonates are generally interpreted as cooler seawater, but
there are many other contributing factors. The data for these
schematic carbon and oxygen isotope curves have signicant scatter,
and should be considered as only general indications of the trends.
cillations, but identication of global trends may be compro-
mised by superimposed local and basinal effects (Jimenez et al.,
1996). This carbon isotope excursion in carbonates follows
a widespread occurrence of organic-carbon-rich marine de-
posits, such as the Posidonienschiefer of Germany and the Jet
Rock of England, that are associated with a major transgres-
sion during the upper Dactylioceras tenuicostatum and lower H.
serpentinus Zones (e.g. Hallam, 1981b; Jenkyns, 1988). These
organic-rich sediments are associated with pronounced nega-
tive carbon-13 excursions in both organic and carbonate com-
ponents, which is one of the largest of the Phanerozoic (e.g.
Hesselbo et al., 2000b, 2003; Schouten et al., 2000). This early
Toarcian oceanic anoxic event at approximately 183 Ma per-
sisted for only about 0.5 myr (McArthur et al., 2000). The

event seems to have been coincident with the eruption of the
KarooFerrar ood basalts across South Africa and Antarctica
(Kerr, 2000; Palfy and Smith, 2000) and a methane release from
undersea destabilization of frozen methane hydrates may have
contributed to this excursion (Hesselbo et al., 2000b; Cohen
et al., 2004).
Middle Oxfordian pelagic sediments indicate a broad peak
in carbon-13 (Jenkyns, 1996) that contains a pair of brief (50
kyr) major negative excursions within the upper Gregoryc-
eras transversarium ammonite zone (Padden et al., 2001, 2002).
Other major features are a negative excursion in carbon-13 near
the SinemurianPliensbachian boundary, and generally low
values in the BathonianBajocian boundary interval and Titho-
nian (Jenkyns et al., 2002). Excursions in this general trend
in carbon isotope are reported within the TriassicJurassic
boundary interval (e.g. Palfy et al., 2001; Hesselbo et al., 2002;
see Chapter 17), and in the lower Bajocian and upper Bathonian
to lower Callovian pelagic sediments in Italy (Bartolini et al.,
1996, 1999; Morettini et al., 2002). However, these postulated
excursions have not yet been calibrated to ammonite zones.
The JurassicCretaceous boundary interval lacks any carbon
isotope excursions to aid in global correlation of the system
boundary (Weissert and Channell, 1989).
Stable isotopes of oxygen and temperature trends The Jurassic is
generally considered as an interval of sustained warmth with-
out any documented glacial deposits. Oxygen isotope records
of oceanic temperature trends are patchy and heavily biased
toward records from Europe and Russia (e.g. Veizer et al.,
2000; Jenkyns et al., 2002). These suggest an overall warm pe-
riod (lighter oxygen-18 values) from Hettangian to Toarcian,
cooler temperatures during Aalenian through Oxfordian (but
with potential anomalies), and moderate temperatures dur-
ing the Kimmeridgian and Tithonian (Fig. 18.2). Except for
the implied cold snap during the CallovianOxfordian from
the isotope compilation, these general temperature trends are
consistent with other paleoclimate indicators (Jenkyns et al.,
2002).
Strontium and osmium isotope ratios The curve of marine
87
Sr/86 Sr through the Jurassic is a broad valley centered on
the early Oxfordian, with a subordinate trough in latest Pliens-
bachian time (Fig. 18.2). Both minima broadly coincide with
major carbon isotope excursions. Except within the Aalenian
and the Oxfordian, the rapidly changing ratios enable global
correlation at high resolution (McArthur et al., 2001).
The Jurassic Period 337
At the end of the Triassic, an abrupt downturn in marine
87
Sr/86 Sr from the latest Triassic peak (0.707 95) coincided
with major ood basalt outpouring of the Central Atlantic
Magmatic Province along the future Central Atlantic seaway
(McArthur et al., 2001). The strontium isotope ratio continued
a steady decline through the Early Jurassic to a trough (0.707
08) in the latest Pliensbachian (Jones et al., 1994a; McArthur
et al., 2000; Jones and Jenkyns, 2001). By assuming that this
decrease was linear through the Hettangian, Sinemurian, and
Pliensbachian stages, and scaling the slope with cycle stratig-
raphy in the lower Pliensbachian, Weedon and Jenkyns (1999)
estimated that the minimum duration of these three stages was
2.86, 7.62, and 6.67 myr, respectively, for a total of 17.15 myr. A
similar calculation using an expanded Lower Jurassic database
(McArthur et al., 2001) yields 3.10, 6.90, and 6.60 myr, respec-
tively, for a total of 16.90 myr.
Strontium isotope ratios progressively rose during the
Toarcian to a sustained plateau (0.707 30) through the Aale-
nian. If the Pliensbachian fall and Toarcian rise are assumed
to be linear segments, then a high-resolution time scale can be
constructed for scaling ammonite subzones and carbon isotope
excursions (McArthur et al., 2000). Strontium isotope ratios
again decreased through the Bajocian to middle Callovian, with
a shoulder spanning the BajocianBathonian boundary (Jones
et al., 1994b; M. Engkilde, unpublished) that may be real or
may be an artifact of differential rates of sedimentation and the
imposed time scale.
During the early Oxfordian, marine 87 Sr/86 Sr reached
its lowest ratio (0.706 86) throughout the entire Phanerozoic
(McArthur et al., 2001). This pronounced episode may in-
dicate a major pulse of seaoor hydrothermal activity (Jones
et al., 1994b; Jones and Jenkyns, 2001), which is supported
by interpretations of other geochemical, deep-sea sediment,
and spreading-rate evidence (e.g. Ogg et al., 1992). From the
middle Oxfordian, the strontium isotope ratio began a long-
term increase that peaked in the P. elegans ammonite zone of
the Barremian Stage of Early Cretaceous.
As with Sr, the 187 Os/188 Os value of marine Os reects
competing uxes of Os from the input of 187 Os-rich uids,
from continental weathering, and of non-radiogenic 188 Os-
rich uids from hydrothermal alteration of oceanic crust and
from dissolution of extraterrestrial material from meteorites,
but with a shorter residence time (about 40 kyr). Jurassic
187
Os/188 Os ratios have been derived from organic-rich shales
in southern England (Cohen et al., 1999). The extremely non-
radiogenic 187 Os/188 Os ratio of 0.15 in the basal-Hettangian
(Psiloceras planorbis ammonite zone) is similar to the anomalous
338 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
end-Cretaceous excursion produced by the 188 Os-rich bolide
impact, but is interpreted as hydrothermal activity associ-
ated with the eruption of the Central Atlantic Magmatic
Province (Cohen et al., 1999; Cohen and Coe, 2002). In con-
trast to the descending strontium trend, the 187 Os/188 Os ratio
progressively rises through the Hettangian and Sinemurian,
and attains a ratio of 0.8 in the lower Toarcian. The aver-
age upper Kimmeridgian and lower Tithonian ratio is about
0.6.
C YC L E S T R AT I G R A P H Y A N D E S T I M AT E S O F S TAG E
D U R AT I O N S
Period oscillations in composition or physical properties within
several marine successions in the Jurassic have been interpreted
as Milankovitch orbital-climate cycles. Sudden shifts in the
relative dominance of obliquity (3738 kyr in Jurassic) and
precession (20 kyr) within Jurassic cyclostratigraphy sections
in England and Italy (30 35 N paleolatitude) can be asso-
ciated with times of signicant global environmental change
(e.g. Hinnov and Park, 1999; Weedon et al., 1999).
Hettangian and Sinemurian Obliquity-dominated cyclicity in
the Blue Lias Formation of southern England yields min-
imum durations of 1.29 myr for the Hettangian Stage and
0.34 myr for the Arietites bucklandi ammonite zone of low-
est Sinemurian, but these estimates incorporate known strati-
graphic breaks (Weedon et al., 1999). Assuming that marine
87
Sr/86 Sr had a linear decrease through this interval identi-
cal to the precession-cycle-scaled trend of the lower Pliens-
bachian (0.000 042 per myr), this yields minimum durations
of 2.86 myr for the Hettangian Stage and 7.62 myr for the total
Sinemurian Stage (Weedon and Jenkyns, 1999), or 3.10 and
6.90 myr using the LOWESS-t Sr-curve of McArthur et al.
(2001).
Pliensbachian Precession-dominated cyclicity in the Belem-
nite Marls of southern England, combined with linear stron-
tium isotope trends and cyclostratigraphic data from Robin
Hoods Bay, northeast England (van Buchem et al., 1994), and
Breggia Gorge, southern Switzerland (Weedon, 1989), indicate
a minimum duration of 6.67 myr for the Pliensbachian Stage
(Weedon and Jenkyns, 1999). This is consistent with the min-
imum estimate of 5 myr derived from precession-dominated
strata in northern Italy (Hinnov and Park, 1999).
Toarcian and Aalenian Obliquity-dominated cyclic carbon-
ates of the Sogno Formation in northern Italy yielded a com-
bined duration of 11.37 0.05 myr for the Toarcian and Aale-
nian stages (Hinnov and Park, 1999; Hinnov et al., 1999). A
mid-Toarcian date of 181.4 0.6 Ma (1-sigma; Palfy et al.,
1997) is projected to fall 132 obliquity cycles (4.9 myr) be-
low the AalenianBajocian boundary, implying an age for the
boundary of 176.5 0.6 Ma (Hinnov and Park, 1999). This
age estimate for the AalenianBajocian boundary is identical
to an earlier statistical t of combined radiometric ages and
biozones by Gradstein et al. (1995).
Kimmeridgian and Tithonian Lithologic and magnetic-
susceptibility variations within the Kimmeridge Clay Forma-
tion of southern England appear to be associated with obliquity
with perhaps minor contributions from precession (e.g. Wa-
terhouse, 1995; Weedon et al., 1999). Tuning all susceptibility
peaks to a xed 38-kyr obliquity cycle implies that the Aula-
costephanus autissiodorensis ammonite zone of the uppermost
Kimmeridgian Stage spans 1.35 myr and the overlying Pecti-
natites (Virgatosphinctoides) elegans Zone of basal-Tithonian
spans 0.55 myr (Weedon et al., 1999). However, if this obliquity
tuning is applied to all overlying susceptibility peaks, then the
upper portion of the Kimmeridgian Clay (P. elegans through
Virgatopaviovia ttoni ammonite zones) spans a minimum of
4.3 myr (Weedon, 2001; Weedon et al., 2004). If veried, this
cycle tuning would imply that the Upper Kimmeridgian re-
gional stage of classical usage in England coincides with the
entire Tithonian Stage of the sub-Mediterranean (Tethyan)
faunal realm. This equivalency has not been incorporated into
our Jurassic time scale (Fig. 18.1), pending satisfactory consis-
tency with other correlation constraints.
S E Q U E N C E S T R AT I G R A P H Y
Jurassic sea-level trends have been compiled for different basins
(e.g. Partington et al., 1993; Coe, 1996; Sahagian et al., 1996;
Gygi et al., 1998; Hesselbo and Jenkyns, 1998) and on a global
scale (e.g. Hallam, 1978, 1981b, 1988, 2001; Haq et al., 1988;
Hardenbol et al., 1998).
The main Jurassic sea-level trend is a progressive trans-
gression from the latest Triassic until the late Kimmeridgian.
A major regressive trend begins in the Tithonian and reaches
a minimum in the late Berriasian.
Superimposed on these main cycles are several major
sequences (especially a lesser regressive trend during mid-
dle Toarcian and Aalenian). The larger-scale deepening and

shallowing trends compiled by Hardenbol et al. (1998) are sum-
marized in Fig. 18.1. Assignments of small-scale sequences
depend on interpretation models for the response of sediment
facies (other than obvious relative sea-level falls or ooding
surfaces) to relative sea-level changes, therefore interpretations
vary among stratigraphers for assigning small-scale sequences
within a given region (e.g. comparison charts within Hesselbo
and Jenkyns, 1998; Newell, 2000; and Taylor et al., 2001).
O T H E R M A J O R S T R AT I G R A P H I C E V E N T S
Large igneous provinces The Central Atlantic Magmatic
Province has ages centered on 200 Ma (Olsen et al., 2003),
and probably peaked just before the TriassicJurassic bound-
ary as recognized in the marine realm (Palfy et al., 2000b),
and may be the largest known ood basalt (e.g. Marzoli et al.,
1999; Hames et al., 2000). (This major volcanic outpouring is
summarized in Chapter 17.)
The majority of the Karoo ood basalts in South Africa and
the Farrar volcanics in Antarctica erupted at 183 2 Ma (Palfy
and Smith, 2000). This large igneous province coincides with
major geochemical anomalies, organic-rich strata, and faunal
extinctions within the earliest Toarcian (e.g. Jones and Jenkyns,
2001; Wignall, 2001; Cohen and Coe, 2002; Palfy et al., 2002b).
Large impact events The PuchezhKatunki crater in Russia,
with an apparent diameter of 80 km, has an age reported as
167 3 Ma, implying a large impact within the Bathonian
Bajocian interval.
A modest iridium anomaly has been reported from near
the palynology-dened TriassicJurassic boundary in eastern
USA, and associated features, such as a fern spike and appar-
ent suddenness of the terrestrial extinctions suggest a possible
impact relationship (Olsen et al., 2003).
18.3 JURASSIC TIME SCALE
The time scale for the Jurassic Period and the scaling of
events within each geological stage combines many types of
stratigraphic information: a selection of key radiometric dates,
constraints on durations from cycle stratigraphy, applying lin-
ear trends to strontium isotopic variation within certain inter-
vals, proportional scaling of some ammonite zone successions
according to their subzonal numbers, and applying the M-
sequence magnetic polarity time scale derived from estimates
of Pacic seaoor-spreading rates. Table 18.2 summarizes the
scaling methods and assumptions for each stage and each com-
ponent ammonite zone.
The Jurassic Period 339
18.3.1 Selection of radiometric ages
Suites of high-precision UPb and 40 Ar/39 Ar ages from
ammonite-zoned strata have largely rendered obsolete Juras-
sic time scales published before 1996, which had incorporated
ages from less precise KAr and RbSr methods. Palfy (1995)
critiqued the databases and methodology of previous Jurassic
time scales, and his team began a systematic effort to estab-
lish a detailed Early and Middle Jurassic age array from U
Pb analysis of zircons from volcaniclastics inter-bedded with
ammonite-zoned strata in British Columbia and Alaska (Palfy
et al., 1997, 1999, 2000b,c; Palfy and Smith, 2000). A series
of studies have calibrated North American ammonite zones or
specic ammonite datums to the standard northwest European
zones and associated denition of geological stages (summa-
rized in Palfy et al., 2000a). This effort required re-evaluation
of biostratigraphic material (e.g. Palfy et al., 1997, observed
that there were approximately 25% erroneous identications
of Toarcian ammonites at the species level in other reference
biostratigraphic sections).
Palfy et al. (2000a) compiled a database of 55 latest Tri-
assic through Tithonian ages that were derived solely from
UPb and 40 Ar/39 Ar methods, of which only 12 were from
publications of pre-1995 vintage. Their detailed analysis of the
stratigraphic control and radiometric behavior of each item
(Appendix 1 in Palfy et al., 2000a) is partially summarized in
Table 17.1.
Ten other UPb and 40 Ar/39 Ar ages from the Jurassic that
had been used in Harland et al. (1990), and hence also in-
corporated into Gradstein et al. (1994a, 1995), did not meet
the more rigorous standards for radiometric behavior or strati-
graphic control of Palfy et al. (2000a, their Appendix 1). They
also excluded all previous high-temperature-mineral ages de-
rived by the KAr (and RbSr) method, which are considered
less reliable and do not easily allow detection of a geochemical
error, in which loss of radiogenic daughter isotopes produces
a younger apparent age (e.g. see comparisons in Palfy, 1995).
Unexpectedly, after rejecting all KAr ages in favor of a select
UPb and 40 Ar/39 Ar database, their statistical estimates of all
Jurassic stage boundaries (Palfy et al., 2000a) are systematically
shifted to younger ages relative to the previous all-inclusive
t by Gradstein et al. (1994a, 1995). This result suggests
that some KAr ages may provide useful age approximations,
albeit with greater analytical uncertainties, of stratigraphic
units.
With these caveats, our selected ages for constructing the
Jurassic time scale are summarized in Table 17.2. This suite
340 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
was selected from a larger compilation of published ages on the
basis of both stratigraphic and radiometric precision.
18.3.2 Hettangian through Aalenian
The Early Jurassic time scale integrates radiometric ages with
cycle stratigraphy, linear trends in strontium isotope ratios,
and relative numbers of ammonite subzones. In most cases, this
integrated stratigraphy yields estimates for the stage bound-
aries that are close to a statistical t of UPb age dates by
Palfy et al. (2000a), but our procedure also yields a high-
resolution scaling of component ammonite zones within some
stages.
The base of the Jurassic (base of the Hettangian) is tightly
constrained by a UPb age of 199.6 0.3 Ma (95% con-
dence limits) from zircons in a tuff directly below the Triassic
Jurassic boundary in British Columbia (Palfy et al., 2000b).
This is currently the only well-documented UPb zircon age
with narrow 95% condence limits (2-sigma) that directly con-
strains a stage boundary within the Jurassic! The Hettangian
spans 3.1 myr according to the cycle-scaled Sr trend (Wee-
don and Jenkyns, 1999, applied to LOWESS t of McArthur
et al., 2001). Therefore, the base of the Sinemurian is at 196.5
Ma. The three Hettangian ammonite zones are proportionally
scaled relative to subzones (Table 18.2).
The Sinemurian spans 6.90 myr according to the cycle-
scaled Sr trend (Weedon and Jenkyns, 1999, applied to
LOWESS t of McArthur et al., 2001). Therefore, the base
of the Pliensbachian is at 189.6 Ma. The six Sinemurian am-
monite zones are proportionally scaled relative to subzones.
The Pliensbachian spans 6.60 myr according to the cycle-
scaled Sr trend (Weedon and Jenkyns, 1999, applied to
LOWESS t of McArthur et al., 2001). Therefore, the base of
the Toarcian is at 183.0 Ma. This is only slightly younger, but
within the narrow error bars, than the 183.6 Ma (+1.7/1.1
myr) estimate from a statistical t of UPb age dates (Palfy
et al., 2000a). Cycle stratigraphy implies that the lower Pliens-
bachian spans 2.65 myr; and we have proportionally scaled the
durations of its three ammonite zones relative to their sub-
zones. The two ammonite zones of the upper Pliensbachian
(spanning 3.95 myr) are proportions scaled according to their
placement along a linear Sr trend (McArthur et al., 2000;
Table 18.2): Amaltheus margaritatus = 2.75 myr, Pleuroceras
spinatum = 1.20 myr.
Zircons from strata of British Columbia that are equivalent
to the lower part of the Haugia variabilis ammonite zone of the
upper Middle Toarcian yield a UPb age of 181.4 1.2 Ma
(95% condence limits; Palfy et al., 1997). The younger limit
(180.5 Ma) of the standard deviation on this age was used
to scale the four ammonite zones (14 subzones) of the Early
and Middle Toarcian according to their relative proportions
along a linearly increasing Sr curve (McArthur et al., 2000;
Table 18.2): Dactylioceras tenuicostatum = 0.3 myr, Harpoceras
falciferum = 1.5 myr, Hidoceras bifrons = 0.5 myr, and Haugia
variabilis = 0.2 myr.
The combined Toarcian and Aalenian spans 11.37 0.05
myr according to obliquity-cycle stratigraphy (Hinnov and
Park, 1999; Hinnov et al., 1999), which projects the Aalenian
Bajocian boundary as 171.6 Ma. This assignment is younger,
but within the large uncertainty of the estimated 174.0 Ma
(+1.2/7.9 myr) from a statistical t of UPb age dates (Palfy
et al., 2000a). Cycle stratigraphy in pelagic strata from a former
seamount at Bugarone, central Italy, suggests that the Aalenian
spans only 4 myr (L. Hinnov, pers. comm., 2001). Therefore,
the base of the Aalenian is estimated as 175.6 Ma. Durations of
the four Late Toarcian and the four Aalenian ammonite zones
are proportionally scaled relative to equal subzones.
(Note: Palfy et al. (2000a) estimated the base of the Aalenian
as 178.0 Ma (+1.0/1.5 myr), but this estimate was mainly
constrained by a UPb date from a possible late Aalenian vol-
canic unit in British Columbia of 177.3 0.8 Ma (95% con-
dence limits), of which only one of the four samples yielded a
concordant analysis.)
18.3.3 Bajocian through Callovian
The Callovian, Bathonian, and Bajocian stages are poorly con-
strained by radiometric dates. The ToarcianAalenian cycle
stratigraphy implies that the base of the Bajocian is at 171.6
Ma. The M-sequence calibration of the ammonite zones within
the Oxfordian Stage, coupled with the age model for the cor-
responding magnetic anomalies in the Pacic (see Chapter 5)
imply that the base of the Oxfordian is approximately 161.1
Ma. Therefore, the Callovian, Bathonian, and Bajocian stages
span 10.5 myr.
Durations of the seven Bajocian, eight Bathonian, and
seven Callovian ammonite zones are scaled proportional to
their subzones in the selected standard zonation (e.g. see dia-
grams in Hardenbol et al., 1998; Table 18.2). Using this sim-
plistic assumption of equal average subzones, the Bajocian (20
subzones) spans 3.9 myr. The base of the Bathonian is therefore
estimated as 167.7 Ma (which is within the estimate of 166.0
Ma (+3.8/5.6 myr) by Palfy et al., 2000a), and this stage
spans 3.0 myr (15 subzones).
The base of the Callovian is therefore assigned as 164.7 Ma,
and the Callovian (18 subzones) spans 3.5 myr. Palfy et al.

(2000a) assigned a much younger age of 160.4 Ma (+1.1/0.5
myr) to the base of the Callovian, which was largely derived
from a reported UPb date of 160.5 0.3 Ma (95% con-
dence limits) from the equivalent of the BathonianCallovian
boundary in Argentina (Odin et al., 1992). However, it is
difcult to reconcile this BathonianCallovian boundary age
with the age model for the Oxfordian through Callovian M-
sequence magnetic anomalies in the Pacic, which is con-
strained by an ArAr age on oceanic crust at Pacic ODP
Site 801.
18.3.4 Oxfordian through Tithonian
The Late Jurassic time scale is based on the magnetostrati-
graphic correlation of Tethyan and Boreal ammonite zones to
the M-sequence polarity time scale. The radiometric age con-
straints and associated assignment of absolute ages to the M-
sequence magnetic anomaly pattern in the Pacic is explained
in detail in Chapter 5.
There are no high-precision ages obtained directly on vol-
canogenic units within middle Callovian through Tithonian
marine sediments. Volcanic ash horizons within the continen-
tal facies of the upper Morrison Formation of western USA
have several 40 Ar/39 Ar ages spanning the 148151 Ma interval
(Kowallis et al., 1998), and palynology, ostracode, and charo-
phyte assemblages are interpreted as Kimmeridgian to early
Tithonian (Litwin et al., 1998; Schudack et al., 1998). The
Morrison Formation has several magnetostratigraphic studies
(e.g. Steiner et al., 1994), but unambiguous correlation and
associated age control on the M-sequence has not yet been
possible (F. Peterson, pers. comm., 2001).
The ages of the Oxfordian through Tithonian stages are
determined by the calibration of their magnetostratigraphy.
The base of the Oxfordian (base of polarity Chron M36An;
Ogg and Coe, 1997, and in prep.) is at 161.2 Ma. The base
of the Kimmeridgian as currently assigned in Boreal realm am-
monite stratigraphy (lower part of polarity Chron M26r; Ogg
and Coe, 1997, and in prep.) is at 155.65 Ma, whereas its base
as currently assigned in Tethyan (sub-Mediterranean) stratig-
raphy (base of polarity Chron M25r; Ogg et al., in prep.) is at
154.55 Ma. This base-Kimmeridgian age agrees with an inde-
pendent statistical estimate of 154.7 Ma (+3.8/3.3) for the
OxfordianKimmeridgian boundary derived from a radiomet-
ric age database by Palfy et al. (2000c).
The base of the Tithonian (base of polarity Chron M22An;
Ogg and Atrops, in prep.) is at 150.8 Ma. Oxfordian, Kim-
meridgian, and Tithonian ammonite zones are scaled accord-
ing to their calibration to the magnetic polarity time scale
The Jurassic Period 341
(Table 18.2). The JurassicCretaceous boundary or the base of
the Berriasian, which is assigned here as the base of Berriasella
jacobi ammonite zone (middle of polarity Chron M19n.2n), is
at 145.5 Ma.
18.3.5 Estimated uncertainties on stage ages and
durations
A variety of methods were applied to estimate Jurassic stage
boundaries, and each of these has different degrees of impre-
cision. In general, owing to a dearth of veried high-precision
radiometric ages between the Aalenian and the Albian, the
Jurassic age assignments are the least accurate for any portion
of the Phanerozoic time scale. In the following discussion,
the uncertainties are expressed as 2-sigma (95% condence
limits).
The Early Jurassic scale merged high-precision radiometric
ages, Milankovitch cycle tuning, and linear strontium isotope
segments, therefore the precision of the interpolated stage ages
are approximately the same as the radiometric constraints
from 0.6 myr for base-Hettangian (after increasing the cited
0.3 myr uncertainty on the UPb age to incorporate potential
systematic errors) increasing to 1.5 myr for base-Toarcian.
The early part of the Middle Jurassic is scaled by cycle stratig-
raphy relative to the base-Toarcian age, but these duration
estimates have not yet been veried in independent sections,
therefore a conservative uncertainty of 2 myr was applied
to the base-Aalenian age and 3 myr for the base-Bajocian
age.
The choice of spreading-rate model for the synthetic prole
of the M-sequence magnetic anomaly lineations, coupled with
the uncertainties on the two constraining ages on Chron M26n
(155 6 Ma) and Site 801 (167.7 1.4 Ma; see Chapter 5),
implies that the magnetostratigraphic calibration of the Oxfor-
dian through Tithonian stage boundaries have a high degree of
uncertainty (estimated as 4 myr), which is the highest uncer-
tainty on the age of any stage boundary within the Phanerozoic
(see Chapter 23). The choice of a spreading model will also af-
fect the durations by expanding or contracting the reference
scale. We conservatively estimate this uncertainty on durations
as being 35% for a realistic range of spreading models (Table
18.3).
The base-Bathonian and base-Callovian are proportion-
ally scaled according to their component ammonite sub-
zones between the calculated ages for the base-Bajocian
(from cycle stratigraphy) and base-Oxfordian (from the
spreading model), and therefore have equivalent or greater
uncertainties.
Table 18.3 Ages and duration of Jurassic stages (see footnote)
Estimated Estimated
uncertainty uncertainty
Age on age Duration on duration
Boundary Stage (Ma) (2-sigma) (myr) (2-sigma) Status; primary marker Calibration and comments
CRETACEOUS
(Berriasian)
Top of JURASSIC 145.5 4.0 Not dened. Base of Cretaceous Chron ages and duration of Tithonian
(base of Berriasian) (base of Berriasian) placed here through Oxfordian stages depend upon
as the leading candidate of the selected Pacic spreading rate model. Not
base of Berriasella jacobi well constrained. A slower spreading rate
ammonite zone or base of would yield a longer duration.
Calpionellid Zone B; which is
calibrated as Chron
M19n.2n(0.55)
Tithonian 5.3 1.8 Uncertainties on Tithonian through
Oxfordian durations are assigned as 35% of
duration, which is probable range of realistic
spreading models.
Base of Tithonian 150.8 4.0 Not dened, but candidate Computed from M-sequence spreading
marker is the lowest occurrence model.
of ammonite Hybonoticeras aff
hybonotum, which is at base of
Chron M22An.
Kimmeridgian 3.8 or 4.9 1.5 myr Duration of Kimmeridgian depends on
eventual decision for Kimm/Oxf boundary
denition.
Base of 154.6 4.0 Traditional usage is base of Computed from M-sequence spreading
Kimmeridgian Sutneria platynota Zone, which model.
(Tethyan) is just above base of Chron
M25r.
Base of 155.7 4.0 Traditional usage is base of Computed from M-sequence spreading
Kimmeridgian Pictonia baylei Zone, which is model.
(Boreal) lower part of polarity Chron
M26r.
Oxfordian 5.5 or 6.6 2 myr Duration of Oxfordian depends on eventual
decision for Kimm/Oxf boundary
denition.
Base of Oxfordian 161.2 4.0 Not dened, but candidate Computed from M-sequence spreading
marker is Quenstedtoceras mariae model.
ammonite zone, which is
correlated to base of Chron
M36An.
Callovian 3.5 1.0 Equal subzones in Bajo-Bath-Callov (53
subzones span 10.5 myr). Callovian has 18
subzones.
Base of Callovian 164.7 4.0 Not dened, but candidate Scaled according to equal-subzones from
marker is base of Macrocephalites computed ages for base-Bajocian and
herveyi ammonite zone base-Oxfordian.
Bathonian 3.0 1.0 Equal subzones in Bajo-Bath-Callov (53
subzones span 10.5 myr). Bathonian has 15
subzones.
Base of Bathonian 167.7 3.5 Not dened, but candidate Scaled according to equal-subzones from
marker is base of Zigzagiceras computed ages for base-Bajocian and
zigzag ammonite zone. base-Oxfordian.
Bajocian 3.9 1.0 Equal subzones in Bajo-Bath-Callov (53
subzones span 10.5 myr). Bathonian has 20
subzones.
Base of Bajocian 171.6 3.0 GSSP; lowest occurrence of the Age derived from cycle-scaling from
ammonite genus Hyperlioceras mid-Toarcian U-Pb dates.
(Toxolioceras).
 The Jurassic Period 343

Table 18.3 (cont.)

Estimated Estimated
uncertainty uncertainty
Age on age Duration on duration
Boundary Stage (Ma) (2-sigma) (myr) (2-sigma) Status; primary marker Calibration and comments
Aalenian 4.0 1.0 Total duration of Aalenian is estimated as
4.0 myr from cycle stratigraphy.
Base of Aalenian 175.6 2.0 GSSP; lowest occurrence of the Age derived from cycle-scaling from
ammonite genus Leioceras. mid-Toarcian U-Pb dates.
Toarcian 7.4 1.0 Total duration of Toarcian is estimated as
7.4 myr from cycle stratigraphy.
Base of Toarcian 183.0 1.5 Not dened, but candidate Age derived from cycle-scaling from
marker is lowest occurrence of basal-Jurassic and mid-Toarcian U-Pb dates.
the diversied Eodactylites
ammonite fauna.
Pliensbachian 6.6 0.8 Total duration of Pliensbachian is estimated
as 6.6 myr from assumed linear Sr trend,
scaled by cycle stratigraphy.
Base of 189.6 1.5 GSSP pending; lowest Age derived from cycle-scaling from
Pliensbachian occurrence of the ammonite basal-Jurassic and mid-Toarcian U-Pb dates.
species Bifericeras donovani and
Apoderoceras genera.
Sinemurian 6.9 0.8 Total duration of Sinemurian is estimated as
6.9 myr from assumed linear Sr trend,
scaled by cycle stratigraphy.
Base of Sinemurian 196.5 1.0 GSSP; lowest occurrence of the Age derived from cycle-scaling from
ammonite genera Vermiceras and basal-Jurassic U-Pb date.
Metophioceras.
Hettangian 3.1 0.4 Total duration of Hettangian is estimated as
4.1 myr from assumed linear Sr trend,
scaled by cycle stratigraphy.
Base of JURASSIC 199.6 0.6 Not dened, but traditionally U-Pb age on tuff near candidate GSSP level
(base of Hettangian) assigned to the rst occurrence is 199.6 0.3 Ma(2-sigma); increased to
of the smooth planorbis group 0.6 (2-sigma) to incorporate potential
within the ammonite genus external errors.
Psiloceras.
TRIASSIC
(Rhaetian)
For stages that lack a ratied denition (as of Nov 2004), the computed age is for the indicated primary marker. See text for discussion of derivation of uncertainty
estimates.

18.3.6 Summary of the Jurassic time scale
The Jurassic spanned 54 myr, between 199.6 0.6 and
145.5 4.0 Ma. The Early, Middle, and Late Jurassic segments
lasted 24, 14.4, and 15.7 myr, respectively. Ages for the Mid-
dle and Late Jurassic segments are relatively uncertain. An
improved time scale for the Jurassic would require addi-
tional high-precision radiometric ages with reliable strati-
graphic control, especially a data set that can be used to
calibrate the Late Jurassic magnetic polarity scale, and ap-
plication of Milankovitch cycle stratigraphy to upper Jurassic
deposits.
19 The Cretaceous Period
. . , . . , . .
105 Ma (mid-Cretaceous)
Santonian &
Campanian
Turonian Maastrichtian
Santonian &
Campanian Barremian
Santonian
Geographic distribution of Cretaceous GSSPs that have been
ratied (diamonds) or are candidates (squares) on a mid-Cretaceous
(105 Ma) map (status in January, 2004; see Table 2.3). Not all
The Pangea supercontinent fractures into the modern drifting conti-
nents. An explosion of calcareous nannoplankton and foraminifera in
the warm seas creates massive chalk deposits. A surge in undersea vol-
canic activity and spreading-ridge formation enhances super-green-
house conditions in the middleLate Cretaceous. Angiosperm plants
bloom on the dinosaur-dominated land during the Late Cretaceous.
The Cretaceous dramatically ends with an asteroid impact.
1 9 . 1 H I S T O RY A N D S U B D I V I S I O N S
19.1.1 Overview of the Cretaceous
Chalk (creta in Latin) characterizes a major unit of strata
around the Paris Basin and extends across much of Europe.
The Terrain Cretace was established by dOmalius dHalloy
(1822) and dened by him in 1823 to include the formation
of the chalk, with its tufas, its sands and its clays.
A Geologic Time Scale 2004, eds. Felix M. Gradstein, James G. Ogg, and Alan
G. Smith. Published by Cambridge University Press.
c F. M. Gradstein,
J. G. Ogg, and A. G. Smith 2004.
Coniacian
Cenomanian
Hauterivian &
Valanginian
Aptian
candidates are shown. GSSPs for the base-Cretaceous and entire
Lower Cretaceous are not yet formalized. The projection center is at
30 W.
William Smith had already mapped four stratigraphic
units between the lower clay (Eocene) and Portland Stone
(Jurassic), which were grouped by Conybeare and Phillips
(1822) into two divisions: the Chalk and the formations below.
This two-fold division, adopted in England and France at
an early stage, has persisted as the two Cretaceous series and
epochs.
Alcide dOrbigny (1840) grouped the Cretaceous fossil
assemblages of France into ve divisions, which he termed
etages (stages): Neocomian, Aptian, Albian, Turonian, and
Senonian. He later added Urgonian (between the Neocomian
and Aptian) and Cenomanian (between the Albian and Turo-
nian). The broad subdivision Neocomian, coined by Thur-
mann in 1836 for strata in the vicinity of Neuchatel, Switzer-
land, has been replaced by the three stages of Berriasian,
Valanginian, and Hauterivian following the recommendation of
Barbier, Debelmas, and Thieuloy in the Colloque sur le Cretace
inferieur (Barbier and Thieuloy, 1965). A Barremian Stage
and an expanded Aptian Stage have replaced the Urgonian
Stage. The broad Senonian (originally dened by dOrbigny to
344
 The Cretaceous Period 345

Table 19.1 Historical stratotypes of Cretaceous stages

Stage Regional Location Author (year) Traditional base

Maastrichtian Maastricht, southern Netherlands Dumont (1849) Lowest occurrence of belemnite

Belemnella lanceolata
Campanian Grande Champagne hillside near Coquand (1857a) Lowest occurrence of ammonite
Aubeterre-sur-Dronne, northern Placenticeras bidorsatum
Aquitaine, France
Santonian Saintes, Cognac region, France Coquand (1857a) Lowest occurrence of inoceramid
bivalve Cladoceramus undulatoplicatus
Coniacian Richemont Seminary near Cognac, Coquand (1857a) Lowest occurrence of ammonite
France Forresteria (Harleites) petrocoriensis
Turonian Tours region, Touraine, France dOrbigny (1842, 1847) Lowest occurrence of ammonite
Mammites nodosoides
Cenomanian Le Mans town, Sarthe region, dOrbigny (1847) Lowest occurrence of ammonite
northern France Mantelliceras genus
Albian Aube region, northeast France dOrbigny (1842) Lowest occurrence of NW Europe
ammonite Leymeriella schrammeni
Aptian Apt village, Vaucluse, Basse-Alpes dOrbigny (1840) Lowest occurrence of NW Europe
region, southeast France ammonite Prodeshayesites
Barremian Barreme village, Basse-Alpes region, Coquand (1861) Lowest occurrence of ammonite
southeast France Spitidiscus hugii
Hauterivian Hauterive area, Neuchatel, Renevier (1874) Lowest occurrence of ammonite
northwest Switzerland Acanthodiscus genus
Valanginian Seyon Gorge near Valangin, Desor (1854); Desor Lowest occurrence of ammonite
Neuchatel, northwest Switzerland and Gressly (1859) Thurmanniceras otopeta
Berriasian Berrias village, Ard`eche, southeast Coquand (1871) Lowest occurrence of ammonite
France Berriasella jacobi
Ryazanian Lowest occurrence of ammonite
Ructonia ructoni
Tithonian None Oppel (1865)

encompass all strata from the section at Villedieu through the
section at Maastricht) has been divided into four stages: Co-
niacian, Santonian, Campanian, and Maastrichtian. The up-
permost chalks of the Danish coast, which had traditionally
been included within the Cretaceous, are now placed as the
Danian Stage of the lowermost Cenozoic. The termination of
the Cretaceous is now dened by a major mass extinction and
impact-generated iridium anomaly horizon at the base of this
Danian Stage.
The boundaries of these twelve Cretaceous stages were pri-
marily dened by ammonoids in France and the Netherlands
(Birkelund et al., 1984; Kennedy, 1984; Table 19.1). Rened
recognition or proposed denitions of the basal boundaries
of these stages at the Second International Symposium on
Cretaceous Stage Boundaries (Rawson et al., 1996b) have en-
compassed other global criteria, including geomagnetic rever-
sals, carbon isotope excursions, and microfossil datums (Ta-
ble 19.2). A key problem in Cretaceous chronostratigraphy is
the difculty in correlating biostratigraphic events and associ-
ated stage boundary denitions from the cluster of historical
stratotype regions within the Paris Basin, Jura, and south-
east France into other paleogeographic and paleoceanographic
realms.
Historical usage, coupled with the expertise of members
of the various boundary working groups, has dictated a pref-
erential selection of boundary stratotypes for most stages and
substages within western European basins, and the accompa-
nying considerations for global correlation have generally not
addressed the circum-Pacic regions.
19.1.2 Lower Cretaceous
The subdivisions of the Berriasian through Aptian stages of the
Lower Cretaceous were originally derived from exposures in
southeast France and adjacent northwest Switzerland, where
the paleogeographic Vocontian trough and adjacent margins
preserved a nearly continuous record, often in limestonemarl
successions (Table 19.1). The fauna and microora thriving
Table 19.2 Cretaceous stage denitions (GSSP assignments or status) and informal division into substages. Stages are ordered stratigraphically (youngest at top)
Stage boundary
Stage Substage base Status Location and point
Upper Cretaceous
Maastrichtian Upper Under Potentially at Zumaya,
discussion northern Spain.
Maastrichtian/ Ratied, Grande carri`ere quarry
Campanian 2001 (abandoned), left bank of
Adour River, 1.5 km north
of Tercis-les-Bains village,
or 8 km southeast of Dax
railway station, Landes
province, southwestern
France. GSSP is at
115.70 m level on platform
IV in pale int facies of
Les Vignes lithologic unit
(beds are vertically
dipping).
Campanian Upper Under Under discussion
discussion
Middle Under Under discussion
discussion
Campanian/ Working Under discussion.
Santonian Group Boundary stratotypes
recom- under consideration
mendation include Seaford Head
(Sussex county, England),
Foreness Point (Kent
county, England), and
Waxahachie dam-spillway
(south of Dallas in
north-central Texas,
USA).
Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point
Primary markers Other correlations
Ammonite, Pachydiscus Approximately coeval with belemnite
fresvillensis rst Belemnitella junior lowest occurrence.
occurrence.
Ammonite, Pachydiscus Uppermost Campanian markers include,
neubergicus lowest in approximate succession, the highest
occurrence is occurrences (extinction) of ammonite
immediately above GSSP. Nostoceras hyatti and of dinoagellate
GSSP level is mean of a cyst Corradinisphaeridium horridum, and
succession of several benthic foraminifera Gavelinella
bioevents, rather than clementiana. Lowest Maastrichtian
utilizing a single primary markers include, in approximate
event. succession, lowest occurrence of
ammonite Diplomoceras cylindraceum, of
planktonic foraminifers Rugoglobigerina
scotti and Contusotruncana contusa, and
of ammonite Hoploscaphites constrictus;
highest occurrences of dinoagellate
cysts Raetiaedinium truncigerum,
Samlandia mayii and S. carnarvonensis,
and highest occurrence of calcareous
nannofossil Quadrum tridum (at 16m
above GSSP).
Substages of
approximately equal
duration.
Substages of
approximately equal
duration.
Crinoid, Marsupites Basal-Campanian markers include the
testudinarius highest lowest occurrence of ammonite Scaphites
occurrence (extinction). leei III (uppermost of three subspecies
of S. leei in North America), the
evolutionary transition from
Gonioteuthis granulate to G.
granulataquadrata belemnites (used in
NW Germany), the lowest occurrence of
planktonic foraminifer Globotruncana
elevata, and a small positive excursion in
carbon-13. [See footnote a for additional
markers.]
References
(GSSP,
Comments correlations)
Odin et al., 1996
Magnetostratigraphy, stable Odin, 1996; Odin
isotopes, strontium isotopes and et al., 1996; Barchi
belemnites are not useful at Tercis, et al., 1997;
but it may be possible to correlate Peybern`es et al.,
to other sections which have such 1997; Burnett,
stratigraphies. Boundary may be 1998; Odin &
approximately coeval with Lamaurelle, 2001;
beginning of magnetic polarity Odin et al., 2001.
Chron C31r, and may correlate
with base of Belemnella obtusa
belemnite zone of NW Germany
and near base of Baculites grandis
ammonite zone of western interior
of North America. However, exact
equivalences are disputed (see
text).
Informal placement in North Hancock, Gale
America at lowest occurrence of et al., 1996
ammonite Didymoceras nebrascense.
Informal placement in North Hancock, Gale
America at lowest occurrence of et al., 1996
ammonite Baculites obtusus.
Within the early portion of Hancock, Gale
reversed-polarity chron C33r. et al., 1996; Gale
et al., 1995;
Burnett, 1998
Santonian Upper Under Under discussion Potentially a crinoid, Other markers near this level include the At or just before the beginning of Lamolda,
discussion Uintacrinus socialis lowest lowest occurrences of planktonic reversed-polarity chron C33r. Hancock, et al.,
occurrence. foraminifer Globotruncanita convexa, 1996;
belemnite Goniotheuthis granulata, and Montgomery
calcareous nannofossils Amphizygus et al., 1998
minimus and Calculites obscurus.
Middle Under Under discussion Potentially an Inoceramid Other potential markers are the lowest At or just before the beginning of Lamolda,
discussion bivalve, Cladoceramus occurrence of inoceramid bivalve reversed-polarity chron C33r. Hancock, et al.,
undulatoplicatus highest Cordiceramus cordiformis, and the base of 1996
occurrence (extinction). the Gonioteuthis corangiunum/westfalica
belemnite zone.
Santonian/ Under- Cementos Portland quarry Inoceramid bivalve, Uppermost Coniacian markers include The Olazagutia section is situated Lamolda,
Coniacian going formal (Cantera de Margas) at Cladoceramus the lowest occurrences of ammonite in a working quarry, therefore Hancock, et al.,
vote (2003) Olazagutia, Navarra, undulatoplicatus lowest genus Texanites (Texanites), inoceramid accessibility is not fully 1996; Cretaceous
Spain. Seaford Head occurrence. bivalve Magadiceramus subquadratus, guaranteed, and the lack of Subcommission
(Sussex, England) and Ten planktonic foraminifer Sigalia deaensis, ammonites means that correlation newsletter, Dec.
Mile Creek (Dallas, Texas, and calcareous nannofossils Lithastrinus with other regions using 2002.
USA) were also grillii (base of nannofossil zone CC 15) macrofossils can best be based on
considered. and Micula decussata (= Micula inoceramids and echinoids.
staurophora). Lowermost Santonian However, the
markers include the lowest occurrences micropalaeontological data
of benthic foraminifer Stensioina includes nannofossils, foraminifers
polonica, planktonic foraminifer (both planktonic and benthic), and
Dicarinella asymetrica, and calcareous stable isotope curves have been
nannofossil Lucianorhabdus cayeuxii obtained.
(base of nannofossil zone CC16).
Coniacian Upper Working Under discussion Inoceramid bivalve, Lowest occurrences of planktonic The highest occurrence of this Kauffman et al.,
Group Magadiceramus foraminifer Sigalia carpathica and inoceramid is near the 1996
recom- subquadratus lowest benthic foraminifer Stensioina exsculpta Coniacian-Santonian stage
mendation occurrence. exsculpta. boundary.
Middle Working Potentially in Lower Inoceramid bivalve, genus At or near the lowest occurrence of Kauffman et al.,
Group Austin Chalk Formation Volviceras lowest ammonite Peroniceras (Peroniceras) 1996
recom- near Dallas-Fort Worth occurrence, and tridorsatum.
mendation (central Texas, southern specically Volviceramus
USA) or in the Upper koeneni.
Chalk formation exposed
at Seaford Head in
southern England.
Coniacian/ Working Salzgitter-Salder Quarry Inoceramid bivalve, The boundary lies between the highest Signicantly below the lowest Wood et al., 1994;
Turonian Group (active quarry; 5207.55N, Cremnoceramus rotundatus occurrence of ammonite Prionocyclus occurrence of Forresteria Kauffman et al.,
recom- 10 19.80 E) near (sensu Troger non Fiege) germari, and the lowest occurrence of (Harleites) petrocoriensis, which 1996; Voigt &
mendation Salzgitter-Salder village, lowest occurrence. Forresteria peruana and F. brancoi (North was the traditional marker for the Hilbrecht, 1997;
southwest of Hannover, America). Markers of uppermost base of the Coniacian in Europe. Sikora et al., pers.
Lower Saxony province, Turonian include the lowest occurrence Boundary is near a minor negative commun.
northern Germany. GSSP of calcareous nannofossil Lithastrinus carbon-isotope excursion.
would be at base of Bed septenarius (base of nannofossil zone However, diagenesis at candidate
MK 47 near the top of the CC13b), and an acme-zone of GSSP limits microfossil and stable
Grauweisse inoceramid bivalve Cremnoceramus isotope information.
Wechselfolge waltersdorfensis
(cont.)
Table 19.2 (cont.)
Stage boundary
Stage Substage base Status Location and point
lithostratigraphic unit in a
steeply dipping limestone
and marl succession.
Turonian Upper Under Candidate sections are at
discussion Lengerich, Munster
Basin, Westphalia,
northern Germany.
Middle Working Rock Canyon Anticline,
Group east of Pueblo, Colorado,
recom- west-central USA.
mendation Suggested GSSP is at base
of Bed 120 (approximately
5 meters above the GSSP
dening the base of the
Turonian Stage in the
same sections).
Turonian/ Ratied, Rock Canyon Anticline,
Cenomanian 2003 west of Pueblo, Colorado,
west-central USA. GSSP
is base of Bed 86 in a
section of limestone-marl
cycles in the lower Bridge
Creek Member of the
Greenhorn Limestone
Formation at west end of
the Denver and Rio
Grande Western Railroad
cut near the north
boundary of the Pueblo
Reservoir State Recreation
Area.
Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point
References
(GSSP,
Primary markers Other correlations Comments correlations)
waltersdorfensis. Markers of lowermost
Coniacian include the lowest occurrence
of inoceramid bivalve Cremnoceramus
waltersdorfensis hannovrensis.
Undecided. Potential Near the Pewsey carbon-isotope peak, Some of the biostratigraphic Bengtson et al.,
datums are the lowest which correlates with a transgressive markers have discrepancies in 1996; Jenkyns
occurrence of the surface in southern England and may position relative to the reference et al., 1994; Gale,
ammonite Subprionocyclus provide a correlation horizon to oceanic carbon-13 curves from different 1996; Weise &
neptuni in the Boreal sections. sections (Wiese and Kaplan, 2001). Kaplan, 2001.
realm (e.g., Germany,
England), of the
ammonite Romaniceras
deverianum in the Tethys
realm (e.g., southern
France, Spain), or of an
inoceramid bivalve,
Inoceramus perplexus (=
Mytiloides costellatus).
Ammonite, Lowest occurrence of inoceramid Bengtson et al.,
Collignoniceras woollgari bivalve Mytiloides hercynicus. 1996; Harries
lowest occurrence. et al., 1996
Ammonite, Watinoceras Below the boundary are the highest The maximum major Kennedy &
devonense lowest occurrences of planktonic foraminifer carbon-isotope peak associated Cobban, 1991;
occurrence. Rotalipora morphotypes and the lowest with oceanic anoxic event OAE2 Bengtson et al.,
occurrences of inoceramid bivalves occurs 0.5 m above the boundary, 1996; Accarie
Mytiloides hattini and Inoceramus pictus and the overall isotopic prole et al., 1996; Gale,
and of calcareous nannofossil enables global correlation. The 1996; Kennedy
Microstaurus chastius. Above the boundary is near a minor sequence et al., 2000;
boundary is the lowest occurrence of boundary within the middle of a Kennedy et al., in
planktonic foraminifer major transgressive systems tract press (Episodes,
Helvetoglobotruncana helvetica and of 2004).
inoceramus bivalve Mytiloides kosmati.
Cenomanian Upper Under Potentially in southern
discussion France.
Middle Working Southerham Gray Quarry,
Group Lewes, Sussex province,
recom- England. Suggested GSSP
mendation is couplet B38 in a
group of thin, relatively
clay-rich couplets that rest
on more thickly bedded
marly chalks.
Cenomanian/ Ratied, Gully exposures
Albian 2001 descending the western
anks of Mont Risou,
north of Le Chataud, 3.15
km east of Rosans,
Haute-Alpes province,
southeast France
(53043E, 442333N).
GSSP is 36 m below top of
Marnes Bleues Formation,
as dened by a zero datum
limestone at the base of the
succeeding limestone.
Lower Cretaceous
Albian Upper Working Not decided. Potentially
Group Col de Pallluel, east of
recom- Rosans, Drome province,
mendation southeast France.
Middle Working Not decided. Potentially
Group within dark gray clay-rich
recom- strata forming a steep
mendation southern bank of the
Marne river (Les-Cotes-
Noires-de-Moeslains)
about 4 km upstream from
town of St-Dizier,
Haute-Marne province,
northern France.
Undecided. Possibilities (from earliest to latest) are Troger, Kennedy,
the lowest occurrence of ammonite et al., 1996
Acanthoceras jukesbrownei, lowest
occurrence of bivalve Inoceramus pictus
pictus, extinction of A. jukesbrownei, and
lowest occurrence of ammonite
Calycoceras (Proeucalycoceras)
guerangeri.
Ammonite, Lowest occurrences of planktonic Lower/Middle Cenomanian Troger, Kennedy,
Cunningtoniceras inerme foraminifer Rotalipora reicheli and boundary interval is missing over et al., 1996; Gale,
lowest occurrence. bivalve Inoceramus schoendor. large regions due to its coincidence 1995
Approximately 5 couplets (100 kyr?) with a major sequence boundary.
above GSSP are the lowest occurrences
of ammonite Acanthoceras rhotomagense
and of bivalve Inoceramus tenuis and the
beginning of a positive excursion in
carbon-13.
Planktonic foraminifer, Highest occurrence of predominately Kalaat Senan region, north of Kef Troger, Kennedy,
Rotalipora Albian ammmonites is 3m above GSSP. el Azreg in central Tunisia, was et al., 1996; Gale
globotruncanoides lowest Lowest occurrences of Cenomanian proposed as a reference section for et al., 1996;
occurrence. ammonite markers of Mantelliceras the Albian-Cenomanian boundary Kennedy et al., in
mantelli, Neostlingoceras oberlini, interval for the Tethyan Realm. In press (Episodes,
Hyphoplites curvatus and Sciponoceras shelf carbonates, the lowest 2003);
roto are 6m above GSSP. [See footnote b occurrences of foraminifers Robaszynski et al.,
for additional markers] Orbitolina (Orbitolina) concava 1993
concava and O. (O.) conica are
commonly used as markers.
Ammonite, Dipoloceras Base of the Neohibolites oxycaudatus Commonly coincides with a Hart et al., 1996
cristatum lowest belemnite zone (north Germany), and transgression above a major
occurrence. the lowest occurrences of benthic sequence boundary
foraminifera Citharinella pinnaeformis
s.s. and Arenobulimina chapmani.
Ammonite, Lyelliceras Micropaleontology markers have not yet Hart et al., 1996;
lyelli lowest occurrence. been published from this St-Dizier Destombes and
section, but the Lower/Middle Albian Destombes, 1965;
boundary interval from other sections is Owen, 1971,
associated with the lowest occurrences 1996a
of the benthic foraminifera Epistominia
spinulifera, and of the calcareous
nannofossils Prediscosphaera cretacea,
Dictyococcites parvidentatus, Gaarderella
granulifera and Braarudosphaera
regularis.
(cont.)
Table 19.2 (cont.)

Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point

References
Stage boundary (GSSP,
Stage Substage base Status Location and point Primary markers Other correlations Comments correlations)
Albian/ Aptian Northern Vorhum, about 30 km east Ammonite, Leymeriella Base of Neohibolites strombecki belemnite A tuff layer lies shortly above the Hart et al., 1996;
Europe of Hannover in northern (P.) schrammeni anterior zone. Lowest occurrences of calcareous proposed boundary at Vohrum, (Owen, 1979, in
(Boreal) Germany. A suggested lowest occurrence. nannofossil Prediscosphaera columnata which may be suitable for Hart et al., 1996);
alternative GSSP is a 10-cm thick (subcircular form), and of benthic radiometric dating. Mutterlose et al.,
horizon (Bed 6b) of brown foraminifers Pleurostomella obtusa, Pl. 2003
cementstone nodules subnodosa, Arenobulimina macfadyeni,
within very dark sparsely Dorothia liformis, Vaginulina gaultina
shelly clay. and members of the Gaudryina dividens
lineage.
Southern Southeast France: (1) Undecided. Possibilities (in approximate ascending Paquier (OAE 1b) Hart et al., 1996;
Europe Stream cut to the north of order) are Jacob organic-rich shale, organic-enrichment episode can be Breheret et al.,
(Tethyan highway D994 at Col de lowest occurrence of calcareous correlated to the upper part of the 1986; Breheret,
Realm) Palluel, east of Rosans nannofossil Prediscophaera columnata Leymeriella acuticostata ammonite 1996, 1997;
alternative village, Drome province, (base of nannofossil zone NC8), topmost subzone in northern Germany. Kennedy et al.,
or at nearby Col de organic-rich bed of the Killian facies, 2000; personal
Pre-Guittard, or (2) highest occurrence of ammonite communications
Clay-rich badlands just Hypacanthoplites jacobi, lowest from J. Erbacher
east of the village of occurrence of ammonite Leymeriella (1997), H. Owen
Tartonne, north of tardefurcata, the Paquier organic-rich (1999), and J.
Barreme, Basse-Alpes event (coinciding with oceanic anoxic Kennedy (2003)
province. event OAE 1b), and lowest occurrence
of ammonite Douvilleiceras ex. gp.
mammillatum.
Aptian Upper Informal Ammonite, base of
(Clasayesian) usage Acanthoplites
(Nolaniceras) nolani zone.
Middle Informal Ammonite, genus First occurrences of ammonites This level corresponds to Casey et al., 1998;
(Gargasian) usage Dufrenoya highest Aconoceras nisum and Cheloniceras suggested Upper/Lower two-fold Ropolo et al.,
occurrence (extinction) (Epicheloniceras) martini. subdivision in the Boreal realm. 1998; Erba et al.,
(= top of Dufrenoya 1996
furcata zone) in Tethyan
realm; and equivalent to
top of Tropaeum
bowerbanki ammonite
zone in Boreal realm.
Aptian/ Working Gorgo a Cerbara, 2 km E Magnetic reversal, base of Just below proposed GSSP are lowest Candidate GSSP section has cycle Erba et al., 1996,
Barremian Group of Piobbico, Chron M0r. occurrences of calcareous nannofossils stratigraphy for scaling 1999; Channell
recom- Umbria-Marche province, Nannoconus truittii, Rucinolithus biostratigraphic and et al., 1995, 2000;
mendation central Italy. GSSP is irregularis, Chiastozygus litterarius, and chemistratigraphic events. About Aguado et al.,
suggested as the 893.32 m Flabellites oblongus, and of planktonic 1 myr after the boundary is 1997; Leereveld,
level. foraminifer Globigerinelloides blowi, and Oceanic Anoxic Event OAE1a, 1997b; Erba,
the highest occurrence in the Tethyan marked by a widespread 1994; Herbert,
realm of dinoagellate cyst organic-rich shale (Selli Level). 1992
 Pseudoceratium pelliferum.
Biostratigraphic markers that postdate
the boundary are a nannoconid crisis
in calcareous nannofossils and the lowest
occurrence of dinoagellate cyst
Tehamadinium tenuiceras.
Barremian Upper Working Section X.KV, Barranco de Ammonite, Ancyloceras Lowest occurrence of dinoagellate cyst Magnetostratigraphy was Company et al.,
Group Cavila near Caravaca, vandenheckei lowest Odontochitina operculata. Correlation to unsuccessful at Rio Argo, but 1995; Rawson
recom- Murcia province, Spain. occurrence. Boreal Realm is to lower part of the correlation to Italian sections et al., 1996;
mendation GSSP is suggested as thin Paracrioceras elegans ammonite zone, the indicates a placement in latest part Wilpshaar, 1995;
limestone bed 17a within highest occurrence of belemnite genus of magnetic polarity chron M3r Leereveld, 1995,
the marl-rich section. Aulacoteuthis, and the lowest occurrence (approximately M3r.8). 1997b; Bartolocci
of belemnite genus Oxyteuthis. et al., 1992;
Channell et al.,
1995
Barremian/ Working Ro Argos near Caravaca, Ammonite, Spitidiscus Approximately midway between the Boundary interval is within Company et al.,
Hauterivian Group Murcia province, Spain. hugii Spitidiscus highest occurrences of calcareous uppermost magnetic polarity zone 1995; Rawson
recom- GSSP level is not yet vandeckii group lowest nannofossils Lithraphidites bollii and M4n (approximately M4n.8) in et al., 1996; Habib
mendation decided. occurrence. Calcicalathina oblongata. Just below the Italy. Corresponds approximately & Drugg, 1983;
highest occurrence of dinoagellate cyst to the base of the Hoplocrioceras Cecca et al., 1994;
Exiguisphaera phragma and above the rarocinctum ammonite zone and Hoedemaeker &
lowest occurrence of dinoagellate cyst the lowest occurrence of the Leereveld, 1995;
Druggidium rhabdoreticulatum. belemnite Praeoxyteuthis pugio in Rawson et al.,
the Boreal Realm. 1996; Leereveld,
1995, 1997b;
Bartolocci et al.,
1992; Channell
et al., 1995
Hauterivian Upper Working Section near La Charce Calcareous nannofossil, This level is reported to coincide with Mutterlose et al.,
Group village, Drome province, Cruciellipsis cuvillieri the middle of the Subsaynella sayni 1996; Bergen,
recom- southeast France. GSSP highest occurrence ammonite zone of Tethyan Realm and 1994; Channell
mendation level is not yet decided. (extinction). near beginning of polarity Chron M8r. et al., 1993, 1995
In the Boreal realm, it may be near the
base of Simbirskites (Speetoniceras)
inversum ammonite zone of England
(Crux, 1989) and base of Simbirskites
staf ammonite zone in northwest
Germany (Kemper et al., 1987).
Hauterivian/ Working Section near La Charce Ammonite, genus Earliest Hauterivian has the lowest No magnetostratigraphy from La Mutterlose et al.,
Valanginian Group village, Drome province, Acanthodiscus lowest occurrence of the dinoagellate cyst Charce section, but is probably 1996; Bulot et al.,
recom- southeast France. GSSP occurrence (especially A. Muderongia staurota and the highest near beginning of polarity chron 1993; Reboulet,
mendation level is not yet assigned, but radiatus). occurrence of calcareous nannofossil M11n. 1995; Thieuloy,
would probably be between Eiffelithus windii. Probably coeval with 1977; Leereveld,
Bed 188 and 189 of Reboulet lowest occurrence of ammonite 1995, 1997b;
(1995) (or Bed 254 in the Endemoceras amblygonium in Boreal Bergen, 1994;
numbering system of Bulot Realm. Channell et al.,
et al., 1993). 1995
Valanginian Upper Informal Ammonite, Saynoceras Onset of a major sea-level transgression Bulot et al., 1996
European verrucosum lowest
usage occurrence
(cont.)
Table 19.2 (cont.)

Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point

References
Stage boundary (GSSP,
Stage Substage base Status Location and point Primary markers Other correlations Comments correlations)
Valanginian/ Working Two candidates: (1) 5 km Calpionellid, Approximately at the base of the Coincides with rare migrations of Aguado et al.,
Berriasian Group NW of Calpionellites darderi Thurmanniceras pertransiens ammonite cold-water taxa from the Boreal 2000; Blanc et al.,
recom- Montbrun-les-Bains, lowest occurrence (base of zone and just below lowest occurrence of Realm into the Tethyan Realm. No 1994; Bulot et al.,
mendation Drome province, southeast Calpionellid Zone E); nannofossil Calcicalathina oblongata. magnetostratigraphy from 1996; Bulot et al.,
France where suggested followed by the lowest Close to lowest occurrences of candidate GSSP in France, but 1995; Leereveld,
GSSP level is Bed 209 (a occurrence of ammonite dinoagellate cysts Spiniferites spp. and magnetostratographic studies 1995, 1997a;
condensed, 4-cm thick, Thurmanniceras Oligosphaeridium complex. Correlation is from candidate GSSP in southeast Bergen, 1994;
pyrite-rich bed), and (2) pertransiens. indicated to near the base of the Spain place the base of Channell &
Barranco de Canada Platylenticeras ammonite zone Calpionellid Zone E at Grandesso, 1987;
Luenga, 3 km SSW of (Germany) and the top of the approximately the middle of Channell et al.,
Cehegn, near Caravaca in Peregrinoceras albidum ammonite zone magnetic polarity Chron M14r. 1987; Ogg et al.,
southeast Spain. (England). 1988.
Berriasian Upper Informal Ammonite, Malbosiceras Close to lowest occurrence of Possibily within the uppermost Zakharov et al.,
southern paramimounum lowest Calpionellopsis simplex (base of Runctonia runctoni ammonite zone 1996; Galbrun,
Europe occurrence (base of Calpionellid Zone D = Calpionellopsis of the Boreal Realm. 1984; Ogg et al.,
usage Fauriella boissieri Zone). Middle of magnetic polarity 1991.
ammonite zone). Chron M16r (M16r.5) .
Berriasian/ Under La Faurie, Ravin de Ammonite, Tirnovella Approximately coincident with bases of Traditional base of the Middle Zakharov et al.,
Tithonian (= discussion Dreymien subalpina lowest Praetollia maynci/Runctonia runctoni Berriasian in the Mediterranean 1996;
base of (younger (Alpes-de-Provence, occurrence. ammonite zone (base of Ryazanian region, but can be correlated to Hoedemaeker &
Cretaceous) possibility) France), or Section Z of regional stage) and Buchia okensis Boreal Realm. Leereveld, 1995;
Berrancode de Tollo (Ro buchiid zone of the Boreal Realm. Early Galbrun, 1984
Argos near Caravaca, part of polarity Chron M17r
Murcia province, Spain). (approximately M17r.3).
Berriasian/ Under Puerto Escano section, Ammonite, Berriasella Approximated by the base of Correlation to Boreal Realm is not Zakharov et al.,
Tithonian (= discussion Cordoba province, Spain. jacobi lowest occurrence. Calpionellid Zone B (base Calpionella rmly established, but 1996, Tavera
base of (older alpina subzone, marked by base of acme magnetostratigraphy suggests et al., 1994;
Cretaceous) possibility) of Calpionella subalpina). Later part of equvalence to lowermost Hoedemaeker &
magnetic polarity Chron M19n Subcraspedites preplicomphalus Bulot, 1990;
(approximately M19n.2n.5). ammonite zone. Hoedemaeker,
Company, et al.,
1993; Ogg et al.,
1991

Footnotes:
a [Campanian/Santonian] Boundary is in the lower part of calcareous nannofossil zone CC17, with the rst regular occurrence of Calculites obscurus and highest occurrence of Lithastrinus septenarius (= L. moratus
sensu Varol) in uppermost Santonian. Lowest Campanian markers include, in approximate succession, the lowest occurrence of crinoid Uintacrinus anglicus (base of the Offaster pilula zone), the highest occurrences
of planktonic foraminifers Dicarinella asymetrica and Globotruncana concavata, the lowest occurrence of ammonite Menabites (Delawarella) delawarensis, and the lowest occurrence of calcareous nannofossil
Broinsonia parca parca (base of nannofossil zone CC18).
b [Cenomanian/Albian] Uppermost Albian markers include the highest occurrence of planktonic foraminifer Rotalipora ticinensis, the lowest occurrence of planktonic foraminifer Rotalipora gandoli, and the lowest
occurrence of calcareous nannofossil Calculites anfractus. Lowest Cenomanian markers include the lowest common occurrence of planktonic foraminifer Rotalipora globotruncanoides, and lowest occurrence of
bivalve Inoceramus crippsii crippsii. GSSP is bounded by two positive excursions in carbon-13. In many regions, the Albian-Cenomanian boundary interval is coincident with a widespread hiatus and condensation
associated with a major sequence boundary.

in the tropical ocean of this Tethyan realm did not extend
into the colder Boreal realm of northwest Europe and other
northern regions; therefore, the Boreal equivalents of most of
these Tethyan-dened stages remain uncertain.
Most primary markers under consideration for dening
stage and substage boundaries of the Berriasian through Bar-
remian are lowest or highest occurrence of species of am-
monoids (Table 19.2). The proposed base of the Aptian Stage
has utilized a global magnetic reversal, and a possible correla-
tion marker for the base of the Albian Stage is a widespread
organic-enrichment episode or a calcareous nannofossil.
J U R A S S I C C R E TAC E O U S B O U N DA RY A N D T H E
B E R R I A S I A N S TAG E
Debate over the basal boundary of the Cretaceous Period The
base of the Cretaceous Period currently lacks an accepted global
boundary denition, despite over a dozen international con-
ferences and working groups dedicated to the issue since 1974
(Zakharov et al., 1996).
The Berriasian was proposed for limestone near the vil-
lage of Berrias (Ard`eche province, southeast France; Coquand,
1871; reviewed in Rawson, 1983). Originally conceived as a
subdivision of the Valanginian, it was subsequently often re-
ferred to as Infra-Valanginian until the name Berriasian
was eventually brought back into use. The preceding Titho-
nian Stage of latest Jurassic was dened by Oppel (1865) to
include all deposits in the Mediterranean area which lie be-
tween a restricted Kimmeridgian and Valanginian, but no
representative section was designated. To some degree, the
new Berriasian Stage overlapped with the original concept
of the Tithonian Stage, and the historical lower boundary of
the Berrias stratotype (base of the Berriasella jacobi ammonite
zone) lacks any signicant faunal change. Therefore, some
workers have suggested that perhaps it is more appropriate to
place the Berriasian Stage in the Jurassic and assign the base of
the Cretaceous to the base of the current Valanginian Stage (e.g.
Rawson, 1990; Remane, 1990, cited in Zakharov et al., 1996).
However, traditional usage favors an ammonoid biostrati-
graphic datum for dening the base of the Cretaceous as the
base of the Berriasian Stage. Two lowest occurrences of new
ammonoid taxa in the Mediterranean region have been pro-
posed (Table 19.2; Zakharov et al., 1996):
1. Ammonoid turnover at family level at the base of the
Berriasella jacobi ammonite zone (e.g. Colloque sur la lim-
ite JurassiqueCretace, 1975; Hoedemaeker et al., 1993).
This horizon is approximately the base of Calpionellid
The Cretaceous Period 353
Zone B and the later part of magnetic polarity Chron
M19n. However, it has not been correlated with the Boreal
paleogeographic realm. In a suggested boundary strato-
type at the Puerto Escano section (Cordoba province,
Spain), the pelagic limestone facies contains ammonoids,
calpionellids, and calcareous nannoplankton (Tavera et al.,
1994).
2. Ammonoid turnover at the base of the Subthurmannia sub-
alpina ammonite subzone (base of Subthurmannia occitan-
ica Zone) in the lower portion of polarity Chron M17r.
Even though this level is generally considered as the base
of the Middle Berriasian in the Mediterranean region, it
corresponds to the effective base of the ammonite zonation
at the historical Berrias stratotype, because of the virtual
absence of ammonites and the frequency of intervals with
reworked sediments below that zone (Hoedemaeker et al.,
2003). This level also has an advantage in that it can be
correlated to the Boreal realm, where it is approximately
coincident with the base of the Runctonia runctoni am-
monite zone. Potential boundary stratotypes are found in
southeast France and at Rio Argos near Caravaca, Spain,
where the level coincides with a depositional sequence
boundary (Hoedemaeker and Leereveld, 1995).
Alternative possibilities for a primary marker for a GSSP
at the base of the Cretaceous are a microfossil event (e.g. the
base of Calpionellid Zone B), sequence stratigraphy (e.g. the
major Purbeckian regression marking a major global fall in
sea level), or magnetostratigraphy (e.g. the base of magnetic
polarity Chron M18r was suggested by Ogg and Lowrie, 1986).
In GTS2004, we have adopted the rst alternative (base
of Berriasella jacobi ammonite zone, base of Calpionellid Zone
B; later part of polarity Chron M19n) for the base of the Cre-
taceous period in our summary charts (e.g. Figs. 18.1, 19.1,
and 19.2). Magnetostratigraphy of sections near the English
Channel indicate a correlation to the lowermost portion of the
Subcraspedites preplicomphalus ammonite zone of northwest
Europe (Ogg et al., 1991a, 1994; Ogg and Wimbledon, in prep.).
Upper Berriasian substage The base of the Upper Berriasian
substage in the Mediterranean region is currently placed at
the base of the Malbosiceras paramimounum ammonite subzone
(the base of the Subthurmannia boissieri Zone; Zakharov et al.,
1996). This level is close to the base of Calpionellid Zone D
and is in the middle of magnetic polarity zone M16r (M16r.5;
Galbrun, 1984). Magnetostratigraphic correlation to southern
England projects this level to the uppermost Runctonia runc-
toni ammonite zone of the Boreal realm (Ogg et al., 1991a).
354 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

No boundary stratotype for this substage has yet been recom-
mended.
Volgian, Portlandian, and Ryazanian regional stages of Eu-
rope It has been nearly impossible to correlate the Jurassic
Cretaceous boundary interval (upper Tithonian and Berriasian
Stages) of the Tethyan realm into the Boreal realm, therefore
independent regional units of a Volgian Stage (or Portlandian
Stage in southern England) followed by a Ryazanian Stage have
been traditionally used (Fig. 19.2).
The base of the regional Ryazanian Stage is traditionally
assigned as the base of the Ructonia ructoni ammonite zone
(eastern England) and at the base of the Praetollia maynci or
Chetaites sibiricus ammonite zones (Russian and Siberian zona-
tions), but these levels may not be equivalent (Hancock, 1991;
Hardenbol et al., 1998). The base of the Ryazanian Stage is
probably near the base of the Subthurmannia subalpina am-
monite subzone of the Berriasian Stage. The top of the Ryaza-
nian Stage is probably close to the base of the revised denition
of the Valanginian Stage.
VA L A N G I N I A N S TAG E
History, revised denition, and boundary stratotype The
original type section of the Valanginian Stage included
all post-Jurassic strata to the base of the Marnes de
Hauterive in shallow-marine facies at Seyon Gorge near
Valangin (Neuchatel, Switzerland; Desor, 1854; Desor and
Gressly, 1859). Because the type section is poor in am-
monoids, hypostratotype sections at Angles (Alpes-de-
Haute-Provence province) and Barret-le-Bas (Hautes-Alpes
province) in southeast France have served as reference sec-
tions (Busnardo et al., 1979). The base of the Valanginian was
provisionally placed at the base of the Thurmanniceras otopeta
ammonite zone (Busnardo et al., 1979; Birkelund et al., 1984).
Taxonomic and correlation problems with the ammonoid
successions (e.g. Bulot et al., 1993a) led the Valanginian
Working Group (Hoedemaeker et al., 2003) to recommend
placing the base of the Valanginian Stage at the base of Calpi-
onellid Zone E, dened by the rst occurrence of Calpionellites
darderi (Bulot et al., 1996; Aguado et al., 2000), which shifts the
T. otopeta ammonite zone into the Berriasian Stage. This level
can be traced from France to Mexico, is associated with other
bioevents, and coincides with rare migrations of cold-water
taxa into the Tethyan realm (reviewed in Aguado et al.,
2000). Magnetostratigraphiccalpionellid studies in Italy
and Spain have indicated an apparent 300 000 yr variability
or diachroneity of the base of Calpionellid Zone E between
the middle of magnetic polarity Chron M14r to earliest
part of polarity Chron M14n (Channell and Grandesso,
1987; Channell et al., 1987; Ogg et al., 1988). A candidate
GSSP in southeast France is within alternating limestone
and marl with well-preserved ammonoid and calpionellid
successions, where the proposed boundary level is followed
by the lowest occurrence of the ammonite Thurmanniceras
pertransiens (Blanc et al., 1994). A candidate GSSP section
at Barranco de Canada Luenga, south of Cehegn, southeast
Spain, has integrated calpionellid, ammonoid, nannofossil,
and magnetostratigraphy (Aguado et al., 2000).
Correlation of this re-dened base of Valanginian in the
Tethyan realm to the Boreal realm is not precise. Ammonoid
migration episodes and nannofossil and dinoagellate cyst
comparisons suggest correspondences near the bases of the
regional usages of Valanginian in northwest Germany and
in England (Leereveld, 1995; Bulot et al., 1996).
Upper Valanginian substage The base of the Upper
Valanginian is traditionally placed at the base of the distinc-
tive Saynoceras verrucosum ammonite zone, which can also
be recognized in the west European province of the Boreal
realm. Magnetostratigraphic, chemostratigraphic, and micro-
fossil markers (e.g. Channell et al., 1993) await calibration
with this ammonoid datum. Potential boundary stratotypes
in southeast France and the Betic Cordillera of Spain are

Figure 19.1 Cretaceous time scale with selected biostratigraphic zonations and datums, magnetic polarity chrons, and major depositional
sequences. The primary absolute-age stratigraphic scales are: CenomanianMaastrichtian ammonite zones of the Western Interior of North
America, Albian foraminifer zones, Aptian ammonite zones, and basal-Aptian through Tithonian M-sequence magnetic polarity chrons. Ages
of stage boundaries and other stratigraphic events are from their direct calibration to the primary stratigraphic scale (e.g. magnetostratigraphic
correlation of proposed basal-Valanginian ammonite zone boundary) or extrapolated from published correlation estimates (e.g. Mesozoic
chronostratigraphy charts of Hardenbol et al., 1998) see text for details. Dashed lines denote relatively uncertain calibrations of other
biostratigraphic events to the primary scale, or intervals in which ammonite zones have been arbitrarily scaled proportional to the relative
number of subzones. Most subzonal units are omitted, and only a generalized ammonite stratigraphy is given for some intervals (see
biostratigraphic chart series in Hardenbol et al., 1998 for full listing and correlation web). Biostratigraphic ages of Aptian and Albian OAE1a
through OAE1d are from Leckie et al. (2002). Major ooding or regressive trends of depositional sequences of north west Europe (Hardenbol
et al., 1998) are labeled at the maximum lowstand of the respective third-order sequence. A color version of this gure is in the plate section.
 The Cretaceous Period 355

Cretaceous Time Scale

Ammonite zones Belemnites Microfossil datums Main
AGE Stage Polarity W. Interior, and other Planktonic Calcareous Seq.
(Ma) Chron Tethyan N. Amer. Macrofossils foraminifera nannoplankton T R
Paleogene P & P0 NP2
65 (Danian) P1 CP1
65.5 0.3 C29 NP1
Micula

26
terminus Abathom. prinsii
mayaroensis,

A. mayar.
Gansserina Nephrolithus
C30 (Triceratops
dinosaur fauna) Belemnella gansseri frequens
U Few usable casimirovensis

CC25
ammonites Abathom. Micula
fresvillensis mayaroensis murus
Maastrichtian Jel. nebrascensis
Hoplo. nicolleti B. junior
Lith.
quadratus

G. hav. G.aegyptica G. gansseri R. fruct.

Reinhardtites
C31 Hoplo. birkelundi B. fastigata Racemi.
fructicosa, levis

CC24
Bac. clinolobatus B. cibrica
Pachydiscus B. sumensis Contusotrun. Quadrum
70 L Bac. grandis contusa
neubergicus B. obtusa trifidum
Bac. baculus
70.6 0.6 Bac. eliasi
B. pseudobtusa Tranolithus Ma1
Nost. hyatti B. lanceolata phacelosus
Bac. jenseni
Gansserina
C32 Bac. reesidei gansseri
Bac. cuneatus Belemnitella

CC23
Didymoceras
cheyennensis "langei"
B. compressus
U
Didymoceras Globotruncana
cheyennense aegyptica
Bel. "minor"
Exit. jenneyi Aspido. parcus
75 Globotrun. (B. parca)
D. stevensoni havanensis Buk. magnus Cam8
Quad.

G.c.
D. nebrascense trifidum

CC20 21 22
Eiffel.
Bac. scotti eximius
Globotrun.
Campanian
G. ventricosa
Belemnitella calcarata
B. gregoryensis Quadrum
Bostrychoceras mucronata sissinghii
polyplocum B. perplexus (late)
M Bac. gilberti
C33 perplexus (early)
Ceratolith.
aculeus
Bacul. sp. smooth Globotruncana

CC19
ventricosa Cam5
B. asperiformis Bukryaster
80 Bac. maclearni hayi
marroti / vari Bac. obtusus
Bacul. sp. (weak Marthaster.
delawarensis flank ribs / smooth) furcatus
G. elevata

Gonioteuthis
Scaphites quadrata Ceratolith.
L hippocrepis verbeekii
CC18
Placenticeras III / II / I
bidorsatum Offasta Globotruncana
Scaph. leei III pilula elevata Aspido.
parcus parcus
83.5 0.7 Calculites
D. concavata D. asym.

U Desmo. bassleri, Marsupites D. asymetrica

paraplanum D. erdmanni, testudinarius & D. concavata obscurus
polyopsis

Sa3
C. choteauensis E.
15 16

85 Santonian M Clio. vermiformis Uintacrinus socialis

Dicarinella
asymetrica L. floralis
cayeuxii
L C34 gallicus Clioscaphites
saxitonianus S. sigali
R.
85.8 0.7 D. primitiva anthophorus
serrato- Scaph. Micraster
U
CC14

marginatus depressus coranguinum

Coniacian Scaph.
M margae
ventricosus
356 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

Cretaceous Time Scale

Ammonite zones Belemnites Microfossil datums Main
AGE Polarity
(Ma) Stage Chron Tethyan W. Interior, and other
Macrofossils
Planktonic Calcareous Seq.
N. Amer. foraminifera nannoplankton T R
85.8 0.7 D. primitiva R.
anthophorus
serrato- Scaph.
U Micraster

CC14
marginatus depressus

D. concavata
Cretaceous Normal-Polarity Super-Chron
coranguinum
Scaph. W. archaeo- M.
Coniacian M
margae ventricosus cretacea decussata
tridorsatum allaudi/preventri. Micraster

CC12 CC13
cortestudinarium M. Tu4?
For. petrocoriensis Forr. peruana
L
("Cretaceous Quiet Zone")
Dicarinella furcatus
89.3 1.0 Prion. germari concavata
neptuni through
U Prion. macombi

R. cush. W.a. H. helvetica M.sigali

90 (7 zones) Sternotaxis
planus L. maleformis
Prion. hyatti
C. woollgari
deverianum E. eximius
ornatissimum Pr. percarinatus H.
M
Turonian kallesi helvetica

CC11
turoniense Coll. woollgari
Terebratulina
Mam. nodosoides M. nodosoides lata
Helv.
L coloradoense / birchbyi, flexuosum, Mytiloides labiatus helvetica
Wat. devonense Wat. devonense Q.
93.5 0.8 Neocard. juddii, W. archaeo- gartneri
Nig. scotti, cretaceaRot.
Met. geslinianum OAE2

CC10
U Caly. naviculare Neoc. juddii ("Bonarelli") cushmani
Ac. jukesbrownei through Rot. R.
95 cush. reich.,globo. M. decoratus
Acanthoceras Con. gilberti L. acutus
M rhotomagense (15 zones) R.
Cunning. inerme reicheli Ce3
R.
Major

R. globotuncan.
Cenomanian Mantelliceras Neog. maclearni, Oceanic
appenninica

dixoni N. americanus, Anoxic

Neog. muelleri Events
(equiv. 6 zones)
L Rotalipora
Mantelliceras N.cornutus, N.haasi globo-

CC9
mantelli truncanoides

99.6 0.9 OAE1d Al 11

R.ticinen. R.app.

100 Stoliczkaia ("Breistroffer") Rotalipora

dispar appenninica

Callihoplites
M"-3r" ? auritus E.
Mortoniceras inflatum

May Rotalipora
contain OAE1c ticinensis
turriseiffelii
brief Hysteroceras ("Toolebuc"
U sub- or "Amadeus") R. sub-
R.s.

varicosum
chrons ticinensis
Hystero.
T. praeticin.

Albian orbignyi
NW Europe
105
Diploceras
ammonite
zones
CC8

cristatum B.
breggiensis Al 7
Euhopl. lautus daviesi/ nitidus
Ticinella
Tic. primula

M"-2r" ? meandrinus, praeticinensis

Euhoplites subdelaruei,
M May
contain loricatus niobe,
intermedius
brief
sub- Hoplites dentatus H. spathi/ L. lyelli A.
chrons albianus Al 4

Figure 19.1 (cont.)

 The Cretaceous Period 357

Cretaceous Time Scale

Ammonite zones Oceanic Microfossil datums Main
AGE Stage Polarity W. Interior, Anoxic Planktonic Calcareous Seq.
(Ma) Chron Tethyan N. Amer. Events foraminifera nannoplankton T R
Euhopl. lautus daviesi/ nitidus Al 7

CC8
Ticinella
M"-2r" ? meandrinus, praeticinensis
Euhoplites subdelaruei,
M May

Tic. primula
loricatus niobe,
contain intermedius
brief
sub- Hoplites dentatus H. spathi/ L. lyelli A.
chrons albianus
Albian L. pseudolyelli
through OAE1b
Al 4
Douvilleiceras D. perinflata set
110 mammillatum (8 zones)
L ("Urbino") Ticinella
primula
Ley. regularis,

Gl. ferreo. Gl. algerianus Hed. troc. T. beja. Hed. planispira

Leymeriella Ley. tardefurcata ("Paquier")
tardefurcata P.
Ley. schrammeni
112.0 1.0 Hedbergella
columnata
Hypacanthoplites
Clansayesian

jacobi Hypa. anglicus planispira Ap6

("Jacob")
Nolaniceras Hypa.

N. nolani
nolani rubricosus Ticinella
bejaouaensis
D. nodoso- Nannoconus
costatum N. nolani steinmannii
115

R.
P. Parahoplites achlyostaurion
U melchioris nutfieldiensis

CC7
Gargasian

G. algerianus

Aptian M"-1r"
(ISEA) E.
subnodoso- Epicheloniceras
martinoides M.
costatum hoschulzii
120

Dufrenoya Tropaeum E.
furcata bowerbanki floralis
L. cabri
Bedoulian

Deshayesites Deshayesites
deshayesi deshayesi OAE1a Leupoldina
L ("Selli") cabri R.
Deshayesites angustus
weissi Desh. forbesi
Nannoconid Ap3
Deshayesites Prodeshayesites Crisis

125 125.0 1.0 M0r oglanlensis fissicostatus

N. truittii
P. waagenoides P. bidentatum
Glob. blowi

Sim. stolleyi R.
C. sarasini Ancy. innexum / irregularis
M1 I. giraudi pingue
U Hemi. feraudianus Paracrioceras
CC6

Globigerinell.
denckmanni
Barremian Hemi. sartousi blowi Bar5
A. vandenheckii Para. elegans
H. sim.

Coron. darsi H. fissicostatum

M3 K. compressissima
Hedbergella
kutznetsovae,
L Nick. pulchella Hoplocrioceras H. similis C. Bar1
Kotetish. nicklesi rarocinctum oblongata
130 130.0 1.5 Tavera. hugii auct.

Figure 19.1 (cont.)

358 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
Figure 19.1 (cont.)
being considered (Bulot et al., 1996). The base of the Upper
Valanginian is the onset of a major sea-level transgression,
and the following pronounced sea-level highstand is associ-
ated with the greatest ammonoid diversity of the Valanginian
in the Mediterranean faunal province (Reboulet et al., 1992;
Hoedemaeker and Leereveld, 1995; Reboulet, 1996; Reboulet
and Atrops, 1999).
H AU T E R I V I A N S TAG E
History, denition, and boundary stratotype The Hauterivian
Stage was assigned in the area of Hauterive (Neuchatel,
Switzerland) to encompass marnes a` Astieria (later trans-
ferred to Valanginian), marnes bleues dHauterive, and
Pierre Jaune de Neuchatel (Renevier, 1874; reviewed

in Rawson, 1983). The base of the Hauterivian in the Tethyan
realm is traditionally recognized by the lowest occurrence of
the ammonite species Acanthodiscus radiatus. Reboulet (1996)
suggested that the base of the Radiatus Zone should be dened
by the rst occurrence of the ammonite genus Acanthodiscus
(Reboulet and Atrops, 1999).
Expanded sections of ammonoid-rich, limestonemarl al-
ternations in southeast France have served as the reference for
this stage. The section at the village of La Charce in this region
is the proposed global boundary stratotype for both the base of
the Hauterivian Stage and base of the upper substage (Thieu-
loy, 1977; Mutterlose et al., 1996). Inter-realm exchanges of
dinoagellate cyst and ammonoid assemblages suggest that
the traditional Boreal usage of Hauterivian (base of Ende-
moceras amblygonium ammonite zone) is nearly coeval with this
candidate GSSP level in the Tethyan realm (Leereveld, 1995;
Mutterlose et al., 1996). Ammonoids that are characteristic of
lowest Hauterivian in Italy indicate that the base of the Hauteri-
vian may be nearly coincident with the beginning of magnetic
polarity Chron M11n (Channell et al., 1995a).
Upper Hauterivian substage The traditional base of the Up-
per Hauterivian substage in the Tethyan realm was the highest
occurrence of Neocomitinae ammonoids and the lowest oc-
currence of the ammonite Subsaynella sayni, but these events
cannot be recognized in the Boreal realm. Therefore, it was
recommended that the highest occurrence of the calcareous
nannofossil Cruciellipsis cuvillieri serve as the global marker for
the base of the Upper Hauterivian (Mutterlose et al., 1996).
The highest occurrence of C. cuvillieri has been reported from
the middle of the Subsaynella sayni ammonite zone (Bergen,
1994) and is near the base of magnetic polarity zone M8r in
Italy (Channell et al., 1993, 1995a).
BA R R E M I A N S TAG E
History, denition, and boundary stratotype The original
Barremian Stage concept of Coquand (1861) was a vague
assignment to an assemblage of belemnites and ammonoids
with a type locality near Barreme (Alpes-de-Haute-Provence,
southeast France), which also encompassed the current
Upper Hauterivian substage. Busnardo (1965) redened the
Barremian Stage using the roadside exposures of Angles in
southeast France as the type locality.
The base of the Barremian is marked by the lowest occur-
rence of the Taveraidiscus hugii auctorum (formerly called Spi-
tidiscus hugii; Hoedemaeker and Reboulet, 2003), Avramidis-
cus vandeckii ammonite group, and a candidate for the global
The Cretaceous Period 359
boundary stratotype is at Rio Argos, near Caravaca, Spain
(Company et al., 1995; Rawson et al., 1996b). This bound-
ary interval in Italy falls within uppermost magnetic polar-
ity zone M4n (at approximately Chron M4n.8 = M5n.8;
Bartolocci et al., 1992; Channell et al., 1995a). Correlation
to the Boreal realm by dinoagellate cysts indicate that this
base of the Barremian Stage is approximately at the base of the
Hoplocrioceras rarocinctum ammonite zone (Leereveld, 1995;
Rawson et al., 1996b).
Upper Barremian substage The boundary between the Lower
and Upper Barremian is dened by the lowest occurrence of
the ammonite Ancyloceras vandenheckei (Rawson et al., 1996b).
The proposed substage GSSP is near Caravaca, Spain (Com-
pany et al., 1995). This substage boundary level is within the
uppermost part of magnetic polarity zone M3r (at approxi-
mately Chron M3r.8) in Italy (Bartolocci et al., 1992; Channell
et al., 1995a) and is correlated to the lower part of the Paracrio-
ceras elegans ammonite zone of the Boreal realm (Leereveld,
1995; Rawson et al., 1996b).
A P T I A N S TAG E
History, revised denition, and boundary stratotype The Ap-
tian Stage was a vague designation by Alcide dOrbigny (1840)
for strata containing Upper Neocomian fauna and named
after the village of Apt (Vaucluse province, southeast France).
The French sections are poor in ammonoids, therefore the
classical marker for the base of the Aptian was the lowest occur-
rence of the deshayesitid ammonite, Prodeshayesites, in north-
west Europe (Rawson, 1983; Moullade et al., 1998; Hoede-
maeker et al., 2003). However, the local lowest occurrence of
this ammonite genus is commonly associated with a major
progressive transgression in earliest Aptian and virtually no
ammonoid-bearing section represents a continuous and com-
plete BarremianAptian boundary interval (Erba et al., 1996).
Therefore, the proposed primary marker for the base of the
Aptian Stage is the beginning of magnetic polarity Chron M0r.
The proposed global boundary stratotype in pelagic
limestone at Gorgo a Cerbara, central Italy, has an inte-
grated stratigraphy of paleomagnetics, biostratigraphy (cal-
careous nannofossils, planktonic foraminifera, radiolaria,
dinoagellates), carbon isotope chemostratigraphy, and cycle
stratigraphy (Erba et al., 1996; Erba et al., 1999; Channell
et al., 2000). Cyclic stratigraphy implies that the lowest oc-
currence of a Prodeshayesites ammonite in uppermost polar-
ity zone M0r occurs about 300 000 years after the boundary
(Herbert, 1992; Channell et al., 1995a; Erba et al., 1996). An
360 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

important event about 1 myr after the boundary is the oceanic France (dOrbigny, 1842). Prior to 1947, the base of the Albian
anoxic event OAE1a, marked by a widespread organic-rich was assigned as the base of the Nolaniceras nolani ammonite
shale (e.g. Selli Level in Italy, Goguel level in southeast France, zone. Breistroffer (1947) shifted this zone and the overlying
Fischschiefer in northwestern Germany) and the beginning of Hypacanthoplites jacobi ammonite zone to an expanded upper-
a positive carbon-13 isotopic excursion (Weissert and Lini, most Aptian, and placed the base of the Albian in the northwest
1991; Mutterlose and Bockel, 1998). European faunal province of the Boreal realm at the base of the
Leymeriella tardefurcata ammonite zone, with a basal level char-
The Aptian substages The Aptian Stage has no standardized
acterized by Leymeriella schrammeni. However, this boundary
international subdivisions. In the Tethyan realm, the stage was
interval in western Europe is marked by endemic ammonoid
initially subdivided, two-fold, into a lower Bedoulian and an
biogeography, in which the occurrences of early Leymeriella
upper Gargasian substage, which were based on sections at
ammonite species appear to be restricted to northern Germany
CassisLa Bedoule (Bouches du Rhone province, near Mar-
(Casey, 1996; Hart et al., 1996; Mutterlose et al., 2003) and the
seilles) and at Gargas (near Apt), southern France. The sub-
L. schrammeni ammonite subzone is represented by sediments
stage boundary is the top of the Dufrenoya furcata ammonite
in only isolated localities (e.g. the Harz foredeep of north Ger-
zone, which is approximately equivalent to the base of the
many and in north Greenland; Hugh Owen, written comm.,
Tropaeum bowerbanki ammonite zone of the Boreal zonations
February 1999). In addition, this version of an AptianAlbian
(e.g. Ropolo et al., 1998). This level corresponds to the sug-
boundary interval coincides with a widespread hiatus associ-
gested two-fold (UpperLower) substage boundary in the Bo-
ated with a major sequence boundary. The base of the Albian in
real realm (e.g. Casey et al., 1998). However, in the Tethyan
southeast England was placed above a transgressive condensa-
realm, an additional uppermost substage of Clansayesian was
tion horizon at the lowest occurrence of ammonite Farnhamia
added when Breistroffer (1947) moved the thin Clansayes
farnhamensis (Casey, 1961; Hesselbo et al., 1990; Hart et al.,
horizon from the Albian into the underlying Aptian. The situ-
1996). However, whether the associated F. farnhamensis am-
ation has not yet been resolved because: (a) the reference sec-
monite subzone is equivalent to the L. schrammeni subzone of
tions at Gargas (near Apt) and Clansayes are not suitable for
northern Germany is debated (Owen, 1996a,b; Casey, 1996).
correlation purposes (Rawson, 1983); (b) the rationale for a sep-
As a result, denitions for the base of the Albian Stage and its
arate Clansayesian substage is questioned (e.g. Owen, 1996a;
component substages are currently undergoing active review
Casey et al., 1998); and (c) the placement of the Bedoulian
(see Hancock, 2001; Owen, 2002).
Gargasian boundary is debated (Conte, 1994, as reported in
An important section associated with the lowest occur-
Casey et al., 1998, but see Ropolo et al., 1998).
rence of the earliest anterior form of L. schrammeni is at
Informal subdivisions using calcareous plankton bios-
Vorhum, near Hannover, northern Germany (Hart et al., 1996;
tratigraphy commonly equate the base of the Upper Aptian to
Mutterlose et al., 2003). However, Mutterlose et al. (2003)
the lowest occurrences of planktonic foraminifer Leupoldina
conclude that denition of the base of the Albian on these
cabri (Tethyan faunal realm) or calcareous nannofossil
criteria cannot be used in a global context, therefore an alter-
Eprolithus oralis (Erba et al., 1996). However, these biostrati-
nate biostratigraphic or non-biostratigraphic marker must be
graphic events occur relatively early within the Aptian Stage,
identied.
at approximately 1 and 2 myr, respectively, after the beginning
The AptianAlbian boundary interval in deep-water facies
of the Aptian (e.g. Erba et al., 1999; Larson and Erba, 1999;
of the Tethyan realm is commonly to be found in clay-rich fa-
Premoli-Silva et al., 1999).
cies punctuated by widespread organic-rich horizons and asso-
ciated carbon isotope excursions. An array of options is being
A L B I A N S TAG E
considered as potential denitions for the base of the Albian,
History, denition, and boundary stratotype The Albian Stage including (in approximate ascending order): Jacob organic-
was named after the Aube region (Latin name, Alba), northeast rich shale, the lowest occurrence of the calcareous nannofossil

Figure 19.2 Comparison of regional ammonite zonations and associated regional stage nomenclature spanning the JurassicCretaceous
boundary interval (modied from a compilation by Sven Backstrom in Gradstein et al., 1999). British and Tethyan ammonite zones have been
independently rescaled to the GTS2004 time scale (e.g. Figs. 18.1 and 19.1), and the Russian ammonite zones are shown with their potential
correlation to the British zones. However, the exact correspondence and relative ages of most of these ammonite zones are not precisely known.
 The Cretaceous Period 361

Boreal Tethys
British Russian French
Ma Stage Ammonite
Zone Stage Ammonite
Zone Stage Ammonite
Zone
pitrei furicillata
137
Upper

Upper
Valanginian

Valanginian
Valanginian
Dichotomites peregrinus
138 spp.

Cretaceous
verrucosum
Polyptychites
Upper Lower

139

Lower
brancoi campylotoxus
Para-
tolia

involutum
heteropleurum pertransiens
140 robustum
albidum
stenomphalus
Upper albidum
tzikwinianus
otopeta
alpillensis

Upper
Ryazanian

Ryazanian

boissieri
141 icenii rjasenensis/spasskensis
picteti
kochi kochi

Berriasian
Lower

Lower

142 para-
mimounum

Upper Lower Middle

occitanica
Garniericeras dalmasi
143 runctoni + privasensis
Riasanties
subalpina
144 kaschpuricus
nodiger

lamplughi
Upper
Upper

jacobi
grandis
Portlandian

mosquensis
145
preplicomphalus subditus jacobi
primitivus fulgens Durangites
146 oppressus oppressus
nikitini
Lower

anguiformis niki- transitorius

Volgian
Middle

kerberus tini blakei

simplisphinctes
147 okusensis
virgatus

glauconolithus rosanovi peroni

Tithonian

admirandum
Middle

albani virgatus +
148 fittoni zarajskensis
biruncinatum
rotunda pan-
pallasioides deri pavlovi
paravirgatus richteri
eastlecottensis pseudoscythica
Upper

149 encombensis
Lower

verruciferum
reisiformis sokolovi
wheatleyensis albertinum
Lower

Jurassic

smedmorensis
150 scitulus
elegans/gigas klimovi hybonotum
Kimmeridgian

151 autissiodorensis
beckeri

setatum
Upper

contejeani
cymo- mutabilis eudoxus

Upper

submeula
Kimmeridgian

caletanum eu- cavouri

Kimmeridgian

152 orthocera doxus

acanti- compsum
Lower

lallierianum cum
153 divi- uhlandi
Lower

sum tenuicostatum
mutabilis
Lower

strom- lothari
154 chatellaionensis
becki hippolytense
doce

platynota
achilles
Oxfordian

galar/grandiplex
planula

155 cymodoce
Upper

bay- rupellense planula

lei
Oxf.

Oxf.
Upper

Upper

bimam-
matum

hauffianum
156 pseudocordata
bimammatum
362 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
Praediscosphaera columnata (base of nannofossil zone NC8), the
top-most organic-rich bed of the Killian facies, the highest
occurrence of ammonite H. jacobi, the lowest occurrence of
ammonite L. tardefurcata, the Paquier organic-rich event
(coinciding with oceanic anoxic event OAE1b), and the lowest
occurrence of ammonite D. ex. gp. mammillatum (Hart et al.,
1996). All of these events are represented in potential boundary
stratotypes in southeast France (Kennedy et al., 2000;
Table 19.2).
The difculty in resolving unambiguous global correlation
near the traditional AptianAlbian boundary has led to sug-
gestions to use a signicantly higher level the base of the
Lyelliceras lyelli ammonite zone, which has been traditionally
assigned as the base of the Middle Albian substage (Hancock,
2001; Owen, 2002). This level would shorten the Albian by
approximately 3 myr.
In GTS2004, we assigned the base of the Albian Stage to
the lowest occurrence of the calcareous nannofossil Praedis-
cosphaera columnata (P. cretacea of some earlier studies). Even
though this bioevent has taxonomic problems (e.g. Mutter-
lose et al., 2003), this nannofossil rst occurrence is recorded
in candidate Boreal and Tethyan boundary stratotypes near
the local ammonoid-dened boundaries (e.g. Kennedy et al.,
2000; Mutterlose et al., 2003), it is a candidate marker for global
boundary correlation (e.g. Hart et al., 1996; Owen, 2002) and it
can be calibrated to cycle stratigraphy spanning the complete
Albian Stage in Italian sections (e.g. Fiet et al., 2001; Grippo
et al., 2004).
Albian substages The traditional base of the Middle Albian
is placed at the lowest occurrence of the ammonite Lyelliceras
lyelli. The occurrence of this ammonite in European marginal
basins represents a temporary incursion of a more cosmopoli-
tan southern form (Owen, 1996b). A proposed boundary stra-
totype is within dark gray clay-rich strata near St. Dizier,
northern France (Hancock, 2001; Hart et al., 1996).
The base of the Upper Albian is assigned to the lowest
occurrence of the ammonite Dipoloceras cristatum (Hart et al.,
1996). This event commonly coincides with a transgression
above a major sequence boundary (e.g. Hesselbo et al., 1990;
Amedro, 1992; Hardenbol et al., 1998), thereby causing the
MiddleUpper Albian substage boundary interval to be quite
condensed and probably incomplete at key sections along the
English Channel at Wissant (Pas-de-Calais province, north-
west France) and at Folkstone (Kent province, UK; Hart et al.,
1996). Therefore, an expanded basinal clay-rich section at Col
de Palluel in southeast France is being considered as a substage
GSSP.
19.1.3 Upper Cretaceous
The majority of the subdivisions of the Upper Cretaceous were
originally derived from exposures in eastern France and the
Netherlands in marginal marine to chalk facies. The original
two stages of dOrbigny (1847) were progressively subdivided
into the six current stages. Few of the classical stratotypes were
suitable for placing the limits of the stages, but most are dened
by GSSPs within Europe.
A diverse array of primary markers are used or are un-
der consideration for dening stage and substage bound-
aries, including ammonoids, inoceramid bivalves, planktonic
foraminifera, and pelagic crinoids.
C E N O M A N I A N S TAG E
History, revised denition, and boundary stratotype In 1847,
dOrbigny replaced the lower portion of his previous Turo-
nian Stage with a Cenomanian Stage, and assigned the type
region to be the vicinity of the former Roman town of Ceno-
manum, now called Le Mans (Sarthe region, northern France;
dOrbigny, 1847, p. 270). The conventional ammonoid marker
for the base of the Cenomanian was the lowest occurrence
of the acanthoceratid genus Mantelliceras, which was de-
rived from the genus Stoliczkaia of Upper Albian age, or the
lowest occurrence of the genus Neostingoceras, but there are
many regions where these groups are relatively rare (Hancock,
2001).
Therefore, the Cenomanian Working Group selected the
lowest occurrence of the planktonic foraminifer Rotalipora
globotruncanoides (equivalent to R. brotzeni of some studies) as
the basal boundary criterion for the Cenomanian Stage, with
the Mont Risou section in southeast France as the GSSP sec-
tion (Troger et al., 1996; Gale et al., 1996a; Kennedy et al., in
press). The GSSP was ratied in 2002. This level is slightly
lower than the lowest occurrence of Cenomanian ammonoid
marker of Mantelliceras mantelli. In many regions, the Albian
Cenomanian boundary interval is coincident with a widespread
hiatus and condensation associated with a major sequence
boundary (e.g. Troger et al., 1996; Hardenbol et al., 1998).
Cenomanian substages The sudden entry of the ammonite
genera Cunningtoniceras and Acanthoceras s.s. marks the base
of the Middle Cenomanian, and replacement of Acanthoceras
ammonites by the Calycoceras genus is commonly used to mark
the base of the Upper Cenomanian (Hancock, 1991).
The basal stratotype for the Middle Cenomanian is dened
at the lowest occurrence of the ammonite Cunningtoniceras

inerme at the Southerham Gray Quarry, Sussex, England
(Troger et al., 1996). The lowest occurrences of the ammonite
Acanthoceras rhotomagense and the beginning of a positive
carbon-13 isotope excursion are approximately ve couplets
(100 kyr?) higher (Gale, 1995). The LowerMiddle Cenoma-
nian boundary interval is missing over large regions due to its
coincidence with a major sequence boundary (e.g. Hardenbol
et al., 1998).
A marker for the base of the Upper Cenomanian has not
yet been selected, but the placement will probably be near the
limits or within the Acanthoceras jukesbrownei ammonite zone
(Troger et al., 1996).
T U RO N I A N S TAG E
History, revised denition, and boundary stratotype The
Turonian Stage has suffered continual re-denition (reviewed
in Bengtson et al., 1996). The Turonian Stage proposed by
dOrbigny in 1842 was later divided by him (dOrbigny, 1847)
into a lower Cenomanian Stage and an upper Turonian Stage.
The name is derived from the Tours or Touraine region of
France (Turones and Turonia of the Romans), and dOrbigny
(1852) designated a type region lying between Saumur (on the
Loire river) and Montrichard (on the Cher river). In this re-
gion, the lowest Turonian formation contains the ammonite
Mammites nodosoides, therefore its lowest occurrence was con-
sidered the marker for the base of the Turonian Stage (e.g.
Harland et al., 1990). However, below this level is a world-wide
oceanic anoxic event (OAE2) and associated major positive ex-
cursion in carbon-13 isotopes, and mass extinction of over half
of all ammonoid and brachiopod genera (e.g. Schlanger et al.,
1987; Kerr, 1998).
After considering several potential placements, the Tur-
onian Working Group assigned the base of the Turonian to
the lowest occurrence of the ammonite Watinoceras devonense,
which occurs near the termination of this global oceanic anoxic
event (Bengtson et al., 1996). The GSSP at Rock Canyon An-
ticline, east of Pueblo (Colorado, west-central USA; Kennedy
and Cobban, 1991; Bengtson et al., 1996; Kennedy et al., 2000,
in press) was ratied in 2003. The maximum major carbon iso-
tope peak associated with the oceanic anoxic event occurs 0.5
m above the boundary. The age of the CenomanianTuronian
boundary is well constrained by average 39 Ar/40 Ar ages from
correlative bentonites in nearby sections of 93.25 0.55 and
93.55 0.4 Ma (Obradovich, 1993; Kennedy et al., in press).
Turonian substages The base of the Middle Turonian
is marked by the lowest occurrence of the ammonite
The Cretaceous Period 363
Collignoniceras woollgari. The candidate for the GSSP is the
base of Bed 120 in the Rock Canyon Anticline section, approx-
imately 5 m above the GSSP dening the base of the Turonian
Stage in the same section (Bengtson et al., 1996; Kennedy et al.,
2000).
The base of the Upper Turonian is not yet formalized,
but potential datums are the lowest occurrences of the am-
monite Subprionocyclus neptuni in the Boreal realm (e.g. Ger-
many and England), of the ammonite Romaniceras deverianum
in the Tethyan realm (e.g. southern France and Spain), or of an
inoceramid bivalve, Inoceramus perplexus (= Mytiloides costel-
latus in some studies) (Bengtson et al., 1996; Wiese and Kaplan,
2001). Some of these biostratigraphic markers have discrepan-
cies in position relative to the reference carbon-13 curves from
different sections (Wiese and Kaplan, 2001).
C O N I AC I A N S TAG E
History, revised denition, and boundary stratotype Coquand
(1857a,b) dened the Coniacian Stage in the northern part
of the Aquitaine Basin, with the type locality at Richemont
Seminary near Cognac (Charente province, western France).
In this region, basal-Coniacian glauconitic sands overlie Turo-
nian rudistid-bearing limestones. The entry of the ammonoid
Forresteria (Harleites) petrocoriensis was used to mark the base
of the Coniacian Stage, but there is confusion in identifying
this species and ammonoids are rare or absent in most im-
portant Coniacian sections (Hancock, 1991; Kauffman et al.,
1996). Therefore, the Coniacian Working Group re-dened
the Coniacian Stage and its substage boundaries using lowest
occurrences of widespread inoceramid bivalves.
The proposed marker for the base of the Coniacian is
the lowest occurrence of inoceramid bivalve Cremnoceramus
deformis erectus (= C. rotundatus (sensu Troger non Fiege)),
which is signicantly below the lowest occurrence of F. (H.)
petrocoriensis in Europe. A candidate boundary stratotype is
the active SalzgitterSalder Quarry, southwest of Hannover
(Lower Saxony province, northern Germany; Kauffman et al.,
1996); however, extensive diagenesis limits stratigraphic usage
of calcareous nannofossils, palynomorphs, and stable isotopes
(Sikora et al., 2003, pers. comm. 2002).
Coniacian substages The base of the Middle Coniacian is
placed at the lowest occurrence of the inoceramid bivalve
genus Volviceramus, which is at or near the lowest occurrence
of ammonoid Peroniceras (Peroniceras) tridorsatum (Kauffman
et al., 1996). Potential boundary stratotypes are near Dallas
Fort Worth, Texas (southern USA) or Seaford Head, southern
England.
364 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
The base of the Upper Coniacian is placed at the low-
est occurrence of the inoceramid bivalve Magadiceramus sub-
quadratus (Kauffman et al., 1996). No stratotypes have yet been
proposed for this substage boundary.
S A N T O N I A N S TAG E
History, denition, and boundary stratotype The Santonian
Stage was named after Saintes (Cognac province, southwest
France) by Coquand (1857a, b), who placed the lower boundary
at a glauconitic hardground capping Santonian chalk.
The lowest occurrence of the widespread inoceramid bi-
valve Cladoceramus undulatoplicatus has been selected as the
marker for the base of the Santonian (Lamolda et al., 1996). The
candidate GSSP is a quarry at Olazagutia in the Navarra region
of Spain (Table 19.2; Cretaceous Subcommission Newsletter
No. 5, December 2002).
The Coniacian through lower Santonian is within the long
normal-polarity Chron C34n (Lowrie and Alvarez, 1977).
Magnetostratigraphic sections within the chalk succession of
southern England have indicated that a reversed-polarity sub-
zone may straddle the ConiacianSantonian boundary (Mont-
gomery et al., 1998).
Santonian substages The Santonian has three substages, but
no markers for boundary stratotypes have yet been formalized.
A possible datum for the base of the Middle Santonian is the
extinction of the same inoceramid bivalve, Cladoceramus undu-
latoplicatus, that marks the ConiacianSantonian boundary
(Lamolda et al., 1996). A possible datum for the base of the
Upper Santonian is the lowest occurrence of stemless crinoid
Uintacrinus socialis (Lamolda et al., 1996). Magnetostratigra-
phy of chalk successions in southern England suggested that
the base of the associated Uintacrinus socialis Zone was at or
just below the base of reversed-polarity Chron C33r (Mont-
gomery et al., 1998), but this has not yet been conrmed in
other sections.
C A M PA N I A N S TAG E
History, revised denition, and boundary stratotype The Cam-
panian Stage of Coquand (1857b) was named after the hillside
exposures of Grande Champagne, near Aubeterre-sur-Dronne
(45 km west of Perigueux, northern Aquitaine province,
France), but the shallow-water limestone outcrop had no ob-
vious base. The bulk of the type Campanian at Aubeterre is
now classied as Maastrichtian (e.g. van Hinte, 1965; Seronie-
Vivien, 1972). The base of the Campanian was placed at the
lowest occurrence of ammonoid Placenticeras bidorsatum by de
Grossouvre (1901), but this extremely rare species is not a
practical marker (reviewed in Hancock et al., 1996). In con-
trast, stemless crinoids of the Uintacrinus and Marsupites gen-
era, with their planktonic or benthic habitat, have a near-global
distribution in shelf chalks (Gale et al., 1996b).
Therefore, the extinction of crinoid Marsupites testudinarius
is the provisional boundary marker for the base of the Campa-
nian Stage (Hancock et al., 1996). A potential boundary stra-
totype may be in England or Texas (Table 19.2). The base of
the Campanian is at or within the lower portion of reversed-
polarity Chron C33r (Montgomery et al., 1998).
The age of the SantonianCampanian boundary is con-
strained by a 40 Ar/39 Ar date of 83.91 0.43 Ma from the
uppermost Santonian Desmoscaphites bassleri ammonoid zone
of North America (Obradovich, 1993).
Campanian substages The Campanian will be subdivided into
a Lower, a Middle, and an Upper substage of approximately
equal duration, but there are as yet no formal recommenda-
tions for primary markers or boundary stratotypes for the sub-
stages (Hancock et al., 1996; Odin, 2001). In the USCanadian
Western Interior, these substage bases are informally placed by
Cobban (1993) as the lowest occurrences of ammonoids Bac-
ulites obtusus and Didymoceras nebrascense, respectively.
M A A S T R I C H T I A N S TAG E
History, revised denition, and boundary stratotype The Maas-
trichtian Stage was introduced by Andre Dumont (1849) for
the Calcaire de Maastricht with a type locality at the town of
Maastricht (southern Netherlands, near the border with Bel-
gium). The stratotype was xed by the Comite detude du
Maastrichtian as the section of the Tuffeau de Maastrict ex-
posed in the ENCI company quarry at St Pietersberg on the
outskirts of Maastricht, but this local detrital-carbonate facies
would correspond only to part of the upper Maastrichtian in
current usage (reviewed in Rawson et al., 1978; Odin, 2001).
A revised concept of the Maastrichtian Stage was based on
belemnites in the white chalk facies. Accordingly, the base of
the stage was assigned to the lowest occurrence of belemnite
Belemnella lanceolata, with a reference section in the chalk
quarry at Kronsmoor (50 km northwest of Hamburg, north
Germany; e.g. Birkelund et al., 1984; Schonfeld et al., 1996).
The lowest occurrence of ammonoid Hoploscaphites constric-
tus above this level provided a secondary marker. Comparison
of strontium isotope stratigraphy and indirect correlations by
ammonoids indicate that this level is approximately equiva-
lent to the base of the Baculites eliasi ammonoid zone of the

US Western Interior (McArthur et al., 1992; Landman and
Waage, 1993).
However, the belemnite Belemnella lanceolata is not a use-
ful marker into the Tethyan faunal realm, whereas the am-
monoid Pachydiscus neubergicus has a much wider geograph-
ical distribution (reviewed in Hancock, 1991). Therefore, in
a mixed decision, the Maastrichtian Working Group recom-
mended the base of the Maastrichtian to be assigned to the
lowest occurrence of ammonoid Pachydiscus neubergicus (Odin
et al., 1996).
The ratied GSSP boundary is in an abandoned quarry
near the village of Tercis les Bains, southwest France, at 90 cm
below a coincident lowest occurrence of Pachydiscus neuber-
gicus and Hoploscaphites constrictus ammonoids (Odin, 1996;
Odin and Lamaurelle, 2001; Odin, 2001). The GSSP level was
selected as the arithmetic mean of 12 biohorizons with cor-
relation potential, including ammonoids, dinoagellate cysts,
planktonic and benthic foraminifera, inoceramid bivalves, and
calcareous nannofossils (Odin and Lamaurelle, 2001). The his-
tory, stratigraphy, paleontology, and inter-continental correla-
tions are extensively compiled in a special volume (Odin, 2001).
It is uncertain whether the placement of the Campanian
Maastrichtian boundary at the lowest occurrence of ammonoid
Pachydiscus neubergicus at Tercis is signicantly above the tra-
ditional belemnite Belemnella lanceolata level. Correlations
of the assembly of other paleontological markers at the Tercis
stratotype to other regions is crucial, but yield conicting con-
clusions (Odin, 2001). Independent studies of the planktonic
foraminifera at Tercis had reported different assemblages and
ranges (e.g. Simmons et al., 1996; Peybern`es et al., 1997; Ward
and Orr, 1997), but the biostratigraphic array has been par-
tially reconciled (Odin, 2001). However, the paleontological
successions are not always consistent among different refer-
ence sections, including those sections used for magnetostrati-
graphic calibration (e.g. reviews in Odin, 2001). Echinoid and
dinoagellate cyst ranges suggest that the GSSP at Tercis
is essentially contemporaneous with the belemnite Belemnella
lanceolata level (Odin and Lamaurelle, 2001). From a web of
paleontological considerations, Odin (2001, pp. 775782) pro-
poses that the GSSP is equivalent to the basal part of the Italian
Gansserina gansseri foraminifer zone, to near the base of the Ba-
culites jenseni ammonoid zone of the US Western Interior, to
the middle of magnetic polarity Chron C32n.2n, and has an
approximate age of 72.5 0.5 Ma.
Other interpretations of macrofossil occurrences and mi-
crofossil stratigraphy of Tercis implies that the revised base
of the Maastrichtian Stage is approximately at the base of the
Belemnella obtusa belemnite zone of northwest Germany (e.g.
The Cretaceous Period 365
Hancock et al., 1993; Burnett et al., 1998) and has an age near
70.5 Ma. The last occurrence of the calcareous nannofossil
Quadrum tridum at the top of belemnite B. obtusa Zone in
northwest Germany has a projected age of 69.9 Ma, based on
strontium isotope curve calibrations to dated-bentonite sec-
tions in the US Western Interior (McArthur et al., 1993;
McArthur, 1994). Therefore, if this highest occurrence of
Q. tridum is synchronous with its position at 16 m above the
GSSP at Tercis, then the estimated sediment accumulation
rate of 25 m/myr in this Tercis interval indicates that the un-
derlying GSSP level is 0.75 myr prior to this age (Odin, 2001),
or at approximately 70.6 Ma. This radiometric age is within
the Baculites baculus or overlying Baculites grandis ammonoid
zone of the US Western Interior (McArthur et al., 1993). The
weakly magnetized limestones at the Tercis stratotype did not
yield a magnetostratigraphy above the uppermiddle Campa-
nian, but indirect microfossil correlation to other regions can
be interpreted as projecting the base-Maastrichtian GSSP to
be near the beginning of reversed-polarity Chron C31r (Barchi
et al., 1997), which has an estimated age of approximately 70.5
Ma (Fig. 19.1). In comparison, the base of the B. lanceolata
belemnite zone has a projected age of 71.3 Ma (Obradovich,
1993; McArthur et al., 1994). While acknowledging that the
situation remains controversial, this latter set of base-
Maastrichtian GSSP correlations are shown preferentially in
Fig. 19.1 and other summary diagrams.
Upper Maastrichtian substage The Maastrichtian will be di-
vided into two substages, but there is no agreement on bound-
ary criterion for the base of the Upper Maastrichtian (Odin
et al., 1997; Odin, 2001). One potential marker is the lowest
occurrence of ammonoid Pachydiscus fresvillensis with a possi-
ble stratotype at Zumaya in northern Spain (Kennedy, 1984,
unpublished; Odin et al., 1997). The lowest occurrence of am-
monoid Hoploscaphites birkelundi (formerly H. aff. nicolleti) is
an informal marker for the base of the Upper Maastrichtian in
the US Western Interior (Landman and Waage, 1993; Cobban,
1993). Alternative criteria include a magnetic polarity reversal,
the extinction of rudistid reefs, or the extinction of the majority
of inoceramid bivalves.
1 9 . 2 C R E TAC E O U S S T R AT I G R A P H Y
An extensive compilation and inter-correlation of Cretaceous
biostratigraphy of European basins and the Western Interior
seaway of North America was coordinated by Hardenbol et al.
(1998), and Fig. 19.1 is a summary of a portion of their com-
prehensive chart series. These European and North American
366 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
basins contain the majority of the proposed GSSP sites and
alternate sites for the chronostratigraphic framework of the
Cretaceous.
19.2.1 Macrofossil biostratigraphy
Ammonoids dominate the historical zonation of the
Cretaceous. Belemnites, inoceramid bivalves, and pelagic or
benthic crinoids (e.g. Marsupites) provide important macro-
fossil horizons within the Upper Cretaceous of northwest
Europe, and buchiid brachiopods are used for correlation
within the Lower Cretaceous within the Boreal realm. Im-
portant microfossil biostratigraphic zonations use planktonic
foraminifera, calcareous nannoplankton, dinoagellate cysts,
and calpionellids.
AMMONOIDS
Ammonites have been the traditional primary standard in dif-
ferent faunal realms for subdividing most of the Cretaceous
Period.
Grouping of ammonoid datums into zones and subzones
underwent signicant revisions during the 1990s. Only a few of
the Cretaceous ammonoid zones compiled by Hancock (1991)
are currently used by the various Cretaceous working groups
(Rawson et al., 1996b; Hoedemaeker et al., 2003). The relative
grouping into zones also varies among regions and stages. For
example, many of the high-resolution zones of the Western
Interior of North America would be classied as horizons in summary of major trends is from Lucas (1997). Early Cre-
the broader zonal schemes used in Europe. The zonal nomen-
clatures are currently in a state of ux as workers strive to
dene zones by the rst occurrences of index/name species,
and reorganize assignments to genera (e.g. re-dened Lower
Cretaceous zones by Reboulet and Atrops (1999) and Hoede-
maeker et al. (2003), as shown in Fig. 19.1).
Extreme faunal provincialism necessitated the establish-
ment of different regional scales throughout most of the Cre-
taceous. In Fig. 19.1, selected zonal successions are displayed
for the southern European portion of the Tethyan realm, for the
northwest European portion of the Boreal faunal realm (Berri-
asian through Albian), for the Russian portion of the Boreal
realm (Berriasian and Valanginian), and for the North Amer-
ican Western Interior (Cenomanian through Maastrichtian).
These simplied scales were excerpted from compilations
by Hancock, Hoedemaeker, and Thierry (Hardenbol et al.,
1998). The nomenclature for selected ammonoid zonations
with their estimated ages are partially compiled in Table 19.3.
Other major syntheses include stage-by-stage overviews by
Hancock (1991) and the Second International Symposium on
Cretaceous Stage Boundaries (Rawson et al., 1996b), Cobban
(1993) for the Western Interior of North America, Hoede-
maeker et al. (1993) for the lower Cretaceous scale for the
southern European region of the Tethyan realm, and Amedro
(1992), Owen (1996a), and Casey (1996) for alternative scales
for the AptianAlbian.
O T H E R M A R I N E M AC RO FAU NA
Upper Cretaceous chalk-rich successions of northwest Europe
have a variety of markers and zonations based on belemnites,
pelagic crinoids and other echinoderms, and inoceramids. The
version of this regional scale on Fig. 19.1 is from Combemorel
and Christensen (1998) and Wood et al. (1994).
Inoceramid bivalves provide an important tool for correla-
tion within Late Cretaceous basins, especially within the West-
ern Interior of North America (reviewed by DHondt, 1998).
Rudist bivalves enable correlation of shallow-water carbonate
platforms (reviewed by Masse and Philip, 1998). Ostracode
datums and associated zones are correlated to Boreal and
Tethyan ammonoid zones within the lower Cretaceous, and
to Boreal belemniteechinoderm zonations within the upper
Cretaceous (reviewed by Colin and Babinot, 1998).
D I N O S AU R S A N D O T H E R V E RT E B R AT E S
Dinosaurs, the most renowned group of Cretaceous verte-
brates, provide only a broad biostratigraphy. The following
taceous sauropods were smaller and ornithopods (such as
Iguanodon) were larger than their Jurassic cousins. Nodosaurid
ankylosaurs replaced stegosaurs in the earliest Cretaceous.
Stegosaurs, iguanodontid and hypsilophodontid ornithopods,
and sauropods (except in South America) were nearly extinct
by the end of the Early Cretaceous. Placental and marsupial
mammals appeared near the end of the Early Cretaceous. The
rapid diversication of angiosperms (owering plants) dis-
placed gymnosperms in the mid Cretaceous and was probably
a major factor in the evolution of the suite of hadrosaurid or-
nithopods, ceratopsians, and ankylosaurs browsers. This suite
and their tyrannosaurid and coelurosaurian theropod predators
were dramatically terminated at the end of the Cretaceous.
19.2.2 Microfossil biostratigraphy
CALPIONELLIDS AND FORAMINIFERA
Calpionellids are enigmatic pelagic microfossils with distinc-
tive vase-shaped tests in thin section. Calpionellids appeared

in the Tithonian and vanished in the latest Valanginian or
earliest Hauterivian (Remane, 1985), and their abundance in
carbonate-rich shelfbasinal settings within the Tethyan realm
enable biostratigraphic correlation prior to the evolution of di-
verse foraminifera. Six standard zones (Allemann et al., 1971)
with ner subdivisions (e.g. Remane et al., 1986) provide the
basic framework for inter-regional correlation (reviewed by
Remane, 1998).
Planktonic foraminifera have only broad zones prior to the
Aptian, then provide a series of high-resolution global markers
(e.g. Bralower et al., 1995, 1997; Robaszynski and Caron, 1995;
Premoli Silva and Sliter, 1999; Leckie et al., 2002). The selected
foraminifera datums and zones in Fig. 19.1 are from Robaszyn-
ski (1998) with selected modications (e.g. Erba et al., 1999;
Leckie et al., 2002; composite scales by Shipboard Scientic
Party, 2004).
Larger and smaller benthic foraminifera correlation to am-
monoid zones is partially established (e.g. Magniez-Jannin,
1995; Arnaud-Vanneau and Bilotte, 1998).
C A LC A R E O U S NA N N O F O S S I L S
The Cretaceous was named for the immense chalk formations
that blanket much of northwestern Europe. The main compo-
nents of this chalk are calcareous nannofossils. Following their
rapid surge in abundance at the end of the Jurassic, calcareous
nannofossils remained ubiquitous throughout the Cretaceous
and Cenozoic in all oceanic settings above the carbonate dis-
solution depth.
Calibration of major calcareous nannofossil datums to am-
monoid zones or magnetic polarity zones are established for
several intervals in the Tethyan and Boreal realms (e.g. Bergen,
1994; Burnett et al., 1998; Erba et al., 1999; Channell et al.,
2000). The generalized scale in Fig. 19.1 is modied from von
Salis (1998), although the age placement of several datums is
uncertain (J. Bergen, pers. comm.).
O T H E R M I C RO F O S S I L G RO U P S
Organic-walled cysts of dinoagellates have been correlated
directly to ammonoid zones in the Tethyan realm for Berri-
asian through Turonian and in the Boreal realm for Berri-
asian through Aptian (reviewed by Foucher and Monteil,
1998). Siliceous radiolaria (pelagic sediments) and charophytes
(brackish-water algae tests) have a relatively lower resolution
set of datums and zones compared to other Cretaceous micro-
fossil groups (e.g. respective syntheses by de Wever, 1998, and
Riveline, 1998).
The Cretaceous Period 367
19.2.3 Physical stratigraphy
M AG N E T O S T R AT I G R A P H Y
Cretaceous portion of M-sequence The M-sequence of ma-
rine magnetic anomalies formed from the Late Jurassic to the
earliest Aptian. Several biomagnetostratigraphic studies have
correlated Early Cretaceous calpionellid, calcareous micro-
fossil, and dinoagellate datums to the M-sequence polarity
chrons (e.g. Channell and Grandesso, 1987; Channell et al.,
1987, 1993, 1995b, 2000; Ogg, 1987, 1988; Ogg et al., 1991a).
Correlation of Tethyan ammonite zones to the M-sequence
have been achieved for the Berriasian, spanning Chrons M18
M15 (Galbrun, 1984); the BerriasianValanginian boundary
interval, spanning M15M13 (Ogg et al., 1988; Aguado et al.,
2000); and the Hauterivian and Barremian, spanning portions
of M10NM1 (Cecca et al., 1994; Channell et al., 1995a). Po-
larity zone M0r is a primary marker associated with the pro-
posed GSSP at the base of the Aptian. When coupled with a
spreading-rate model for the Pacic magnetic lineations within
each individual stage (see Chapter 5), these correlations also
constrain the relative duration of each ammonite zone within
the Berriasian, Hauterivian, and Barremian stages.
Correlation of Boreal ammonite zones to the M-sequence
has been indirectly achieved only for the equivalent of the
Berriasian Stage in the Purbeck beds of southern England (Ogg
et al., 1991a, 1994).
Reported brief subchrons within the Aptian and Albian An ex-
tended normal-polarity Chron C34n or Cretaceous Normal-
Polarity Superchron spans the early Aptian through middle
Santonian. Brief reversed-polarity chrons have been reported
from three intervals middle Aptian, middle Albian, and mid
late Albian especially within drilling cores of deep-sea sed-
iments. Ryan et al. (1978) proposed a negative numbering for
these three pre-M0r reversed-polarity events or clusters of
events:
1. M-1r in late Aptian (Pechersky and Khramov, 1973;
Jarrard, 1974; Keating and Helsley, 1978a,b,c; Vanden-
Berg et al., 1978; Hailwood, 1979; Lowrie et al., 1980;
VandenBerg and Wonders, 1980; Tarduno, 1990; Ogg
et al., 1992), which has a biostratigraphic age near the base
of the Globigerinelliodes algerianus planktonic foraminifer
zone. This subchron has also been called the ISEA
event from an Italian outcrop sample code and has an
estimated duration of less than 100 000 years (Tarduno,
1990).
2. M-2r set of Middle Albian events near the boundary of
the Biticinella breggiensis and Ticinella primula planktonic
368 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
foraminifer zones (Jarrard, 1974; Keating and Helsley,
1978a; VandenBerg and Wonders, 1980; Tarduno, 1992;
Shipboard Scientic Party, 1998; Ogg and Bardot, 2001).
3. M-3r set in Late Albian (Green and Brecher, 1974; Jar-
rard, 1974; Hailwood, 1979), which may occur at the end
of the Praediscosphaera cretacea or within the Eiffellithus
turriseiffeli nannoplankton zones (Tarduno, 1992).
Another reversed-polarity event, possibly near the Aptian
Albian boundary, has been reported within basalt ows with
a radiometric age of 113.3 1.6 Ma (Gilder et al., 2003).
Neither M-2r nor M-3r have been veried in outcrop 1. A Late Valanginian positive carbon-13 excursion of 2 per
sections, and further documentation is required to determine
whether events represent true reversed-polarity episodes (J. E.
T. Channell, pers. comm., August 1999).
Cretaceous portion of C-sequence Polarity Chrons C33r
through lower C29r span the latest Santonian to the base of the
Cenozoic (e.g. Alvarez et al., 1977; Lowrie and Alvarez, 1977;
Montgomery et al., 1998). This polarity time scale has been cal-
ibrated in the Western Interior seaway of North America to re-
gional ammonoid zones and to an array of 40 Ar/39 Ar dates from
bentonites (e.g. Obradovich, 1993; Hicks and Obradovich,
1995; Hicks et al., 1995, 1999; Lerbekmo and Braman, 2002;
see tables in Chapters 5 and 20). The PaleogeneCretaceous
boundary occurs during the middle of polarity Chron C29r,
and the 65.5 Ma age for this boundary (Renne et al., 1998c;
Hicks et al., 1999) coupled with analysis of cyclic sedi-
ments (Herbert et al., 1995) imply that Chron C29r begins at
65.9 Ma.
The ages on the CampanianMaastrichtian portion of the
C-sequence constrain the synthetic agedistance model for
the magnetic anomalies of the South Atlantic (revised from
Cande and Kent, 1992a; see Chapter 5). Spreading rates of
this South Atlantic ridge remained constant at 27 km/my
during the Campanian, then decelerated smoothly through the
Maastrichtian and Danian to reach a minimum of 13 km/my
during the late Paleocene (Rohl et al., 2001).
C H E M I C A L S T R AT I G R A P H Y
Carbon stable isotopes and carbon-enrichment episodes At least
seven signicant excursions in the carbon cycle punctuate the
Cretaceous stratigraphic record (Figs. 19.1 and 19.3). Most of
these positive excursions (>1.5 per mil) in carbon-13 are as-
sociated with widespread organic-rich sediments and drown-
ing of carbonate platforms, and appear to be preceded by or
coincide with the eruption of major ood basalt provinces (e.g.
reviews by Kerr, 1998; Weissert et al., 1998; Jenkyns, 1999;
Larson and Erba, 1999). The middle Cretaceous suite were
originally considered to be the products of oceanic anoxic
events (OAE) (e.g. Schlanger and Jenkyns, 1976), but organic-
carbon preservation due to enhanced oceanic productivity may
play a role (e.g. Hochuli et al., 1999; Jenkyns, 1999; Leckie et al.,
2002). The approximate biostratigraphic ages of widespread
organic-enrichment levels associated with these excursions are
illustrated in Fig. 19.1. The reference nomenclature attached
to the organic-rich zones varies from region to region.
mil has an onset in the lower Valanginian (polarity Chron
M12, Th. campylotoxus ammonite zone), peaks during lat-
est Valanginian, and terminates in the early Hauterivian
(A. radiatus ammonite zone; Lini et al., 1992; Channell
et al., 1993; Weissert et al., 1998). The Lower Valanginian
(Th. campylotoxus Zone) onset is documented by four
centimetric organic-carbon-rich layers (Barrande layers
B1B4) in the southeast France basin (Vocontian Basin;
Reboulet, 2001; Reboulet et al., 2000, 2003).
2. A latest Hauterivian (Faraoni) excursion within the Pseu-
dothurmannia catulloi ammonite subzone (middle of Ps.
ohmi Zone) is documented by a pair of organic-rich sedi-
ments in Mediterranean and Atlantic pelagic sections and
coincides with a relatively minor positive carbon-13 ex-
cursion (e.g. Baudin et al., 1997, 1999; Coccioni, 2003).
3. An Early Aptian excursion (OAE1a) with a double carbon-
13 spike spans the D. deshayesi and Tr. bowerbanki am-
monite zones. The organic-rich Selli event is near
the base at the lower portion of the Leopoldina cabri
foraminifer zone (e.g. Weissert and Lini, 1991; Mutter-
lose and Bockel, 1998; Weissert et al., 1998; Hochuli et al.,
1999; Larson and Erba, 1999; Leckie et al., 2002).
4. A multiphase AptianAlbian boundary excursion
(OAE1b) that contains at least three widespread organic-
rich layers the Jacob, Pacquier, and Urbino levels
(Breheret, 1988; Weissert and Breheret, 1991; Bralower
et al., 1993; Weissert et al., 1998; Leckie et al., 2002).
5. A middle Albian excursion (OAE1c) with an organic-rich
layer named Amadeus (after Mozart) or Toolebuc
(e.g. Leckie et al., 2002; Coccioni, 2003).
6. A latest Albian excursion (OAE1d); e.g. Erbacher et al.,
1996; Leckie et al., 2002). The organic-rich layer is named
Breistroffer or Pialli.
7. A CenomanianTuronian boundary excursion (OAE2)
spans the M. geslinianumW. devonense ammonite zones,
with the peak in uppermost Cenomanian (e.g. Schlanger
 The Cretaceous Period 369

et al., 1987; Jenkyns et al., 1994; Kerr, 1998; Jenkyns,

1999). The organic-rich level is named Bonarelli in Italy. Cretaceous geochemical trends
13C 87Sr/86Sr Low-latitude
maximum temp
(0/00 PDB)

0.7072

0.7074

0.7076

0.7078
AGE Epoch/Stage Degree Celcius

30
32
34
36
(Ma) 2 3 4
Oxygen stable isotopes and estimated temperature trends Oxy-
gen isotope records of oceanic temperature trends are patchy, Paleogene
65
and some isotopic and paleontological studies have suggested
70
Maastrichtian
that the overall warm Early Cretaceous was punctuated by
75
cold spells during the BerriasianValanginian boundary inter- Campanian
80
val, earliest Late Valanginian, and earliest Aptian (e.g. Weis-
85 Santonian
sert and Lini, 1991; Hochuli et al., 1999; Miller et al., 1999; Coniacian
90
Puceat et al., 2003). The general model for the late Cretaceous Turonian
95
from isotopic records from DSDPODP sites, uplifted chalk, Cenomanian
100
and sh tooth enamels is that there was an overall warming
105 Albian
trend from the early Aptian to a peak in the early Turonian,
110
followed by a gradual cooling trend through the end of the
115
Maastrichtian (Douglas and Savin, 1975; Jenkyns et al., 1994;
120 Aptian
Clarke and Jenkyns, 1999; Wilson et al., 2002; Puceat et al.,
125
2003; Fig. 19.3). Paleontologic and isotopic evidence indicate Barremian
130
that globally averaged surface temperatures during the middle Hauterivian
135
part of the Cretaceous were more than 10 C higher than today Valanginian
140
(e.g. see reviews by Barron, 1983; Huber et al., 1995, 2002; Bice Berriasian
145
et al., 2002). Tithonian
150

Figure 19.3 Cretaceous trends and excursions in carbon and

Strontium isotope ratios The marine 87 Sr/86 Sr record
displays a progressive rise from the Berriasian to a maximum
of 0.707 493 in the Barremian P. elegans ammonite zone, before
decreasing to a pronounced minimum of 0.707 220 just before
the AptianAlbian boundary (Fig. 19.3). From this point it
rises sharply in the Early Albian, attens to a broad maximum
through the Middle to Late Albian, before declining to a late
Turonian minimum of around 0.707 275. From this minimum,
it rises to 0.707 830 at (or probably a few kyr before) the end of
the Cretaceous (Fig. 19.3; see details in Chapter 6).
These trends enable global correlation and dating with
87
Sr/86 Sr through this interval with a stratigraphic resolution
that is good, except on the cusps of reversals (AptianAlbian
boundary, Late Turonian, middle Barremian (sensu lato), or
where 87 Sr/86 Sr changes little with time (Middle and Late
Albian).
oxygen stable isotopes and in 87 Sr/86 Sr. The schematic carbon
isotope curve is a composite derived from Weissert et al. (1998) for
the lower Cretaceous, from Menegatti et al. (1998) for the lower
Aptian, from Erbacher et al. (1996) for the upper Aptian and Albian,
and from Jenkyns et al. (1994) for the upper Cretaceous. The
AptianAlbian reference curves are rescaled using the revised
durations of foraminifer zones (Figure 19.1). The mean strontium
isotope trend is a LOWESS t to data from several sources (see text
and Chapter 7). The curve of extrapolated low-latitude maximum
temperatures (center of 5 C range) is from Clarke and Jenkyns
(1999).
Late Berriasian The interval from the lowest occurrence of
Calpionellopsis simplex to the lowest occurrence of L. hungarica
(Calpionellid Zones D1 and D2) in southeast Spain spans a
minimum of 1.11.2 myr (Sprenger and ten Kate, 1993).

Valanginian The uppermost Berriasian Thurmanniceras

C YC L E S T R AT I G R A P H Y A N D E S T I M AT E S O F S TAG E
D U R AT I O N S
Analyses of astronomical Milankovitch cycles recorded as com-
positional or isotopic oscillations in marine successions place
minimal limits on the elapsed time within associated biostrati-
graphic or magnetostratigraphic zones.
otopeta through lower Valanginian Busnardoites campylotoxus
ammonite zones span an estimated minimum of 3.15 myr,
and the upper Valanginian Sayno. verrucosum ammonite zone
through Teschenites callidiscus subzone (topmost subzone of
Valanginian) span an estimated 2.75 myr. The Valanginian
portion of this interval would have a minimum duration of
370 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
5.5 myr in southeast France (Huang et al., 1993; and similar
result by Giraud, 1995; Giraud et al., 1995).
Hauterivian The lower Hauterivian Acanthodiscus radiatus
through Lyticoceras nodosoplicatum ammonite zones span an
estimated minimum of 2.40 myr, and the upper Hauterivian
Subsaynella sayni ammonite zone to the lowest occurrence of
C. emerci (possible base of Barremian Stage) span an estimated
2.93 myr, for a total Hauterivian minimum duration of 5.3 myr
in southeast France (Huang et al., 1993; and similar result by
Giraud, 1995).
Barremian The interval from the base of polarity Chron M3r
to the base of Chron M0r spans an estimated 46.5 eccentricity
bundles (estimated 106 kyr) and 274 precession beds (esti-
mated 20 kyr) in northern Italy (Herbert, 1992). Therefore,
this interval may span between 4.8 and 5.4 myr.
Aptian Polarity Chron M0r at the base of the Aptian spans
380 kyr at Gorgo a Cerbara (Herbert, 1992). Cyclostratigraphy
indicates that the Selli carbon-enrichment layer is approxi-
mately 0.5 myr above the top of polarity Chron M0r (Larson
and Erba, 1999).
Albian Cycle stratigraphy in a cored section at Piobbico
(Italy) records 30.6 long-eccentricity cycles (estimated 406
kyr), hence a span of 12.4 myr between the base of nanno-
fossil P. columnata (a potential marker for the AptianAlbian
boundary) and the base of planktonic foraminifer Rotalipora
globotruncanoides (i.e. the R. brotzeni Zone of some earlier pa-
pers) Zone (Grippo et al., 2004; which enhances an earlier
study by Fiet et al., 2001). This core provides an astronomical
scaling for the component Albian nannofossil and planktonic
foraminifer zones.
Cenomanian A complete cycle stratigraphy has been con-
structed for the uppermost Albian, Cenomanian, and lower
Turonian in western Europe (212 precession beds) with scal-
ing of the upper Stoliczkaia dispar (uppermost Albian), Man-
telliceras mantelli through N. juddii (Cenomanian), and W. devo-
nense through lower C. woolgari ammonite zones (Gale, 1995).
The Cenomanian Stage spans a minimum of 4.45 myr. Addi-
tional orbital tuning indicates that the Middle and Late Ceno-
manian (Cunningtoniceras inerme through N. juddii ammonite
zones) span 3.0 myr (Gale et al., 1999), thus the entire Ceno-
manian may be close to 5 myr in duration.
Coniacian The Coniacian chalks in the AngloParis basin
display eight depositional cycles. If these correspond to a
400-kyr eccentricity rhythm, then the Coniacian Stage spans
3.2 myr (Grant et al., 1999).
S E Q U E N C E S T R AT I G R A P H Y
Cretaceous marginal-marine to deep-shelf successions in Eu-
rope and North America record an abundance of basinal and
regional transgressions and regressions. The common features
from an extensive suite of compilations edited by de Gracian-
sky et al. (1998) were assembled in a comprehensive synthe-
sis and systematically numbered from the base of each stage
(Hardenbol et al., 1998). Coeval emergent horizons recorded
by AptianAlbian seamount carbonate platforms in the cen-
tral Pacic Ocean imply that some of these depositional se-
quences reect global eustatic sea-level oscillations (Rohl and
Ogg, 1996). Details of the Cretaceous sequence stratigraphy
are continually undergoing further renement, but the ma-
jor global oscillations have probably been identied. These
large-scale deepening and shallowing trends are summarized in
Fig. 19.1.
In a broader context, the Cretaceous strata encompass a sin-
gle transgressiveregressive cycle (the North Atlantic cycle
of Jacquin and de Graciansky, 1998). The lower boundary is
a widespread unconformity of Late Berriasian age; the peak
transgression occurred in the Early Turonian, and average sea
levels continued to decrease into the Paleocene.
O T H E R M A J O R S T R AT I G R A P H I C E V E N T S
Large igneous provinces At least ve large igneous provinces
formed during the Cretaceous. Some of these seem to be as-
sociated with major distortions in the global carbon budget as
reected by excursions in carbon isotopes, widespread organic-
rich shales or OAE episodes, and other changes in climate
and oceanic chemistry (e.g. Larson and Erba, 1999; Jones and
Jenkyns, 2001; Bice et al., 2002). The following summary is
mainly from extensive reviews by Wignall (2001) and Cour-
tillot and Renne (2003).
1. 133 Ma: Extrusive volcanics associated with the early
stages of rifting between South America (Parana ood
basalts) and Namibia (Etendeka Traps) peaked near 133
1 Ma. The full episode may have begun at 138 Ma
and lasted about 10 myr (Stewart et al., 1996), therefore
it overlapped with the broad positive carbon isotope peak
through the late Valanginian. Whether the eruption peak
exactly coincided with the late Hauterivian Faraoni
carbon-enrichment episode and carbon isotope excur-
sion (schematically placed at 131 Ma in Fig. 19.1) is

dependent upon the method used for extrapolating the
ages for the Hauterivian Stage, as discussed below.
2. 122 Ma: During the middle of the Early Aptian, the largest
series of volcanic eruptions of the past quarter-billion
years built the Ontong Java Plateau and Manihiki Plateau
in the western equatorial Pacic. A series of deep-sea
drilling legs documented that the multi-kilometer-thick
series of volcanic ows forming the Ontong Java Plateau
occurred during a short time span at 122 Ma (e.g. Ma-
honey et al., 1993), and the upper portions of this are
inter-bedded with pelagic sediments of the lower portion
of the Leopoldina cabri foraminifer zone (Mahoney et al.,
2001; Sikora and Bergen, 2004). A cascade of environmen-
tal effects from the eruption of the Ontong Java Plateau
is the suspected culprit for the organic-rich deposits as-
sociated with the OAE1a, or Selli, episode and the onset
of the large positive carbon isotope excursion of the Early
Aptian (e.g. Larson, 1991; Tarduno et al., 1991; Larson
and Erba, 1999).
3. 118 Ma: The Kerguelen Plateau in the southern Indian
Ocean is the second largest oceanic plateau after the On-
tong Java Plateau. The peak of construction of the south-
ern and largest portion may have been simultaneous with
the eruption of the formerly adjacent Rajmahal Traps of
eastern India at 118 Ma (reviewed in Wignall, 2001).
This episode probably contributed to the broad carbon
isotope excursion that characterizes the Aptian Stage.
4. 90 Ma: A large Pacic oceanic plateau, the Caribbean
Columbian volcanic province, was later emplaced between
the North and South American plates. This event was the-
orized to be a contributor to the end-Cenomanian OAE2
carbon isotope excursion (e.g. Kerr, 1998), but its apparent
average age, reported as 89.5 0.3 Ma, coincides instead
with the TuronianConiacian boundary (Courtillot and
Renne, 2003).
5. 65 Ma: The Deccan traps cover a major portion of India,
with a peak of eruption at 65.5 Ma coinciding with the
catastrophic termination of the Cretaceous (Courtillot and
Renne, 2003).
In addition to these large igneous provinces, pulses of large-
scale volcanism constructed the Shatsky Rise in the central
Pacic through the mid-Early Cretaceous, and the Madagascar
traps at 88 Ma.
Large impact events Five impact craters with diameters
greater than 40 km are currently documented from the Creta-
ceous:
The Cretaceous Period 371
1. Morokweng crater (140 km?), South Africa, dated be-
tween 145 and 146 Ma (Koeberl et al., 1997; Reimond et al.,
1999), coincides with the JurassicCretaceous boundary
interval;
2. Mjlnir crater (40 km), Norway, at 142 2.6 Ma;
3. Tookoonoka crater (50 km), Queensland, Australia, at
128 5 Ma;
4. Kara crater (60 km), Russia, at 70.3 2.2 Ma; and
5. the immense Chixculub crater (170 km), Yucatan,
Mexico, that dramatically terminated the Mesozoic Era at
65.5 Ma.
1 9 . 3 C R E TAC E O U S T I M E S C A L E
The time scale for the Cretaceous Period is derived in three
segments: (i) the Berriasian through Barremian stages is de-
termined mainly from calibration of Tethyan ammonite zones
with the M-sequence of magnetic polarity chrons; (ii) the Ap-
tian and Albian stages utilize durations of microfossil zones
derived from cycle stratigraphy as a primary scaling; and
(iii) the Late Cretaceous is constrained by an extensive suite
of 40 Ar/39 Ar ages on ammonoid-rich successions of the US
Western Interior.
The ages of Cretaceous stage boundaries are either yielded
from their direct calibration to these primary absolute age
scales (e.g. the GSSP for the base of the Turonian corresponds
to the base of the Watinoceras devonense ammonite zone of the
US Western Interior; the proposed GSSP for the base of the
Aptian corresponds to the base of Chron M0r) or are assigned
according to estimates of their correlation or possible place-
ments relative to the primary scale (e.g. the yet-to-be-ofcially
dened base of the Albian is assigned here as the rst oc-
currence of calcareous nannofossil Praediscosphaera columnata,
which is placed according to cycle stratigraphy relative to the
radiometrically dated base of the Cenomanian).
The main stratigraphically controlled ages that are used
in constructing the Cretaceous time scale are summarized in
Table 17.2. This suite was selected from a larger compilation
of published ages, based on both stratigraphic and radiometric
precision.
19.3.1 Berriasian through Barremian
There are essentially no reliable radiometric ages with pre-
cise stratigraphic controls within the Late Jurassic or Early
Cretaceous. Therefore, in a process similar to that used in
the Cenozoic (e.g. Berggren et al., 1995a; Chapter 20), the
calibration of major biostratigraphic events to the magnetic
372 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

Table 19.3 Selected ammonite zone scales for Cretaceous with estimated agesa

Primary standard Calibration Basal

Stage zonation Method of base ageb (Ma) Comments

Ammonite zones of US Western Interior

Maastrichtian
[Few usable ammonites]
Jeletzkytes nebrascensis
Hoploscaphites nicolleti
Hoploscaphites birkelundi
Baculites clinolobatus
Baculites grandis
Baculites baculus
65.50 Radiometric age
67.88
Early Maastrichtian (base B. 68.33
clinolobatus) through early
Cenomanian are spline t of
US Western Interior ammonite
zones using recalibrated
Obradovich 93 age suite
68.78
69.23
Upper Maastrichtian zones 69.68 69.42 Ma (0.37) is within
( J. nebrascensis through B. this zone
clinolobatus) are assigned 0.45
myr durations, which is
average of the lower
Maastrichtian spline-scaled
zones
70.11
70.56 Odin (2001) considered
base-Maastrichtian GSSP to
project to near base of B. jenseni
ammonite zone, but another
interpretation (used here) is
equivalence to a level within
the B. baculus or overlying B.
grandis ammonite zone of the
US Western Interior

Campanian 70.60
Baculites eliasi 71.04 Cobbans zonation of 1993 had
estimated base-Campanian
(prior to setting of GSSP)
approximately at base of B.
eliasi
Baculites jenseni 23 Campanian ammonites 71.56
zones in Western Interior
scaled to t radiometric age
control
Baculites reesidei 72.14
Baculites cuneatus 72.78
Baculites compressus 73.50 73.35 Ma (0.39) is within
this zone
Didymoceras cheyennense 74.28
Exiteloceras jenneyi C32r/C33n boundary 75.05 74.76 Ma (0.45) is within
this zone
Didymoceras stevensoni 75.74
Didymoceras nebrascense 76.38 75.89 Ma (0.72) is within
this zone
Middle 76.38
Baculites scotti 77.00
Baculites gregoryensis 77.59
 The Cretaceous Period 373

Table 19.3 (cont.)

Primary standard Calibration Basal

Stage zonation Method of base ageb (Ma) Comments

Baculites perplexus (late) 78.15

Baculites gilberti 78.68
Baculites perplexus (early) 79.16
Baculites sp. (smooth) 79.61
Baculites asperiformis 80.00
Baculites maclearni 80.35
Baculites obtusus 80.64 80.54 Ma (0.55) is within this
zone
Early 80.64
Baculites sp. (weak ank ribs) 80.91
Baculites sp. (smooth) 81.22
Scaphites hippocrepis III 81.63
Scaphites hippocrepis II 82.20 81.71 Ma (0.34) is within this
zone
Scaphites hippocrepis I 82.89
Scaphites leei III 83.53 Base-Campanian is the extinction
of crinoid Marsupites testudinarius
(provisional boundary marker). For
this scale, we have assumed
equivalence with base of S. leei III
ammonite zone of Western Interior

Santonian
Desmoscaphites bassleri
Desmoscaphites erdmanni
Clioscaphites choteauensis
Clioscaphites vermiformis
Clioscaphites saxitonianus
D. erdmanni through C.
vermiformis given equal
durations (pure spline method
caused anomalous internal
scaling where no age
constraints were present)
83.53
83.99 83.91 (0.43) and 84.09 Ma
(0.40) are within this zone
84.31
84.62
84.94
85.85 84.88 Ma (0.28) is within this
zone; assigned to top
Base-Santonian is lowest
occurrence of the widespread
inoceramid bivalve Cladoceramus
undulatoplicatus. For this scale, we
arbitrarily equated this to the base
of the C. saxitonianus ammonite
zone of Western Interior

Coniacian 85.85
Scaphites 86.96 86.92 Ma (0.39) is within this
depressusProtexanites zone; assumed to be in lower third
bourgeoisianus
Scaphites ventricosus 87.88
Forresteria 88.58 88.34 Ma (0.60) is within this
alluaudiScaphites zone
preventricosus
(cont.)
374 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

Table 19.3 (cont.)

Primary standard Calibration Basal

Stage zonation Method of base ageb (Ma) Comments

Forresteria peruuana 89.07 Base-Coniacian (candidate

denition) is lowest occurrence of
inoceramid bivalve
Cremnoceramus deformis erectus (=
C. rotundatus (sensu Troger non
Fiege)), which is signicantly
below the lowest occurrence of F.
(H.) petrocoriensis in Europe.
Therefore, we have arbitrarily
added 0.2 myr (1/2 ammonite
zone) to estimate age of
base-Coniacian

Turonian 89.27
Prionocyclus germari 89.40
Scaphites nigricollensis 89.63
Scaphites whiteldi 89.79
Scaphites ferronensis 89.96
Scaphites warreni 90.17
Prionocyclus macombi 90.48 90.21 Ma (0.72) is within this
zone
Prionocyclus hyatti 90.94 90.51 Ma (0.45) is within this
zone; assigned to middle
Prionocyclus percarinatus 91.51
Collignoniceras wolligari 92.13
Mammites nodosoides 92.70
Vascoceras birchbyi 93.15 93.40 Ma (0.63) is within this
zone; 92.98 Ma assigned to base
Pseudaspidoceras exuosum 93.41 93.25 Ma (0.55) is within this
zone; 93.33 Ma assigned to base
Watinoceras devonense 93.55 This is same as base-Turonian
(GSSP)

Cenomanian 93.55
Nigericeras scotti N. scotti + N. juddii considered 93.60
equivalent to one zone in
duration; divided equally
Neocardioceras juddii 93.64 93.78 (0.55), 93.59 (0.58), and
93.49 Ma (0.89) are within this
zone
Burroceras clydense 93.72
Sciponoceras gracile 93.85 93.49 Ma (0.89) is within this
(Euomphaloceras zone
septemseriatum)
Sciponoceras gracile 94.01 93.90 Ma (0.72) is within this
(Vascoceras diartianum) zone; 93.84 Ma assigned to top,
93.99 Ma to base
Dunveganoceras conditum 94.19
Dunveganoceras albertense 94.38
Dunveganoceras problimaticum 94.57

Table 19.3 (cont.)
Primary standard
Stage zonation
Calycoceras
canitaurinumDunveganoceras
pondi
Plesiacanthoceras wyomingsense
Acanthoceras amphibolum
Acanthoceras bellense
Acanthoceras muldoonense
Acanthoceras granerosense
Conlinoceras
tarrantenseConlinoceras
gilberti
[blank]
[blank]
[blank]
Neogastroplites maclearni
Neogastroplites americanus
Neogastroplites muelleri
Neogastroplites cornutus
Neogastroplites haasi
Base of N. caractanense
subzone (basal subzone of M.
mantelli Zone; basal zone of
Cenomanian in Europe)
Ammonite zones of European Tethyan realm
Albian
Stoliczkaia dispar
Mortoniceras (Mortoniceras)
inatum
Callihoplites auritus s. z.
The Cretaceous Period 375
Calibration Basal
Method of base ageb (Ma) Comments
94.75 94.63 Ma (0.61) is within this zone
94.91
95.06 94.93 Ma (0.53) is within this zone;
95.03 Ma assigned to base
95.23
95.43
95.68
96.01 95.78 Ma (0.61) is within C. gilberti
Zone; 95.84 Ma assigned to base
3 blank (un-named) zones 96.43
and N. maclearni have
sub-equal durations
96.89
97.35
97.75
98.11
98.41
98.64 98.52 Ma (0.41) is within this zone;
98.35 Ma assigned to top
98.83 98.54 (0.70) and 98.74 Ma (0.59)
are within this zone; 98.65 Ma assigned
to top
ArAr of ammonite-bearing 99.60 The top of N. caractanense subzone
sections in Japan, plus cycle (basal subzone of Cenomanian) is
stratigraphy 99.1 0.4 Ma (Obradovich et al.,
2002) and cycle stratigraphy scaling of
its duration (0.44 myr) and a slight
offset to the GSSP marker below
implies the base of the Cenomanian is
99.6 0.4 Ma
Base-Cenomanian is base of foraminifer
Rotalipora globotruncanoides, which is
6 m lower than base of M. mantelli
ammonite zone at the GSSP section
cycle stratigraphy from 99.6
base-Cenomanian
100.9 = base of R. appenninica foraminifer
zone (cycle-scaled as 100.9 Ma)
106.4 = FAD of foraminifer B. breggiensis
(base of T. praeticinensis subzone in
Leckie et al. (2002) is cycle-scaled as
106.4 Ma
Subzones of M. inatum are
assigned equal durations
(cont.)
376 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
Table 19.3 (cont.)
Primary standard
Stage zonation
Hysteroceras varicosum s.z.
Hysteroceras orbigyni s.z.
Diploceras cristatum s.z.
Euhoplites lautus
Euhoplites loricatus
Hoplites (Hoplites) dentatus
Douvilleiceras mammillatum
Leymeriella tardefurcata
Aptian
Hypacanthoplites jacobi
Nolaniceras nolani
N. nolani (Diodochoceras
nodosocostatum s.z.)
P. melchioris
E. subnodosocostatum
Dufrenoyia furcata
Method
Albian ammonite zones (below
M. inatum to top of Aptian)
scaled proportionally to
number of subzones
Cycle stratigraphy from
base-Cenomanian
H. jacobi through N. nolani
proportionally scaled
according to subzones (1 and
2, respectively)
Calibration Basal
of base ageb (Ma) Comments
107.0
108.2
108.8
110.8
112.0 Very close to FAD of P. columnata
(subcircular) according to Mutterlose
et al. (2003) = our base of Albian stage
= 112.0 Ma from cycle-scaling
112.0
113.0
114.0
115.0 Base of N. nolani (hence, top of P.
nuteldiensis Zone) is set at 115 Ma to
t the constraint of an ArAr age of 114
1.3 Ma within that underlying zone.
This also ts its calibration to
foraminifer datums (Bellier et al., 2000)
on chart of Leckie et al. (2002; after
scaling to 125 Ma at base-Aptian)
Zone is approximately equivalent to
Boreal Parahoplites nuteldiensis Zone
121.0 Top of foraminifer L. cabri (120.7 Ma
in rescaling of Leckie et al., 2002) is
just above the top of the D. furcata
ammonite zone at Le Bedoule
(Moullade et al., 1998); therefore the
zonal boundary age was rounded to 121
Ma. Zone is approximately equivalent
to Boreal Cheloniceras (Epicheloniceras)
martinoides Zone
121.9 Base of D. furcata Zone = base of
nannofossil E. oralis in SE France
(Moullade et al., 1998), which, in turn,
is estimated at 121.9 Ma in the chart in
Leckie et al. (2002; rescaled to our
base-Aptian). Zone is set equivalent to
Tropaeum (Tropaeum) bowerbanki in
this chart
Table 19.3 (cont.)

Primary standard Calibration Basal

Stage zonation Method of base ageb (Ma) Comments

Deshayesites deshayesi D. deshayesi to D. oglanlensis (3 122.9

zones) assigned equal duration
Deshayesites weissi 124.0 Zone is set equivalent to
Deshayesites forbesi in this chart
Deshayesites oglanlensis magstrat Base Chron M0r 125.0 D. tuarkyricus Zone is used as
basal-Aptian in some charts; but
the D. tuarkyricus index species is
only found in Turkmenistan;
therefore, IUGS Lower
Cretaceous group proposes D.
oglanlensis. Zone is set equivalent
to Prodeshayesites ssicostatus of
Boreal in this chart

Barremian Barremian ammonite zones of 125.0

Tethyan realm are given equal
durations, above (6 zones),
then below (5 zones), the
base-vandenheckii control age
P. waagenoides 125.6
C. sarasini 126.1 Formerly Martelites sarasini.
Top 2 Barremian zones set as
equivalent to Boreal stolleyi
and bidentaum/scalare Zones
I. giraudi 126.7
Hemihoplites feraudianus 127.2
Hemihoplites sartousi 127.8 E. barremense Zone is equivalent
to upper-half of A. vandenheckii
+ lower-half of H. sartousi
A. vandenheckii magstrat Upper Chron 128.3
M3r

Coronites darsi 128.6 Zones of Lower Barremian were

extensively revised (Hoedemaker
et al., 2003)
Kotetishvilia 129.0 Formerly Pulchellia
compressissima compressissima
Nicklesia pulchella 129.3 Elevated to zone status; was a
horizon
Kotetishvilia nicklesi 129.7 Formerly Nicklesia nicklesi
Spitidiscus hugii magstrat Chron M5n.8 130.0 Formerly Spitidiscus hugii

Hauterivian Hauterivian ammonite zones 130.0

are scaled according to
subzones (10)
Pseudothurmannia ohmi 131.9 Formerly called
Pseudothurmannia angulicostata
auctorum. Three subzones (from
base) are P. ohmi,
Pseudothurmannia catulloi,
Pseudothurmannia picteti
(Hoedemaker et al., 2003)
(cont.)
Table 19.3 (cont.)
Primary standard
Stage zonation
B. balearis
Pleisiospitidiscus ligatus
Subsaynella sayni
Lyticoceras nodosoplicatus
Crioceratites loryi
Acanthodiscus radiatus
Valanginian
Criosarasinella furcillata
Necomites peregrinus
Saynoceras verrucosum
Busnardoites campylotoxus
Tirnovella pertransiens
Berriasian
Thurmanniceras otopeta
boissieri (Tirnovella
alpillensis s.z.)
B. (F.) boissieri (Berriasella
picteti s.z.)
Method
magstrat
Valanginian ammonite zones
(above T. otopeta) scaled
proportionally to number of
subzones + horizons (9)
magstrat
Berriasian ammonite zones
are correlated to magnetics
magstrat
magstrat
magstrat
Calibration Basal
of base ageb (Ma) Comments
132.5
133.2
133.8
134.5
135.8 C. loryi Zone has two subzones
(O. (J.) jennoti and C. loryi)
Base Chron 136.4 Contains 2 subzones
M11n
136.4
137.3 Former Neocomites
(Teschenites) pachydicranus
Zone has been completely
replaced in new zonal scheme
by Kilian Group (2002).
New upper zone has 2
subzones (Teschenites callidiscus
and C. furcillata)
138.1 N. peregrinus Zone has 2
subzones (Neocomites
peregrinus, formerly in S.
verrucosum; and Olcostephanus
(O.) nicklesi); the former
Himantoceras trinodosum
subzone has been replaced
138.9 S. verrucosum Zone now has 2
subzones (S. verrucosum and
Karakaschiceras pronecostatum);
(Hoedemaeker et al., 2003)
139.8 Name Thurmanniceras
campylotoxus has also been
used for this ammonite.
Divided into 2 subzones, with
the upper one having two
horizons
Chron M14r.3 140.2
140.2
Base Chron 140.7 Was M15n.4 in Ogg et al.
M15n (1988), but revised ammonite
stratigraphy by Aguado et al.
(2000) assigns as base of M15n
Chron M16n.8 141.2 Fauriella and Berriasella
have also been used as genera
names for this species
Chron M16n.5 141.6 Name Picteticeras picteti has
also been used for this
ammonite. See note on
Tirnovella alpillensis s.z.
 The Cretaceous Period 379

Table 19.3 (cont.)

Primary standard Calibration Basal

Stage zonation Method of base ageb (Ma) Comments

B. (F.) boissieri (Malbosiceras magstrat Chron M16r.5 142.3 Name Berriasella paraminounum has
paramimounum s.z.) also been used for this ammonite
Subthurmannia occitanica magstrat Chron M17n.7 142.6 Subthurmannia (Strambergella) and
(Dalmasiceras dalmasi s.z.) Tirnovella have also been used as
genera names for this species
S. occitanica (Berriasella magstrat Chron M17r.9 143.0 Calibration of base to magnetic
privasensis s.z.) polarity chrons is constrained to upper
half of M17r in Berrias section
S. occitanica (Tirnovella magstrat Chron M17r.3 143.7 Neocomites and Tirnovella have
subalpina s.z.) also been used for the genus name of
this species
Berriasella jacobi magstrat Chron M18r.2 144.8 This zone has also been included as
(Pseudosubplanites grandis s.z.) the upper subzone of a Berriasella
(Pseudosubplanites) exinus Zone. See
NOTE on B. jacobi
B. jacobi (B. jacobi s.z.) magstrat Chron M19n.2n.55 145.5
( 0.05)

JURASSIC 145.5
(Tithonian)
(top)
Durangites magstrat Chron M19r.1 ( 0.2) 146.1 Base Calpionellid Zone A2 is base
Durangites Zone

a The ammonite zones and component subzones for the Mediterranean faunal province of the Tethyan paleogeographic realm are those recommended by the
IUGS Lower Cretaceous Ammonite Working Group (Hoedemaeker et al., 2003), and their correlation to prior schemes is partially indicated in the comment
column. The calculated ages for these ammonite zones were used as the primary scaling for most of the Cretaceous time scale chart (Fig. 19.1). Ages of most
other ammonite zones, microfossil datums, and sea-level changes in Fig. 19.1 are derived from their relative correlations to these primary scales as shown in the
charts of Hardenbol et al. (1998) and of Leckie et al. (2002).
b Age to base of zone.

polarity time scale is used to estimate absolute ages. In turn,
for the Early Cretaceous, the M-sequence magnetic polarity
time scale was constructed by incorporating key radiometric
ages (the top of Chron M0r is of earliest Aptian; Chron M26n
is of lower Kimmeridgian; and pre-Chron M41n is of Bajo-
cian age) with estimated durations from cycle stratigraphy of
the basal Aptian, the Barremian (5 myr), and the combined
HauterivianValanginian (10.5 myr) stages.
Ammonite zones of the Mediterranean faunal province of
the Tethyan realm have been calibrated to M-sequence chrons
for the Berriasian through lowest Valanginian stages, and for
portions (including the proposed limits) of the Hauterivian
and Barremian stages. The spreading-rate model (see Chapter
5) together with the estimated chron assignments, imply that
the Valanginian Stage had a relatively short duration, which
also matches its lowest number of component ammonite zones.
If a set of ammonite zones lacked a direct calibration to the
M-sequence, the zones in this interval were scaled according
to their relative numbers of subzones (Table 19.3). The relative
duration and the ages of the Berriasian through Hauterivian
stages (and Kimmeridgian and Tithonian of the late Juras-
sic) are entirely dependent upon the selection of the Pacic
spreading-rate model for the Hawaiian lineations, therefore
their estimated uncertainties increase to 2 myr for absolute
ages of the stages furthest from the radiometric-age control
points, and uncertainties for their durations are 1 myr.
Ammonite zones of the sub-Boreal faunal province have
been partially calibrated to M-sequence chrons only within the
Berriasian. Therefore, the approximate ages of the sub-Boreal
zones of Valanginian through Barremian are dashed accord-
ing to potential correlations shown on the ammonite scales of
Hardenbol et al. (1998).
Calpionellid microfossil and most calcareous nannofossil
events have been directly calibrated to the M-sequence chrons.
380 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
19.3.2 Aptian and Albian
This portion of the Cretaceous time scale hinges on radiometric
ages for the basal-Aptian and the base of the Cenomanian,
and uses cycle stratigraphy for a major portion of the internal
scaling. The most signicant difference in this Cretaceous time
scale compared to versions published in the 1990s (Obradovich,
1993; Gradstein et al., 1994a, 1995; Larson and Erba, 1999) is
the assignment of an age of 125 Ma to the base of the Aptian
(base of polarity Chron M0r), rather than 121 Ma. In addition
to increasing the duration of the Aptian Stage, this results in a
shift to older absolute ages for the underlying M-sequence and
associated biostratigraphic and stage boundaries through the
Tithonian. Therefore, an expanded explanation for this key
age is appropriate.
AG E O F BA S E - A P T I A N
The absolute age for the base of the Aptian, which was assigned
as 121 Ma on the Gradstein et al. (1995) time scale, is derived
from an 40 Ar/39 Ar radiometric date of 124.6 0.3 Ma (after
correcting to TCR monitor standards of Renne et al., 1998c)
near the top of a reversed-polarity magnetic zone recorded in
the basalt edice of MIT Guyot in the western Pacic (Pringle
and Duncan, 1995; Larson and Erba, 1999). The overlying
basalt is a transition into a well-developed soil that is over-
lain by transgressive marine sediments containing early Aptian
nannofossils, then capped by a thick shallow-water carbonate
platform. This reversed-polarity zone had been assigned as
the uppermost portion of polarity Chron M1r of middle Bar-
remian based on estimates of (a) the required time to form
an overlying soil prole and (b) the abundance of nannoconid
calcareous nannofossils within the overlying marine ooding
horizon, which had been interpreted as preceding the earliest
Aptian nannoconid crisis.
However, re-evaluation of the nannofossil criteria (J.
Bergen, pers. comm., 2001) and the character of the carbon
isotope values from the overlying sediments at MIT Guyot
are also consistent with assigning this polarity zone to polarity
Chron M0r of the basal-Aptian (Pringle et al., 2003). Chron
M0r spans 0.4 myr (Herbert et al., 1995), therefore its base,
which is a proposed marker for the base of the Aptian Stage, is
at approximately 125.0 Ma.
This revised age scale using 125.0 Ma for the base of the
Aptian is consistent with radiometric and paleontological data
from the Ontong Java Plateau. For example, the basaltic base-
ment of ODP Site 807 on the Ontong Java Plateau, which
is inter-bedded with limestone containing Leopoldina cabri
foraminifera (Sliter and Leckie, 1993), yielded an average
whole-rock ArAr age of 122.4 0.8 Ma (Mahoney et al.,
1993). ODP Leg 192 sites also documented inter-bedded late-
stage volcanism of Ontong Java Plateau with Leopoldina cabri
foraminifera (Mahoney et al., 2001; Sikora and Bergen, 2004).
The OAE1a, or Selli, episode of carbon-rich oceanic sediment
accumulation and onset of a shift to heavier carbon isotope ra-
tios that are characteristic of the lower to middle Aptian begins
about 0.5 myr after the end of Chron M0r, and spans about
1 myr (Larson and Erba, 1999), therefore the approximate
termination of OAE1a is assigned as 123 Ma. The biostrati-
graphic age of OAE1a is the middle of C. litterarius nannofos-
sil zone and the lower part of the Leopoldina cabri planktonic
foraminifer zone (Leckie et al., 2002). This coincidence be-
tween biostratigraphic and radiometric age calibration strongly
supports the concept that rapid eruption of the Ontong Java
Plateau was a major cause of the conditions leading to the
OAE1a carbon-rich sedimentary deposits and the associated
cascading effects on the global carbon cycle and carbon isotope
ratios.
Therefore, the reversed-polarity zone dated at MIT Guyot
was probably M0r (e.g. Pringle et al., 2003) and the base of the
Aptian Stage is 125.0 Ma.
SCALING OF THE APTIAN AND ALBIAN
The AlbianCenomanian boundary (base of planktonic
foraminifer G. truncanoides, or just slightly older than the base
of the M. mantelli ammonite zone) is projected at 99.6 Ma (see
Upper Cretaceous time scale below). The Albian time scale
below this base-Cenomanian control age is derived from the
absolute durations of Albian planktonic foraminifer zones as
scaled by cycle stratigraphy (Grippo et al., 2004).
The placement of the AptianAlbian boundary is a con-
tentious topic. We decided to provisionally assign the base of
the Albian to be the lowest occurrence of the nannofossil Pre-
discophaera columnata (equivalent to P. cretacea of some ear-
lier studies) within European reference sections, despite some
problems in taxonomy (Mutterlose et al., 2003). This base-
Albian placement has an age of 112 Ma computed from cycle
stratigraphy.
The upper Aptian scale is partially constrained by an age of
114 1.3 Ma from a bentonite in the upper Aptian Parahoplites
nuteldensis ammonite zone (Obradovich, 1993). The inter-
zonal calibration of AptianAlbian calcareous nannofossil and
planktonic foraminifer zones and the relative scaling of these
datums within the Aptian are primarily from Leckie et al.
(2002), which in turn modies the zonal scales in Bralower
et al. (1997) by a downward extension of the range of planktonic

foraminifer Leupoldina cabri (Erba et al., 1999; Premoli Silva
et al., 1999).
Aptian and Albian nannofossil and planktonic foraminifer
zone denitions and relative scaling of datums from Leckie
et al. (2002), which in turn relies on Bralower et al. (1997) with
downward extension of the range of planktonic foraminifer
Leupoldina cabri from Erba et al. (1999) and Premoli-Silva
et al. (1999). Within intervals lacking direct cycle-stratigraphic
scaling of biostratigraphic events, the relative spacing of these
events from Leckie et al. (2002) or Hardenbol et al. (1998) was
used proportionally. Tethyan ammonite zones were calibrated
to these foraminifer and nannofossil events (e.g. Moullade
et al., 1998; Robaszynski, 1998; Bellier et al., 2000), or pro-
portionally scaled relative to their subzones (Table 19.3). In
turn, estimated relative placements of Boreal ammonite zones
and major sea-level trends to the Tethyan reference scale
are from the Cretaceous compilations of Hardenbol et al.
(1998).
19.3.3 Cenomanian through Maastrichtian
A Late Cretaceous time scale for North American ammonoid
zones was calibrated by Obradovich (1993) from his extensive
suite of ArAr dates on bentonites. He rejected all radiometric
dates derived from biotites in bentonites as too young, and con-
sidered all his previous KAr ages on sanidines to be obsolete.
Correlation of the North American ammonoid zonation and
the associated radiometric ages to Upper Cretaceous European
stages and zones was partially achieved through rare inter-
changes of ammonoid and other marine macrofauna (reviewed
in Cobban, 1993) and strontium isotope curves for portions of
the Campanian and Maastrichtian (e.g. McArthur et al., 1993,
1994). This Late Cretaceous time scale was modied slightly
by Gradstein et al. (1994, 1995), and we have further rened
the spline t for the component ammonoid zones (Table 19.3;
and see Chapter 8).
Obradovich et al. (2002) report 40 Ar/39 Ar ages of 98.98
0.38 Ma from the Mantelliceras saxbii ammonite subzone (the
upper of the two subzones of the Mantelliceras mantelli Zone;
the basal zone of the Cenomanian) and 99.16 0.37 Ma from
the Graysonites wooldridgei ammonite zone (equivalent to the
European subzone of Neostlingoceras carcitanense; which is the
lower of the two subzones). These ages by Obradovich et al.
(2002) are only slightly older than his previous (Obradovich,
1993) average of 98.6 Ma from the Neogastroplites haasi am-
monite zone, which had been provisionally considered to be
the basal zone of a comparatively ner-detailed Cenomanian
ammonoid zonation in the North American Western Interior.
The Cretaceous Period 381
Therefore, the age for the top of the N. carcitanense subzone
is 99.1 Ma (0.4 myr). In the Vocontian Basin of southeast
France, there are 22 couplets within the N. carcitanense subzone
in outcrops of apparent continuity down through the upper-
most Albian (Gale, 1995). If, following Gale (1995), we assign
these couplets to be precession cycles (20 kyr), then the N.
carcitanense subzone spans at least 0.44 myr, hence it is 99.55
Ma at the base. In the Risou GSSP, the base of M. mantelli is
6 m above the GSSP (base of G. truncanoides), but the relative
spacing of uppermost Albian foraminifer datums relative to
their Milankovitch-cycle-scaling in Italy (Grippo et al., 2004)
implies a very rapid sedimentation rate; therefore, the base of
the Cenomanian is 99.6 Ma.
The C-sequence of magnetic polarity chrons is scaled ac-
cording to combined ammonoid and radiometric constraints in
the US Western Interior. Other European macrofossil zones,
the microfossil and nannofossil datums, and the sea-level curve
are scaled relative to the estimated calibrations to either the
North American ammonoid zonation (e.g. charts in Hardenbol
et al., 1998) or the C-sequence polarity chrons (e.g. Shipboard
Scientic Party, 2004).
19.3.4 Estimated uncertainties on stage ages and
durations
The Cretaceous time scale was derived in different segments
with a mixture of spline tting, cycle stratigraphy, and seaoor-
spreading models. Each method has different degrees of pre-
cession. In the following discussion, the uncertainties are ex-
pressed at the 95% condence level (2-sigma).
The Late Cretaceous uses a spline t to combine 40 Ar/39
Ar ages and ammonoid zones of the US Western Interior, and
the computed uncertainties have partially incorporated possi-
ble systematic offsets between 40 Ar/39 Ar radiometric ages and
other methods (see Chapter 8). This method results in an esti-
mated uncertainty of 0.8 myr for the base-Turonian, and the
combined radiometric and cycle-scaling for base-Cenomanian
and base-Albian (or, rather our potential marker for this
yet-to-be-dened level) continues this trend (see Table
19.4.).
The base-Aptian age (125.0 Ma) is tied closely to an
40
Ar/39 Ar radiometric age of 124.6 0.6 Ma (2-sigma) for the
top of Chron M0r, and we have increased the uncertainty to
1.0 myr to incorporate partially for the external errors on this
radiometric method. Cycle stratigraphy relative to this base-
Aptian age was incorporated into a seaoor-spreading model,
and implies a relatively low uncertainty in durations for the
Barremian and Hauterivian stages. As noted in Chapter 18,
382 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

Table 19.4 Ages and duration of Cretaceous stages (see footnote)

Estimated Estimated
uncertainty uncertainty
Age on age Duration on duration
Boundary Stage (Ma) (2-sigma) (myr) (2-sigma) Status; primary marker Calibration, and Comments
Base of Cenozoic 65.5 0.3 myr GSSP; Iridium anomaly Array of direct Ar-Ar ages on impact level
(base of Danian)
Maastrichtian 5.1 0.5 myr Durations (and uncertainties) of
Maastrichtian and Campanian depend on
assumed correlation to Ar-Ar age dates of
U.S. Western Interior ammonite zones.
Base of 70.6 0.6 GSSP; bracketed by microfossils Odin (2001) projected the
Maastrichtian and regional ammonites base-Maastrichtian GSSP to base of B.
jenseni ammonite zone, but another
interpretation (see text) is to a younger level,
and estimated age corresponds to the base of
the B. baculus zone of the Western Interior
of North America. Ar-Ar ages bracket this
ammonite datum.
Campanian 12.9 0.7
Base of Campanian 83.5 0.7 Not dened; provisional Level of proposed GSSP marker is assumed
boundary marker is the to be equivalent with the base of S. leei III
extinction of crinoid Marsupites ammonite zone of Western Interior of North
testudinarius. America. Ar-Ar ages bracket this ammonite
datum.
Santonian 2.3 0.1
Base of Santonian 85.8 0.7 Not dened; proposed primary Level of proposed GSSP marker is assumed
marker is lowest occurrence of to be equivalent with the base of the C.
the widespread inoceramid saxitonianus ammonite zone of Western
bivalve Cladoceramus Interior of North America. Ar-Ar ages
undulatoplicatus. bracket this ammonite datum.
Coniacian 3.5 0.3
Base of Coniacian 89.3 1.0 Not dened; Base-Turonian Level of proposed GSSP marker is
(candidate denition) is lowest signicantly below the lowest occurrence of
occurrence of inoceramid F. (H.) petrocoriensis in Europe, which is
bivalve Cremnoceramus deformis generally shown as approximately equivalent
erectus, to base of Foreesteria peruuana zone of
Western Interior of North America. Ar-Ar
ages bracket this ammonite datum in North
America, and we have arbitrarily added 1/2
ammonite zone of Western Interior (0.2
myr) its age.
Turonian 4.2 0.3
Base of Turonian 93.5 0.8 GSSP; lowest occurrence of the Ar-Ar ages tightly bracket this ammonite
ammonite Watinoceras devonense. datum in North America
Cenomanian 6.1 0.3
Base of Cenomanian 99.6 0.9 GSSP; the lowest occurrence of Ar-Ar ages bracket top of overlying
the planktonic foraminifer ammonite subzone, then cycle stratigraphy
Rotalipora globotruncanoides. was applied to scale GSSP datum
Albian 12.4 0.3 Duration of Albian is from cycle stratigraphy;
but depends upon denition of its base.
Base of Albian 112.0 1.0 Not dened, and controversial. Cycle stratigraphy scaling from
Boundary shown here is one base-Cenomanian GSSP age estimate
candidate; the lowest occurrence
of calcareous nannofossil
Praediscosphaera columnata (base
of nannofossil zone NC8).
Aptian 13.0 0.5
 The Cretaceous Period 383

Table 19.4 (cont.)

Estimated Estimated
uncertainty uncertainty
Age on age Duration on duration
Boundary Stage (Ma) (2-sigma) (myr) (2-sigma) Status; primary marker Calibration and comments
Base of Aptian 125.0 1.0 The proposed primary marker is Ar-Ar age at top of presumed zone M0r on
the beginning of magnetic Pacic guyot; and duration of Chron M0r is
polarity Chron M0r. known from cycle stratigraphy.
Barremian 5.0 0.5 Duration of Barremian is estimated from
cycle stratigraphy as 5 myr.
Base of Barremian 130.0 1.5 Not dened, but the candidate Chron ages depend upon selected Pacic
marker is the lowest occurrence spreading rate model.
of the Taveraidiscus hugii
auctorum, which is reported as
Chron M5n(0.8)
Hauterivian 6.4 1.0 Total duration of Hauterivian and
Valanginian is estimated from cycle
stratigraphy as 10 myr.
Base of Hauterivian 136.4 2.0 Not dened, but the candidate Chron ages and duration of stages depend
marker is the lowest occurrence upon selected Pacic spreading rate model.
of the ammonite genus Not well constrained. A faster spreading
Acanthodiscus (especially A. rate would yield a shorter duration, and a
radiatus), which is reported to be younger basal age.
near the base of Chron M11n
Valanginian 3.8 1.0 Uncertainties on Valanginian through
Berriasian durations are assigned as 30% of
duration, which is probable range of realistic
spreading models.
Base of Valanginian 140.2 3.0 Not dened, but candidate Chron ages and duration of stages depend
marker is the lowest occurrence upon selected Pacic spreading rate model.
of ammonite Thurmanniceras Not well constrained. A slower spreading
pertransiens, which is at Chron rate would yield a longer duration, and a
M14r(0.3) older basal age.
Berriasian 5.3 1.7
Base of Cretaceous 145.5 4.0 Not dened. Base of Cretaceous Chron ages and duration of stages depend
(base of Berriasian) (base of Berriasian) placed here upon selected Pacic spreading rate model.
as the leading candidate of the Not well constrained.
base of Berriasella jacobi
ammonite zone or base of
Calpionellid Zone B; which is
calibrated as Chron
M19n.2n(0.55)

For stages that lack a ratied denition (as of Nov 2004), the computed age is for the indicated primary marker. See text for discussion of derivation of uncertainty
estimates.

this seaoor-spreading model has an estimated uncertainty of
4 myr for Late Jurassic stage boundaries. However, the un-
certainties from the spreading model should quickly converge
to about 1.5 myr for the base-Barremian.
19.3.5 Summary of Cretaceous time scale
The Cretaceous is the longest period of the Phanerozoic,
spanning 80 myr from 145.5 4.0 to 65.5 0.3 Ma. With
the AlbianCenomanian boundary estimated at 99.6 0.9
Ma, the Early Cretaceous Epoch lasted 46 myr, and the
Late Cretaceous Epoch spanned 34 myr. Three of the Cre-
taceous stages (the Aptian, Albian, and Campanian) span
over 12 myr, and are among the longest stages within the
Phanerozoic.
Compared to the high precision of the Late Cretaceous time
scale (with the exception of correlating the base-Maastrichtian
GSSP), the Early Cretaceous and Late Jurassic are nearly de-
void of veried high-precision ages that are calibrated to bios-
tratigraphy or magnetic polarity chrons. A renement of this
portion of the Mesozoic time scale is crucial to our under-
standing of the rates of plate motions during the birth of the
Atlantic Ocean, and should be an emphasis of future campaigns
for radiometric dating and cycle tuning.
20 The Paleogene Period
. . , . . , . , . . , . .
. , . . , . , . , . , .
44 Ma (mid-Paleogene)
Lutetian
Geographic distribution of Paleogene GSSPs that have been ratied
(diamonds) or are candidates (squares) on a mid-Paleogene (44 Ma)
map (status in January, 2004; see Table 2.3). Not all candidate
After the global CretaceousPaleogene boundary impact catastro-
phy, planktonic foraminifera and nannofossils start new evolutionary
trends, and mammals appear on Earth; global warming episode occurs
at the PaleoceneEocene boundary and signicant cooling trends de-
velop in later Paleogene in preparation for Modern life and climate.
Orbital tuning of deep-marine cyclic sedimentation patterns, cali-
brated to the geomagnetic polarity and biostratigraphic scales, have
the potential to elevate the Paleogene time scale to the level of reso-
lution of the Neogene.
2 0 . 1 H I S T O RY A N D S U B D I V I S I O N S
20.1.1 Overview of the Paleogene
The Cenozoic Era (Phillips, 1841, originally Cainozoic, from
kainos = new and zoon = animal) is subdivided into the Paleo-
gene (palaios = old, genos = birth) and Neogene periods. The
A Geologic Time Scale 2004, eds. Felix M. Gradstein, James G. Ogg, and Alan
G. Smith. Published by Cambridge University Press.
c F. M. Gradstein,
J. G. Ogg, and A. G. Smith 2004.
,
Priabonian
Rupelian
Chattian
Danian
Ypresian
GSSPs are shown. Only the GSSPs for base-Oligocene (Rupelian),
base-Eocene (Ypresian), and base-Paleocene (base-Danian) epochs
have been formalized. The projection center is at 30 W.
use of Tertiary (Arduino, 1759) and Quaternary (Desnoy-
ers, 1829) is not recommended, being equally antiquated terms
such as Primary and Secondary that have fallen into disuse in
the twentieth century. Naumann (1866) combined in his Pa-
leogen Stufe, the Eocene and Oligocene, as opposed to the
Neogen Stufe of Hornes (1853) which included not only the
Miocene and the Pliocene, but also fauna of the Pleistocene
(see Chapter 21). The term Nummulitique, which had been
employed as an equivalent of Paleogene mainly by French-
speaking stratigraphers such as Renevier (1873), Haug (1908
11), and Gignoux (1950), is no longer used.
The Paleogene Period is subdivided into the Paleocene,
Eocene, and Oligocene epochs (Fig. 20.1). In his original subdi-
vision of the Tertiary, Lyell (1833) introduced the term Eocene
(eos, dawn; kainos, recent) for the older part of the Tertiary in
the classical European Cenozoic basins in which he recognized
less than 3% of extant mollusc species. Later, Beyrich (1854),
working mainly in northern Germany, separated the Oligocene
(oligos, little) from the Eocene. Finally, Schimper (1874), based
on paleobotanic studies in the Paris and other basins of western
384
 The Paleogene Period 385

Paleogene Time Scale

Main
AGE Polarity Planktonic Calcareous
(Ma) Epoch Stage Chron foraminifera nannoplankton
Seq.
T R

C6B
Neogene M1 NN1 CN1
Globorotalia kugleri s.s.
23.03 0.0 C6C Sphenolithus
Aq1
ciperoensis

C7
25 P22
C7A NP25 b
L Chattian C8
CP19
Oligocene

Globorotalia opima opima

C9 Sphenolithus
b distentus
P21
28.45 0.1 Chiloguembelina NP24 a
Ch1
C10 a Globorotalia opima opima
Globigerina ciperoensis
angulisuturalis Sphenolithus
30 C11 P20 ciperoensis

CP18
E Rupelian P19 NP23
Sphenolithus distentus
C12
Pseudohastigerina spp. CP17 Reticulofenestra umbilicus
NP22 c
P18 Ericsonia formosa
Turborotalia cerroazulensis CP16 b acme Ericsonia
NP21
33.90 0.1 C13 P17 cunialensis a subdisticha
Ru1
Turborotalia cerroazulensis Discoaster
P16 NP20
barbadiensis
35 C15 Turborotalia cerroazulensis - b
L Priabonian
C16
cunialensis NP19 CP15
Isthmolithus recurvus

P15 NP18 a Chiasmolithus

oamaruensis
Pr1
37.20 0.1 C17 Chiasmolithus
grandis
Globigerinatheka semiinvoluta
NP17
Eocene

b
Bartonian P14
C18 Orbulinoides beckmanni CP14
P13 Orbulinoides beckmanni Chiasmolithus
40 solitus
40.40 0.2 a
M C19
P12 NP16 Reticulofenestra
umbilicus
Lu4
c
Morozovella aragonensis Blackites gladius
Lutetian
C20 CP13
Chiasmolithus
P11 NP15 gigas
b

45 Chiasmolithus gigas

Figure 20.1 Paleogene stratigraphic subdivisions, geomagnetic calcareous nannoplankton, and main trends in eustatic sea level. A
polarity scale, pelagic zonations of planktonic foraminifera and color version of this gure is in the plate section.
386 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

Paleogene Time Scale

Main
AGE Polarity Planktonic Calcareous
(Ma) Epoch Stage Chron foraminifera nannoplankton
Seq.
T R

Chiasmolithus
P11 gigas
C20 b
NP15 CP13
45 Chiasmolithus gigas

M Lutetian a
Nannotetrina fulgens
P10
C21
b Lu1
NP14 CP12 Blackites inflatus
Eocene

Hantkenina nuttalli a
48.60 0.2 Discoaster
sublodoensis
P9
C22
50 NP13 YP10
CP11
P8
Morozovella formosa formosa Coccolithus crassus
P7 Tribrachiatus orthostylus
C23 NP12
E Ypresian Morozovella aragonensis
CP10
Discoaster lodoensis

NP11 b
b
P6 CP9
Morozovella formosa formosa Tribrachiatus contortus
Morozovella lensiformis NP10 a Discoaster diastypus
C24 a
55 Rhomboaster bramlettei
Morozovella velascoensis = R. cuspis
b
55.80 0.2 P5 NP9 CP8

Globanomalina a Discoaster multiradiatus

Th5
c pseudomenardii
L Thanetian C25 b NP8
CP7
Discoaster nobilis
CP6 Heliolithus riedelii
P4 NP7 Discoaster mohleri
58.70 0.2
Paleocene

a NP6 CP5 Th1

Heliolithus kleinpellii
Globanomalina
60 C26 pseudomenardii NP5 CP4
M Selandian
P3
b Fasciculithus
tympaniformis
a
Morozovella angulata Sel1
61.70 0.2 P2 Praemurica uncinata NP4 CP3
C27
c Ellipsolithus macellus

E Danian C28 P1 Globanomalina compressa

NP3 CP2
b Chiasmolithus danicus
Parvularugoglobigerina NP2 b Cruciplacolithus
65 C29 a eugubina NP1
CP1
a
tenuis s.s.
65.50 0.3 Da1
Cretaceous C30

Figure 20.1 (cont.)


Europe, added the Paleocene (old Eocene). Whereas the
Oligocene has been accepted rather smoothly, the Paleocene
for a long time has been met with opposition (e.g. Mangin,
1957).
The formal assignment of seven stage names covering
the three Paleogene epochs was decided by the Interna-
tional Subcommission on Paleogene Stratigraphy at the 1989
International Geological Congress in Washington (Jenkins
and Luterbacher, 1992). As of early 2004, only the Global
Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSP) dening the bases of
the Paleogene epochs have been formally ratied: the base
of the Danian Stage (the CretaceousPaleogene boundary),
the base-Ypresian (the PaleoceneEocene boundary), and the
base-Rupelian (the EoceneOligocene boundary). Propos-
als for the GSSPs of the other Paleogene stages are being
formulated.
20.1.2 CretaceousPaleogene boundary
Since the seminal paper by Alvarez et al. (1980) on the events at
the CretaceousPaleogene (KP) boundary, their causes, inter-
relationships, and consequences have been much debated (e.g.
review by Frankel, 1999). The base-Danian GSSP has been
xed in a section at El Kef, Tunisia, at the base of the boundary
clay, the main criterion for the recognition of the KP bound-
ary being the increase in iridium caused by the impact of an ex-
traterrestrial body (e.g. Hildebrand et al., 1991; Frankel, 1999).
It corresponds to a drastic change in the marine plankton, the
extinction of the ammonites, and the demise of the dinosaurs
accompanied by biotic turnover/crises in many other groups
of organisms.
The El Kef GSSP section had become severely degraded
over time, therefore the nearby Ain Settara or Elles sections
in Tunisia are being considered by the ICS as a replacement
GSSP. Its stratigraphy is equivalent in completeness.
20.1.3 Paleocene Series
DA N I A N
The Danian Stage, named after its type area in Denmark, was
introduced by Desor (1847) following his studies of echinids
(Floris and Thomsen, 1981) within the Cerithium and the Bry-
ozoan Limestones at Stevns Klint and Fakse on Seland. The
Danian in the type area corresponds to the interval between
the top of the Maastrichtian Chalk and the basal conglomerate
of the Selandian. Originally considered as the youngest stage
of the Cretaceous (Desor, 1847), the Danian is now included
in the Paleogene (e.g. Pomerol, 1973). Its range spans the cal-
The Paleogene Period 387
careous nannoplankton Zones NP1NP4 of Martini (1971),
planktonic foraminifera Zones P0P2 (Guembelitria cretacea
Zone to Praemurica uncinataMorozovella angulata Zone) of
Berggren et al. (1995a), and dinoagellate cyst Viborg Zone
1 of Heilmann-Clausen (1988), which are of denite Pale-
ogene character (e.g. Michelsen et al., 1998, and references
therein).
SELANDIAN
Rosenkrantz (1924) based his Selandian Stage on a succession
composed of conglomerates, greensand, marls, and clays that
unconformably overly the upper Danian limestones and under-
lying the ash-bearing Mo-Clay in Denmark (e.g. Perch-Nielsen
and Hansen, 1981; Berggren, 1994). In its type area, the Se-
landian contains characteristic dinoagellate cyst assemblages
(Viborg 2 and 3 Zones of Heilmann-Clausen, 1985, 1988)
and calcareous nannoplankton (Zones NP5NP6 of Martini,
1971; e.g. Thomsen, 1994). The leading candidate for the base-
Selandian GSSP is the deep-marine succession of the Zumaya
section of northern Spain (Schmitz et al., 1998) at a level close
to the lowest occurrence of nannofossil Fasciculithus tympani-
formis (base of Zone NP5). This candidate GSSP level is below
the middle of polarity Chron C26r (approximately C26r(0.3)),
therefore is 1 myr younger than previous working denitions
(e.g. lowest occurrence of planktonic foraminifer Morozovella
angulata at base of Zone P3).
THANETIAN
The Thanetian is the youngest stage of the Paleocene. The
name of this stage was rst used by Renevier (1873), and its
meaning was subsequently narrowed by Dollfus (1880). The
Thanet Sands, Isle of Thanet, in southeast England consti-
tute the type-strata. These strata contain calcareous nanno-
plankton Zones NP6NP9 of Martini (1971) and dinoagel-
late cyst Zones Viborg 36 of Heilmann-Clausen (1985, 1988)
and D4bD5a of Costa and Manum (1988). The Thanet Sands
span polarity Chrons C26nC24r (Ali and Jolley, 1996). Some
stratigraphers prefer a two-fold subdivision of the Paleocene
(e.g. Harland et al., 1990) and include the Selandian in the
Thanetian Stage.
The base of the Thanetian is recognized readily by dinoag-
ellate cyst and calcareous nannoplankton events (rst occur-
rence of Areoligera gippingensis and last occurrence of Palaeo-
cystodinium bulliforme). A candidate GSSP is in the Zumaya
section in northern Spain at a level corresponding to the base
of polarity Chron C26n.
388 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
20.1.4 PaleoceneEocene boundary
The events taking place in the PaleoceneEocene boundary
interval, their inter-relations, and possible causes have been
intensively studied (e.g. reviews in Aubry et al., 1998, Schmitz
et al., 2001). The best criterion for the recognition of the
PaleoceneEocene boundary (base of the Ypresian) is the onset
of a pronounced negative carbon isotope excursion (CIE, see
Fig. 20.5), which allows global correlation of a wide vari-
ety of marine and terrestrial environments (e.g. Stott et al.,
1996). The carbon isotope excursion is the expression of the
PaleoceneEocene thermal maximum (PETM), which was
possibly caused by a sudden release of methane from subsea
marine clathrates (e.g. Dickens et al., 1997). It coincides with
major turnovers in deep-sea benthic foraminifera, calcareous
nannoplankton, and mammals. The GSSP for the Paleocene
Eocene boundary in the Gabal Dababiya section near Luxor,
Egypt, was ratied in 2003 (Aubry and Ouda, 2003).
20.1.5 Eocene Series
YPRESIAN
This stage was introduced by Dumont (1849) to include the
shelf-facies strata lying between the terrestrial to marginally
marine Landenian and the marine Brusselian. Dumont (1851)
later assigned the upper more sandy part of the stage, which
locally contains Nummulites, to the Paniselian from the Ypre-
sian sensu stricto, which is typied by the Yper Clay of western
Belgium (Willems et al., 1981).
Biostratigraphically, the Ypresian is well restrained by its
dinocyst and calcareous nannoplankton associations (e.g. Van-
denberghe et al., 1998; Moorkens et al., 2000). In the Tethys
realm, the Ilerdian (Hottinger and Schaub,1960) corresponds
to an important phase in the evolution of the larger foraminifera
which is not represented in northwest European basins. Mag-
netostratigraphic studies (Ali et al. 1993; Ali and Hailwood,
1995) correlate the Ypresian interval with polarity Chrons
C24rC22r.
LU T E T I A N
According to its author, De Lapparent (1883), the Lute-
tian Stage (early-Middle Eocene) is typied by the Calcaire
grossier of the Paris Basin. A stratotype was selected by Blon-
deau (1981) at St. Leu dEsserent and St. Vaast-les-Mello,
approximately 50 km north of Paris. The type-Lutetian con-
tains typical larger foraminifera (Nummulites laevigatus, Or-
bitolites complanatus) and, to a lesser extent, palynomorphs
and calcareous nannoplankton. The criterion selected for the
recognition of the base of the Lutetian is the rst appear-
ance of Hantkenina nuttallii. A leading candidate for the
base-Lutetian GSSP is the Fortuna section in southeastern
Spain.
BA RT O N I A N
The late-Middle Eocene stage of Bartonian (Mayer-Eymar,
1858) is based on the Barton Beds of the Hampshire Basin,
central southern England (Curry, 1981). The Barton Beds
contain a rich and diversied dinoagellate cyst assemblage
including Rhombodinium draco and Rhombodinium porosum.
The upper limit of the Bartonian remains poorly dened,
since it corresponds to a widespread sea-level lowstand and
is frequently marked by a hiatus separating it from the
Priabonian.
PRIABONIAN
The Priabonian Stage (Munier Chalmas and De Lapparent,
1893) is equivalent to the Late Eocene. The historical type
section in Priabona, northern Italy (Roveda, 1961; Harden-
bol, 1968; Barbin, 1988) contains rare planktonic foraminifera
(Turborotalia cerroazulensis group) assigned to zone P16 and
spans calcareous nannofossil zones NP19NP20 (Roth et al.,
1971). The pelagic facies of the Valle della Contessa Section,
central Italy, is one of the most suitable sections for a Priabo-
nian GSSP, and the disappearance of planktonic foraminifer
Globigerinatheka semiinvoluta provides an important marker for
correlation.
20.1.6 EoceneOligocene boundary
The section at Massignano, 10 km southeast of Ancona, north-
ern Italy, has been formally ratied as the GSSP for the
base of the Oligocene Series and base of the Rupelian Stage
(Premoli-Silva and Jenkins, 1993). The key event marking
the GSSP level is the extinction of the hantkeninid plank-
tonic foraminifera at the top of Zone P17, which lies within
nannofossil Zone NP21, and magnetic polarity Chron 13r.1.
Dating of biotite grains from 19 m below the base of the
GSSP with KAr and ArAr methods suggests a numeri-
cal age of 34 Ma for the GSSP (Premoli-Silva and Jenkins,
1993). The EoceneOligocene boundary interval marks a
phase of widespread cooling causing considerable faunal and
oral changes (e.g. PremoliSilva et al., 1988; Vonhof et al.,
2000).

20.1.7 Oligocene Series
RU P E L I A N
A pragmatic chronostratigraphic scheme for the standard-
ization of Oligocene stages was provided by Hardenbol and
Berggren (1978) who recognized two distinct lithostrati-
graphic units in northwest Europe: (i) a lower, moderately
deep-marine, clayey unit, which includes the typical Rupelian
rocks; and (ii) an upper, predominantly shallow-marine, sandy
unit, which incorporates the type section of the Chattian.
The name Rupelian was introduced by Dumont (1849),
who subdivided the unit into a lower sandy shale and an up-
per shale, the so-called Argile de Rupelmonde. The latter
incorporates the transgressive Boom Clay of central northern
Belgium, which may be regarded as a reference for the upper
Rupelian. The Boom Clay displays striking banding caused by
alternating layers, with thickness on the order of tens of cen-
timeters, caused by systematic variations in organic-carbon and
carbonate content, and clay and silt, which is thought to re-
ect 41 and 100 Ka Milankovitch cycles (Van Echelpoel, 1994;
Vandenberghe et al., 1997). The Boom Clay contains a typical
dinoagellate assemblage with Wetzeliella gochtii (Stover and
Hardenbol, 1993).
The lower Rupelian in the classical Belgium area incorpo-
rates the lowstand Ruisbroek Sands and Wintham Silts, that
have a hiatus at their base due to tectonic uplift. This hia-
tus is considered correlative to the Grande Coupure in the
mammal record, separating Eocene from Oligocene vertebrate
fauna after the onset of signicant global cooling that cre-
ated new landbridges (Woodburne and Swisher, 1995). The
Wintham Silts in western Belgium are assigned to the lower
part of nannofossil Zone NP22, which is well above the base
of the Oligocene, as evidenced from the open-marine marls at
Massignano, Italy, and the marginal marine strata in the upper
part of the Priabonian type section (Vandenberghe et al., 1998;
Brinkhuis and Visscher, 1995).
C H AT T I A N
The Chattian was introduced by Fuchs (1894) with the Kas-
seler Meeressande in Hesse, Germany, as the name-giving
strata. However, Goerges (1957) selected the section at Doberg,
near Bunde (Westphalia, Germany), as the stratotype. This
stratotype contains assemblages of the upper part of cal-
careous nannoplankton Zone NP24 (Martini et al., 1976),
miogypsinids (Drooger, 1960), and correlatable dinoagel-
late cyst assemblages. The traditional northwest European
RupelianChattian boundary at the base of the acme of benthic
The Paleogene Period 389
foraminifer Asterigerina guerichi is indicative of a rapid warm-
ing trend (Van Simaeys et al., in press).
Two of the best-documented sections for the boundary
stratotype are at Monte Cagnero and Pieve dAccinelli, cen-
tral Italy. In addition to having good biostratigraphic and
magnetostratigraphic records (Premoli-Silva et al., 2000), they
contain several tufte horizons yielding radiometric dates. The
candidate GSSP in the section at Monte Cagnero coincides
with the planktonic foraminifer P21aP21b zonal boundary
(extinction of genus Chiloguembelina). In this section, the last
occurrence of Chiloguembelina cubensis is in the lower portion of
polarity Chron C9n (approximately C9n(0.25)) and coincides
with the appearance of the colder-water immigrant dinoagel-
late Distatodinium bif in the Mediterranean (Coccioni et al., in
prep). However, the proposed primary marker, i.e. the extinc-
tion of Chiloguembelina, may be diachronous among basins and
is most likely controlled by paleolatitude and paleobiogeogra-
phy (Van Simaeys et al., in press). As examples, in tropical
Pacic Site 1218 of ODP Leg 199, the signicant decrease of
C. cubensis was observed in the upper half of polarity Chron
C10r (Lyle et al., 2002), and Berggren et al. (1995a) observed its
extinction or strong reduction in the middle of polarity Chron
C10n.
O L I G O C E N E M I O C E N E B O U N DA RY
The PaleogeneNeogene boundary (base of the Aquitanian
Stage) coincides with the magnetic reversal from polarity
Chron C6Cn.2r to C6Cn.2n in the section at Lemme-Carrosio,
northern Italy (Steininger et al., 1997a).
2 0 . 2 PA L E O G E N E B I O S T R AT I G R A P H Y
There are very rened Paleogene zonations in pelagic facies
using nannofossils and planktonic foraminifera; the zonations
differ between low and higher latitudes. Larger foraminifera
are a key stratigraphic tool in shallow-marine tropical to tem-
perate areas. In siliciclastic neritic facies dinoagellates are par-
ticularly useful; information concerning Paleogene dinocyst
distribution is most comprehensive for the mid latitudes of
the northern hemisphere. During the Paleogene, the various
continental masses had distinctive land mammals fauna, which
show marked turnovers and yield detailed terrestrial zonations.
Figures 20.1 through 20.3 show the correlation of
Paleogene stages, magnetostratigraphy, and standard marine
zonations based on planktonic foraminifera, calcareous nanno-
plankton, larger foraminifera, radiolaria, and dinoagellate
cysts. The intricate terrestrial zonations for North America
390 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
and Europe with mammalian fossils, and the calibration of the
regional terrestrial stages with the Paleogene standard stages
are shown in Fig. 20.4.
20.2.1 Foraminifera
PLANKTONIC FORAMINIFERA
The application of planktonic foraminifera to Paleogene
stratigraphy (Fig. 20.1) has been developed mainly in two
areas: the southern part of the former Soviet Union (e.g. Sub-
botina,1953) and the Caribbean (e.g. Bolli, 1957a,b). In the
late 1950s and 1960s, planktonic foraminifera became one of
the main biostratigraphic tools, and assumed even greater im-
portance with the advent of scientic ocean drilling. Paleo-
gene planktonic foraminifera and associated zonations have
been discussed by many authors (e.g. Bolli, 1966; Blow, 1979;
Bolli and Saunders, 1985; Toumarkine and Luterbacher, 1985;
Berggren and Miller, 1988; Berggren et al., 1995a; Olsson
et al., 1999). Planktonic foraminifera can be best used in open-
marine deposits of the tropical and subtropical realms. Im-
portant marker species are not present in middle and higher
latitudes and zonations proposed for these areas are therefore
considerably less detailed (Jenkins, 1985).
Estimates of the number of planktonic foraminifera species
surviving the CretaceousPaleogene boundary mass extinction
are controversial (e.g. Olsson, 1970; Keller, 1988; Arz et al.,
1999). These survivors are small opportunistic species belong-
ing to the genera Heterohelix, Guembelitria, Globoconusa, and
Hedbergella. The recovery of planktonic foraminifera during
the Paleocene led to a high degree of diversication, thereby
allowing a detailed biostratigraphic subdivision. Several new
genera develop during the early Paleocene, in particular, forms
with spinose tests (Parasubbotina), with murica (Praemurica),
and with smooth surfaces (Globanomalina). Open-marine
Middle and Late Paleocene assemblages in lower lati-
tudes are dominated by relatively large conicotruncate
representatives of the genera Morozovella, Acarinina, and
Globanomalina.
In many sections, the PaleoceneEocene boundary interval
in the lower part of Zone P5 (Morozovella velascoensis Zone)
corresponds to a reduction in the morphological diversity of the
planktonic foraminifera assemblages (e.g. Kelly et al., 2000).
The early and most of the middle Eocene is again a time of
rapid evolution within the genera Morozovella and Acarin-
ina. In addition, representatives of several new genera have
their rst appearance, including Pseudohastigerina, Truncoro-
taloides, Globigerinatheka, Clavigerinella, Turborotalia, and Or-
bulinoides. Several species are very characteristic and have very
short stratigraphic ranges (e.g. Orbulinoides beckmanni).
A major change in the composition of the planktonic
foraminifera assemblages took place at the end of the P15
Truncorotaloides rohri Zone (mid-Late Eocene) when the
morozovellids and several other genera disappeared. The
EoceneOligocene boundary corresponds to the last occur-
rence of representatives of the genus Hantkenina and of the
Turborotalia cerrazulensis lineage. The early Oligocene is dom-
inated by small-sized, low-diversity assemblages, but the di-
versity and average size of the assemblages recovered again
during late Oligocene. The rst massive occurrence of repre-
sentatives of the genus Globigerinoides is observed just above
the PaleogeneNeogene boundary.
L A RG E R ( B E N T H I C ) F O R A M I N I F E R A
Many of the west European centers in which the science
of stratigraphy evolved during the eighteenth and nine-
teenth centuries are located on Paleogene strata rich in
larger foraminifera. Hence, these microfossils have been
paramount for the development of the Paleogene biostrati-
graphic timescale, as demonstrated by the now abandoned
term Nummulitique, which has been used as an equivalent
of Paleogene. Larger foraminifera continue to be a decisive
stratigraphic tool in shallow-marine tropical to temperate areas
(Fig. 20.2). Zones for larger foraminifera are ideally based on
successions of biometric populations within phylogenetic lin-
eages; species are essentially morphometric units. During the
latter part of the twentieth century, several monographs on
larger foraminifera groups have considerably increased their
stratigraphic usefulness (e.g. Hottinger, 1960, 1977; Less, 1987;
Schaub, 1981).
The Danian and early Selandian larger foraminifera assem-
blages are relatively poorly differentiated and consist mainly
of a few rotaliids. They mark the start of the recovery from
the extinction of virtually all larger foraminifera genera at the
CretaceousPaleogene boundary.
Within the Thanetian, the rapid radiations of the alveolin-
ids and orthophragminids followed by that of the nummulitids
give origin to several phylogenetic lineages within each group
which allow a closely spaced zonation of the younger part of the
Thanetian, Ypresian, Lutetian, and early Bartonian (equivalent
to the Biarritzian regional substage). A major change takes
place within the Bartonian by the extinction of the genera Alve-
olina and Assilina as well as the extinction of the conspicuous
large representatives of the genus Nummulites. The younger
part of the Bartonian and the Priabonian are characterized by
 Stage Zonation Larger foraminifera

Aquitanian SBZ 24 Miogypsina gr. gunteritani

SBZ 23 Miogypsinoides, Lepidocyclinids, Nummulites bouillci

Chattian
Oligocene

b Lepidocyclinids, Cycloclypeus
SBZ 22 Nummulites vascus
a N. fichteli, N. bouillei Bullalveolina
?
Rupelian
SBZ 21 Nummulites vascus, N. fichteli

SBZ 20 Nummulites retiatus, Heterostegina gracilis

Priabonian
SBZ 19 Nummulites fabianii, N. garnieri, Discocyclina pratti minor

SBZ 18 Nummulites biedai, N. cyrenaicus

Bartonian Alveolina elongata, A. fragilis, A. fusiformis, Discocyclina pulcra baconica
SBZ 17 Nummulites perforatus, N. brogniarti, N. biarritzensis
Nummulites herbi, N. aturicus, Assilina gigantea,
SBZ 16
Eocene

Discocyclina pulcra balatonica

SBZ 15 Alveolina prorrecta, Nummulites millecaput, N. travertensis

Lutetian
Alveolina munieri, Nummulites beneharnensis, N. boussaci,
SBZ 14 Assilina spira spira

SBZ 13 Alveolina stipes, Nummulites laevigatus, N. uranensis

Alveolina violae, N. manfredi, N. campesinus, N. caupennensis,
SBZ 12 Assilina major, A. cuvillieri
Alveolina cremae, A. dainellii, Nummulites praelaevigatus, N. nitidus,
Cuisian SBZ 11 N. archiaci, Assilina laxispira
Alveolina schwageri, A. indicatrix, Nummulites burdigalensis burdigalensis,
SBZ 10 N. planulatus, Assilina placentula, Discocyclina archiaci archiaci
SBZ 9 Alveolina trempina, Nummulites involutus, Assilina adrianensis
SBZ 8 Alveolina corbarica, Nummulites exilis, N. atacicus, Assilina leymeriei
Ilerdian SBZ 7 Alveolina moussoulensis, Nummulites praecursor, N. carcasonensis
SBZ 6 Alveolina ellipsoidalis, A. pasticillata, Nummulites minervensis
SBZ 5 Orbitolites gracilis, Alveolina vredenburgi, Nummulites gamardensis
Paleocene

SBZ 4 Glomalveolina levis, Nummulites catari, Assilina yvettae

Thanetian SBZ 3 Glomalveolina primaeva, Fallotella alavensis, Miscellanea yvettae

Miscellanea globularis, Ornatononion minutus, Paralockhartia eos,

Selandian SBZ 2 Lockhartia akbari

Danian SBZ 1 Bangiana hanseni, Laffitteina bibensis

Figure 20.2 Paleogene zonation of larger foraminifera with selected taxa.

392 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
relatively small nummulitids and other rotaliids and by or-
thophragminiids, which may reach considerable dimensions.
Within the larger foraminifera assemblages, the Eocene
Oligocene boundary is not marked by drastic changes. The
subdivisions of the Oligocene based on larger foraminifera are
mainly based on the lepidocyclinids, miogypsinids, and num-
mulitids.
A larger foraminifera zonation of the Paleocene and Eocene
of the Tethyan area has been published by Serra-Kiel et al.
(1998) as one of the results of the IGCP 286 Early Paleogene
Benthos. Cahuzac and Poignant (1997) proposed a similar larger
foraminifera zonation for the OligoceneMiocene of the west
European basins. The letter-stage subdivision of the Indo-
Pacic Cenozoic (Leupold and van der Vlerk, 1936; Adams,
1970; Chaproniere, 1984; Boudagher-Fadel and Banner, 1999)
is based on larger foraminifera. These are also largely used in
the western hemisphere (Barker and Grimsdale, 1936; Butter-
lin, 1988; Caudri, 1996).
The zonations proposed by Serra-Kiel et al. (1998) and
the Oligocene part of the zonation by Cahuzac and Poignant
(1997) are shown on Fig. 20.2. Correlation between the plank-
tic zonations and those based on larger foraminifera are mainly
achieved by their co-occurrence with calcareous nannoplank-
ton and dinoagellates (e.g. Molina et al., 2000), but they are
always somewhat discontinuous leaving some leeway for sub-
jective interpretations. This is particularly true for the Pale-
ocene and the Oligocene.
SMALLER BENTHIC FORAMINIFERA
Smaller benthic foraminifera are important for correlation of
both shallow- and deep-water Paleogene sedimentary sections
(Table 20.1). Although the paleoecological niches of calcareous
and agglutinating benthics overlap, it is convenient to discuss
each group separately.
Agglutinating foraminifera The majority of Paleogene agglu-
tinating taxa occupy deeper marine habitats below storm wave
base on ne-grained, gravity-ow-rich siliciclastic wedges off
continental margins. Hence, deeper marine shales in many
petroleum basins are rich in agglutinating foraminifera; the
latter is particularly true for Paleogene sediments in the
North Sea, offshore Norway, offshore Labrador, Beaufort
MacKenzie Delta, Carpathians (ysch sediments), and the
Caribbean. In New Zealand, the restricted basin Waipawa
Black Shale facies of late Teurian (late Paleocene) age contains
diverse assemblages of agglutinated foraminifera with calcare-
ous taxa either leached or originally absent due to dysaerobia
(Hornibrook et al., 1989). In general, ne-grained, higher-
Table 20.1 Selected reference literature for stratigraphic study
of smaller benthic foraminifera in Paleogene sediments
New Zealand Hornibrook et al. (1989)
Caribbean Bolli et al. (1994)
Californian Coastal Ranges Mallory (1959)
Mediterranean AGIP (1982)
NW Europe, with emphasis Jenkins and Murray (1989)
on North Sea and UK
Circum N. Atlantic Margin Gradstein et al. (1994b)
basins (agglutinated
benthics)
Global bathyal and abyssal Kaminski and Gradstein
realms (agglutinated taxa) (2004)
Atlantic bathyal and abyssal Tjalsma and Lohmann (1983)
realm (calcareous benthics)
Global bathyal and abyssal van Morkhoven et al. (1986)
realms (calcareous benthics)
latitude (austral and boreal) sediments, poor in carbonate
harbor diversied agglutinated benthic assemblages.
There is no taxonomic turnover of the agglutinated fauna
at the CretaceousPaleogene boundary, nor in the Paleogene
itself, and many Paleogene taxa have originated in the Cam-
panian. Paleoenvironmental changes in basins, often the result
of shallowing due to sediment inll, basin uplift, or the return
of carbonate facies truncate the stratigraphic range of vari-
ous taxa. Well-known examples of such regional stratigraphic
truncations include:
1. Late Paleocene disappearance of the Lizard Spring assem-
blage of Trinidad;
2. Middlelate Eocene disappearance of ysch-type agglu-
tinated fauna in the Carpathians; and
3. mid-Cenozoic disappearance of various assemblages off-
shore Eastern Canada along the Norwegian continental
margin and in the North Sea the disappearance interval
of the ysch-type assemblage tracks mid-Cenozoic basin
shallowing.
There are over 150 stratigraphically useful cosmopoli-
tan Paleogene deeper-water agglutinated benthic foraminifera,
and many taxa have stratigraphic ranges that vary slightly or
even markedly from basin to basin. However, correlation of
wells within a basin can be accomplished with local zona-
tions. The atlas of cosmopolitan deep-water Paleogene taxa
by Kaminski and Gradstein (2004), the circum North Atlantic
continental margin basins study of Gradstein et al. (1994b),
and the New Zealand monograph by Hornibrook et al. (1989)
contain detailed range charts and zonations. These are re-
gions where Paleogene planktonic foraminifera are generally

sporadic and only present in narrow stratigraphic intervals.
For example, prominent offshore Norway interval zones based
on the upper part of ranges of agglutinated taxa include
the Ammoanita ruthvenmurrayi and Reticulophragmium pau-
pera Zones in the late Paleocene, Ammomarginulina aubertae
and R.amplectens s.str Zones in the latemiddle Eocene and
part of the late Eocene, and Adercotryma agterbergi in the early
Oligocene.
Smaller calcareous benthic foraminifera Just as investigations
of the agglutinated taxa got a boost in the late 1970s and 1980s
from petroleum exploration in continental margin basins and
deep-sea scientic drilling, the study of calcareous smaller ben-
thic foraminifera also advanced signicantly. Remarkably di-
verse bathyalabyssal Paleogene assemblages were discovered
that turned out to have stratigraphic potential, although rare or
patchy single taxa distributions require the use of zonal assem-
blages. The assemblages at the same time track important pa-
leoceanographic changes. The most important turnover of the
calcareous benthic fauna took place during the latest Paleocene
when the marine carbon reservoir experienced a major change
in isotopic composition (see Section 20.3). At that time, benthic
deep-sea fauna at many sites experienced dramatic reduction
in diversity and composition (Thomas and Shackleton, 1996).
Well known are the disappearances in bathyalabyssal facies of
Stensioeina beccariiformis, Angulogavelinella avnimelechi, vari-
ous species of Cibicidoides, including C. velascoensis, and several
taxa of Aragonia.
The genus Turrilina with the species robertsi in latest Pa-
leocene through Eocene (planktonic foraminifer Zones P6a
P15), the species T. alsatica in early Oligocene (Rupelian), and
the related Rotaliatina bulimoides in mid Eocene through early
Oligocene are examples of taxa that have global correlation po-
tential in deep neritic and bathyal environments, particularly
in midhigh latitudes with shale facies. Similarly, the disap-
pearance of Nuttalides trumpyi at the end of the Eocene is a
useful bathyalabyssal event, as is the appearance of the genus
Siphonina in the late Eocene, and of Sphaeroidina in the early
Oligocene.
20.2.2 Calcareous nannoplankton
Calcareous nannofossils form a heterogenous group of minute
objects that range in size from 1 to 30 m and are important
constituents of (deeper) marine sediments. The majority of the
fossils resemble the coccoliths of the exterior calcareous cover
(coccosphere) of the Haptophyceae and it is therefore generally
accepted that they are the fossil remains of unicellar algae.
The recognition of calcareous nannofossils as a useful tool for
The Paleogene Period 393
biostratigraphic correlations is generally credited to Bramlette
and co-workers (1954, 1961, 1967). Following these pioneer
efforts, intensive taxonomic and biostratigraphic studies have
been carried out that formed the basis for the presently existing
calcareous nannofossil biozonal schemes for the Mesozoic and
Cenozoic.
D E V E L O P M E N T O F Z O NAT I O N S
In the middle of the last century, several authors de-
scribed species important for correlation of Paleogene marine
sediments in Europe and North America (Bramlette and
Riedel, 1954; Deandre and Fert, 1954; Martini, 1958,
1959a,b; Stradner, 1958, 1959a,b; Bronnimann and Strad-
ner, 1960). In the 1960s, signicant contributions to Paleogene
zonations were made (Bramlette and Sullivan, 1961; Bystricka,
1963, 1965; Hay, 1964; Sullivan, 1964, 1965; Bramlette and
Wilcoxon, 1967; Hay and Mohler, 1967; Hay et al., 1967). But
it was only in the 1970s with the onset of scientic ocean drilling
that calcareous nannofossils became one of the most important
biostratigraphic microfossil groups.
The two most widely used Paleogene zonal schemes are
the standard zonation of Martini (1971), codied as NP, and
Bukry (1973, 1975a; emended by Okada and Bukry, 1980), cod-
ied as CP (Fig. 20.1). Martinis zonation relied on studies of
land sequences from largely temperate areas, whereas Bukrys
zonation was developed in low-latitude oceanic sections.
High-resolution studies (e.g. Romein, 1979; Perch-
Nielsen, 1985; Varol, 1989; Aubry, 1996) re-dened and sub-
divided these zones. For example, a four-fold subdivision was
proposed for Zone NP10, and Zones NP19 and NP20 were
combined because Sphenolithus pseudoradians at the base of
Zone NP20 is an unreliable marker. Aubry and Villa (1996)
emended Zone NP25 in the late Oligocene with a three-fold
subdivision that accounts for the denition of the Chattian
Aquitanian boundary (OligoceneMiocene boundary). Forna-
ciari and Rio (1996) proposed a two-fold subdivision of Zone
NP25 for the Mediterranean region, and re-dened the top
of the zone with the last common occurrence (LCO) of Retic-
ulofenestra bisecta, because the zonal marker species H. recta
extends well into the Miocene (Rio et al., 1990b). The LCO
of R. bisecta is very close to the OligoceneMiocene boundary
(Berggren et al., 1995a).
The detailed scheme of calcareous nannofossil zones and
key events in Fig. 20.1 is largely based on the magnetobios-
tratigraphic correlations of Berggren et al. (1995a). The mag-
netobiostratigraphic calibrations include detailed data from
the Contessa section (Monechi and Thierstein, 1985; Galeotti
et al., 2000). The top of Zone CP19b was dened by the last
394 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
occurrence of Sphenolithus ciperoensis (emendation of Martinis
zonation by Aubry and Villa, 1966; Berggren et al., 2000).
Calcareous nannoplankton respond quickly to changes in
the thermal structure of oceanic water masses. As a conse-
quence, the presence and stratigraphic ranges of marker species
strongly differ from low to high latitudes. Therefore, the stan-
dard zonal schemes are only partially applicable to sedimen-
tary sequences of the North Sea and the sub-Antarctic South
Atlantic, and modied Paleogene zonations have been pro-
posed for these areas (Wise, 1983; van Heck and Prins, 1987;
Varol, 1989, 1997; Wei and Wise, 1990a,b; Crux, 1991; Wei and
Pospichal, 1991).
E VO LU T I O NA RY T R E N D S
Following the biotic crisis at the end of the Maastrichtian, cal-
careous nannoplankton underwent a major diversication in
the earlymiddle Paleocene giving rise to several key genera for
biostratigraphy (e.g. Fasciculithus, Chiasmolithus, Sphenolithus,
Discoaster, and Helicosphaera). A major taxonomic turnover
took place at the PaleoceneEocene boundary interval in re-
sponse to the PaleoceneEocene thermal maximum (PETM).
The RhomboasterTribrachiatus lineage and the Discoaster radi-
ation characterize the zones at the PaleoceneEocene transition
(Angori and Monechi, 1996; Aubry, 1996, 1998a).
While the early Paleogene calcareous nannoplankton evolu-
tion reects an increasing temperature trend and oligotrophic
conditions, the late Paleogene calcareous nannoplankton evo-
lution is inuenced by climatic deterioration and eutrophi-
cation. A progressive decline in diversity with a low rate of
evolution characterizes this interval (Aubry, 1992, 1998b). A
pronounced taxonomic turnover occurred near the middle
late Eocene boundary. A sharp impoverishment in species of
the genus Discoaster took place prior to the EoceneOligocene
boundary with the extinction of the last two representatives of
the rosette-shaped discoasters D. barbadiensis and D. saipanensis
(Monechi, 1986; Nocchi et al., 1988).
A large number of nannofossil extinctions took place in
the early Oligocene. This decreasing diversity trend contin-
ued through the Oligocene, in particular at high latitude; it is
actually reversed at low latitudes with a radiation of the gen-
era Sphenolithus and Helicosphaera. A succession of several last
occurrences characterizes the OligoceneMiocene transition.
20.2.3 Radiolaria
Investigations contributing to a detailed Cenozoic radiolar-
ian biostratigraphy have been carried out largely on deep-sea
sediment samples in which calcareous microfossils co-occur, or
on cores with magnetostratigraphy or other methods for esti-
mating sediment age. In the case of radiolaria, this calibration is
essential since they are commonly absent in stage stratotypes.
For this reason, a two-step correlation via calcareous nannofos-
sils is usually unavoidable. The latter group can then be tied to
the geomagnetic polarity time scale, epoch/series boundaries,
and numerical age estimates, thus allowing for accurate corre-
lation of zonations across paleobiogeographic boundaries.
Riedel (1957) was the rst to realize the potential of ra-
diolaria for stratigraphic purposes. The originally proposed
stratigraphic zonation scheme of Riedel and Sanlippo (1970,
1971, 1978) has received only minor modications and ad-
ditions (Moore, 1971; Nigrini, 1971, 1974; Foreman, 1973;
Maurasse and Glass, 1976; Saunders et al., 1985) and is the
generally accepted scheme for tropical areas of the world oceans
(Sanlippo et al., 1985).
Code numbers for the radiolarian zonation for the trop-
ical Pacic, Indian, and Atlantic Oceans (RP1RP22 for the
Paleogene and RN1RN17 for the Neogene) were introduced
and standardized by Sanlippo and Nigrini (1998a). The Pa-
leogene radiolarian zonations for the tropics (Sanlippo and
Nigrini, 1998b) and the South Pacic (Hollis, 1993, 1997; Hol-
lis et al., 1997) with calibrations to planktonic foraminifer and
calcareous nannofossil zones are shown in Fig. 20.3.
A late Eocene to Pleistocene northern high-latitude zona-
tion was developed for the Norwegian and Greenland Seas
by Bjrklund (1976). Independent zonations for the Antarc-
tic sediments have been established by Petrushevskaya (1975),
Takemura (1992), and Abelmann (1990) who proposed two
zones for the upper Oligocene. Takemura and Ling (1997) ex-
tended the Paleogene high-latitude Southern Ocean zonation
into the late Eocene mainly based on material from ODP Legs
114 and 120.
Foreman (1973) created the rst lower Paleogene low-
latitude radiolarian zonation based on material from DSDP
Leg 10 in the Gulf of Mexico. The lowermost upper Pale-
ocene Bekoma campechensis Zone was introduced by Nishimura
(1987), who subsequently (1992) subdivided this zone into
three subzones. For the Paleogene record, where magne-
tostratigraphic data are not available for most radiolarian se-
quences, Sanlippo and Nigrini (1998a) used a combination of
data from previous literature and an unpublished integrated
compilation chart based on data from DSDP/ODP Legs
1135 to construct a composite chronology of radiolarian zonal
boundary events tied to numerical ages.
Investigations of a nearly complete radiolarian record
for the upper Lower Paleocene to upper Middle Eocene
 The Paleogene Period 395

Paleogene Time Scale

nannopl.
AGE Polarity
Epoch Stage Dinoflagellate cysts Radiolaria

Calc.
(Ma) Chron
c Sumatradinium soucouyantae
C6B
Neogene NN1
b
Deflandrea phosphoritica
Chiropteridium galea RP22
Invertocysta tabulata
23.03 0.0 C6C
D16 Membranophoridium
aspinatum
a

unzoned
Tuberculodinium vancampoae
C7 Distatodinium biffii
25 C7A NP25
L Chattian C8 c
Wetzeliella gochtii
Oligocene

Areoligera semicirculata RP21

C9 D15 Pentadinium laticinctum imaginatum
Svalbardella cooksoniae
Distatodinium biffii
28.45 0.1 NP24
b Phthanoperidinium amoenum
C10
Saturnodinium pansum
Enneadocysta pectiniformis
a
30 C11
Rhombodinium draco RP(SP)15
b Apteodinium spiridoides Achilleodinium biformoides
E Rupelian NP23
D14
Enneadocysta arcuata
RP20
C12 a

NP22 Wetzeliella gochtii

Spiniferites sp. 1 (Manum et al.,1989)
D13
Chiropteridium galea Areosphaeridium diktyoplokum
NP21
33.90 0.1 C13 c
Thalassiphora reticulata
RP19
Glaphyrocysta semitecta
35 NP20 RP(SP)14
C15 - D12 b
L Priabonian
C16
NP19
Thalassiphora fenestrata
Areosphaeridium michoudii
RP18

NP18 Heteraulacacysta porosa

a RP17
Rhombodinium perforatum
37.20 0.1 C17 Rottnestia borussica
RP(SP)13
b RP16
D11 Wetzeliella simplex
Eocene

NP17 Heteraulacacysta? leptalea

a Rhombodinium porosum RP15
Bartonian Corrudinium
C18 b incompositum
Rhombodinium draco Areoligera tauloma
RP(SP)12
40 Cerebrocysta bartonensis
40.40 0.2 RP14
D10
M C19 NP16 a Phthanoperidinium
distinctum

Glaphyrocysta intricata Cleistosphaeridium

Lutetian diversispinosum RP13
C20
NP15 Diphyes pseudoficusoides RP(SP)11
D9 e
Phthanoperidinium clithridium RP12
Diphyes ficusoides
45

Figure 20.3 Paleogene dinoagellate cyst zonation and datums and Dinoagellate stratigraphy was compiled by A. J. Powell and
radiolarian zonation, with their estimated correlation to H. Brinkhuis. A color version of part of this gure is in the plate
magnetostratigraphy and calcareous nannoplankton zones. section.
396 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

Paleogene Time Scale

nannopl.
AGE Polarity
Epoch Stage Dinoflagellate cysts Radiolaria

Calc.
(Ma) Chron

Diphyes RP13
pseudoficusoides
C20
e Phthanoperidinium clithridium RP(SP)11
NP15 Diphyes ficusoides
45
Cerebrocysta magna RP12
M Lutetian
Enneadocysta arcuata Wetzeliella articulata
d Phthanoperidinium regalis brevicornuta
D9 c
C21
Dracodinium pachydermum RP11
NP14
Eocene

Eatonicysta ursulae RP10

b RP(SP)10
48.60 0.2 Membranilarnacia glabra
Dracodinium varielongitudum RP9
Dracodinium pachydermum
C22 Charlesdowniea columna
50 NP13 a
Areosphaeridium diktyoplokum Membranilarnacia
c compressa
Charlesdowniea aff. clathrata
D8 b Dracodinium simile
Ochteodinium romanum RP8
C23 NP12 Dracodinium politum
a Charlesdowniea coleothrypta
E Ypresian c Dracodinium varielongitudum
Dracodinium solidum RP(SP)9
D7 b Deflandrea oebisfeldensis
NP11 Dracodinium solidum
a Dracodinium simile Cerodinium wardenense
D6 b a
Wetzeliella meckelfeldensis
NP10 Wetzeliella astra Phelodinium magnificum
C24 b RP(SP)8
55 D5 Apectodinium augustum
a RP(SP)7 RP7
55.80 0.2 Apectodinium augustum
NP9
c
Apectodinium homomorphum
L Thanetian C25 NP8 D4 Rottnestia borussica Areoligera gippingensis
RP(SP)6
b c
NP7 Alisocysta margarita
58.70 0.2 Areoligera gippingensis
Paleocene

NP6 Palaeocystodinium bulliforme

RP6
a b
Alisocysta margarita
Isabelidium? viborgense
RP(SP)5

b
60 C26 NP5
M Selandian
D3
b a
Cerodinium depressum
Damassadinium californicum a
a Thalassiphora cf. delicata
61.70 0.2 NP4 Alterbidinium circulum
b Palaeocystodinium bulliforme Spiniferites cf. supparus
C27 D2 Alisocysta reticulata
unzoned

a RP(SP)4
Spiniferites cryptovesiculatus
Senoniasphaera inornata
E Danian C28 NP3 c
RP(SP)3
D1 Xenicodinium lubricum
NP2 b Tectadodinium rugulatum Spongodinium delitiense RP(SP)2
65 C29 NP1 a
Carpatella cornuta
RP(SP)1
65.50 0.3 Carpatella cornuta Palynodinium grallator
Cretaceous C30

Figure 20.3 (cont.)


(Sanlippo and Blome, 2001) recovered on ODP Leg
171B, western North Atlantic, indicates no major change
in the composition of the radiolarian assemblage across the
PaleoceneEocene boundary. However, an abnormally large
radiolarian turnover was observed near the EarlyMiddle
Eocene boundary. Comparison of the stratigraphic ranges
of species from Hole 1051A with those from the tropics
indicates that a high proportion of these species have di-
achronous rst and/or last occurrences. A correlation between
the lower Paleogene standard radiolarian low-latitude and other
zonal schemes presented for the Caribbean region and mid
high southern latitudes is presented in Sanlippo and Hull
(1999).
20.2.4 Dinoagellate cysts
Dinoagellate cysts are a group of predominantly single-celled
organisms (protists) with two agella and a eukaryotic nucleus.
They form a major component of the marine plankton, with
about half being autotrophic and half being phagotrophic. Oth-
ers are symbionts or parasites. Although most dinoagellates
are marine, they can occur in brackish and freshwater envi-
ronments, ice, snow, and wet sand. Dinoagellates have a sim-
ple to complex life cycle, which typically includes a motile
stage. Non-motile cells may be resting, temporary, vegeta-
tive, or digestion cysts, and may have organic, calcareous, or
siliceous walls. Most fossil organic-walled dinoagellate cysts
(dinocysts) are considered to represent hypnozygotes, being
distinguished by a restant organic wall and an excystment open-
ing, the archeopyle (Fensome et al., 1993). Almost all (fossil and
extant) dinocysts are assignable to the subclass Peridiniphyci-
dae, with a few representing the subclasses Gymnodinipgyci-
dae and Dinophysisiphycidae (Fensome et al., 1993). The bulk
of Cenozoic taxa are included in the Peridiniphycidae. This
subclass, the largest in the Dinophyceae, contains siliceous,
calcareous, and organic-walled cysts. Here, we deal exclusively
with the organic-walled group.
Applications of fossil dinocysts in global Paleogene bio-
stratigraphy and paleoecology has been reviewed in detail in
several papers including Williams and Bujak (1985), Powell
(1992b), Stover et al. (1996), and Williams et al. (1998b,
2000b). These compilations indicate that the stratigraphical
range of a given Paleogene dinocyst is rarely synchronous
world-wide. Many authors have demonstrated climatic and
environmental control on the stratigraphical distribution of
taxa in the Paleogene (e.g. Brinkhuis, 1994; Wilpshaar et al.,
1996; Bujak and Brinkhuis, 1998; Crouch et al., 2001). Several
dinocyst papers also deal with the differentiation of north-
ern and southern hemisphere assemblages and/or endemic
The Paleogene Period 397
Antarctic assemblages (e.g. Wilson, 1998; Wrenn and Hart,
1988; Truswell, 1997; Guerstein et al., 2002; Brinkhuis et al.,
2003a,b).
Williams et al. (2000b) recognized the need to accommo-
date both latitudinal and hemispherical control of dinocyst as-
semblages in Paleogene distribution charts. Accordingly, these
authors give ranges for low, mid, and high latitudes in both
northern and southern hemispheres, and the contribution also
updates data presented in Williams et al. (1998b).
Information concerning Paleogene dinocyst distribution
is most comprehensive for the mid latitudes of the northern
hemisphere. This is a reection of the more intense study of as-
semblages from these regions, notably from northwest Europe
(particularly the greater North Sea Basin). Although rst-
order calibration of dinocyst events against magnetostratig-
raphy is largely absent, reliable age control is possible through
published studies on the biostratigraphy of type sections of
the Paleogene stages. This is supplemented by large volumes
of largely unpublished subsurface data. The succession of
dinocyst events offshore of northwest Europe is becoming
better documented in the public domain (e.g. Harland et al.,
1992; Mudge and Bujak, 1996; Neal, 1996; Powell et al., 1996;
Mangerud et al., 1999).
The updated overview of Paleogene index dinocyst events
for northwest Europe presented in Fig. 20.3 is supplementary
to the data presented in Williams et al. (2000b).
20.2.5 Mammals
During the Paleogene, the various continental masses had dis-
tinctive land mammal fauna. These exhibit rapid evolution
and have been much used for correlation of non-marine strata.
Inter-continental correlation, however, has often proved prob-
lematic owing to endemism, except during geologically brief
periods of faunal inter-change facilitated by paleogeographic
features such as land bridges.
Because mammals are generally rarer as fossils than are
invertebrates or microbiota, and because of the often later-
ally discontinuous nature of continental strata, occurrences
may be in isolated exposures whose superpositional relation-
ships are unknown. A notable exception, however, is the strati-
graphically and geographically extensive sequences in western
North America. Solutions to the problems of correlating iso-
lated mammalian fauna have varied.
Series of broad biochronologicalbiostratigraphic units
known as land mammal ages have been widely applied,
with a separate series in each continent for North America
(NALMA), Europe (ELMA), Asia (ALMA), and South
America (SALMA). These can stand independently when
398 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

correlation to standard marine biostratigraphies and to global
chronostratigraphygeochronology is uncertain.
Owing to endemism, smaller biostratigraphicbiochrono-
logical units vary from having continent-wide applicability
to only local use. These may be conventional biozones or,
commonly in Europe, reference levels (MP). Reference levels
purport to order superpositionally isolated fauna according to
evolutionary grade, avoiding the problem of xing boundaries
(Schmitt-Kittler, 1987). In practice, because of referral of fauna
other than the reference fauna to a given reference level, a tem-
poral range is spanned and a reference level is thus used in
much the same way as a standard assemblage biozone (Aguilar
et al., 1997). An alternative solution to the isolation problem is
the application of parsimony to concurrence (Alroy, 1992).
Calibration of mammalian biostratigraphicbiochrono-
logical systems to the geomagnetic polarity time scale is
most extensively documented in North America and Europe
(Aguilar et al., 1997; Janis, 1998). It has been achieved either
directly or via links with other biostratigraphies, through inter-
calation with marine strata or through co-occurrence of mam-
malian and other zonal indicators in paralic facies. Radiometric
dating is helping parts of the central Asian, South American,
and Australasian sequences (Flynn and Swisher, 1995; Aguilar
et al., 1997; Kay et al., 1999), which are otherwise still proving
difcult to correlate globally. The broadly construed Casamay-
oran unit was until recently thought to be early Eocene. One
of its two component SALMAs, the Barrancan, has now been
radiometrically dated, which shifts it to late Eocene, thereby
shifting the Mustersan (Kay et al., 1999). No LMA or zonal
system currently exists in Africa, but magnetostratigraphic and
sequence stratigraphic studies are improving calibration (Gin-
gerich, 1992; Kappelman et al., 1992; Gheerbrant et al., 1998).
Three major faunal turnovers occurred in the Paleogene, at
or close to epoch/series boundaries. The rst, at the beginning
of the Paleogene, set the scene for rapid evolutionary radiation
and continental endemism following the major tetrapod ex-
tinctions. Most of this Paleocene radiation is recorded in the
rst one and a half million years of the epoch in North America
and is represented by the Puercan NALMA. Correlation of the
Puercan to continental strata elsewhere in the world is difcult.
The second major faunal turnover at the PaleoceneEocene
boundary coincides with the carbon isotope excursion (CIE).
The turnover involved similar innovations in all three north-
ern hemisphere continents, and is known as the Mammalian
Dispersal Event (MDE). This marks the rst appearance of
many modern mammalian orders, especially primates, bats,
artiodactyls, perissodactyls, and proboscideans. The CIE and
MDE coincide with the beginning of the Wasatchian NALMA
(Bowen et al., 2001) and probably also of the Neustrian ELMA
(Hooker, 1998). The end of the Wasatchian has been recently
found to be older than previously thought thanks to magne-
tostratigraphic studies (Clyde et al., 2001).
The third major faunal turnover, at the end of the Head-
onian, in the earliest Oligocene, was less widespread, but
well represented in Europe where it is known as the Grande
Coupure. It marks the extinction of many endemic European
taxa and the incoming of new ones from Asia. A suppos-
edly contemporaneous, but less-clearly dated, major turnover
in central Asia at the end of the Ergilian ALMA has been
termed the Mongolian Remodelling (Meng and McKenna,
1998). A less major turnover, but with some elements sim-
ilar to the Grande Coupure occurs at the beginning of the
Ergilian (Dashzeveg, 1993). This raises considerable doubt as
to whether the Ergilian belongs in the late Eocene or early
Oligocene.
Figure 20.4 shows the current state of knowledge on cal-
ibration of LMAs and relevant biozones (concurrent range
zones, CRZ, and interval zones, IZ).

Figure 20.4 Mammalian zonations and biostratigraphy and events of the Paleogene. NALMA, North American Land Mammal Ages;
SALMA, South American Land Mammal Ages; ALMA, Asian Land Mammal Ages; ELMA, European Land Mammal Ages; MP, European
Reference Levels. The sequence of NALMAs and their subdivision follows Woodburne (1987) with calibrations to the geomagnetic polarity
time scale by Butler et al. (1987), Prothero and Emry (1996), Williamson (1996), Clyde et al. (2001), and Clemens (2002). The sequence of
ELMAs follows Fahlbusch (1976) with some modications in the Eocene (see Savage and Russell, 1977; Franzen and Haubold, 1987; Hooker
in Aubry et al., 1998). They are divided into MP reference levels (Schmidt-Kittler, 1987; Aguilar et al., 1997) and partly into biozones (Hooker,
1986, 1987, 1996). Several Paleocene localities with signicant mammals are tabulated as local fauna (LF): Fontllonga 3 (Pelaez-Campomanes
et. al., 2000); Hainin (Sigo and Marandat, in Aguilar et al., 1997; Steurbaut, 1998), Menat (Gingerich, 1976), and Walbeck (references in
Hooker, 1991). Calibration to the GPTS varies from direct (Engesser and Modden and Legendre and Leveque, in Aguilar et al., 1997; Hooker
in Aubry et al., 1998; Lopez-Martnez and Pelaez-Campomanes, 1999; Hooker and Millbank, 2001) to indirect (Franzen and Haubold, 1987;
Hooker, 1986; Steurbaut, 1992; Merz et al., 2000). Calibration of ALMAs and their subdivisions essentially follows Holroyd and Ciochon
(1994) and Meng and McKenna (1998). That of SALMAs follows Flynn and Swisher (1995) and Kay et al. (1999). In the case of Europe and
North America, selected rst and last appearances are given. They are intended to reect a balance between those recording important faunal
changes, used in biostratigraphy and inter-continental correlation, and those highlighting inter-continental diachronism. Sources additional to
the above references are: Kohler and Moy`a-Sol`a (1999) and Stucky (1992).
 The Paleogene Period 399

Paleogene Time Scale

NALMA

SALMA
Zones

Zones

Zones
ELMA

ALMA
AGE

Asian
(Ma) Epoch/Stage North America Europe

MP

FAD
LAD
FAD

LAD
Gregorimys CRZ
Neogene
Entoptychus-
23.030.0 30 Issiodoromys Theridomyidae
Menoceras Nimravinae bransatensis

bulukian
Issiodoromys I. pseudanoema

Taben-
29
pseudanoema
I. limognensis
28 Issiodoromys
Entoptychus limognensis I. quercyi
Chattian

Dichobunidae
Arikareean

25 Meniscomys 27
Issiodoromys

Arvernian
I. pauffiensis
Meniscomys CRZ

quercyi
L Anoplotheriidae
26
Oligocene

Desea-
Parvericius Plesiosorex

dan
Caninae Poebrotherium Issiodoromys Plagiolophus
pauffiensis B. blainvillei
Nyctitheriidae
28.450.1 25

Hsandgolian
Meniscomys Hyraco-
dontidae Blainvillimys Blainvillimys
Palaeocastor blainvillei heimersheimensis
Erinaceidae 24 Issiodoromys
30 Talpinae minor Pseudosciuridae
Rupelian

Dinohyus Merycoidodon Soricidae I. medius

Orellan Whitneyan

Kalobatippus 23 Blainvillimys B. helmeri

Suevian

Pantolestidae helmeri B. gregarius

E

Tinguir-
Viverridae Entelodon

irican
Ischyromys
Diceratherium Bothriodon 22 Plagiolophus
Protoceras Hypertragulus Issiodoromys ministri
calcaratus medius Primates
Mesohippus Blainvillimys
gregarius Bothriodon
Hypertragulus 21 sue-fro Bothriodon
calcaratus Brontotheriidae Rhinocerotidae Palaeotherium

Muster-
33.900.1 20 Entelodon Amphimerycidae

san
Suoidea Xiphodontidae

Ulangochuian Ergilian
Oromerycidae Castoridae
Ch 2 Ch 3

19 medium-
Priabonian

Cylindrodontidae Cricetidae P.m.medium

Cricetidae curtum
Palaeotherium
Headonian
Chadronian

Mustelidae m.medium P. curtum

35 Multituberculata villerealense
Palaeotherium
L Merycoidodon Apatotheria
Nimravidae 18
pseudo-
thaleri curtum

Barran-
Hyopsodus villerealense Isoptychus

can
vect- euzetensis
Ch 1

Entelodontidae 17B nanus Palaeotherium Lophiotherium

Ursidae Plesiadapiformes magnum
17A ste-dep Isoptychus Quercygale
37.200.1 Bothriodon Nyctitheriidae euzetensis Propalaeotherium
Duchesnean

Du 2

Poebrotherium
siderolithicum CRZ

Leptolophus
Bartonian

Talpidae stehlini
Ischyromys Anthracotheriidae Sharamurunian
lautricense-
Eocene

Hyrachyidae
Cainotheriidae Lophiodontidae
Du 1

Anthracotheriidae 16 Palaeotherium Palaeotherium

Dinocerata

? Vacan ? (Casamayoran pars)

Canidae castrense c. robiacense
Robiacian

Amphicyonidae Omomys robiacense

Taeniodonta P. cosetanus
Mesohippus Leptolophus
40 Rhinocerotidae Hyrachyidae stehlini
40.400.2 Lophiodon Lophiodon
late

lautricense leptorhynchus
M 15
Lagomorpha Oxyaenidae Pseudoltinomys
Uintan
Lutetian

Soricidae Hyrachyus cosetanus

Irdinmanhan

Ruminantia eximius
14 Palaeotherium Propalaeotherium
eoc-rhin

Eobasileus
CRZ

cornutus Pseudosciuridae isselanum

Geiseltalian

Theridomyidae s.s.
early

13 Amphimerycidae
Plagiolophus
Quercygale
Lophiotherium
12
45
400 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

Paleogene Time Scale

NALMA

SALMA
Zones

Zones

Zones
ELMA

ALMA
AGE

Asian
(Ma) Epoch/Stage North America Europe

MP
Theridomyidae s.s.
13 Amphimerycidae

Irdinmanhan
Plagiolophus
Uintan
Quercygale

? Vacan ? (Casamayoran pars)

early
Lophiotherium

Geiseltalian
Merycoidodontoidea
Lutetian

45 Camelidae 12
Hyracodontidae Tillodontia
M Eobasileus Orohippus
Propalaeotherium
isselanum
cornutus Phenacodus P. hassiacum
late

Palaeosyops
Hyrachyus Uintatherium
eximius anceps 11

Propalaeotherium
Eocene

hassiacum Phenacodus
middle

Anoplotheriidae Donrussellia
Bridgerian

48.600.2

Arshantan
Propachynolophus

Grauvian
gaudryi
10
50 Uintatherium Choeropotamidae
anceps Heptodon Gliridae
Coryphodon P. gaudryi Propachynolophus
levei
early
Ypresian

PE V Lophiodon
Omomys Donrussellia
P. levei
E Palaeosyops
Brontotheriidae
PE IV Lophiodontidae
Multituberculata
Plesiadapis
Wa7
Neustrian

Hyrachyidae Hyrachyidae Coryphodon

Wa6 Heptodon 8-9 Oxyaenidae
Wasatchian

Bumbanian
PE III Hyopsodus
Wa5 Chiroptera Eucosmo-
Wa4 Orohippus dontidae
Wa3 Oxyaena gulo Oxyaena gulo Oxyaena gulo
Oxyaena gulo Dipsalidictis
55 Wa2 Dipsalidictis transiens Dipsalidictis Dipsalidictis
Wa1 transiens PE II transiens transiens
Wa0 Primates Arfia junnei 7 PE I Perissodactyla Adapisoriculidae
55.800.2 Artiodactyla

Gasha-
Cf3 Artiodactyla Arctostylopida
forkian
Clark-

Riochican
Cernay-

Perissodactyla Plesiadapis Rodentia, Primates Liotomus

tan
Thanetian

Cf2 Oxyaenidae
Cf1 Coryphodon Plesiadapis 6 Hainina
sian

gingerichi Coryphodon Neoplagiaulax

Rodentia
L Ti5 Plesiadapis
simonsi
Plesiadapis
churchilli
Liotomus Adapisorex
Arctocyon
?

gran pan Itaboraian

Ti4 Plesiadapis Periptychus Walbeck
churchilli Plesiadapis LF Pantolestidae
Ti3 rex ? Arctocyon Nongshanian
Tiffanian

58.700.2 Dinocerata
Paleocene

Oxyaenidae Plesiadapis

Peli- Tiupam-
Selandian

Plesiadapis rex anceps

Adapisorex
Ti2
60 ?
M Plesiadapis
anceps Pantolambda Menat
Catopsalis LF
Ti1 Plesiadapis Paromomys ? Plesiadapis
1-5

Phenacodus Tetraclaenodon
61.700.2 To3 Pantolestidae Mixodectes ?
Hainin Adapisoriculidae
Nyctitheriidae Deltatherium
Puercan Torrejonian

LF
To2 Pantolambda ?
Danian

Deltatherium
Shanghuan

Mixodectes
E To1
Paromomys Protungulatum
llonga 3
Font-

Tetraclaenodon Purgatorius
LF

Pu Purgatorius
65 2/3 Periptychus
Pu1 Catopsalis Hainina
65.500.3
Protungulatum
Cretaceous
Figure 20.4 (cont.)

2 0 . 3 P H YS I C A L S T R AT I G R A P H Y
20.3.1 Magnetostratigraphy
Since its introduction by Heirtzler et al. (1968), the geomag-
netic polarity time scale (GPTS) has enabled Earths Late Cre-
taceous and Cenozoic history to be elucidated in considerable
detail. Based upon a long magnetic anomaly prole from the
South Atlantic, a linear scale was constructed back to 75 Ma
using as tie points the zero-age ridge and 3.35 Ma for the start
of the Pliocene anomaly 2a. Despite the twenty-fold extrapo-
lation, the dates of the PaleogeneLate Cretaceous anomalies
have proven to be largely correct.
Thirty years after the pioneering work, the GPTS has
evolved into a sophisticated dating tool as a large body of bio-,
chemo-, and magnetostratigraphic data has been acquired and
systematically integrated with the scale (Berggren et al., 1985b;
Harland et al., 1990). As a tool for dating and correlation, mag-
netostratigraphy is particularly powerful for Paleogene rocks.
The geomagnetic eld reversals for this 41-myr interval oc-
curred on average every 0.65 myr.
The C-sequence of marine magnetic anomalies assembled
and calibrated by Cande and Kent (1992a, 1995) forms the basis
of the integrated magnetobiostratigraphic scale of Berggren
et al. (1995a), and is reviewed in Chapter 5. It is constructed
around a synthetic prole stitched together from several South
Atlantic anomaly tracks. Specic segments of the prole are
further constrained by anomaly data from other parts of the
globe. For example, the oor of the northeast Pacic is used as
a check on the relative spacing of the Middle Eocene through
Oligocene anomalies. The scale for the interval 5.2383.0 Ma of
the CK92CK95 scale was based on nine age-control ties, and
the anomalies are linked and dated using a cubic-spline curve
to smooth the effects of ocean basin spreading-rate changes.
Spreading-rate changes are most apparent in the pre-45 Ma
part of the curve (see Chapter 5).
As explained in the Chapter 5, in this book we use the
stratigraphic relative placement of polarity events, as orig-
inally proposed by LaBreque, Lowrie, Channell, and others
(see synthesis in Hallam et al., 1985). Cande and Kent (1992a,
1995) used the inverse system, which is more convenient for
calculations.
M AG N E T O S T R AT I G R A P H I C AG E S O F T H E
PA L E O G E N E E P O C H B O U N DA R I E S
The rst decade or so after Heirtzler et al. (1968) appeared saw
various workers trying to rene the correlation of each of the
CenozoicLate Cretaceous epoch and stage boundaries to the
The Paleogene Period 401
GPTS using data from marine and terrestrial sequences (e.g.
LaBrecque et al., 1977). Perhaps the most important contri-
bution after this time was by Lowrie and Alvarez (1981), who
synthesized a large body of magneto- and biostratigraphic data
obtained by themselves and colleagues from several uplifted
deep-marine Tethys sections in central Italy. Subsequently,
correlation of each of the Paleogene Epoch boundaries relative
to specic magnetochrons has remained essentially xed (Har-
land et al. 1982, 1990; Berggren et al., 1985b, 1995a; Haq et al.
1987). However, the absolute ages of the boundaries in each
scale differ by as much as 3 myr, a consequence of the choice of
tie point ages that were used to construct a particular GPTS.
The base of the Paleocene Epoch (CretaceousPaleogene
boundary) is one of the most studied intervals of geological
time. Many radiometric dating studies have been carried out
on rocks associated with the boundary with a cluster of dates
circa 65.5 Ma. This boundary is positioned at about midway
in the 0.8-myr-long polarity Chron C29r.
The base of the Eocene (base-Ypresian) is dened by the
initiation of a carbon isotope excursion with a GSSP in the
Gabal Dababiya section, Egypt. Although the Egyptian sec-
tion does not yield magnetostratigraphic information, the car-
bon isotope excursion can be readily correlated globally. From
cycle stratigraphy, this event at the base of the Eocene is
0.94 myr after the end of polarity Chron 25n (Norris and Rohl,
2001).
The EoceneOligocene boundary is in the upper part of
polarity Chron C13r (C13r.86) and has an age close to 33 Ma.
Note that there is no Anomaly 14 the jump from C15n to C13r
in the GPTS is an artifact of early marine magnetic studies
that had mistakenly assigned this anomaly; but to avoid the
confusion inherent in re-labeling the published anomaly and
chron successions, the adopted convention is that the GPTS
jumps from C15n to C13r.
The OligoceneMiocene boundary corresponds to the start
of Chron C6n.2n and has an age close to 23 Ma based on
calibration to Milankovitch cycles (see Chapter 21).
20.3.2 Chemical stratigraphy
Chemical dating methods have contributed signicantly dur-
ing the last two decades to our understanding of Paleogene
stratigraphy and, in particular, the major global events during
the period (Fig. 20.5). Carbon and oxygen stable isotope analy-
ses are now routinely performed in most stratigraphic studies of
Paleogene sequences. Strontium isotopes and iridium are other
commonly applied correlation tools. Importantly, the carbon
isotopic and iridium approaches are facies independent and in
402 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

voir experienced a rapid change in isotopic composition. It

Paleogene geochemical trends took 200 kyr before 13 C returned to its background levels.
Temperature

Iridium
87Sr/86Sr
13C trends This period is named the PaleoceneEocene thermal maximum

0.7075
0.7077
0.7079
0.7081
0.7083
AGE Epoch/Stage (0/00 PDB) 18O (0/00 PDB)
(Ma) 1 0 1 2 3 2 0 2 (PETM) and is characterized by the highest global tempera-
20 Neogene Cooler <> Warmer tures of the Cenozoic (Fig. 20.5).
The negative 13 C anomaly can best be explained by out-
Oligocene

25 Chattian
30
Rupelian
gassing of methane with low 13 C from destabilized methane
35 Priabonian
Oi1
hydrates in seaoor sediments (Dickens et al., 1997). The 13 C
40 Bartonian anomaly has been used for high-resolution shelfbasin corre-
Eocene

45 Lutetian lations (Schmitz et al., 2001) and for marineterrestrial cor-

50 relations (Koch et al., 1992). Atmospheric and oceanic CO2
Ypresian
55 CIE PETM equilibrate isotopically, and Koch et al. (1992) were able to
Thanetian
Paleocene

60 Selandian locate the PaleoceneEocene boundary in continental sec-

65 Danian tions in the Bighorn Basin by analyzing the carbon isotopes
Cretaceous
70 of fossil teeth of mammals that had eaten plants contain-
Figure 20.5 Generalized oxygen, carbon, and strontium isotope ing carbon from atmospheric CO2 . This study showed for
curves and impact-related iridium anomalies for the Paleogene. the rst time that the ClarkforkianWasatchian land-mammal
Oxygen and carbon isotopic curves are based on deep-sea benthic turnover and the major extinction event among benthic
foraminifera from Zachos et al. (1993, 1999). The strontium isotope foraminifera in the deep sea at 55 Ma are more or less coeval,
curve is a LOWESS t to reference data from Miller et al. (1988), probably reecting the same global environmental perturb-
Denison et al. (1993), Mead and Hodell (1995), Schmitz et al. ation.
(1997), Zachos et al. (1999), and other sources (see Chapter 7).
Another important correlation feature of the carbon iso-
Iridium anomalies are from Alvarez et al. (1980) and Coccioni et al.
topic record of the Paleogene is the maximum in seawater 13 C
(2000). See text for details.
for a few million years in the late Paleocene and the subsequent
long-term fall in 13 C across the PaleoceneEocene transition
the Paleogene they have been used to establish crucial high- (Zachos et al., 1993; Fig. 20.5). The late Paleocene 13 C maxi-
resolution correlations between shallow- and deep-marine as mum most likely reects a period of increased oceanic produc-
well as terrestrial and marine sequences. tivity.
The CretaceousPaleogene boundary is marked by an irid- The marine 87 Sr/86 Sr record for the Paleogene is poorly
ium anomaly originating from extraterrestrial dust, spread known and so currently of no use as a stratigraphic tool be-
world-wide after the impact of a major extraterrestrial body at fore 42 Ma (Fig. 20.5). Once a good calibration curve is con-
65 Ma (Alvarez et al., 1980; Fig. 20.5). In continental sections structed, the method has potential for correlation and dating in
of the US Western Interior, the iridium anomaly occurs in an the interval 6542 Ma, as 87 Sr/86 Sr changes by some 0.000 100
impact ejecta layer, a few centimeters thick, that contains also through this period. During the latest Eocene and Oligocene,
87
abundant shocked quartz (Izett, 1990). The bulk of this layer Sr/86 Sr increased at one of the highest rates known (about
was deposited during a few days, and it can be correlated world- 0.000 050 per myr), thereby allowing high-resolution dating by
wide with a layer in deep- and shallow-marine environments this technique with a precision as low as 0.2 myr (McArthur
that is rich in iridium and shocked-quartz. The Cretaceous et al., 2001; see Chapter 7).
Paleogene boundary is also marked by a 23% negative carbon Oxygen isotopes measured in calcite from benthic
isotopic excursion in calcite or organic matter that formed in foraminifera show a stable trend in the Paleocene (Fig. 20.5).
the upper ocean water mass. This anomaly most likely reects During the PETM, 18 O shows a short-term decrease asso-
a dramatic decline in biological productivity associated with ciated with greenhouse warming. Minimum 18 O values oc-
the impact event (Zachos and Arthur, 1986). cur throughout the warm early Eocene followed by a gradual
The onset of a 23% negative carbon isotopic excursion increase throughout the middle Eocene. A profound positive
(CIE) marks the PaleoceneEocene boundary (Kennett and shift in 18 O occurs in the early Oligocene (Oi1 Event), there-
Stott, 1991; Schmitz et al., 2001). The isotopic anomaly de- after, 18 O stabilizes through the rest of the Oligocene (Zachos
veloped within a few thousand years in both the deep and et al., 1993). This trend reects the global cooling from the late
shallow ocean, indicating that the entire oceanic carbon reser- Eocene into the Oligocene.

At least two small impact-related iridium anomalies have
been reported from several early Late Eocene sedimentary sec-
tions (Coccioni et al., 2000; Vonhof et al., 2000). The impacts
responsible for these two marker beds may have triggered the
late Paleogene long-term global cooling.
20.3.3 Cycle stratigraphy
Orbital-climatic oscillations recorded in deep-sea sediments
enabled the development of a high-resolution astronomically
calibrated time scale of geomagnetic polarity reversals and late
biostratigraphy for the late Cenozoic (see Chapter 21) to the
base of the late Eocene (Shackleton et al., 1999, 2000; Palike
et al., 2001). Analyses of sedimentological and physical prop-
erties data from Paleogene sequences document the sensitivity
of the ocean to Milankovitch-band forcing and the rapidity of
threshold events in Paleogene paleoceanographic and paleocli-
matic history. Therefore, oating astronomical time scales
are based on the number of precession or obliquity controlled
cycles multiplied by the period of the corresponding astronom-
ical cycle at that time.
A high-resolution time scale of the Paleocene to early
Eocene is constrained by the following components:
1. Milankovitch cycles of precession indicate that polarity
Chron C29r in the South Atlantic (DSDP Sites 516 and
528) and in Spain spans 0.68 0.04 myr. The end-
Cretaceous extinction occurs in the middle of Chron C29r
(Herbert et al., 1995; Herbert, 1999).
2. Cycles of obliquity and precession are recorded in deep-sea
sediments recovered at ODP Sites 1050 and 1051 on the
Blake Nose off Florida and Site 1001 in the Caribbean Sea
(Rohl et al., 2001, 2003). These yield a scaling of polarity
Chrons C27 through C22 (middle Danian through late
Early Eocene). Combined Chrons C27nC27r span 1.45
myr; combined Chrons C26nC26r span 3.61 0.1 myr;
Chron C25r spans 1.07 myr; Chron C25n spans 0.50
0.02 myr; and Chron C24r spans 2.88 0.1 myr. Chron
C24n is not as well delimited, but its duration is 1.2 myr.
Polarity Chron C23r spans 0.53 myr, Chron C23n is 0.74
myr, and Chron C22r spans 0.9 myr.
3. When coupled with a synthetic block model of relative
widths of magnetic anomalies in the South Atlantic (Cande
and Kent, 1992a, 1995), the approximate duration of po-
larity Chron C28n can be interpolated from this array of
cycle-tuned durations of magnetic polarity chrons (Rohl
et al., 2000, 2001). Combined Chrons C28rC28n span
1.3 myr.
The Paleogene Period 403
4. The relative position of the 13 C anomaly marking the
PaleoceneEocene boundary is 0.94 0.02 myr after the
end of Chron C25n according to precession cycles in ODP
Site 1051 (Norris and Rohl, 1999; Rohl et al., 2001, 2003).
5. A composite depth record from ODP Site 1052 (Leg 171B,
Blake Nose) provides the basis to extend the astronomi-
cally calibrated geologic time scale into the middle Eocene
and results in revised estimates for the age and duration
of polarity Chrons C16 through C18 (Palike et al., 2001):
from the new data, the relative duration of these chrons
does not change signicantly from that given by Cande
and Kent (1995). Exceptions are the relative durations
within Chron C16n, in which C16n.1n seems to be 200
kyr longer and C16n.2n seems to be 200 kyr shorter.
This array of Paleocene through earliest Eocene cycle
stratigraphy estimates is consistent with radiometric ages of
65.5 0.1 Ma for the end-Cretaceous extinction (Renne et al.,
1998c; Obradovich in Hicks et al., 1999), 55.07 0.5 Ma
for approximately the middle of Chron C24r (Obradovich in
postscript in Berggren et al., 1995a) and 52.8 0.3 Ma at the
base of Chron C24n.1.n (Wing et al., 1991; Tauxe et al., 1994).
The last age converts to 53.0 Ma with a change of the ArAr
MMhb-1 monitor from 521 to 523 Ma.
Planktonic foraminifer and calcareous nannofossil datums
and zonations have been calibrated to the magnetic polarity
time scale (e.g. Berggren et al., 1995a), and cycle tuning con-
strains the associated assignment of ages. When there is inter-
national agreement on the microfossil markers for the Pale-
ocene stage boundaries and these events are calibrated to the
cycle stratigraphy of the ODP sites, then precise astronomi-
cally tuned ages can be assigned to these boundaries.
Cycle stratigraphy of intervals within the late Eocene and
Oligocene Epochs are being compiled (e.g. Weedon et al., 1997;
Shackleton et al., 1999; Palike et al., 2001) and the estimated
astronomical age for the OligoceneMiocene boundary is 23.03
Ma (see Chapter 21).
2 0 . 4 PA L E O G E N E T I M E S C A L E
20.4.1 Radiometric ages
Although the number of reliable radiometric data available for
the Paleogene has increased considerably in recent years, cov-
erage of this interval is still somewhat patchy. The radiometric
ages discussed in this chapter (Table 20.2) are linked to the
magnetostratigraphy scale and directly calibrate the Paleogene
time scale. All are based on high-temperature radiometric age
Table 20.2 Selected radiometric age determinations or derived ages with uncertainty limits, their calibration in polarity chrons and distances in kilometers in the South Atlantic
spreading prole

Placement in Age Uncertainty Distance (km) in Source or review

polarity chron (Ma) (2-sigma) Geological age S Atlantic prole Calibration type references Comments

C6An.1r (base) 20.336 <40 kyr AquitanianBurdigalian 434.18 Cyclomagnetostratigraphy See Section 21.3
boundary

C6Cn.2n (base) 23.03 <40 kyr OligoceneMiocene 501.55 Cyclomagnetostratigraphy See Section 21.3
boundary

C9n (base) 28.10 0.30 Mid Oligocene (earliest 607.96 KAr and 40 Ar/39 Ar ages and Odin et al. (1991), Wei
Chattian) magnetostratigraphy in Italy (1995)

approx. C13r.86 33.70 0.40 EoceneOligocene stage approx. 759.49 KAr and 40 Ar/39 Ar dating in Italy Odin et al. (1991), Not used in spline t, in
boundary Cande and Kent preference to more direct
(1992a) age-chron constraint on
C15n base (35.2 Ma)

C15n (base) 35.20 0.27 Latest Eocene 791.78 KAr and 40 Ar/39 Ar ages and Odin et al. (1991), Wei
magnetostratigraphy in Italy (1995)

40
approx. C21n.67 45.60 0.38 Middle Eocene (early approx. 1071.62 Ar/39 Ar dating of magnetostratigraphy Berggren et al. (1995a)
Lutetian) in DSDP Hole 516F (postscript)

40
C24n.1n (base) 52.80 0.30 Early Eocene 1184.03 Ar/39 Ar ages and magnetostratigraphy Tauxe et al. (1994), Wei
(mid-Ypresian) in Wyoming (1995)

40
approx C24r.5 55.07 0.50 Just above approx. 1214.93 Ar/39 Ar ages and magnetostratigraphy Berggren et al. (1995a; PE boundary (= C-spike)
PaleoceneEocene in DSDP Hole 550 age by Obradovich in is 0.94 0.02 myr after the
boundary (earliest postscript) end of Chron C25n
Ypresian)

C27n (top) 61.77 0.30 Early to Late Paleocene 1303.81 Cyclomagnetostratigraphy (Central Rohl et al. (2001) 36 obliquity cycles of 41
boundary Atlantic and Caribbean) kyr. Uncertainty is relative
to KP boundary

C28n (top) 63.25 0.30 Mid Danian 1325.71 Cyclomagnetostratigraphy (Central Rohl et al. (2001) Interpolated by applying an
Atlantic and Caribbean) intermediate spreading rate
between C29(n + r) and
C27
C29n (top) 64.53 0.30 Early Danian 1347.03 Cyclomagnetostratigraphy (South Herbert et al. (1995) 32 2 precession cycles of
Atlantic and Spain) 20.8 kyr. Uncertainty is
relative to KP boundary

C29n (base) 65.20 0.30 Earliest Danian 1358.66 Cyclomagnetostratigraphy (South Herbert et al. (1995) 14.5 2 precession cycles
Atlantic and Spain) of 20.8 kyr. Uncertainty is
relative to KP boundary
40
C29r.56 65.50 0.30 Base of Cenozoic (KP 1364.45 Ar/39 Ar ages and cyclostratigraphy of Herbert et al. (1995), Assigned position (km) in S.
boundary) polarity zone C29r Hicks et al. (1999), Atlantic. prole based on
Renne et al. (1998c) proportion position in
chron, rather than
attempting to adjust for
slowing spreading rate. An
arbitrary 0.1 myr
uncertainty is assigned to
this spreading-rate derived
estimate

C30n (top) 65.88 0.30 Latest Maastrichtian 1371.84 Cyclomagnetostratigraphy (South Herbert et al. (1995) 18.5 1 precession cycles
Atlantic and Spain) of 20.8 kyr. Age and
uncertainty is relative to
KT boundary
40
C31n (base) 69.01 0.50 Base Late Maastrichtian 1407.22 Ar/39 Ar ages and extrapolation to Hicks et al. (1999)
polarity zone C31.n
40
C32n (top) 70.44 0.65 Early Maastrichtian 1481.12 Ar/39 Ar ages and magnetostratigraphy Hicks and Obradovich Less-precise interpolations
of US Western Interior (1995), Hicks et al. for C31n (top) and C33n
(1999) (base) by Hicks and
Obradovich (1995) were not
included because the large
uncertainties do not
constrain agedistance t
40
C33n (base) 79.34 0.50 Mid Campanian 1723.76 Ar/39 Ar ages and magnetostratigraphy Hicks et al. (1995) In the magnetostratigraphy
of US Western Interior (Elk Basin) of the Elk Basin, the age of
this reversal is extrapolated
from underlying bentonite
ages
40
C33r (base) 83.97 0.50 Base Late Santonian 1862.32 Ar/39 Ar age constraints on Montgomery et al. U. socialis lowest occurrence
biostratigraphy associated with (1998), Obradovich in the Upper Santonian
magnetostratigraphy (1993) near base C33r
406 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

assignments, with the age for the FCT 40 Ar/39 Ar monitor at Table 20.3 Placement of Paleogene stage boundary denitions
28.02 Ma (see Chapter 6). relative to polarity chrons and associated distance in kilometers in
The CretaceousPaleogene boundary based on the iridium the South Atlantic seaoor-spreading prole (see Chapter 21 for
spike is well constrained by a number of radiometric data with Neogene ages)
65.5 1 Ma (Hicks et al., 1999). Analysis of the radiometric
Placement in Distance (km)
dating of this boundary in Chapter 8 yields an age estimate of
magnetic in S Atlantic
65.5 0.3 Ma. Stage boundary polarity chron prole
There is no direct radiometric dating of the Paleocene
Eocene boundary, as dened by the 13 C excursion within AquitanianBurdigalian C6An.1r 434.18
(20.336 Ma) (base)
the lower part of C24r. A 40 Ar/39 Ar date from the mid-
ChattianAquitanian C6Cn.2n 501.55
dle of polarity Chron C24r, which is signicantly above the (OM boundary 23.03 Ma) (base)
PaleoceneEocene boundary, is given as 55.07 0.5 Ma by RupelianChattian C10n.1n 622.16
Obradovich (see postscript in Berggren et al. 1995a). The PriabonianRupelian C13r (.86) 759.49
planktonic foraminifera Morozovella velascoensis Zone (i.e. (EO boundary)
Zone P5) is dated by Wing et al. (2000) in the continental BartonianPriabonian C17n 856.19
(uppermost
sequences of Wyoming (ClarkforkianWasatchian boundary)
part)
as 54.9855.2 Ma. LutetianBartonian C19n (top) 947.96
Argon-40/argon-39 dating and magnetostratigraphy in YpresianLutetian C22n (top) 1117.55
Wyoming at the base of polarity Chron C24n.1n of mid- ThanetianYpresian C24r.3 1222.82
Ypresian age yielded 52.80 0.30 Ma (Tauxe et al., 1994; (PE boundary)
Wei, 1995), while 40 Ar/39 Ar dating in DSDP Site 516F of ap- SelandianThanetian C26n (base) 1262.74
DanianSelandian C27n.8 1304.78
proximate magnetostratigraphic level C21n(0.67) in the early
MaastrichtianDanian C29r.56 1364.45
Lutetian yielded 45.60 0.38 Ma (Berggren et al., 1995a, see (KP boundary)
postscript therein). Potassiumargon and 40 Ar/39 Ar dating of
a level approximating C13r(0.9) near to the EoceneOligocene
Stage boundary in Italy is dated at 33.70 0.40 Ma, and earliest
Chattian tuffs in Italy assigned to the base of polarity Chron Table 20.4 Ages of Paleogene stage boundaries
C9n have a radiogenic age of 28.10 0.30 Ma (Odin et al., and duration of stages
1991; Wei, 1995; Cande and Kent, 1992a).
Stage name Base (Ma) Duration (my)
The age of the OligoceneMiocene boundary as dened by
its GSSP in the CarrosioLemme section (Steininger et al., Aquitanian 23.0 0.0
1997a) has not been directly dated. However, the lowermost Chattian 28.4 0.1 5.4 0.0
Rupelian 33.9 0.1 5.4 0.0
Miocene is constrained by the 40 Ar/39 Ar age of 21.88 0.32
Priabonian 37.2 0.1 3.3 0.0
Ma attributed by Odin et al. (1997) to volcaniclastic levels close Bartonian 40.4 0.2 3.2 0.0
to the Raffaelo Level in the Central Apennines. Correlation of Lutetian 48.6 0.2 8.2 0.0
this level is somewhat difcult, but it is probably close to po- Ypresian 55.8 0.2 7.2 0.0
larity Chron C6AA.2 and foraminifer Zone N4 of Blow (1979) Thanetian 58.7 0.2 2.9 0.0
and to the top of calcareous nannofossil Zone NN1 or the base Selandian 61.7 0.2 3.0 0.0
Danian 65.5 0.3 3.7 0.0
of NN2.

20.4.2 Age and duration of stages

The Paleogene time scale is constructed from the integration
of well-constrained radiometric age dates, the geomagnetic po-
larity time scale (GPTS), and cycle stratigraphy. A summary of
key data selected to construct the time scale is given in Tables
20.2 and 20.3, with the age assignments and interval durations,
rounded off to one decimal in Table 20.4. The geomathematical
and statistical procedures applied to this data set are explained
in detail in Chapter 8; external errors associated with ArAr
dating were taken into account (see Section 8.3).
The basal stage of each Paleogene epoch has been dened
by GSSPs, but none of the stages within these epochs have
yet been formalized. Since no time scale can be constructed
using undened units, we assigned working denitions to

the remaining Paleogene stages. These assigned Paleogene
stage boundaries generally correspond to the Paleogene mag-
netostratigraphic scale proposed by Berggren et al. (1995a),
which was also used for the Paleocene cyclostratigraphic scale
of Rohl et al. (2001). The Neogene cyclostratigraphic extrapo-
lations to the base of the Miocene are explained in Chapter 21.
The CretaceousPaleogene boundary at polarity Chron
C29r(0.56) is radiometrically dated at 65.5 0.3 Ma, and the
PaleogeneNeogene boundary at C6Cn.2n is astronomically
estimated as 23.03 Ma. Therefore, the Paleogene Period spans
42.5 myr. This is almost 20 myr more than the Neogene Period,
which spans MioceneRecent.
The DanianSelandian boundary is calibrated to the up-
permost portion of polarity zone C27n (C27n.8), which im-
plies an age of 61.7 0.2 Ma, using a combination of cycle
tuning and seaoor-spreading interpolation. The Selandian
Thanetian boundary at the base of polarity Chron C26n is
interpolated to be 58.7 0.2 Ma. The PaleoceneEocene
(ThanetianYpresian) boundary at the major organiccarbon
isotope anomaly and Chron C24r.3 is 55.8 0.2 Ma in age, is
slightly older than the 55 Ma age on the International Strati-
graphic Chart (Remane, 2000).
The duration of the Paleocene, between 65.5 0.3 and
55.8 0.2 Ma, is 9.6 myr. The Danian stage spans 3.7 myr,
the Selandian 3.0 myr, and the Thanetian 2.9 myr.
An age of 48.6 0.2 Ma at the top of Chron C22n is
estimated for the boundary between Ypresian and Lutetian (the
EarlyMiddle Eocene boundary), and an age of 40.4 0.2 Ma
at the top of Chron C19n is interpolated for the Lutetian
Bartonian boundary. The base of the Late Eocene Priabonian
Stage is placed at the NP17NP18 zonal boundary tied to the
younger part of polarity Chron C17n. The age of its lower
boundary is estimated at 37.2 0.1 Ma.
With the upper limit of the Eocene Period (Priabonian
Rupelian boundary) tied to the extinction of the hantkenninid
planktonic foraminifera at the top of Zone P17 within polarity
Chron C13r(0.14), the best-age estimate is 33.9 0.1 Ma. This
is identical to an age of 34 Ma for biotites 19 m below the GSSP
in the Massignano section (Premoli-Silva and Jenkins, 1993).
The duration of the Eocene is 21.9 myr, which is more
than twice that of the Paleocene, with the Ypresian spanning
7.2 myr, the Lutetian 8.2 myr, the Bartonian 3.2 myr, and the
Priabonian 3.3 myr. This makes the Lutetian the longest stage
in the Paleogene, and the Thanetian the shortest lasting one.
The RupelianChattian Stage boundary between the lower
and upper series of the Oligocene corresponds to the disappear-
ance of common Chiloguembelinid planktonic foraminifera.
This boundary between planktonic foraminifer Zones P21a
The Paleogene Period 407
and P21b is in the middle of polarity Chron C10n. The bound-
ary is assigned an age of 28.4 0.1 Ma, which is consistent
with an age of 28.1 0.3 Ma for earliest Chattian tuffs at the
top of polarity zone C9r in the Contessa Quarry section, Italy
(Wei, 1995).
The base of the Aquitanian Stage and the Oligocene
Miocene boundary as dened with a GSSP in the Lemme
Carrosio section, Italy, correlates to the transition of magnetic
polarity zones C6Cn.2r and C6Cn.2n with an assigned age of
23.03 Ma (see Chapter 21). The duration of the Oligocene is
10.8 myr, with the Rupelian and Chattian Stages both lasting
5.4 myr.
20.4.3 Future development of the Paleogene time scale
Improvement and consolidation of the Paleogene time scale
will depend on future GSSP denitions for the remaining
stage boundaries and on astronomical tuning of durations of all
polarity chrons. Such tuning and calibration of the Paleogene
time scale at much higher levels of resolution and precision
than presently available is currently in active progress. Re-
cently completed Ocean Drilling Program cruises (e.g. ODP
Legs 198, 199, 207, 208) will provide a wealth of directly linked
magneto- and biostratigraphic datums, which will need to be
taken into account in possible future denitions and applica-
tions of stage boundaries. In the case of ODP Leg 199, an
astronomical time scale calibration for all Oligocene polarity
chrons is nearing completion (status January 2004), and pro-
vides calibrated age estimates that will extend the approach
presented for the Neogene (see Chapter 21). First results con-
rm that the present Paleogene time scale will undergo further
revisions, in contrast to the now well-calibrated Neogene. In
particular, it has become clear that seaoor-spreading rates, as
determined by astronomical duration calibration of magnetic
anomalies, show a signicantly less smooth variation than sug-
gested by the spline ts (see also Chapter 21).
However, astronomical time scale calibrations in the Pa-
leogene face additional theoretical uncertainties in the orbital
calculations (Laskar, 1999). While some of these theoretical
challenges have been resolved from geological observations,
it is likely that astronomical calibrations of the geologic time
scale in the earlier parts of the Cenozoic are more challenging
in detail, providing additional scope for uncertainties. In the
medium term, it can be predicted, though, that a complete cov-
erage of astronomically calibrated geological markers will exist
for the entire Cenozoic, and that traditional geochronological
scales, astronomical calibrations, and magneto- and biostrati-
graphic datums will become intercorrelated.
408 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

APPENDIX Detailed dinoagellate cyst analysis enabled correlation between

the restricted Oligocene North Sea Basin successions and the well-
New observations by Van Simaeys (in press) and Van Simaeys et al. (in
calibrated pelagic sections from central Italy. Based on the established
press) shed light on the RupelianCahttian boundary, as summarized
correlations, it appears that the unconformity between the Rupelian
below.
and Chattian Stages in their stratotype area is genetically related to a
The current global criterion for the recognition of the
500-kyr Oligocene Glacial Maximum (OGM), and the corresponding
RupelianChattian boundary, i.e. the demise of the planktonic
glacio-eustatic sea-level fall. Calibrated dinoagellate cyst events fur-
foraminiferal genus Chiloguembelina, is not applicable in the North Sea
ther suggest that the oldest of the time-transgressive ne glauconitic
Basin, home of the Rupelian and Chattian Stages stratotypes. More-
Chattian sands in the southern North Sea Basin were deposited in
over, records from several sections (mainly ODP boreholes) indicate
Chron C9n, not Chron C10n.
that the chiloguembelinid extinction is globally time-transgressive,
An important consequence of these results is that any Rupelian
from the Early Oligocene at high latitudes to the Late Oligocene at
Chattian GSSP should be positioned to match at least the age of the
low latitudes. Because of the diachronous nature of the last occurrence
OGM, and that Chron C9r occurs below the Chattian. This would
of the genus Chiloguembelina, this criterion can no longer be upheld
decrease the age of the RupelianChattian boundary by more than
for the recognition of the RupelianChattian boundary.
1 myr.
21 The Neogene Period
. , . , . . , . , .

11.5 Ma (mid-Neogene)
Upper Pleistocene
Tortonian
Pleistocene
Aquitainian
Gelasian
Messinian Zanclean
Piacenzian

Geographic distribution of Neogene GSSPs that have been ratied Pleistocene Epoch and within the Middle and Early Miocene sub
(diamonds) or are candidates (squares) on a mid-Neogene (11.5 Ma) epochs are not yet formalized. Not all GSSP candidates are shown.
map (status in January, 2004; see Table 2.3). GSSPs within the

Gradual closing of Tethys and formation of more distinctive latitu-
dinal biota belts under inuence of dramatic climatic cooling phases.
Marine microfossils are the backbone of Neogene chronostratigraphy;
complex mammal evolution under the inuence of major continental
separations and climate changes; Milankovitch cyclicity in sediments
and oxygen isotopes in the Atlantic and Mediterranean, assisted by
the AustralianAntarctic marine magnetic polarity scale for the in-
terval beyond 13 Ma, provide a precise and highly accurate Neogene
geologic time scale.
2 1 . 1 H I S T O RY A N D S U B D I V I S I O N S
The subdivision of the Neogene into its constituent stages is
presently well established and internationally accepted pre-
Pleistocene (Fig. 21.1). New task groups have been organized
under the umbrella of the Subcommission on Quaternary
Stratigraphy (SQS) to establish an international subdivision
A Geologic Time Scale 2004, eds. Felix M. Gradstein, James G. Ogg, and Alan
G. Smith. Published by Cambridge University Press.
c F. M. Gradstein,
J. G. Ogg, and A. G. Smith 2004.
for the Pleistocene. GSSPs have been formalized for the Aqui-
tanian (dening the PaleogeneNeogene boundary), the
Tortonian and Messinian stages of the Miocene, and for the
Zanclean, Piacenzian, and Gelasian stages of the Pliocene. In
addition, the PliocenePleistocene boundary has been dened.
21.1.1 Dening the Neogene Period
The term Neogene was introduced by Hornes (1853, 1864)
to differentiate the closely related molluscan fauna of the
Miocene and Pliocene in the Vienna Basin from those of
the Eocene (sensu Lyell, 1833). The original Neogene con-
cept of Hornes (1853, 1864) referred to the biostratigraphic
division of the Tertiary (Arduino, 1760a,b) and Quaternary
(Desnoyers, 1829) made by Bronn (1838), who subdivided this
period (termed Molasse Gebirge) into three groups (termed
Molasse Gruppen). The rst Molasse Group was equated
with Lyells (1833) Eocene Epoch. The second group in-
cluded Lyells (1833) Miocene (untere Abtheilung) and Pliocene
(obrige Abtheilung) Epochs, whereas the third group contained
the Quaternary (Alluvial und Quartar-Gebilde zum Theile).

409
410 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

Neogene Time Scale

Main
AGE
Epoch Stage Polarity Planktonic Calcareous Seq.
(Ma) Chron Foraminifera Nannoplankton
T R
NN21 CN15 Emiliana huxleyi
Holocene NN20
CN14 Pseudomiliania lacunosa
Pleisto- C1 PT1 N22
NN19

CN13
cene Globigerinoides
b
medium Gephyrocapsa
Plei1
1.810 fistulosus
a
L Discoaster brouweri
Pliocene

Gelasian PL6 NN18

N20/NP21
C2 c-d
Discoaster pentaradiatus Ge1

CN12
2.590 PL5 NN17
b Discoaster surculus
M Piacenzian
C2A
PL4
PL3
Globigerinoides
fistulosus NN16 a Pia1
3.600 Globorotalia Reticulofenestra
PL2 margaritae NN15/ CN 11/ pseudoumbilica

5
E Zanclean
PL1
N19 NN13 CN10c
Ceratolithus rugosus
Za1
C3 b Ceratolithus acutus
5.330 N18
Sphaeroidinella NN12 CN10 a
dehiscens
Me2
Messinian C3A b b

NN11
M13b/M14

CN9
N17 Amaurolithus primus
7.250 C3B
a a
C4 Discoaster berggrenii
L Globigerinoides
extremus
NN10 CN8
C4A N16 Neogloboquadrina
Tortonian M13a
acostaensis Discoaster hamatus
10 M12 N15 NN9 CN7
Discoaster hamatus
NN8 CN6 Discoaster brouweri
C5 M11 N14
NN7 b Tor1
11.610 M10 N13
CN5

M9b
Miocene

Serravallian C5A N12 a

NN6
C5AA M8/M9a Fohsella fohsi
C5AB Sphenolithus
M 13.650 C5AC M7
N11
N10
NN5 CN4
heteromorphus
Ser1

C5AD M6 N9 Orbulina spp.

15 Langhian
C5B b
M5 N8 Praeorbulina
15.970 glomerosa
C5C a NN4 CN3
Praeorbulina Lan1
sicana
M4 N7 Globigerinatella Sphenolithus
C5D insueta heteromorphus
M3 N6 NN3 CN2 (common)
Burdigalian C5E

20
E C6 M2 N5

Bur1
20.430 C6A NN2 CN1
Paragloborotalia
C6AA
kugleri
Aquitanian
C6B M1 N4
Paragloborotalia Discoaster druggi
23.030 C6C
kugleri NN1
Sphenolithus Aq1
Paleogene P22 NP25 CP19 delphix

Figure 21.1 Neogene stratigraphic subdivisions, geomagnetic sea level are generalized from Hardenbol et al. (1998). A color
polarity scale, pelagic zonations, and selected datums of planktonic version of this gure is in the plate section.
foraminifera and calcareous nannoplankton. Main trends in eustatic

According to Bronns subdivision, the so-called Loss and Dilu-
vium deposits (Knochen-Hohlen und der Loss) were incorpo-
rated into the upper part of the second Molasse Group.
In 1837, Louis Agassiz presented his Ice Age Theory
as an alternative explanation for the diluvial deposits found
in large parts of Europe and North America (Agassiz, 1840),
which until then were thought to be leftovers of the Biblical
Flood (the Diluvial Theory). Soon afterwards, Forbes (1846)
proposed equating the term Pleistocene (or Glacial Epoch)
with the Diluvium. It took more than 25 years before Lyell
formally accepted the term Pleistocene, which he had intro-
duced in 1839 as an abbreviation for Newer Pliocene. He pre-
ferred this term above Post-Pleiocene, the term introduced by
him in 1857 together with a redenition of his Recent. Lyell
(1873) recommended, therefore, that the term Pleistocene
should either be abandoned or maintained; but, if retained,
should be strictly synonymous with his Post-Pleiocene. Lyell
(1839) mentioned that the Newer Pliocene Epoch was equiv-
alent to the older strata of Desnoyers Quaternary, which
had been dened by a separate group of marine, lacustrine,
alluvial, and volcanic rocks younger than the Tertiary in the
Seine Basin: these rocks occasionally contained strange fossils
(mammoth) or out-of-place bones of reindeer and Arctic birds.
Thus, although Lyell never adopted the term Quaternary, it
apparently encompasses both Lyells Newer Pliocene Epoch
as well as the Post-Pleiocene (i.e. Pleistocene sensu Forbes) and
Recent Epochs (abbreviated as the Post-Tertiary Period ac-
cording to Lyell, 1857).
Consequently, the scientic community was left with three
different options for dening the TertiaryQuaternary bound-
ary at the end of the nineteenth century. The youngest option
for the boundary corresponded with the base of Bronns (1838)
third Molasse Group, which should approximate the base of
Lyells (1873) Recent. The second option, in the light of Agas-
sizs Glacial Theory, was to equate the term Quaternary with
the Ice Age and thus with the Pleistocene Epoch sensu Forbes
(1846), although it was different from the Pleistocene in that it
also included Lyells (1857) Recent, later named Holocene by 1983. This proposal was published two years later by Aguirre
Gervais (1867). Accordingly, the TertiaryQuaternary bound-
ary should correspond with the Newer PliocenePleistocene
boundary sensu Lyell (1873), whereas the Quaternary is equiva-
lent to the term Post-Tertiary sensu Lyell (1857). The third and
oldest option for placing the TertiaryQuaternary boundary is
at the base of Lyells Newer Pliocene Epoch, which implies,
a redenition of Lyells original subdivision of the Tertiary
(Haug, 19081911).
In view of these options, current ideas about the age of
the original localities should be taken into consideration. The
The Neogene Period 411
Newer Pliocene marine strata are exposed north of Catania,
along the east coast of Sicily, Southern Italy, and contain vol-
canic tuffs and basalts, which mark the rst volcanic eruptions
of Mount Etna, dated not much older than 0.5 Ma (e.g. Tan-
guy et al., 1997). This age estimate approximates that of the
Gunz glacial period (i.e. 0.60.55 Ma), which was dated as-
tronomically by Koppen and Wegener (1924) using Penck and
Bruckners (1909) climate curve and the insolation calcula-
tions of Milankovitch (1920). According to recent time scales,
the original type sections of the Calabrian Stage, which cover
the Newer Pliocene Epoch (sensu Gignoux, 1910, 1913), would
actually fall within the middle Pleistocene, where the lower
middle Pleistocene boundary is taken at about the level of ma-
rine isotope stages 2224 (i.e. younger than 0.9 Ma; see Rio
et al., 1991, and references therein). This implies that all other
plausible historical denitions for the TertiaryQuaternary
boundary refer to deposits younger than 0.9 Ma.
Following a decade of study and discussion by the
International Union for Quaternary Research (INQUA)
Subcommission 1a on Stratigraphy (PliocenePleistocene
boundary) and International Geological Correlation Program
Project 41 (NeogeneQuaternary boundary), a draft proposal
on the choice of a boundary stratotype for the Pliocene
Pleistocene was submitted and approved by the INQUA Com-
mission on Stratigraphy (also acting as the Subcommission
on Quaternary Stratigraphy of the ICS) at the 1982 Moscow
INQUA Congress. Three alternatives were discussed for place-
ment of the PliocenePleistocene boundary one around
the BrunhesMatuyama reversal, approximating the base of
Lyells (1873) Newer Pliocene; the second around the top of
the Olduvai subchron, approximately 1 myr older than Lyells
(1873) base of the Newer Pliocene; and a third option around
the GaussMatuyama reversal, approximately 2 myr older than
Lyells (1873) base of the Newer Pliocene. The recommenda-
tions resulted in a formal proposal (cf., option 2) to dene the
base of the Pleistocene in the Vrica section (Calabria, Southern
Italy), which was submitted to and approved by the ICS in
and Pasini (1985) together with the announcement by Bassett
(1985) that the content of the proposal had been formally rat-
ied by the IUGS Executive as the Global Stratotype Section
and Point (GSSP) of the base-Pleistocene.
Notwithstanding formal ratication of the Pliocene
Pleistocene Boundary at Vrica, another decade and a half of
heated discussions followed, ending with a formal attempt to
lower the base of the Pleistocene in favor of the third option.
However, such a denition ignores important chronostrati-
graphic concepts based on Lyells original biostratigraphic
412 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
subdivision of the Tertiary or on Desnoyers lithostratigraphic
denition of the Quaternary. And, instead, it equates the base
of the Quaternary with the beginning of the Ice Age, arbi-
trarily marked by the major onset of so-called northern hemi-
sphere glaciations at 2.6 Ma, notwithstanding the fact that
oldest indications for northern hemisphere glaciations in the
Neogene now date back to 14 Ma (Wolf-Welling et al., 1996;
Thiede et al., 1998). After a postal ballot within the subcom-
missions on Neogene Stratigraphy and Quaternary Stratigra-
phy (Rio et al., 1998), the proposal to lower the base of the
Pleistocene was rejected. In 1999, the original denition put
forward by Aguirre and Pasini (1985) was reconrmed by the
ICS.
An important consequence of the historical development
of the PliocenePleistocene boundary is that the scientic
community inherited two different notions for the Neo-
gene. The rst refers to the original concept of Hornes
(1853, 1864), according to which the Neogene includes the
Miocene, Pliocene, and Pleistocene up to the Pleistocene
Holocene boundary. The second results from the choice made
in London (1948) to equate the TertiaryQuaternary with the
PliocenePleistocene boundary. Note, however, the confusion
that arose from recommendations of the commission on the
denition of the PliocenePleistocene boundary. In their rst
recommendation:
The commission considers that it is necessary to select a type
area where the PliocenePleistocene (TertiaryQuaternary)
boundary can be drawn in accordance with stratigraphic
principles. [Later on] The Commission notes that according
to evidence given this usage would place the boundary at
the horizon of the rst indication of climate deterioration
in the Italian Neogene succession.
In other words, the TertiaryQuaternary boundary should
fall somewhere within the, apparently at that time, already
generally accepted Neogene Period.
Chronostratigraphic confusion became even worse when
the Tertiary following the already obsolete Primary and Sec-
ondary was abandoned from the IUGS-CGMW geologic
time scale (e.g. Remane, 2000), resulting in an arbitrary de-
nition of the NeogeneQuaternary Boundary in deposits orig-
inally termed (Lyell, 18331873) Tertiary. In the light of this
decision, Berggren et al. (1995b) recommended abandonment
of the term Quaternary from the geological time scale and
extention of the Neogene Period up to the Recent, thereby in-
cluding the Holocene in its denition. The Cenozoic Era is
thus then divided into the Paleogene Period and the Neogene
Period. We have adopted this concept in GTS2004.
21.1.2 The Miocene Series
The Miocene (Greek meion, few) is the oldest epoch of the
Neogene Period, and was originally proposed by Lyell (1833) as
a biostratigraphic unit with more than 8% extant mollusc taxa.
The Miocene has been subdivided in three subseries (Lower,
Middle, and Upper).
AQ U I TA N I A N : L OW E R M I O C E N E
The Aquitanian Stage (from Aquitania, the Latin name for
Aquitaine) was introduced by Mayer-Eymar (1858) on the ba-
sis of largely lagoonal deposits in the Aquitanian Basin, France.
He dened the stratotype near the village of Saucats (Gironde)
in the Saint-Jean-dEtampes valley, between La Br`ede and le
Moulin de lEglise. The geographic location of the stratotype
was specied and more precisely dened by Dollfus in 1909.
The stratotype was ratied and conrmed at international con-
ferences on the Mediterranean Neogene (at Aix-en-Provence,
1958; in Vienna, 1959; in Bologna, 1967).
Planktonic foraminifera from the type area place the be-
ginning of the Aquitanian near the base of Zone N4 (of Blow,
1969) and the top in the lower part of N5 (i.e. Drooger et al.,
1976; Poignant et al., 1997a). Calcareous nannofossils allow
the recognition of Zone NN1 of Martini (1971; see Poignant
et al., 1997a). Strontium isotope data point to an age of close
to 23 Ma for the base of the type Aquitanian according to
CK92, although a continental imprint cannot totally be ex-
cluded (Cahuzac et al., 1997).
Aquitanian GSSP, base-Miocene Series, base-Neogene System
Because sections in the stratotype area were not suitable
for dening the boundary, other sections were investigated
to select the most suitable section and boundary criterion
for the lower limit of the Neogene Period, the Miocene Se-
ries, and the Aquitanian Stage. The boundary is now formally
dened in middle bathyal, massive and laminated siltstones
with several nodule levels in the LemmeCarrosio section in
northern Italy (Steininger et al., 1997a,b). The publication
by Steiniger et al. (1997a,b) on the GSSP pays attention to
continental biostratigraphic correlations and regional chrono-
stratigraphic equivalents; but it does not discuss the GSSP
(bio)stratigraphy relative to the bordering Chattian or Aqui-
tanian stages. The GSSP, located at the 35-m level as mea-
sured downward from the top of the section, corresponds
closely with the calcareous nannofossils Sphenolithus delphix
(its range) and Sphenolithus capricornutus (rst occurrence, FO)
and with the base of polarity Chron C6Cn.2n; the identication

of both has been conrmed through high-resolution biostrati-
graphic correlations to ODP Site 522 in the South Atlantic
Ocean (Raf, 1999; Shackleton et al., 2000). The planktonic
foraminifer Paragloborotalia kugleri FO is located 2 m above
the boundary, and the Globigerinoides Acme, well known from
deep-sea records outside the Mediterranean, is observed below
the boundary. In addition, a diverse nannofossil (approximately
base of Zone NN1) and dinoagellate cyst record (base of Cor-
dosphaeridium canthaerellum Zone) delineates the boundary in-
terval; the S. capricornutus and S. delphix last occurrences (LOs)
are pinpointed 1 and 4 m above the boundary, respectively.
The boundary corresponds approximately to oxygen iso-
tope event Mi-1 and to the TB1.4 highstand of supercycle TB1
of Haq et al. (1987). Tuning of ODP Site 926 to the La2003
solution (see Section 21.7) resulted in an age for the base of
the Miocene of 23.03 Ma. This age is 0.77 myr younger than
in the Berggren et al. (1995b) time scale.
BU R D I G A L I A N : L OW E R M I O C E N E
The Burdigalian (from Burdigala, Latin name for the city of
Bordeaux in Roman times) Stage was introduced by Deperet
(1892) based on stratigraphic units in two distinct areas in
France, namely near Bordeaux (lower part) and in the Rhone
valley (upper part). Dollfus (1909) designated the Coquillat
crag at Leognan as the Burdigalian stratotype in the Bordeaux
area. Calcareous plankton studies (Poignant and Pujol, 1978;
Muller and Pujol, 1979) indicate that this lower part of the
Burdigalian belongs to the N56 Zones of Blow (1969), and
to the NN2 Zone of Martini (1971). Demarcq and Carbonnel
(1975) designated the St-Paul-Trois-Chateaux section as the
stratotype for the (upper) Burdigalian in the Rhone valley (see
Pouyet et al., 1997).
Planktonic foraminifera indicate that the upper part of the
Burdigalian starts in Zone N5 and ends in Zone N7. Martini
(1988) placed the base of the historical stratotype in zone NN2
and the top in NN2NN3. Strontium isotope stratigraphy pro-
vided an age range of 20.520.6 Ma, according to CK92, for
the (lower) Burdigalian of Saucats, which constitutes the stra-
totypical formation (Cahuzac et al., 1997) of the Burdigalian as
described by Deperet (1892). No Sr isotope data are presently
available for the upper Burdigalian.
Lower limit of the Burdigalian Stage No consensus exists
about the criterion and hence the age for the Aquitanian
Burdigalian boundary. One option refers to the P. kugleri LO
(N4N5 transition) at 21.12 Ma (Berggren et al., 1995a). A
second option uses the H. ampliaperta FO (MNN2aMNN2b
The Neogene Period 413
transition), which corresponds to the top of the transitional
interval between the Aquitanian and the Burdigalian (Forna-
ciari and Rio, 1996) dated at 20.43 Ma. A third option is the
top of polarity Chron C6An (Berggren et al., 1995a) dated
at 20.04 Ma. Finally, Haq et al. (1987) used the S. belem-
nos FO (NN3NN4 transition) dated at 19.03 Ma as cri-
terion for the age of the AquitanianBurdigalian boundary (all
ages according to our new time scale). We provisionally place
the boundary coincident with the H. ampliaperta FO dated as-
tronomically at 20.43 Ma at Ceara Rise, because this date lies
close to the Sr estimated age (20.020.1 Ma, CK92 recali-
brated to our time scale) for the base of the Burdigalian in the
stratotype area of Saucats, and because of the absence and pres-
ence of H. ampliaperta in the historical stratotypes of the Aqui-
tanian and Burdigalian, respectively (Poignant et al., 1997a,b).
LANGHIAN: MIDDLE MIOCENE
Based on marly to sandy successions exposed in (among oth-
ers) the Bormida valley in the middle of the Langhe (Piedmont
Basin, Italy), Pareto (1865) introduced the Langhian Stage
for the middle part of the Miocene, above the now-discarded
Bormidian and below the Serravallian (he considered the Tor-
tonian as belonging to the Pliocene Series). The original con-
cept was modied by Mayer-Eymar in 1868 who limited the
term to the upper, mainly marly, part of the succession (the so-
called Pteropod Marls). Since then, the Pteropod Marls
of the Piedmont Basin (now known as the Cessolo Formation)
have become synonymous with the Langhian and a stratotype
section was selected, accordingly, near the village of Cessolo
in the Bormida valley (Cita and Premoli Silva, 1960). The
Langhian has long been held to be synchronous with the Bur-
digalian, but it is now clear that the type Burdigalian is consid-
erably older than the type Langhian sensu Mayer-Eymar (1868;
but not sensu Pareto, 1865).
Planktonic foraminiferal studies indicate that the rst evo-
lutionary appearance of Praeorbulina glomerosa occurs at the
base of the Langhian and that the rst evolutionary appear-
ance of Orbulina suturalis (N89 boundary in the zonal scheme
of Blow, 1969) is found in its upper part. Calcareous nannofos-
sils (Fornaciari et al., 1997) indicate that the base of the type
Langhian predates the Helicosphaera ampliaperta LO and con-
tains Sphenolithus heteromorphus, and hence falls within Zone
NN4 of Martini (1971). The Langhian top lies within the S.
heteromorphus range and thus belongs to Zone NN5 (Fornaciari
et al., 1997).
Gelati et al. (1993) considered the Langhian stratotype to
represent a single depositional sequence, which they correlated
414 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
on the basis of the planktonic foraminifera to third-order cycle
2.3, supercycle TB2, of the Global Cycle Chart of Haq et al.
(1987).
Lower limit of the Langhian Stage, base-Middle Miocene The
base of the Langhian and thus the LowerMiddle Miocene
boundary is widely accepted to be approximated by the plank-
tonic foraminifer Praeorbulina datum (see Rio et al., 1997).
It seems preferable to locate the Langhian GSSP in a posi-
tion close to both Chron C5Cn and the Praeorbulina datum, in
agreement with common and consolidated practice. However,
the historical stratotype at Cessolo with terrigenous and tur-
biditic sediments in its lower part is less suitable for dening
the GSSP. We provisionally place the Langhian GSSP so as
to coincide with the top of C5Cn.1n dated astronomically at
15.974 Ma (this chapter).
S E R R AVA L L I A N : M I D D L E M I O C E N E
The Serravallian Stage was introduced by Pareto (1865) in the
same publication as that in which he introduced the Langhian.
The stratigraphic position of the Serravallian in the Langhe
type area is clearly dened at the lithological change from
prevailing marls (of the Langhian) to dominantly sandstones
(see Rio et al., 1997). The Serravallian was soon abandoned in
favor of the Helvetian dened by Mayer-Eymar in 1858. The
validity of the Serravallian as a global chronostratigraphic unit
was restored after it was realized (in the 1960s) that the Helve-
tian was time-equivalent to the Burdigalian. The Serravallian
was proposed as the second younger division of the Middle
Miocene above the Langhian and below the Tortonian at the
RCMNS Congress held in Bratislava in 1975.
A stratotype section for the Serravallian was designated
by Vervloet (1966) near the village of Serravalle Scrivia in
agreement with the original denition of Pareto (1865). The
planktonic foraminifera are poorly preserved and not very age
diagnostic, although all authors agree that the Serravallian
post-dates the Orbulina universa FO (see Rio et al., 1997). Re-
sults of a high-resolution calcareous nannofossil study indicate
that the Serravallian base corresponds almost perfectly with
the S. heteromorphus LO located slightly higher in the sec-
tion and marking the NN56 zonal boundary (see Rio et al.,
1997). Secondary calcareous nannofossil markers indicate that
the fossiliferous lower to middle part of the type Serravallian
belongs to Zone NN6 (Fornaciari et al., 1996).
Lower limit of the Serravallian Stage The calcareous nan-
nofossil S. heteromorphus LO is at present the most suitable
guiding criterion to dene the Serravallian GSSP. The S. het-
eromorphus LO event has been dated astronomically at 13.52
Ma in the tropical Atlantic (Backman and Raf, 1997). So far,
no proposal has been made for the GSSP. We provisionally
place the LanghianSerravallian boundary to coincide with
the S. heteromorphus LO event in the Mediterranean, which
has been dated astronomically at 13.654 Ma (Tremiti islands,
unpubl. data).
T O RT O N I A N : U P P E R M I O C E N E
The Tortonian Stage was introduced by Mayer-Eymar (1858)
as the Blaue Mergel mit Conus canaliculatus and Ancillaria
glandiformis von Tortona. A type section was designated by
Gianotti (1953) in the valleys of Rio Mazzapiedi and Rio
Castellania between the villages of SantAgatha Fossili and
Castellania (see Rio et al., 1997). Calcareous plankton zonal
assignments for the lower part of the historical stratotype were
conicting for a long time (see Rio et al., 1997) but recent stud-
ies indicate that the base of the type Tortonian corresponds
almost exactly with the N. acostaensis FRO (rst regular occur-
rence) in the Mediterranean, where this event has been dated
astronomically at 10.57 Ma in the Monte Gibliscemi section on
Sicily (Hilgen et al., 2000c, this chapter). According to Hilgen
et al. (2000c), this event post-dates the N. acostaensis FO in the
Mediterranean by more than one million years. The base of
the type Tortonian is approximated by the D. hamatus FO at
Ceara Rise (10.55 Ma), but the same event is much younger
in the Mediterranean (10.18 Ma). This strong diachroneity
of the zonal marker events between low and mid latitudes
complicates the assignment of the various stratigraphic lev-
els in the Mediterranean to the standard calcareous plankton
zonations.
Tortonian GSSP, base-Upper Miocene Biostratigraphic data
indicate that there is a gap between the top of the type Serraval-
lian and the base of the type Tortonian rendering all events in
the interval between 11.8 and 10.55 Ma suitable for dening
the boundary (Rio et al., 1997; Hilgen et al., 2000c). Several
astronomically dated sections in the Mediterranean contain
the boundary interval in a continuous deep-marine succes-
sion. The GSSP for the SerravallianTortonian boundary is
at the midpoint of the sapropel of cycle 76 in the Monte dei
Corvi section (northern Italy), a position recommended by
the working group on the Serravallian and Tortonian GSSPs
of the SNS. This level is dated astronomically at 11.600 Ma
(Hilgen et al., in press; this chapter) and coincides approxi-
mately with the calcareous nannofossil event D. kugleri LCO

and the planktonic foraminiferal event G. subquadratus LCO,
which are synchronous events between the mid and low lati-
tudes. This GSSP was ratied in 2003.
MESSINIAN: UPPER MIOCENE
The Messinian Stage is named after the town of Messina on
Sicily, southern Italy. It was Mayer-Eymar who in 18671868
introduced this name for a stage that would ll the gap between
the Tortonian and Astian sensu lato, the latter being consid-
ered equivalent to the entire Pliocene at that time. Mayer-
Eymar erected the Messinian without a detailed knowledge
of the local stratigraphy of Sicily in order to compete with
the Zanclean (the pre-Roman name for Messina) Stage intro-
duced by Seguenza one year later (Seguenza, 1868). The orig-
inal concept of the Messinian included diatomaceous marls
at the base (tripoli), evaporites (gesso), and deep-marine
marls with a diverse planktonic fauna (trubi) on top. How-
ever, Seguenza (in 1868 and 1879) restricted the Messinian to
the tripoli and the gesso, considering the trubi to be GSSP falls within Zone NN11b and Zone CN9b of Okada
basal-Pliocene. Owing to sedimentological and tectonic com-
plications in the vicinity of Messina itself, Selli (1960) selected
and described a neostratotype, exposed between Mt Capodarso
and Mt Pasquasia (central Sicily, Italy). The section is bounded
below by Tortonian marls and above by basal-Pliocene marls
(trubi), and its microfauna has been described by dOnofrio
(1964).
Selli (1960) argued that the base of the Messinian coincides
with the rst marked change in the benthic microfauna, herald-
ing the actual beginning of the Messinian salinity crisis. Since
this criterion is difcult to export outside the Mediterranean,
the Globorotalia conomiozea FO and the Amaurolithus delicatus
FO are considered more suitable criteria to delimit the bound-
ary (Colalongo et al., 1979). Unfortunately the boundary in-
terval is now obscured by landslides both in the neo-stratotype
as well as in the Falconara section proposed by Colalongo et al.
(1979) as an alternative boundary stratotype. Argon-40/argon-
39 dating of biotites in volcanic ash layers yielded an age of 7.26
Ma for the boundary in northern Italy (Vai et al., 1993), while
astronomical tuning of sedimentary cycles produced an age
of 7.24 Ma (Hilgen et al., 1995). The section most suitable
for dening the Messinian GSSP proved to be Oued Akrech,
located on the Atlantic side of Morocco.
Messinian GSSP The GSSP for the lower limit of the
Messinian Stage of the Late Miocene Epoch is in the Blue
Marls of the Oued Akrech section, located 10 km south
southeast of Rabat, Morocco, in a road-cut along a steep bluff,
The Neogene Period 415
next to the Oued Akrech (oued = valley). The Neogene
sediments at Oued Akrech were deposited in the Gharb Basin,
which represent the westward extension and opening into the
Atlantic of the Rian Corridor from the Mediterranean to the
Atlantic. High-resolution integrated stratigraphic correlations
to the type area for the Messinian strata on Sicily are excellent
and straightforward (Hilgen et al., 2000a,b).
The basal part of the Blue Marls contains 20 color cy-
cles, with the base of the reddish layer of cycle 15 proposed
as the GSSP for the base of the Messinian Stage. The sec-
tion contains an excellent and continuous faunal and mag-
netic polarity record across the boundary. The characteris-
tic cycle pattern has been tied to the astronomical time scale,
resulting in an astronomical age of 7.246 Ma (Hilgen et al.,
2000a,b; this chapter) for the Messinian GSSP. The GSSP
coincides almost exactly with the rst regular occurrence of
the Globorotalia miotumida (conomiozea) group, and falls in
the middle of Chron C3Br.1r of the geomagnetic polarity time
scale. In terms of calcareous nannofossil biostratigraphy, the
and Bukry (1980), with the genus Amaurolithus providing a se-
ries of useful events to delimit the boundary on a global scale.
The A. primus FO predates the boundary, while the A. delicatus
and A. amplicus FOs post-date the boundary. In terms of the
planktonic foraminiferal biostratigraphy, the GSSP falls within
the subtropical interval zone M13B, and marks the transitional
Mt9Mt10 zonal boundary of Berggren et al. (1995a,b). The
latter coincides with the abrupt replacement of predominantly
dextrally coiled Globorotalia menardii 5 with dominantly sinis-
trally coiled G. conomiozea group fauna. This event can be used
to locate the GSSP both in the Mediterranean and in the North
Atlantic.
In terms of stable isotopes, the boundary is located within
the global Chron 6 carbon shift as recognized in the Oued
Akrech section (Hodell et al., 1994). The 1998 proposal for the
Messinian GSSP was ratied in 2000 (Hilgen et al., 2000a; also
see SNS website, www.geo.uu.nl/SNS).
21.1.3 The Pliocene Series
In 1833, Lyell proposed the name Pliocene (Greek pleion,
more) for the youngest Tertiary deposits which he recog-
nized at the time. He divided the Pliocene (more than 50% of
molluscan species still living) into an Older Pliocene (50
90% of molluscan species still living) and a Newer Pliocene
(90100% of molluscan species still living) for which he sub-
sequently introduced the name Pleistocene (Greek pleisto,
most). Lyell regarded the Sub Apennine strata in northern
416 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
Italy in 1833 as typical for his Older Pliocene (i.e. the Pliocene
sensu stricto). Since 2000, the Pliocene has been formally sub-
divided into three subseries: Lower, Middle, and Upper (Van
Couvering et al., 2000).
Z A N C L E A N : L OW E R P L I O C E N E
The Zanclean Stage was dened by Seguenza (1868) as the
early part of the Pliocene, to complement Mayer-Eymars As-
tian Stage for the Upper Pliocene. The name derives from the
pre-Roman name, Zanclea, for the modern town of Messina
in Sicily, Italy. The classical Zanclean sediment is the white,
rhythmically bedded foraminiferal ooze, then exposed in the
Gravitelli valley, just northwest of Messina. These sediments
belong to the Trubi Formation and locally reach a thickness
of 15 m. Because the Gravitelli exposures no longer exist, Cita
and Gartner (1973) proposed a Zanclean neostratotype in the
coastal cliffs at Capo Rossello, along the south coast of Sicily,
west of the town of Agrigento. Here the Trubi reaches a thick-
ness in excess of 100 m.
Cita (1975a) in addition proposed to dene the lower limit
of the Zanclean and hence the MiocenePliocene boundary at
the base of the Trubi marls at Capo Rossello. Because of the
excellent magnetostratigraphy, Hilgen and Langereis (1988)
proposed the correlative level at Eraclea Minoa as an alter-
native. The base of the Trubi marks the sudden catastrophic
ooding of the Mediterranean at the end of the Miocene. The
GSSP designation at Eraclea Minoa (see below) is unique
in that it is proposed in a stratigraphically potentially in-
complete sequence. Reasons for its selection are vested in
the historical signicance of the boundary for the traditional
Pliocene, immediately above the Lago Mare strata. Since
one of the aims of stratigraphy is to maintain stability and
historical continuity wherever practical, the GSSP for the
base of the Pliocene at Eraclea Minoa is considered highly
appropriate.
Zanclean GSSP, base-Lower Pliocene, base-Pliocene Series
The GSSP for the base of the Zanclean Stage, and the base of
the Pliocene Series is at Eraclea Minoa, Agrigento Province,
on the south coast of Sicily, Italy. The Eraclea Minoa section
is the basal component of the Rossello Composite Section,
which is the global reference section for the Early and Middle
Pliocene part of the astronomical polarity time scale (Langereis
and Hilgen, 1991; Lourens et al., 1996a).
The GSSP at Eraclea Minoa is dened as the base of small-
scale carbonate cycle number 1 of the Trubi marls, which lo-
cally overlie the brownish colored sandy Arenazzolo and mas-
sive gypsum of latest Messinian age with a sharp contact. The
level corresponds to insolation cycle 510 with an astrochrono-
logic age estimate of 5.332 Ma (Lourens et al., 1996a; this chap-
ter). The base of the Thvera (base of polarity Chron C3n.4n)
with an astrochronological age of 5.235 Ma provides a very
good approximation of the MessinianZanclean (Miocene
Pliocene) boundary.
Several nannofossil events are important for exporting the
Zanclean GSSP outside the Mediterranean. The Ceratolithus
acutus FO and Discoaster quinqueramus LO, calibrated at 5.35
and 5.58 Ma in the equatorial Atlantic (Backman and Raf,
1997; this chapter), directly precede the level of the GSSP
in the open ocean. The GSSP in turn predates the C. rugo-
sus FO, calibrated at about 5.05 Ma in the western equatorial
Atlantic by 285 000 years, and thus falls within standard zone
NN12 of Martini (1971). The rst appearances of Globoro-
talia tumida have been calibrated at 5.72 Ma, or about 385 kyr
earlier than the GSSP, in tropical to warm-temperate sections
outside the Mediterranean. Hence, the boundary falls within
Zone PL1 of Berggren et al. (1995a). The proposal for the
Zanclean GSSP by Van Couvering and co-workers in 1998
(see SNS website, www.geo.uu.nl/SNS) was ratied in 2000
(Van Couvering et al., 2000).
P I AC E N Z I A N : M I D D L E P L I O C E N E
The Piacenzian Stage was introduced by Mayer-Eymar in 1858
(as the Piacenzische Stufe) for the marlyclayey (Argille
Azurre) facies of the Lower Pliocene in northern Italy. Pareto
(1865) adopted the name, using the French equivalent Plai-
sancian, and specied that the typical development is found
in the hills around the village of CastellArquato. The name
itself is derived from the city of Piacenza, Italy, and some
2530 km from CastellArquato. Barbieri (1967) designated
a stratotype in the CastellArquato section, following the indi-
cations by Pareto (1865). Initially, the stage was locally dened
between the LO of Globorotalia margaritae and a prominent
calcarenitic bed containing Amphistegina spp. on top of which
CastellArquato is built. Subsequent studies (Rio et al., 1988)
demonstrated the presence of an hiatus at the base of the Pia-
cenzian in the type area, and hence no GSSP could be dened
there.
Piacenzian GSSP, base-Middle Pliocene The GSSP for the
lower limit of the Piacenzian Stage, Middle Pliocene Series, is
located in the Punta Piccola section, along the road from Porto
Empedocle to Realmonte, 4 km east of Cabo Rossello, Sicily,
Italy. The Rossello Composite Section, of which the Punta

Piccola section is the upper segment, is an important reference
standard for the Pliocene time scale.
The Piacenzian GSSP and, hence, the Lower to Middle
Pliocene boundary, is dened at the base of the beige marl of
small-scale carbonate cycle 77 with an estimated astrochrono-
logical age of 3600 Ma (Lourens et al., 1996a; this chapter).
The primary correlation tool for the base-Piacenzian is the
GilbertGauss magnetic reversal of polarity Chron 2Ar2An,
which occurs immediately above the golden spike, with an
age estimate of 3.596 Ma.
As pointed out by Castradori et al. (1998), Pliocene bio-
stratigraphic events may be diachronous on a global scale,
which is why different fossil events are used in different regions
to ascertain the base of the Piacenzian Stage. In the Mediter-
ranean region, this level may be correlated using the tempo-
rary disappearance of the planktonic foraminifer Globorotalia
puncticulata at 3.57 Ma, the rst inux of G. crassaformis at 3.60
Ma, the end of the calcareous nannofossil Discoaster pentara-
diatus acme interval at 3.61 Ma, and the Sphenolithus spp. LO at
3.70 Ma. The GSSP post-dates the Reticulofenestra pseudoum-
bilicus LO and thus falls within Zone NN16 of Martini (1971).
The planktonic foraminifer Hirsutella (Globorotalia) margari-
tae LO, dated at 3.88 Ma, provides a good approximation for
the base of the Piacenzian in open-ocean sediments from low
to mid latitudes outside the Mediterranean. Hence, the GSSP
coincides closely with the PL23 zonal boundary of Berggren
et al. (1995a). The GSSP for the base of the Piacenzian was
ratied in 1997, and published by Castradori et al. (1998).
GELASIAN: UPPER PLIOCENE
The Gelasian Stage is derived from the Greek name of the
town of Gela (southern Sicily, Italy), close to the bound-
ary stratotype section of Monte San Nicola, and spans the
interval between the Middle Pliocene Piacenzian and the
Lower Pleistocene Calabrian. In 1994, Rio and co-workers ar-
gued against the practice of extending the Piacenzian up to
the PliocenePleistocene boundary. They introduced a new
stage, the Gelasian because none of the then existing stan-
dard Pliocene stages covered the interval between the top
of the Piacenzian historical stratotype at CastellArquato and
the PliocenePleistocene boundary as dened at Vrica. The
Gelasian marks a crucial period in the evolution of the Earths
oceanclimate system due to the occurrence of major obliquity-
controlled northern hemisphere glacial cycles.
Gelasian GSSP, base-Upper Pliocene The sedimentary suc-
cession that includes the Gelasian GSSP at Monte San Nicola
The Neogene Period 417
(Sicily, Italy), contains a cluster of six sapropels, which can
be recognized throughout the Mediterranean, and are known
as Mediterranean precession related sapropels (MPRS) or
insolation-related cycles (i-cycles) 250260 (Hilgen, 1991b;
Lourens et al., 1996a, 2001). The base of the homogeneous
marl overlying sapropel MPRS 250, located at 62 m in the
Monte San Nicola section denes the base of the Gelasian
Stage, with an astronomically derived age of 2.588 Ma (this
chapter). The base of the Gelasian falls within isotopic stage
103, predating the prominent glacial stage 100 by about 60 kyr
(Lourens et al., 1992). The GaussMatuyama reversal bound-
ary has been pinpointed slightly above MPRS 250 in the Singa
section (Langereis et al., 1994) and provides an excellent ap-
proximation and correlation tool for the golden spike. The
Discoaster pentaradiatus and D. surculus LOs in low- and mid-
latitude sites occur close to isotopic stage 99, about 80 kyr above
the boundary. The GSSP thus falls in the top part of Zone
NN16 of Martini (1971). The planktonic foraminifer Globoro-
talia bononiensis and Neogloboquadrina atlantica LOs are pin-
pointed at the top of isotope stage 96, both in the Mediterranean
as well as in the Atlantic, i.e. some 140 kyr above the golden
spike. The GSSP falls within Zone PL5 of Berggren et al.
(1995a).
The GaussMatuyama boundary and, thus, the Gelasian
GSSP is approximated by the LO of the radiolaria Stichocorys
peregrina, coincident with the base of the Pterocanium pris-
maticum Zone, and by the diatoms Nitschia joussaea FO at low
latitudes and the Denticulopsis kamtschatica LO in the North
Pacic mid and high latitudes. The GSSP for the base of the
Gelasian was ratied in August 1996, and published by Rio
et al. (1998).
21.1.4 The Pleistocene Series
In 1839, Lyell introduced the term Pleistocene as an abbrevia-
tion for his Newer Pliocene (see also Section 21.1.1 and the
previous discussion on the Pliocene Series).
BA S E O F T H E P L E I S T O C E N E S E R I E S
The GSSP for the PliocenePleistocene boundary and the base
of the Pleistocene was fostered and conceived within the IN-
QUA and ICS working group (IGCP Project 41) on the
PliocenePleistocene boundary. With the acceptance that the
beginning of the Pleistocene no longer has a primary climatic
implication, since signicant climatic change cuts across time
as a function of latitude, the road was paved for the accep-
tance of a GSSP for the PliocenePleistocene boundary in the
418 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
Vrica section located in southern Italy (Aguirre and Pasini,
1985).
The Vrica section consists of bathyal, marly, and silty clay-
stones with inter-bedded, pinkgray sapropelic marker beds.
The boundary is at the base of homogeneous marls overly-
ing the 190-cm thick sapropel bed e, close to the top of
Chron C2N (Olduvai). Paleontological criteria suitable for
widespread correlations outside the Mediterranean are the Dis-
coaster brouweri LO below the boundary and the medium-sized
Gephyrocapsa (incl. G. oceanica) FO and the FCO of sinis-
trally coiled Neogloboquadrina pachyderma (Zijderveld et al.,
1991; Lourens et al., 1996a,b, 1998; Lourens and Hilgen, 1997)
directly above the boundary. The Globigerinoides obliquus ex-
tremus LO is located just below the boundary. In shallow-
marine sections in the Mediterranean, the boundary can be
traced via the arrival of the mollusc Arctica islandica, a northern
immigrant.
The GSSP corresponds to the base of Zone MPL7 and falls
within Zone PT1. It also falls within Zones NN19A and CN13.
Astronomical calibration of the Vrica sapropels provides an age
of 1.806 Ma for the PliocenePleistocene boundary (Lourens
et al., 1996a,b; this chapter).
SUBDIVISION OF THE PLEISTOCENE SERIES
Working groups were organized by the ICS in 2003 under
the umbrella of the SQS to clarify the state of confusion con-
cerning the subdivision of the Pleistocene (see Chapter 22).
It is planned to subdivide the Pleistocene formally into three
subseries (Lower, Middle, and Upper), leaving stages as a
general term for marine isotopic oscillations, glacial episodes,
and regional stratigraphy. This is quite different from the ap-
proach proposed by the Italian Commission on Stratigraphy
(2002) to establish standard chronostratigraphic subdivisions
of the Pleistocene. The Italian Commission on Stratigraphy
proposed using essentially the same approach as for the pre-
Pleistocene part of the Cenozoic, namely (i) xing the boundary
stratotype by their lower boundary, (ii) following the principles
of base denes boundary, (iii) xing the boundary stratotypes
in marine sediments, (iv) respecting the historical usage (albeit
not a true historical priority), and (v) focusing as much as pos-
sible on the best correlation potential. In their view, the stage
would still be considered as the basal unit of the Pleistocene
chronostratigraphic scale.
The only GSSP existing in the Pleistocene is the one den-
ing its base in the Vrica section. No ofcial subdivision into
units has been established by the ICS, although the litera-
ture is rich in informal schemes that often enjoyed wide ac-
ceptance. In this scenario of widespread informality, there are
three noteworthy exceptions: the Calabrian Stage and the
LowerMiddle and MiddleUpper Pleistocene boundaries.
T H E C A L A B R I A N S TAG E : L OW E R P L E I S T O C E N E
The Calabrian Stage was introduced by Gignoux (1910, 1913)
as a substitute for Doderleins (18702) Sicilian and spans
Lyells Newer Pliocene. Gignouxs Calabrian was publicized
in Haugs (19081911) textbook, and included an important
modication: the relocation of the base of the Quaternary to
the base of the Calabrian. Recent studies argued that the base
of most sections indicated by Gignoux as Calabrian was in
fact younger than the base of Gignouxs supposedly overly-
ing Sicilian Stage (Rio et al., 1991). More precisely, taking the
LowerMiddle Pleistocene boundary at about the level of iso-
tope stage 2224, it would actually be of Middle Pleistocene
age. Thus Calabrian, unless re-dened, would be unacceptable
as the base of the Lower Pleistocene. However, in agreement
with the legendary recommendations adopted at the IGC in
London (1948) on the denition of the PliocenePleistocene
boundary, the Calabrian Stage is considered by some as already
dened by the GSSP in the Vrica section (e.g. Vai, 1997; Van
Couvering, 1997).
T H E L OW E R M I D D L E P L E I S T O C E N E B O U N DA RY
As stated above, the SQS favors a three-fold subdivision of
the Pleistocene (into Lower, Middle, and Upper). The Lower
Middle Pleistocene boundary already enjoys almost ofcial sta-
tus. According to Richmond (1996), the BrunhesMatuyama
paleomagnetic boundary was selected as the primary criterion
for the adoption of this boundary by the INQUA Commission
on Stratigraphy. However, no formal proposal has been put to
the vote within the SQS and ICS.
Other workers (see Cita and Castradori, 1995) proposed a
lower position (between the top of the Jaramillo event and the
BrunhesMatuyama boundary), and the related events (e.g.
base of the Pseudoemiliania lacunosa nannofossil zone), as more
suitable for the selection of the boundary. In this respect, the
Ionian Stage was proposed for the Middle Pleistocene by Car-
ian and co-workers (2001), referring to the upper part of a
thick sequence of Lower and Middle Pleistocene marine silts at
Montalbano Ionico in southern Italy (see Van Couvering, 1995,
1997). Preliminary studies have shown that sedimentation was
continuous from the middle Matuyama to the middle
Brunhes, within the framework of large-sized (>5.5 ms)
Gephyrocapsa, small-sized Gephyrocapsa, and Pseudoemiliana

lacunosa calcareous nannoplankton zones (Rio et al., 1990a).
The boundary stratotype of the Ionian was proposed at the
level of the last warm, marine transgression event prior to the
Menapian glacial Pleistocene at 0.9 Ma. This is MIS 25,
which occurs immediately above the Jaramillo event and cor-
relates with the base of the P. lacunosa Zone (Castradori, 1993).
This proposal has not reached ofcial status. A task group has
been established by the SQS to establish where and how to
place a GSSP for the LowerMiddle Pleistocene boundary.
T H E M I D D L E U P P E R P L E I S T O C E N E B O U N DA RY
The MiddleUpper Pleistocene boundary has generally been
equated with the beginning of the last interglacial period (i.e.
Eemian, Mikolino) or Marine Isotope Stage 5. The rst for-
mal usage of the boundary was probably made by Zeuner (1935,
1959), who used Koppen and Wegeners (1924) astronomical
correlation of Penck and Bruckners (1909) climate curve to
the insolation calculations of Milankovitch (1920). This re-
sulted in an age of 180 000 years BP for the MiddleUpper
Pleistocene boundary. In 1962, the age of the boundary was
revised by Woldstedt to 120 000 years BP. The inequality in
the duration of the Pleistocene chronostratigraphic units led
West (1968) to propose a lowering of the MiddleUpper Pleis-
tocene boundary, thereby including the terrestrial Saalian and
equivalent stages, but this proposal has not found wide accep-
tance. A working group has been established to evaluate the
different options for placing the boundary (see also the SQS
website at www.quaternary.stratigraphy.org.uk). A new pro-
posal has been presented by Gibbard (2003) in which he rec-
ommends dening the MiddleUpper Pleistocene boundary
(i.e. the SaalianEemian boundary) at 63.5 m below surface in
the Amsterdam-Terminal borehole (van Leeuwen et al., 2000).
21.1.5 The Holocene Series
Lyell (1857) used Recent for the duration of time since the
appearance of modern (Present and Neolithic) humans. At
the third International Geological Congress (IGC) in 1885 the
term Holocene (Greek holo, whole) introduced by Gervais
in 1867 was adopted as a substitute for Lyells (1857) Recent.
BA S E O F T H E H O L O C E N E S E R I E S
The base of the Holocene Series is informally dened at the end
of the last glacial period and dated at 10 000 radiocarbon years.
It was proposed at the eighth INQUA Congress in Paris in
1969 to dene the PleistoceneHolocene boundary in a varved
The Neogene Period 419
lacustrine sequence in Sweden (see Morner, 1976). The IN-
QUA Holocene Commission accepted the original proposal in
1982 (Olausson, 1982), but it was not submitted to the ICS.
Alternatively, it has been proposed that the boundary is dened
precisely at 10 000 (14 C yr BP), making it the rst stratigraphic
boundary later than the Proterozoic to be dened chronometri-
cally (Mangerud et al., 1974). As a third alternative, it has been
proposed that the GRIP ice-core should constitute the stra-
totype for the Last Termination, thereby encompassing the
PleistoceneHolocene boundary (Bjork et al., 1998). Accord-
ing to this classication, the age of the base of the Holocene
would be assigned as 11 500 calendar years BP based on count-
ing annual ice layers back to 14.5 kyr (Dansgaard et al., 1993).
Nevertheless, it is still possible that the boundary will even-
tually be placed in an annual-laminated lacustrine sequence,
as found in western Germany (Litt et al., 2001), because such
sequences yield an excellent, fossil record, principally pollen
and other freshwater microfossils, which facilitates regional
biostratigraphic correlation.
2 1 . 2 N E O G E N E S T R AT I G R A P H Y
21.2.1 Macrofossil zonations
In contrast to Paleozoic and Mesozoic fauna (e.g. trilobites,
graptolites, brachiopods, ammonites), invertebrate macrofos-
sils are of no importance for constructing standard biozonal
schemes in the Neogene. However, they do play an important
role for correlations on a regional scale especially when other
microfossil groups are rare or absent, such as in shallow-marine
or brackish-water environments. A good example is the Para-
Tethys where mollusc zonations have been erected for different
basins to cope with endemic species evolution and distribu-
tions, which result from intermittently interrupted connec-
tions (Magyar et al., 1999a,b). For the eastern Para-Tethys,
ecozonal schemes have been developed, which employ multi-
ple invertebrate groups at the same time as a kind of assemblage
of zones to avoid the problem of endemism and strong envi-
ronmental control. Other areas where invertebrate macrofossil
zonal schemes have been constructed and are successfully ap-
plied include the North Sea Basin, New Zealand, and the Arctic
(e.g. Thomsen and Vorren, 1986; Roe, 2001). The uncertainty
in the ages of most zonal boundaries is often considerable.
V E RT E B R AT E S
Mammals are by far the most useful organisms for dating and
correlating Cenozoic terrestrial sediments, because of their
420 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
rapid evolution and abundance. The general nature of the
mammal record, however, is different from that of most marine
fossil records. The continental record is generally less contin-
uous, and mammal localities are typically isolated eld occur-
rences. For example, karst localities contain very rich fauna,
but lack almost any additional stratigraphic control. During
the last decades an increasing amount of magnetostratigraphic
and radiometric dated mammalfaunal sequences have been
documented, allowing studies of faunal change at a temporal
resolution as ne as 100 000 years (Daams et al., 1999; Barry
et al., 2002). A recent development involves rst-order cali-
brations of mammal localities to continental sections that are
astronomically tuned (Abdul-Aziz, 2001).
The usefulness of detailed regional and continental
mammal-based chronological systems is not always evident be-
cause of the complexity of biogeographic distributions. Provin-
ciality and diachroneity and the problem of relative scarcity of
localities causes an ongoing discussion on the philosophical and
practical aspects of mammal-based biostratigraphic principles
(e.g. Lindsay and Tedford, 1990; De Bruijn et al., 1992; Alroy,
1998). Nevertheless, basal units have been distinguished,
conforming to the strict biostratigraphic, chronostratigraphic,
and geochronologic principles in international stratigraphic
guides (Hedberg, 1976; North American Commission on
Stratigraphic Nomenclature, 1983; Salvador, 1994), or based
on a faunal approach taking specic characteristics of the total
assemblage into account, which can be evolutionary-controlled
morphological changes in multiple lineages, presence/absence,
and abundance patterns (see Van Dam et al., 2001). A faunally
based system may consist of either a discrete set of reference
fauna (De Bruijn et al., 1992) or of a sequence of statistically
derived clusters of fauna of similar composition separated by
faunal breaks (Alroy, 1992, 2003). In general, the biostrati-
graphic method works well for local sequences, but for larger
geographic areas where the recognition of biozones and their
chronostratigraphic equivalents (including geologic stages) is
limited, a faunal approach appears to be more useful.
Both biostratigraphic and faunal approaches have been ap-
plied to arrange the mammal record in Europe, resulting in
Neogene continental stages with stratotype designations in
Spain (Marks, 1971a,b) and a European Tertiary Mammal
zonation (Thaler, 1965), respectively. In 1975, Mein intro-
duced the Mammal Neogene (MN) zonation (Mein, 1975;
Mein et al., 1990; last update, Mein, 1999) based on a combi-
nation of features such as the presence of selected taxa and rst
appearances (FAs). During the International Symposium on
Mammalian Stratigraphy of the European Tertiary in Munich
1975, reference localities were explicitly attached to the MN
units (Fahlbusch, 1976). At present, there is still ongoing de-
bate regarding the exact denition of the MN units, because the
same MN designation has been adopted for both stratigraphi-
cally dened systems (e.g. Steininger, 1999; Agust et al., 2001)
and systems strictly dened on the basis of reference fauna (De
Bruijn et al., 1992). Similarly, the term Age has been used
both for units based on stratotypes and for faunal complexes
(such as European land mammal ages, or ELMAs, Sen, 1997).
Discussions about European mammal-based chronologi-
cal systems are very similar to and partly echo those of North
American systems. A standard framework was erected by the
Wood Committee (Wood et al., 1941), who dened a series
of North American Land Mammal Ages (NALMAs), which
were in fact complex hybrids of local rock units and mammalian
events (Prothero, 1995). From the 1950s onwards, efforts have
been undertaken to re-dene the boundaries of the NALMAs
stratigraphically on the basis of range zones (e.g. Woodburne
and Swisher, 1995). This approach has been accompanied by
quantitative faunal approaches, which use calculated event
and faunal sequences to delineate mammalchronological units
(Alroy, 1992, 2003). A large number of North American Neo-
gene KAr dates exists (Tedford et al., 1987), but age esti-
mates of many, particularly Miocene, mammal localities can
still be improved by including more 40 Ar/39 Ar and paleomag-
netic data.
The construction of mammal-based chronological systems
for other continents still lags behind those for Europe and
North America. The systems of South American Land Mam-
mal Ages (SALMAs) and Chinese Neogene Mammal Units
(NMUs) are currently dened on the basis of reference fauna,
with chronologies becoming more and more rened by results
of numerical dating (Flynn and Swisher, 1995; Qiu et al., 1999).
Preliminary faunal units have also been dened for Africa
(e.g. Pickford, 1981). The nature of the Australian mammalian
record is patchy (Archer et al., 1995), and presently no separate
Neogene mammal-based scale has been created.
21.2.2 Microfossil zonations
FORAMINIFERA
Petroleum exploration in the Caribbean fueled the rst se-
rious attempts to establish a planktonic foraminiferal bios-
tratigraphy with the purpose of differentiating between in-
tervals in the (sub)tropical marine stratigraphic record of the
Neogene (Cushman and Stainforth, 1945). These efforts cul-
minated during the late 1960s and early 1970s in a variety
of low-latitude zonal schemes (Bolli, 1966; Blow, 1969, 1979;

Postuma, 1971; Stainforth et al., 1975). In particular, the N-
zonal scheme of Blow (1969, 1979), which has been modied
and rened by Srinivasan and Kennett (1981) after its publi-
cation (see Bolli and Saunders, 1985, for an overview), gained
wide acceptance. Since the beginning of the Deep Sea Drilling
Project in 1968 knowledge about distribution patterns in time
and space and of taxonomy and phylogeny rapidly expanded.
Syntheses are given by Kennett and Srinivasan (1983) and
Berggren et al. (1985c, 1995a). Application of the low-latitude
standard zonations proved difcult outside the tropical region
and attempts were soon made afterwards to establish regional
zonal schemes for the middle and high latitudes (e.g. Jenk-
ins, 1967, 1993) and Mediterranean (Bizon and Bizon, 1972).
Elaborating on these zonal schemes (Berggren 1973; Berggren
et al., 1995a) introduced a PL, PT, and a M-zonal scheme
for (sub)tropical regions and a Mt-scheme for the temperate-
transitional regions of the open ocean, where PL stands for
Pliocene, PT for Pleistocene, and M for Miocene. These zona-
tions do not represent new zonal schemes but should be re-
garded as unication of existing schemes with a view of
providing improved biochronologic subdivisions reecting re-
gional biogeographies.
Both Blows N-zonal scheme as well as the PL, PT, and M-
scheme of Berggren are accepted in this chapter as standard
zonations for the (sub)tropical open ocean in the present paper
(Fig. 21.1). Berggren et al. (1995b) revised the existing cali-
bration of Neogene planktonic foraminiferal datum planes to
the geomagnetic polarity times scale of Cande and Kent (1995)
by using reliable magnetostratigraphic records of a large num-
ber of DSDP and ODP cores as well as land-based marine
successions from the Mediterranean. The Mediterranean is of
special importance because most of the global chronostrati-
graphic units of the Neogene are currently dened there and
recognition of these boundaries elsewhere relies at least partly
on calcareous plankton biohorizons.
For the PliocenePleistocene of the Mediterranean, the
MPl zonal scheme of Cita (1973, 1975b) is generally accepted.
The establishment of detailed planktonic foraminiferal bio-
stratigraphies and biochronologies for continuous and astro-
nomically dated successions in the Miocene (e.g. Hilgen et al.,
1995, 2000ac; Sierro et al., 2001) resulted in the recent pub-
lication of an MMi zonation for the middle Miocene interval
(Sprovieri et al., 2002b), which elaborates upon earlier schemes
of Iaccarino (1985) and Foresi et al. (1988). In this chapter, we
extend the MMi codication to the top of the Miocene fol-
lowing the zonal scheme of Iaccarino (1985). At present, the
zonation for the Mediterranean has not been completed for
the older part of the Miocene. Zonal boundary positions are
The Neogene Period 421
taken from Hilgen et al. (1995, 2000c) and Sierro et al. (2001).
Detailed studies reveal that biostratigraphic resolution on a
regional scale can be considerably improved by also taking into
account changes in coiling direction, short-term inuxes, and
different morphologies (ecophenotypes; Sierro et al., 2001).
C A LC A R E O U S NA N N O F O S S I L S
Calcareous nannofossils are extremely useful for Neogene
stratigraphic correlations and age determination of marine
outcrop and exploration well samples, including deep-sea sedi-
ments. A general background to calcareous nannofossils is pre-
sented in Chapter 20. Standard zonal schemes based on contin-
uous successions and not isolated samples were developed in
the beginning of the 1970s and in line with common practice we
adopt these essentially low-latitude zonations of Martini (1971:
NN1-21) and Bukry (1973, 1975a: CN) as standard (Fig. 21.1).
In addition, regional zonations were developed due to the
limited utility of the standard low-latitude zonations in certain
areas such as the midhigh latitudes in the open ocean and
marginal basins such as the Mediterranean. In particular, re-
gional zonal schemes were developed to avoid problems, such
as the strong diachroneity of zonal boundary events and/or the
absence or extreme rareness of primary marker species. For in-
stance, an effective MNN zonal scheme has been established
for the Mediterranean Neogene (Raf and Rio, 1979; Rio et al.,
1990a; Fornaciari and Rio, 1996; Fornaciari et al., 1996; Raf
et al., 2004).
D I AT O M S A N D R A D I O L A R I A
Diatoms are photosynthetic, single-celled algae that ourish in
many (sub)aquatic environments. Sessile living taxa exist but,
together with the coccolithophorids, their free-oating taxa
constitute the major part of the marine phytoplankton. The
use of diatoms for biostratigraphic purposes is restricted to
areas with essentially continuous preservation of biogenic silica
particularly in the low-latitude and high-latitude open ocean.
Modern biostratigraphic studies started in the mid 1920s from
the rich diatomaceous successions exposed in California. But
it has been the recovery of oceanic sediments from DSDP and
ODP drilling legs that greatly facilitated Neogene diatom bio-
stratigraphic studies and led to the currently existing zona-
tions. The numerous zonations published document the con-
tinuous development and improvement made during the last
30 years.
For the low-latitude ocean, no unied standard zonation
exists and so attention focuses mostly on the equatorial Pacic.
422 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
Following earlier studies of, for example, Burckle (1972), Bar-
ron (1985) established the zonal standard for this region based
on ODP Leg 85 sites. Baldauf and Iwai (1995) published a
slightly modied version based on ODP Leg 138 sites with 17
zones and 17 subzones for the last 20 myr. The excellent mag-
netostratigraphy of Leg 138 sites (Schneider, 1995) resulted
in a very reliable and straightforward calibration of the revised
diatom zonal scheme to the geomagnetic polarity time scale
(GPTS) of Cande and Kent (1995) for the last 13 myr.
Regional zonations have been established for the high-
latitude open ocean, in particular the different Atlantic, Indian,
and Pacic sectors of the Southern Ocean. Here the strong lat-
itudinal control on the diatom oral composition associated
with the position of the polar front necessitates the construc-
tion of different zonal schemes in these regions. For instance,
versions of the Neogene diatom zonation for the Atlantic sector
of the Southern Ocean were recently published in two papers
dedicated to the PlioPleistocene and Miocene biostratigra-
phies of ODP Leg 113 and 177 sites (Censarek and Gersonde,
2002; Zielinski and Gersonde, 2002).
The use of radiolaria for biostratigraphy, as with diatoms,
is restricted to areas with sufciently continuous preservation
of biogenic silica. The potential use of radiolaria for biostrati-
graphic purposes was rst fully realized by Riedel (1957) when
he studied long deep-sea cores from the Swedish Deep-Sea
Expedition. Regional zonal schemes were subsequently devel-
oped for different oceanic basins both for low latitudes as well
as for midhigh latitudes. Over the years, the linkage between
Neogene radiolarian biostratigraphic events and the GPTS has
much improved due to the recovery of deep-sea cores with a re-
liable magnetostratigraphy thus allowing for a straightforward
magnetostratigraphic calibration of these cores to the GPTS.
Recently Sanlippo and Nigrini (1998b) merged the existing
regional zonations for the tropical Pacic, Atlantic, and Indian
Oceans (Sanlippo et al., 1985; Johnson et al., 1989; Moore,
1995) into a single zonal scheme and introduced formal code
numbers for the radiolarian zones (RN117 for the Neogene)
as has been done for calcareous microfossil groups (Fig. 21.2).
The incorporation of radiolarian biostratigraphy in integrated
zonal schemes is crucial to their application in areas where other
microfossil groups are biostratigraphically of limited utility.
D I N O F L AG E L L AT E S
The biology and main types of dinoagellates were reviewed
in Chapter 20. Applications of fossil dinocysts in global Neo-
gene biostratigraphy and paleoecology has been reviewed in
detail in several papers including Williams and Bujak (1985),
Powell (1992a), Stover et al. (1996), Mudie and Harland
(1996) and Williams et al. (1998a; in press). These compila-
tions indicate that the stratigraphic range of a given Neogene
dinocyst is rarely synchronous world-wide. Many authors have
demonstrated climatic and environmental control on the strati-
graphic distribution of taxa in the Neogene (see, e.g. reviews
in Mudie and Harland, 1996; Stover et al., 1996; Versteegh,
1997; Rochon et al., 1999).
The bulk of currently available information on Neogene
dinoagellates is derived from the northern hemisphere, and
most notably from the Atlantic and Mediterranean domains.
Compilations also include the US Atlantic coastal plain (de
Verteuil and Norris, 1996) and southern North Sea Basin (e.g.
Louwye et al., 1999, 2000). Neogene southern hemisphere
dinocyst studies are but few; only sporadically representa-
tives of this fossil group have been found at all (see overviews
in McMinn, 1992, 1993; Wrenn et al., 1998; McMinn et al.,
2001). McMinn (1995) noted the apparent absence of Neo-
gene dinocysts in the circum Antarctic realm, and postulated
that the loss of shallow-water shelves (due to glaciation) from
the Antarctic continent from the basal-Oligocene onwards con-
tributed to this local extinction of the cyst-producing di-
noagellates. Rather, later studies (e.g. Wrenn et al., 1998) in-
dicate that the organic wall of the dinocysts is not resistant
to the oxygen-rich waters in the Antarctic domain, and/or
winnowing at depth and/or low sedimentation rates preclude
these microfossils from being preserved (see also, e.g. Versteegh
and Zonneveld, 2002). Southern Ocean dinocyst assemblages
should be present when preservation requirements are met.
The study by McMinn and co-workers, analyzing Pliocene
dinocysts and diatoms from DSDP Site 594, Chatham Rise, il-
lustrates this aspect (McMinn et al., 2001). Moreover, McMinn
and Wells (1997) demonstrated the potential of dinocyst anal-
ysis for paleoenvironmental reconstructions in the Quaternary
in the region, using piston-cored materials from locations off-
shore western Tasmania. The rst more comprehensive strati-
graphical studies from the Neogene of the southern hemi-
sphere are now becoming available (e.g. Wrenn et al., 1998;
Harland and Pudsey, 2002; Brinkhuis et al., in press).
Williams et al. (in press) recognized the need to accommo-
date both latitudinal and hemispherical control of dinocyst as-
semblages in Neogene distribution charts. Accordingly, these
authors give ranges for low, mid, and high latitudes in both
northern and southern hemispheres, and the contribution also
updates data presented in Williams et al. (1998a). An overview
of index dinoagellate cyst events of northwest Europe is sum-
marized in Fig. 21.2.
 The Neogene Period 423

Neogene Time Scale

Foram.
Plankt.
AGE
Epoch Stage Polarity Dinoflagellate Cysts Radiolaria
(Ma) Chron
Holocene c Spiniferites Tectatodinium RN 17/ Collosphaera Stylatractus
elongatus pellitum RN 15 tuberosa universus
Pleisto- C1 PT1 RN14
Anthocyrtidium angulare
cene b Selenopemphix RN13
1.810 Spiniferites dionaeacysta Pterocanium prismaticum
L
Pliocene

Gelasian C2 PL6 D21 pachyderma Invertocysta RN12

2.590 PL5 tabulata
M Piacenzian
C2A
PL4
PL3
a Melitasphaeridium RN11
Spiniferites cf. choanophorum
Stichocorys peregrina
Phormostichoartus
3.600 pseudofurcatus doliolum
PL2 Reticulato- RN10

5
E Zanclean
PL1
b Operculodinium
tegillatum
sphaera
actinocoronata
Didymocyrtis penultima

C3 Barssidinium
5.330 evangelinae RN9
D20
Messinian C3A
a
M13b/M14

Selenopemphix
armageddonensis
7.250 C3B Hystrichosphaeropsis RN8
obscura Diartus hughesi
C4 b Labyrinthodinium
Barssidinium
L evangelinae
truncatum
Palaeocystodinium
RN7

C4A golzowense
Tortonian M13a D19
10 M12 a
RN6
C5 M11 Amiculosphaera
umbraculum Palaeocystodinium
11.610 M10 sp. A (Costa &
Downie, 1979)
c Gramocysta
C5A M9b Achomosphaera
Serravallian verricula
Miocene

Achomosphaera alcicornu
C5AA M8/M9a
D18 b
andalousiensis
C5AB
M 13.650 C5AC M7 a
Unipontidinium
Unipontidinium
aquaeductum RN5
C5AD M6 aquaeductum Cousteaudinium
15 Langhian aubryae
C5B b b Labyrinthodinium
M5 truncatum Apteodinium
15.970 spiridoides
RN4
C5C a Hystrichokolpoma
D17 cinctum Calocycletta costata
M4 RN3
C5D a
Stichocorys wolffii
M3
Burdigalian C5E Sumatradinium RN2
druggi Exochosphaeridium
insigne

20
E C6 M2
Tityrosphaeridium
cantharellus
Theocyrtis annosa

20.430 C6A c Thalassiphora

pelagica
RN1
C6AA D16 Sumatradinium
Aquitanian soucouyantae Deflandrea
C6B M1 phosphoritica
b Invertocysta Chiropteridium
galea Cyrtocapsella tetrapera
tabulata
23.030 C6C Membranophoridium
Paleogene P22 a aspinatum
RP22

Figure 21.2 Neogene dinoagellate cyst zonation and datums and Dinoagellate stratigraphy was compiled by A. J. Powell and
Neogene radiolarian zonation, with estimated correlation to H. Brinkhuis. A color version of part of this gure is in the plate
magnetostratigraphy and planktonic foraminifer zones. section.
424 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
Dinocyst events that have been derived from astronomi-
cally dated sequences are rare, and have only regional applica-
bility (e.g. Versteegh, 1994, 1997; Santarelli, 1997; Santarelli
et al., 1998).
21.2.3 Event stratigraphy
P O L A R I T Y S E Q U E N C E S : A N O M A LY P RO F I L E S A N D
M AG N E T O S T R AT I G R A P H Y
Marine magnetic anomaly proles have been extremely suc-
cessful in unraveling the reversal history of the Earths mag-
netic eld over the last 160 myr. Conversion of reversal distance
to spreading ridge to time is achieved by the introduction of a
limited number of radioisotopically controlled age calibration
points and linear interpolation or cubic-spline tting of the
spreading rates between calibration points. For the last 5 myr,
reversals have also been dated directly by combining polarity
and radioisotopic age of volcanic samples collected through-
out the world (e.g. Mankinen and Dalrymple, 1979). Directly
dated polarity chrons were named after a renowned scientist in
the study of the Earths magnetic eld, while subchrons were
named after the locality where their existence was rst proven
unambiguously.
The standard nomenclature for Cenozoic marine magnetic
anomalies and associated polarity chrons is based on number-
ing prominent positive anomalies from the ridge axis back to
Anomaly 34 (Pitman et al., 1968; Chapter 5 and tables therein).
Fast-spreading-rate proles from oceans other than the south-
ern Atlantic have been studied separately, or incorporated in
the synthetic South Atlantic prole of Cande and Kent (1992a),
to resolve intricate details of the reversal history. However,
even in such proles, resolution is limited to 2030 kyr and
shorter events cannot usually be unambiguously resolved. Al-
ternatively, polarity records of lava sequences can be employed
to detect short polarity events especially because they can be
radiometrically dated as well. Such sequences have been suc-
cessfully employed to detect short polarity intervals but they
do not provide a continuous record of (changes in) the Earths
magnetic eld because of their episodic nature.
The details of the Neogene polarity time scale are resolved
using long and continuous magnetostratigraphic records
both from land-based marine and continental successions
(e.g. Langereis and Hilgen, 1991; Abdul Aziz et al., 2003) as
well as from ODP cores for the younger half of the Neogene
(e.g. Schneider, 1995). These magnetostratigraphic records are
more important where cyclic successions have been directly
tied to the APTS. Such records are preferable to the often
rotary drilled and discontinuous records of older deep-sea
cores, which, in addition, have magnetostratigraphic records
that are often difcult to interpret and correlate unambigu-
ously to the GPTS.
Numerous high-quality magnetostratigraphic records
from deep-sea cores now tie the BrunhesMatuyama bound-
ary to marine oxygen isotope stage 19 and the succession of
short reversed intervals within the Brunhes becomes increas-
ingly clear. Reliable magnetostratigraphic records of continu-
ous and astronomically dated successions are available for the
entire Pliocene and Pleistocene as well as for the major part of
the Upper Miocene. Tuned marine sections from the Mediter-
ranean extended the APTS back to 11 Ma, and a further ex-
tension, to 13 Ma, was achieved using lacustrine successions
in Spain. ODP Leg 138 sites produced an excellent magne-
tostratigraphy back to almost 12 Ma (Schneider, 1995), but
the succession proved difcult to tune astronomically.
Major problems concerning the magnetostratigraphy lie
in the interval between 13 Ma and the OligoceneMiocene
boundary. For this interval, no long and continuous magneto-
stratigraphic records are available except for the untuned con-
tinental section of Armantes (Krijgsman et al., 1994). Nan-
nofossil events allowed high-resolution correlation from the
tuned succession at Ceara Rise to the untuned DSDP Site 522
that has a reliable magnetostratigraphy across the boundary
(Shackleton et al., 2000). These correlations conrm equating
the OligoceneMiocene boundary with base of polarity Chron
C6Cn.2n, as suggested by Steininger et al. (1997a,b).
S E Q U E N C E S T R AT I G R A P H Y
The modern concept of sequence stratigraphy was born out of
seismic stratigraphy and started with the publication by Vail
et al. (1977). In total, six orders of stratigraphic sequences were
distinguished with durations ranging from more than 50 myr
(rst order) to less than 0.5 myr (fourthsixth). Global sea-level
charts were published by Vail et al. (1977), and in an updated
version by Haq et al. (1987), which rely on the assumption of a
global or eustatic control on sequences, especially third-order
episodes. This assumption has been strongly criticized (e.g.
Miall, 1992), but gained renewed support from ODP data of
the New Jersey coastal plain of Late Cretaceous age (Miller
et al., 2003).
The youngest Neogene part of the disputed cycle chart
for global sea-level uctuations of Haq et al. (1987) comprises
two complete second-order sequences, TB2 and TB3, plus

the top of a third, TB1. The second-order sequences contain
six (TB2.12.6) and nine (TB3.13.9) third-order sequences.
The early Miocene according to the Haq et al. curve is marked
by a relatively high sea-level with superimposed third-order
uctuations. Sea level started to fall after 15 Ma, culminating in
a dramatic drop around 10.5 Ma which denes the TB23 cycle
boundary. Sea level gradually rose during the late Miocene
reaching its highest levels during the earliest Pliocene, followed
by a gradual fall up to the Recent with superimposed high-
amplitude third-order uctuations.
Miller et al. (1996) correlated third-order sequence bound-
aries observed in seismic proles and bore holes on the New
Jersey coastal plain and continental shelf to the Oligocene and
Miocene benthic isotope events of the deep-sea record. Ages of
the New Jersey sequence boundaries and global 18 O increases
are in good agreement with one another, indicating that they
both are related to falls in global sea level. Moreover, they cor-
relate well with uctuations in the Haq et al. (1987) global
sea-level chart. The link between third-order sequences and
sea level is strengthened by the results of high-resolution oxy-
gen isotope studies which suggest that the Mi1 and 56 events
are related to a 1.2 myr obliquity cycle and thus may be related
to astronomically controlled changes in Antarctic ice volume
(Turco et al., 2001).
Higher-order sequences have been investigated in addition
to the third-order sequences. Especially the marine cyclothems
of PlioPleistocene age in the Wanganui basin (New Zealand)
have been studied in detail. The cyclothems, which correspond
in duration with fth- and sixth-order sequences but can best
be regarded as parasequences according to sequence strati-
graphic nomenclature, have been astronomically calibrated and
correlated to the standard oxygen isotope record (Naish et al.,
1998). They reect glacio-eustatic sea-level uctuations driven
by Milankovitch variations in climate and bridge the gap be-
tween sequence stratigraphy and cyclostratigraphy.
VO LC A N I C A S H L AY E R S A N D
T E P H RO C H RO N O L O G I E S
Volcanic ash layers play an important role in establishing
time stratigraphic correlations on a regional scale. A detailed
tephrostratigraphy and tephrochronology has for instance
been developed for the late PleistoceneHolocene in the
Mediterranean (Narcisi and Vezzoli, 1999) and North Atlantic
regions (Haidason et al., 2000; Davies et al., 2002), and for
the middle Miocene in central Japan (Takahashi and Saito,
1997).
The Neogene Period 425
Several ash layers, however, can be correlated on an inter-
regional or even global scale. The Toba ash of Indonesia, dated
at 74 ka, has been found in the South China Sea and the Indian
Ocean and its expression has also been detected in an ice core
from Greenland (e.g. Buhring and Sarnthein, 2000; Schulz
et al., 2002). In ice cores, sulfate concentrations are employed
to trace explosive volcanic activity and evidence for a number
of major low-latitude eruptions has been identied in ice cores
from both Greenland as well as the Antarctic. Their identi-
cation and correlation may help to solve problems related to
the phasing of paleoclimate change. The tephrostratigraphy
and tephrochronology for the Holocene in the North Atlantic
region has been used to correlate and date paleoclimate records
from peat-bogs and maares more accurately (van den Boogaard
et al., 2002).
TEKTITES
Tektites are extremely rare and not very important from a
stratigraphic point of view but their occurrences are worth
mentioning here. One of the most famous members of the
tektite group are the moldavites. These tektites have been col-
lected from several localities in Czechoslovakia, Austria, and
Germany since the mid-eighteenth century (Bouska, 1989).
Using detailed geological, petrological, geochemical, and geo-
graphical constraints, the numerical modeling study of Stofer
et al. (2002) showed that the moldavite-strewn eld and the
Steinheim and Ries craters in southern Germany were related
and were caused by the oblique impact of a binary asteroid from
a west-southwest direction. New 40 Ar/39 Ar dates of four tek-
tites indicate that the moldivites are 14.5 0.16 Ma (Schwarz
and Lippolt, 2002).
A microtektite layer associated with the IndoAustralian
strew eld and dated at 0.79 Ma is by far the most important
one. It has a wide geographical distribution, which includes the
Chinese loess plateau; the South China, Philippine, Celebes,
and Sulo Seas; and parts of the Indian and Pacic Ocean, cov-
ering at least 5 107 km2 (e.g. Glass and Pizzuto, 1994). The
layer has been used as a time stratigraphic correlation tool and
has helped to solve the problem of misleading positions of the
BrunhesMatuyama magnetic reversal boundary in loess suc-
cessions (Zhou and Shackleton, 1999). Microtektites have fur-
ther been reported from sedimentary deposits of a late Pliocene
asteroid impact in the Southeast Pacic and from a number of
deep-sea cores off the West Africa coast, the latter being asso-
ciated with the Ivory Coast impact and tektite event dated at
1.07 Ma (Schneider and Kent, 1990).
426 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

21.2.4 Radiometric ages the decay constants and the age of the primary dating standard,
40 A r / 39 A r
which contribute mostly to the full error in 40 Ar/39 Ar dating
AND UPb
ages, are avoided (Kuiper, 2003). This would favor the intro-
During the last 15 years, the 40 Ar/39 Ar method has replaced the duction of a directly astronomically dated 40 Ar/39 Ar standard.
conventional 40 K/40 Ar method for dating potassium-bearing
14 C 230 T h / 234 U
minerals of Neogene age because it allows parent (rst con- AND
verted to 39 Ar by neutron irradiation) and daughter isotopes
Over the last 20 years, it has become apparent that calculation
to be simultaneously measured by the same method and on the
of the radiocarbon age of a specic sample assuming a constant
same sample aliquot. Moreover, the method is fast (20 minutes
production of 14 C in atmospheric CO2 is not valid, but that
for a single age determination), is precise (with a typical stan-
the activity of 14 C in atmospheric CO2 has varied over time
dard error of 0.1%) and is reproducible. Only a small sample
(e.g. Stuiver and Braziunas, 1993). The comparison between
size is needed, and this even allows dating of single crystals.
radiocarbon ages of samples in equilibrium with atmospheric
Details on the method and its analytical and external (relative
CO2 and dendrochronologically dated tree rings made it possi-
to other methods) uncertainties are presented in Chapter 6.
ble to construct decadal calibration data sets for the last 11 854
The most widely applied secondary mineral standard when
cal yr BP (0 yr BP = AD 1950), whereas computer modeling
dating samples for the calibration of the geological time scale
has provided a similar decadal calibration data set for marine
for the Neogene is the Fish Canyon Tuff (FCT) sanidine. Cur-
samples (Stuiver et al., 1998). Using 230 Th/234 U and 14 C mea-
rently used ages for this standard in the literature (obtained
surements of corals (Bard et al., 1990, 1998; Edwards et al.,
via inter-calibration with primary standards) range from 27.5
1993; Burr et al. 1998) and a oating marine varve chronology
(Lanphere and Baadsgaard, 2001) via 27.84 and 28.02 (Renne
(Hughen et al., 1998), the calibration curve for atmospheric,
et al., 1998c) to 28.10 Ma (Spell and McDougall, 2003). The
as well as marine, samples is extended to 24 000 cal BP with a
last age was obtained by re-dating the primary standard GA-
spline through the measured radiocarbon ages (Stuiver et al.,
1550, but the new age for this standard is statistically indistin-
1998). Extending the calibration record to older periods is dif-
guishable from the previous age (Renne et al., 1998c).
cult because residual 14 C concentrations in samples become
An alternative and independent method of determining
extremely low (Bard, 2001). Contradictory results from 14 C
the absolute age of the FCT sanidine is via inter-calibration
dating back to 45 000 BP using 230 Th/234 U dates of glacial
with astronomical datings for magnetic reversals or for ash
varved sediments of Lake Suigetsu in Japan (Kitagawa and
layers (Renne et al., 1994; Hilgen et al., 1997; Steenbrink et al.,
Van der Plicht, 1998) and a well-preserved stalagmite record
1999) that have been dated by the 40 Ar/39 Ar method as well.
of the Bahamas (Beck et al., 2001) will have to be reconciled
Results of the most recent and comprehensive study directed
before they can be used to update and extend the INTCAL98
at 40 Ar/39 Ar resolution of astronomically dated volcanic ash
curve back in time (Bard, 2001).
layers in the Mediterranean Neogene revealed a signicant
Thorium-230/Uranium-234 dating has been successfully
discrepancy between the 40 Ar/39 Ar and astronomical ages, the
applied to tropical corals from sea-level highstands (Chen et al.,
latter being on average 0.8% older (Kuiper, 2003).
1991; Gallup et al., 1994), calcite veins (Winograd et al., 1992),
Using the most reliable, single-crystal sanidine datings
and bulk sediment (Henderson and Slowey, 2000) for the last
from the Melilla Basin in Morocco, an astronomically derived
140 000 years. Dating of older corals is more difcult partly
age of 28.24 0.01 Ma is obtained for the FCT sanidine
because high-precision thorium measurements are required as
and favors the introduction of a directly astronomically dated
40
errors expand rapidly as the 230 Th/238 U tends toward unity,
Ar/39 Ar standard. This is signicantly younger than the U
but also due to the strong inuence of subaerial diagenetic pro-
Pb zircon dates of the FCT (Schmitz and Bowring, 2001). The
cesses. To test the accuracy of the 230 Th/234 U dates, Edwards
older UPb age might be related to extended residence of zir-
et al. (1997) used 231 Pa/235 U dates and conrmed the predic-
cons in the magma chamber (Oberli et al., 2002), reecting the
tions of astronomical theory (e.g. Imbrie et al., 1984) for the
complex eruptive history (Bachmann et al., 2002), although
timing of sea-level change over parts of the last glacial cycle.
this does not explain the equally old UPb age for titanite,
which may remain open to Pb diffusive exchange until quench- 87 S r / 86 S r
ing upon eruption (Schmitz and Bowring, 2001). Clearly, the
main advantage of using an astronomically derived age for the Strontium isotope stratigraphy provides a powerful tool to cor-
FCT sanidine is that problems associated with uncertainties in relate and date marine sequences in the Cenozoic (Hess et al.,
 The Neogene Period 427

Early to early Middle Miocene is marked by relatively light

Neogene geochemical trends 18 O values and prevailing warm climatic conditions. This
87Sr/ 86Sr
13C Temperature
trends warm phase culminates in the so-called mid-Miocene climatic

0.7075
0.7080

0.7085
(0/00 PDB)

0.7090
0.7095
AGE Epoch/Stage 18O (0/00 PDB)
(Ma)
1 0 1 2 2 3 4 optimum marked by a distinct 18 O minimum between 17
Pleistocene and 15 Ma, followed by an initial rapid and then gradual de-
Pliocene
5
Messinian crease in 18 O in the late Middle to Late Miocene, reecting
Tortonian
Miocene

10
Serravallian
15 Langhian
Burdigalian
20
Aquitanian
25
Paleogene
Figure 21.3 Generalized oxygen, carbon, and strontium isotope
trends for the Neogene. See text for sources of oxygen and carbon
curves. Strontium curve is a LOWESS t to data from several
sources (see text and Chapter 7).
1989), especially when other stratigraphic tools fail, such as
at high latitudes or in carbonate platforms (e.g. Ohde and El-
dereld, 1992). The method relies on matching the 87 Sr/86 Sr
value of a sample to a standard curve of the 87 Sr/86 Sr of the
oceans through time. Where the rate of change with time of
87
Sr/86 Sr is high, e.g. around 0.000 050 per myr from latest
Eocene to middle Miocene times, the method has a resolu-
tion in dating as low as 0.1 myr. At times of lower rates of
change (<15 Ma), the resolution is poorer, typically around
0.51 myr. The large increase in seawater Sr isotope compo-
sition since the late Eocene, which is presumably related to
increased chemical weathering due to mountain building of, in
particular, the Himalayas and Tibetan plateau (Raymo et al.,
1988), ensures relative high resolution of the method in the
Neogene. The Neogene calibration curve (Fig. 21.3) is based
on the works of John Farrell, Ken Miller, Dave Hodell, and co-
workers (see Chapter 7 for a full reference list and discussion
of methodology).
21.2.5 Climate change and Milankovitch cycles
OX YG E N I S O T O P E S ( 18 O )
Stable isotopes, in particular those of oxygen, are extensively
used in the Neogene to improve our understanding of paleo-
ceanographic and paleoclimate change. In addition to unlock-
ing past changes in the state of the oceanclimate system, stable
isotopes prove to be extremely useful for global chronostrati-
graphic correlations on different time scales and for construct-
ing astronomical time scales.
The global deep-sea oxygen ( 18 O) and carbon ( 13 C) iso-
tope records reveal major changes in the oceanclimate system
during the Neogene (Zachos et al., 2001b; see Fig. 21.3). The
the re-establishment of a major Antarctic ice cap. This decreas-
ing trend is followed by an interval marked by relatively stable
18 O values, albeit a step toward lighter 18 O values is recog-
Warmer <> Cooler
nized around 5.6 Ma. The nal major step toward distinctly
heavier values starts around 3 Ma, reecting the nal build-up
of a major northern hemisphere ice cap.
Miller et al. (1991) recognized a number of Oligocene
(Oi13) and Miocene (Mi17) benthic foraminiferal 18 O in-
creases that were synchronous within the resolution of the
applied magnetobiostratigraphic framework. These events
occur superimposed on the general long-term trend described
above and may reect brief periods of enhanced Antarctic
glaciation. Attempts have been made to link the events to third-
order stratigraphic sequences on the New Jersey continental
shelf (Miller et al., 1996) and recent studies suggest that they
are related to the long-period 1.2 myr obliquity cycle (Lourens
and Hilgen, 1997; Turco et al., 2001; Zachos et al., 2001a),
thus rendering support to the notion that third-order sequence
boundaries might have a chronostratigraphic signicance after
all.
High-frequency Milankovitch variations in 18 O occur su-
perimposed on the above described long-term trends and vari-
ations throughout the Neogene. These variations mainly re-
ect astronomically controlled glacial cyclicity and serve as a
powerful tool for high-resolution chronostratigraphic corre-
lations. They are especially prominent from 2.8 Ma onward,
but similar variations albeit of a lesser amplitude have been
found throughout the entire Neogene. The labeling of indi-
vidual maxima (glacials, even numbers) and minima (inter-
glacials, odd numbers) as standard stages in late Pleistocene
18 O records started with the pioneering study of Emiliani
(1955) and has subsequently been extended to 3.0 Ma (e.g. Im-
brie et al., 1984; Raymo et al., 1989) and beyond. These stages
are now commonly referred to as marine isotope stages (MIS).
Alternatively, Shackleton et al. (1995a) proposed a codication
scheme for prominent and partly older 18 O maxima where
(downward) numbering is re-initialized at each magnetic po-
larity chron and subchron (see also Tiedemann et al., 1994).
This nomenclature has been extended to 7 Ma (Hodell et al.,
1994).
Similar high-frequency Milankovitch variations have been
revealed in the older part of the Neogene (Zachos et al., 2001b)
428 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
Figure 21.4 Comparison between the oxygen isotope chronologies
of astronomically tuned marine sequences from the Mediterranean,
western equatorial Atlantic, and eastern equatorial Pacic during the
Pleistocene. The Mediterranean 18 O stacked record of the
planktonic foraminiferal species Globigerinoides ruber is based on
data from ODP Site 967 (Lourens, unpublished data),
MD69-KC01B (Rossignol-Strick et al., 1998), MD84641 (Fontugne
and Calvert, 1992), Vrica (Lourens et al., 1996a,b), and Singa
(Lourens et al., 1992, 1996a). The age model is based on sapropel
tuning to the summer insolation target curve at 65 N, using a 3-kyr
and it can be anticipated that the standard oxygen isotope
stratigraphy will be extended further downward to cover the
entire Neogene in the future. Figs. 21.4 and 21.5 are a com-
parison of Pliocene and Pleistocene isotope stratigraphies of
oceanic sequences from the eastern equatorial Pacic (Shack-
leton et al., 1990, 1995a; Mix et al., 1995a,b), western equatorial
time lag between maximum insolation and the correlative sapropel
midpoint (upper panel). The western equatorial Atlantic and eastern
equatorial Pacic benthic 18 O stacked records are based on data
from ODP Sites 925, 927 (Bickert et al., 1997a), and 929 (Bickert
et al., 1997a; DeMenocal et al., 1997), and ODP Sites 846 and 849
(Mix et al., 1995a,b), respectively. We refrained from re-tuning the
isotope records to the La2003 solution, because differences with
previously adopted solutions are negligible. Magnetostratigraphy
and calcareous nannofossil ages are obtained from Tables A2.1 and
A2.2 in Appendix, respectively, and references therein.
Atlantic (Bickert et al., 1997a; Billups et al., 1997; DeMeno-
cal et al., 1997; Franz and Tiedemann, 1997; Shackleton and
Hall, 1997; Tiedemann and Franz, 1997) and Mediterranean
(Lourens et al., 1996a, unpublished data; Kroon et al., 1998: re-
tuned data from Fontugne and Calvert, 1992; Rossignol-Strick
et al., 1998; Rossignol-Strick and Paterne, 1999).

C A R B O N I S O T O P E S ( 13 C )
The onset of the Neogene falls within a distinct 13 C maxi-
mum which is followed by an interval with markedly lighter
values before the next prominent maximum is reached between
16 and 14.5 Ma (Fig. 21.3). This maximum corresponds to
the Monterey event (Flower and Kennett, 1994) and coincides
approximately with the mid-Miocene climatic optimum. The
carbon isotope maximum is followed by a step-wise decrease
in 13 C which is probably due to the expansion of C4 plants.
The major second step toward lighter 13 C values is termed the
late Miocene carbon shift (Keigwin and Shackleton, 1980) and
corresponds with a time equivalent opposite shift to heavier
values in the continental record (Cerling et al., 1997).
Superimposed on the general long-term trend outlined
above, Woodruff and Savin (1991) distinguished seven carbon
isotope maxima during the middle Miocene (CM17) with a
potential for global correlations in the marine record. Strong
covariance between the oxygen and carbon isotopic compo-
sition associated with Milankovitch cycles occurs through-
out the Neogene and has been attributed to effects of climate
change on oceanatmosphere circulation, ocean productivity,
and organic-carbon burial (i.e. Raymo et al., 1989; Flower and
Kennett, 1994; Fontugne and Calvert, 1992; Zachos et al.,
2001a).
S E D I M E N TA RY C YC L E S
Apart from cyclic variations in 18 O (as well as in other geo-
chemical and faunal/oral parameters) the visual expression
of Milankovitch variability as sedimentary (color) cycles has
similarly been used for high-resolution correlations and astro-
nomical calibration of the stratigraphic record. For instance,
the PliocenePleistocene isotope stages mentioned above are
clearly discernable in northern Atlantic DSDP/ODP cores as
color cycles, the glacials being dark colored due to the admix-
ture of marine carbonate with ice-rafted debris.
In particular, marine sapropels and carbonate cycles in the
Mediterranean have been used for high-resolution correla-
tions (Figs. 21.4 and 21.5) and to construct astronomical time
scales for the last 14 myr by tuning them to astronomically de-
rived target curves (i.e. Hilgen, 1991a,b; Lourens et al., 1996a;
Hilgen et al., 2000c). Although initially limited to the ma-
rine record of the Mediterranean, a similar approach is equally
feasible for cyclic continental successions as demonstrated by
Williams et al. (1997) and Prokopenko et al. (2001) for Lake
Baikal and Abdul Aziz et al. (2003) for Orera (Spain), allowing
marinecontinental correlations with an unprecedented reso-
lution. The same approach has been applied to cycles in the
The Neogene Period 429
Chinese loess; these cycles have been astronomically tuned and
correlated in detail to the standard marine isotope stratigraphy
(Heslop et al., 2000). Similar correlations and tuning have fur-
ther been established for both marine and river terraces (Veld-
kamp and van den Berg, 1993), as well as for stratigraphic
sequences deposited in shelf settings (Naish et al., 1998; see
also Section 21.2.3).
DA N S G A A R D O E S C H E R C YC L E S A N D H E I N R I C H
EVENTS
The oxygen isotope records of the ice cores demonstrate that
a series of rapid warmcold oscillations, called Dansgaard
Oeschger events, punctuated the last glaciation with an average
periodicity of 2 kyr (Oeschger et al., 1984; Dansgaard et al.,
1993). Subsequent analyses of sea surface temperature proxy
records from North Atlantic sediment cores also revealed a
series of rapid temperature oscillations which closely match
those in the ice cores (Bond et al., 1993). These events are
bundled into cooling cycles, so-called Bond cycles, lasting on
average 510 kyr, with asymmetrical saw-tooth shapes. Each
cycle culminated in massive iceberg discharge into the North
Atlantic, known as Heinrich events (Heinrich, 1988; Broecker
et al., 1992), followed by an abrupt shift to a warmer climate.
Short-term climatic events correlative with Dansgaard
Oeschger and Heinrich events are increasingly detected in
deep-sea, lake, and continental records on an almost global scale
(Grimm et al., 1993; Lowell et al., 1995; Porter and Zhisheng,
1995; Thompson et al., 1995; Behl and Kennett, 1996; Sirocko
et al., 1996; Chen et al., 1997; Schulz et al., 1998; Cacho et al.,
1999; Peterson et al., 2000), and there is growing evidence that
climate uctuations on sub-orbital time scales are not restricted
to the late Pleistocene glacial period, but that they also occur
in older geological periods (e.g. Raymo et al., 1998; Steen-
brink et al., 2003). The Heinrich events fall well within the
range of the sub-Milankovitch band. Although the expression
of these events is most clearly in the North Atlantic region, the
ultimate cause of the climate change in this frequency band
may come from a non-linear response of the climate system
at low latitudes to Milankovitch forcing (Pestiaux et al., 1988;
Short et al., 1991; Crowley et al., 1992; Hagelberg et al., 1994).
DansgaardOeschger events occur at the high-frequency end
of the sub-Milankovitch band and are therefore more difcult
to explain in terms of a non-linear response to Milankovitch
forcing.
The origin of these short-term events is still puzzling. Pro-
posed (competing) mechanisms invoke variations in solar activ-
ity (e.g. Stuiver et al., 1991; Magny, 1993), dustiness (Overpeck
430 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

et al., 1996), internal oscillations in ice-sheet dynamics and sta-
bility (binge/purge model of Alley and MacAyeal, 1994), com-
bination tones of primary orbital frequencies (McIntyre and
Molno, 1996) and variations in the atmospheres green-house
gas content and in the production rate of North Atlantic Deep
Water (NADW) formation (Broecker, 1994).
Although the DansgaardOeschger and Heinrich events
are most clearly expressed in the less-stable glacial period,
similar variations of lesser amplitude do occur in the post-
glacial Holocene (OBrien et al., 1995; Alley et al., 1997; Bond
et al., 1999) and Eemian period (Cortijo et al., 1994; Keigwin
et al., 1994; McManus et al., 1994). As a consequence, stud-
ies of the Holocene (preferably of varved records to guarantee
maximum age control) and of the Eemian, as a natural analog
of the Holocene, are becoming increasingly important. Part of
the research now focuses on the post-glacial Holocene with
the aim of corroborating potential links of climate variability
in the millennialdecadal frequency band with, among others,
uctuations in solar activity as reected in the 14 C record of
tree rings (Stuiver and Reimer, 1993), terrestrial dust increases
of Greenland ice (OBrien et al., 1995), and monsoonal driven
changes in rainfall in Oman reected in stalagmite oxygen iso-
tope records (Neff et al., 2001).
2 1 . 3 T OWA R D A N A S T RO N O M I C A L LY
T U N E D N E O G E N E T I M E S C A L E ( AT N T S )
21.3.1 Introduction
From the 1970s until 1994, Neogene time scales were con-
structed using a limited number of radioisotopic age calibra-
tion points in geomagnetic polarity sequences that were pri-
marily derived from a seaoor anomaly prole in the South
Atlantic, modied after Heirtzler et al. (1968). Biozonations
and stage boundaries were subsequently tied to the resulting
GPTS, preferably via magnetobiostratigraphic calibrations
(Berggren et al., 1985c). Alternatively, radioisotopic age deter-
minations from both sides of stage boundaries were used to
calculate a best-t radioisotopic age estimate for these bound-
aries in a statistical way (chronogram method of Harland et al.,
1982, 1990; see Chapter 8).
The standard method to construct time scales changed
drastically with the advent of the astronomical dating method
to the pre-late Pleistocene. This method relies on the calibra-
tion, or tuning, of sedimentary cycles or cyclic variations in
climate proxy records to target curves derived from astronom-
ical solutions for the solarplanetary and EarthMoon systems
(for details see Chapter 4). Quasi-periodic perturbations in the
shape of the Earths orbit and the tilt of the inclination axis are
caused by gravitational interactions of our planet with the Sun,
the Moon, and the other planets of our Solar System. These
interactions give rise to cyclic changes in the eccentricity of
the Earths orbit, with main periods of 100 000 and 413 000
years, and in the tilt (obliquity) and precession of the Earths
axis, with main periods of 41 000, and 21 000 years, respectively
(Berger, 1977a). These perturbations in the Earths orbit and
rotation axis are climatically important because they affect the
global, seasonal, and latitudinal distribution of the incoming
solar insolation. Orbital forced climate oscillations are recorded
in sedimentary archives through changes in sediment proper-
ties, fossil communities, chemical and isotopic characteristics.
While Earth scientists can read these archives to reconstruct
paleoclimate, astronomers have formulated models based on
the mechanics of the solarplanetary system and the Earth
Moon system to compute the past variations in precession,
obliquity, and eccentricity of the Earths orbit and rotation
axis. As a logical next step, sedimentary archives can be dated
by matching patterns of paleoclimate variability with patterns
of varying solar energy input computed from the astronomical
model solutions. This astronomical tuning of the sedimentary

Figure 21.5 Comparison between the oxygen isotope chronologies of astronomically tuned marine sequences from the Mediterranean, western
equatorial Atlantic, and eastern equatorial Pacic during the Pliocene. The Mediterranean 18 O stacked record of the planktonic foraminiferal
species Globigerinoides ruber is based on data from Vrica, Singa, and Rossello (Lourens et al., 1992, 1996a,b). The age model is based on sapropel
and carbonate cycle tuning to the summer insolation target curve at 65 N, using a 3-kyr time lag between maximum insolation and the
correlative sapropel or gray-layer midpoint (left panel). The western equatorial Atlantic and eastern equatorial Pacic benthic 18 O stacked
records are based on data from ODP Sites 925 (Bickert et al., 1997a; Billups et al., 1997; Tiedemann and Franz, 1997), 926 (Shackleton and
Hall, 1997; Tiedemann and Franz, 1997), 927 (Bickert et al., 1997a), 928 (Franz and Tiedemann, 1997), and 929 (Bickert et al., 1997a; Billups
et al., 1997; DeMenocal et al., 1997), and ODP Sites 846 and 849 (Mix et al., 1995a,b; Shackleton et al., 1995b), respectively. We refrained from
re-tuning the isotope records of the Mediterranean and western equatorial Pacic to the La2003 solution, because differences with the
previously adopted La93 solution are very small (12 kyr). Plotted are the original tuned records of ODP Sites 846 and 849 to the Ber90
solution, which still need to be re-tuned to the La2003 solution (work in progress). Magnetostratigraphy and calcareous nannofossil ages are
obtained from Table A2.1 and Shackleton et al. (1995a), and from Table A2.2, respectively, and references therein.
The Neogene Period 431
432 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
record results in time scales based on measurable physical pa-
rameters that are independent from those underlying radioiso-
topic dating and that are tied to the Recent through a direct
match with astronomical curves.
Astronomical tuning was rst applied in the late Pleistocene
in order to build a common high-resolution time scale for the
study of orbital induced glacial cyclicity. Initial attempts to
extend this time scale back in time were unsuccessful due to
lack of resolution or incompleteness of the sedimentary suc-
cession. These problems were overcome with the advent of
the advanced piston corer (APC) technique in ocean drilling
and the drilling of multiple offset holes per site. Combined,
these innovations were used to construct spliced composite
sections in order to recover undisturbed and complete succes-
sions marked by high sedimentation rates. Soon afterwards, the
astronomical time scale was extended to the base of the Pliocene
based on ODP sites (Shackleton et al., 1990) and land-based
sections in the Mediterranean (Hilgen, 1991a,b), the study of
the latter providing another means to overcome the problem
of incompleteness of the stratigraphic record.
Acknowledging the break with tradition, Cande and Kent
(1992a) incorporated an astronomically dated calibration
point, the GaussMatuyama boundary at 2.60 Ma, to con-
struct their geomagnetic polarity time scale (GPTS) by tting
a cubic-spline function tted to a total of nine age calibration
anomaly distance tie points. Soon afterwards a revised GPTS
(Cande and Kent, 1995) was generated with 65 Ma for the K
P boundary instead of 66 Ma and using the astronomical
age of 5.23 Ma for the base of polarity Chron C3n.4n; ages
for reversals younger than C3n.4n were set equal to the as-
trochronology of Shackleton et al. (1990) and Hilgen (1991a,b).
The continuous chronology provided by the astronomical time
scale implies that it is no longer necessary to interpolate be-
tween a few discrete tie points to construct a GPTS; instead,
ages of reversals in the interval with an astrochronology sim-
ply become equivalent to the astrochronological values, thereby
avoiding the promulgation of separate time scales (Berggren
et al., 1995a). Berggren et al. (1995b) subsequently used CK95
as the backbone to construct their revised Cenozoic time
scale.
Another advantage of astrochronology is that most mag-
netic reversals and numerous calcareous plankton biohorizons
are directly tied to this time scale via rst-order calibrations.
An additional advantage of the Mediterranean is that all cur-
rently dened GSSPs of Neogene stages, apart from the Aqui-
tanian GSSP, are designated in the Mediterranean (or directly
outside) in marine successions that have been astronomically
dated.
But incorporating PliocenePleistocene astrochronology
also resulted in a kind of hybrid time scale with the younger part
being based on astronomical tuning and the older pre-Pliocene
part of a cubic-spline tting function through a limited number
of age calibration points in the CK92 geomagnetic polarity se-
quence. The hybrid character is problematical because Kuiper
(2003) clearly demonstrates a consistent discrepancy in the
order of 0.8% between 40 Ar/39 Ar and astronomical ages de-
spite earlier claims of mutual consistency. As a consequence,
we decided to build the present Neogene time scale as much
as possible on astronomical calibrations, this despite the fact
that the tuning has not always been independently veried and
magnetostratigraphic records are still lacking for the early and
middle Miocene. We think that this is the only acceptable way
to proceed in view of a strong tendency to incorporate increas-
ingly older parts of the astrochronologic framework into the
standard geological time scale. But rst, we will briey review
new results which have appeared in the literature since the
publication of the previous standard time scale.
21.3.2 New data
The astronomical time scale (ATS) for the Pliocene
Pleistocene has been veried and slightly modied (Lourens
et al., 1996a) since the publication of the previous standard
time scale in 1995, by adopting the La9093 (Laskar, 1990;
Laskar et al., 1993) astronomical solution instead of the Ber90
solution (Laskar, 1990; Berger and Loutre, 1991). A detailed
comparison revealed that the best t with the geological data
was obtained if the La93 solution with present-day values for
the dynamical ellipticity of the Earth and the tidal dissipation
by the Moon, denoted La93(1,1) , was used. This solution was
subsequently employed to extend the marine-based ATS back
to 13.6 Ma (Hilgen et al., 1995; 2000c). An initial gap between
6.8 and 5.33 Ma has been closed by establishing an astronomical
tuning for pre-evaporite and evaporite cycles of the Mediter-
ranean Messinian which reect the sedimentary expression of
the salinity crisis (Krijgsman et al., 1999; Sierro et al., 2001).
Good magnetostratigraphic records from the Mediterranean
marine record are presently obtained back to 10 Ma.
The tuning approach was successfully applied to the con-
tinental record and astronomical time scales have been estab-
lished for Pliocene lignite-bearing successions in Greece (Van
Vugt et al., 1998) and Miocene lacustrine limestone contain-
ing successions in Spain (Abdul Aziz et al., 2003). The Span-
ish record allowed the determination of astronomical ages for
polarity reversals older than 10 Ma, thereby extending the
Mediterranean-based ATS to 13 Ma.

Simultaneously, Shackleton and Crowhurst (1997) devel-
oped an astronomical time scale for the interval between 5 and
14 Ma based on ODP Leg 154 Site 926 located in the equa-
torial Atlantic. This ODP Leg 154 time scale was extended
to 34 Ma by Shackleton et al. (1999) and used to constrain
the tidal dissipation and dynamic ellipticity parameters of the
Earth over the last 25 myr (Palike and Shackleton, 2000). The
older part of this time scale includes the admittedly problem-
atic interval between 14 and 18 Ma. Unfortunately, a reliable
magnetostratigraphic record is lacking for the ODP Leg 154
sites, but detailed calcareous nannofossil event correlations to
DSDP Site 522 having a reliable magnetostratigraphy showed
that astronomical ages for the OligoceneMiocene boundary
interval are approximately 900 kyr younger than in most recent
geological time scales (e.g. Berggren et al., 1995b).
21.3.3 The La2003 solution
The orbital solutions La9093 (Laskar, 1990; Laskar et al.,
1993) were obtained by a numerical integration of the aver-
aged equations of the Solar System, including the main general
relativity and lunar perturbations. The averaging process was
performed using dedicated computer algebra routines. The re-
sulting equations were huge, with about 150 000 polynomial
terms, but as the short-period terms were no longer present,
these equations could be integrated with a step size of 200500
years, allowing very extensive long-term orbital computations
for the Solar System.
Although solutions for the averaged equations could be
improved by some new adjustments of the initial conditions
and parameters, it appears that because of the improvement in
computer technology, it is now possible to obtain more precise
results over a few tens of millions of years using a more direct
numerical integration of the gravitational equations, and this
is how the new solution La2003 was obtained (Laskar et al.,
2003). In order to minimize the accumulation of rounding er-
ror, the numerical integration was performed with the new
symplectic integrator scheme SABA4 of Laskar and Robutel
(2001), with a correction step for the integration of the Moon.
This integrator is particularly adapted to perturbed systems
where the equations of motion can be written as the sum of
an integrable part (the Keplerian equations of the planets or-
biting the Sun) and a small perturbation potential (here the
small parameter is of the order of the planetary masses).
The error of method in the integration is then of the order of
O ( 8 ) + O ( 2 2 ), and even O ( 8 ) + O ( 4 2 ) when a cor- that the obliquity cycles of the two solutions become nearly
rection step is added. The step size used in the integration was
= 1.826 25 days. The relative energy error over 50 million
The Neogene Period 433
years is then less than 2 1010 , and behaves as a random walk,
testifying the absence of systematic error. The angular momen-
tum is conserved with a relative error of less than 1010 . The
initial conditions of the integration were least-square adjusted
to the JPL ephemeris DE406, and compared with DE406 over
the full range of DE406, i.e. from 5000 to +1000 years from
the present date (Standish, 1998). The maximum differences
in the position of the EarthMoon barycenter is less than 0.09
arcsec in longitude over the whole interval, and the difference
in eccentricity is less than 108 . The variation in the longitude
of the Moon is more important, as the dissipative models that
are used in the two integrations are slightly different. They
amount to 240 arcsec after 5000 years and to an eccentricity
difference of 2 105 , but it should be noted that the pertur-
bations due to orbital evolution of the Moon on the precession
and obliquity of the Earth are very small.
The orbital model differs from La93, as it now includes all
nine planets of the Solar System, including Pluto. The general
relativity perturbation of the Sun is included. The Moon is
treated as a separate object. The EarthMoon system takes into
account the most important coefcient (J2 ) in the gravitational
potential of the Earth and the Moon, and the tidal dissipation
of the EarthMoon system, as well as the inuence of the
precession of the Earth axis on the lunar orbit. The evolution of
the EarthMoon system and rotation of the Earth are treated in
a comprehensive and coherent way, following the lines of Neron
de Surgy and Laskar (1996) and Correia et al. (submitted).
The climate friction effect, due to the change of momentum
of inertia of the Earth arising from the change of ice load on
the polar caps during ice ages has been estimated (Levrard and
Laskar, 2003), but neglected as it was found to be too small and
too uncertain to be taken into account.
Over 20 millions years, the two orbital solutions La93 and
La2003 do not differ signicantly. The difference increases
regularly with time, amounting to about 0.02 in the eccen-
tricity after 20 myr, about one-third of the total amplitude
0.063, while the difference in the orbital inclination reaches
1 , to compare to a maximum variation of 4.3 . This differ-
ence results mostly from a small difference in the main secular
frequency g 6 from Jupiter and Saturn that is now 28.2450
arcsec/year instead of 28.2207 arcsec/year in the previous so-
lution. Beyond 20 million years, the differences between the
two solutions become more noticeable (these differences are
described in more detail in Laskar et al., 2003). The difference
in obliquity over 20 myr amounts to about 2 , which means
out of phase after this date. It should be noted that most of the
differences between the La93 and La2003 obliquity solutions
434 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
result from the change in the dissipative model of the Earth
Moon system, while the single change of the orbital solution
would lead to a change of only 0.6 after 20 myr.
We performed several numerical integrations of the whole
system with some small variations in the initial conditions or
model. In particular, we integrated two different models, one
with the present accepted value for the attening of the Sun
(J2S = 2 107 ) and one without this effect (J2S = 0). The
two solutions differ by less than 0.0036 for the eccentricity of
the Earth after 30 myr and 0.015 after 40 myr. We can thus con-
sider that the most recent solution, La2003, can be used with
condence over 3040 million years. As in the previous solu-
tion La93, we expect that the orbital part of the La2003 solution
is more accurate than the precession and obliquity solutions,
as some uncertainty remains in the dissipative evolution of the
EarthMoon system.
21.3.4 ATNTS2004
To construct the Neogene time scale, we used the Pliocene
Pleistocene astronomical time scales of Lourens et al. (1996a),
Bickert et al. (1997a), Tiedemann and Franz (1997), and Horng
et al. (2002), and the Miocene astronomical time scales of
Shackleton and Crowhurst (1997), Shackleton et al. (1999),
Krijgsman et al. (1999), and Hilgen et al. (1995; 2000ac; in
press) as the starting point. Additional information about the
ages of late Neogene reversal boundaries was obtained from the
astronomical tuning of Miocene continental successions with
a reliable magnetostratigraphy (Abdul Aziz et al., 2003). The
La9093(1,1) solution with present-day values for dynamical
ellipticity and tidal dissipation was used in all the papers men-
tioned above. For this chapter, the successions were retuned to
the new solution La2003(1,1,0) , again with present-day values
for dynamical ellipticity and tidal dissipation, and no climate
friction. As anticipated, the retuning resulted in almost negli-
gible changes in the ages of sedimentary and geochemical (iso-
topes, susceptibility, color, etc.) cycles and thus of the bioevents
and magnetic reversals over the last 13 myr (Table A2.1 in Ap-
pendix). In the following discussion, (o) and (y) indicate
the beginning or ending, respectively, of a polarity chron.
An extra complication in constructing the present time
scale for the entire Neogene is the lack of reliable magne-
tostratigraphic records for ODP Leg 154 sites, resulting in
the lack of direct astronomical ages for reversal boundaries
in the interval older than 13 Ma. Detailed nannofossil corre-
lations to DSDP Site 522 with a reliable and well-calibrated
magnetostratigraphy resulted in an age of 23.03 Ma for polar-
ity Chron C6Cn.2n(o) and the OligoceneMiocene boundary
(Shackleton et al., 2000; retuned to La2003). Detailed cy-
clostratigraphic correlations between Ceara Rise and DSDP
Sites 521 and 521A in the southern Atlantic corroborated by
biostratigraphic evidence further resulted in indirect astro-
nomical ages of 15.160 and 15.974 Ma for polarity Chron
C5Bn.2n(o) and polarity Chron C5Cn.1n(y), respectively
(Shackleton et al., 2001).
For the time intervals lacking orbitally dated magne-
tostratigraphic records, marine magnetic anomaly proles re-
main the most useful data for establishing a high-precision
polarity time scale. Experience gained by inspecting spreading
rates for the astronomically calibrated parts of the time scale
(Wilson, 1993; Krijgsman et al., 1999; Abdul Aziz et al., 2003)
shows several useful renements that have been developed for
time scale calibration. First, noise introduced by asymmetric
spreading can be nearly completely avoided by measuring total
spreading distance by solving for plate rotations, and determin-
ing incremental distances by subtracting total distances (Wil-
son, 1993). Also, the assumption that spreading rates should
change smoothly and continuously, a key aspect of Cande and
Kents calibration, is not supported by independent calibra-
tions. Instead, rates are constant for periods of several million
years, but then can experience abrupt changes. Since 13 Ma, the
plate pair with the most constant motion has been Australia
Antarctica, with rates on a owline at 98 E only varying from
65 to 69 mm/yr.
We have chosen to use the AustraliaAntarctic spreading
distances to close the gaps in the Miocene time scale cali-
bration. Since this plate pair accelerated to an intermediate-
spreading rate at about Chron C18 (Royer and Sandwell,
1989), only minor plate motion changes can be detected dur-
ing Chrons C12r and C3An (Wilson, in prep.). A spreading
rate of 67.7 mm/yr gives a good t to the ages for polarity
Chrons C5n.2n(o)C5Ar.2n(o) from Abdul Aziz et al. (2003)
and Chrons C5Bn.2n(base) and C5Cn.1n(top) from Shackle-
ton et al. (2001). Extrapolating this rate to the beginning of
the Neogene predicts an age of 23.18 Ma for polarity Chron
C6Cn.2n(o). To match the age of 23.03 Ma, we introduce a
minor rate change at polarity Chron C5En(o) (18.52 Ma), with
a rate of 69.9 mm/yr prior to the change. The resultant ages for
the reversal boundaries are added to the list of astronomically
dated reversals to complete the dating of all (sub)chrons of the
last 23 myr.
21.3.5 The age of the PaleogeneNeogene boundary
The astronomically derived age of the OligoceneMiocene
(PaleogeneNeogene) boundary of 23.03 Ma (Shackleton et al.,

2000; retuned to La2003 this chapter) in the CarrosioLemme
section in northern Italy (Steininger et al., 1997a,b) proved
to be signicantly different from that adopted in most recent
Neogene time scales (e.g. Harland et al., 1990; Berggren et al.,
1995b). Harland et al. (1990) used the chronogram method
to arrive at an admittedly weakly constrained age estimate of
23.8 1.0 Ma for the boundary placed at the base of polarity
Chron C6Cn.2n. This age was based on 5 KAr ages from
the Aquitanian and 19 KAr ages and one RbSr age from
the Chattian. Based on their Table 2, they were trying to sat-
isfy an age for the boundary older than 22.00 0.30, 22.50
0.17, 22.60 0.60, and 25.97 0.58 Ma, and younger than
22.00 0.55, 23.05 1.14, 23.80 0.27, and 26.20 0.50 is that they are dened in astronomically tuned sequences in
Ma (to list the youngest 4 out of 20 Chattian ages). Evidently,
the age of 25.97 Ma should be considered an outlier since it
is at nearly 4-sigma off the best t. Discarding this one point
would result in a best t of around 22.422.6 Ma, or 22.8
23.2 Ma, with a decay-constant fudge of about 2%. Using
current standards, the age of 23.8 Ma is unacceptable because
it is derived from a suite of radiometric age determinations
that are based on different and partly less-suitable minerals or
even whole-rock samples (Harland et al., 1990). Nevertheless
it was incorporated in CK92 and CK95 as one of their age tie
points.
Naish et al. (2001) and Wilson et al. (2002) argued in favor
of the older option for the boundary age of 24.0 0.1 Ma in
their integrated stratigraphic study, including single-crystal
40
Ar/39 Ar age determinations of anorthoclase phenocrysts
from two tephra horizons, in marine successions off Antarctica.
The actual discrepancy may even increase to approximately
1.15 myr if an offset of 0.8% between 40 Ar/39 Ar and astro-
nomical ages is taken into account. Wilson et al. (2002) contend
that the discrepancy with the astronomically calibrated ages
arises from a mismatch of three 406-kyr eccentricity cycles or
a 1.2 million year modulation of obliquity amplitude in the
astronomical calibration of the OligoceneMiocene time scale
of Shackleton et al. (2000). This alternative view, however, is
difcult to accept for two reasons:
1. Re-tuning of ODP Leg 154 data to La2003 not only shows
a very at phase response at the 1.2 and 170 kyr periods
that modulate obliquity, but also displays a clear relation-
ship with the 2.4 myr component of eccentricity. This
nding precludes moving the boundary age by 1.2 myr as
suggested by Wilson et al. (2002).
2. Astronomical calibrations of sediments including a re-
liable magnetostratigraphy from ODP Site 1090 (K.
Billups, pers. comm.) and ODP Sites 1218 and 1219
The Neogene Period 435
(H. Palike, pers. comm.) by using stable isotope measure-
ments (Billups et al., 2002, and additional unpublished
data) and multisensor track data (i.e. magnetic suscepti-
bility), respectively, conrm the astronomical tuning of a
large portion of the Early Miocene and latest Oligocene.
21.3.6 Incorporation of global chronostratigraphic
boundaries
Incorporation of the basic chronostratigraphic units (stages)
and their boundaries in the new time scale is straightforward
as far as they have been formally dened. The reason for this
the Mediterranean that have been used to build the time scale.
Pliocene stage boundaries are, without exception, dened along
the south coast of Sicily, Italy. They include the Gelasian, Pi-
acenzian, and Zancleans GSSPs, which have been pinpointed
in the San Nicola, Punta Piccola, and Eraclea Minoa sections
and have re-tuned astrochronologic ages of 2.588, 3.600, and
5.332 Ma, respectively (Lourens et al., 1996a; Castradori et al.,
1998; Rio et al., 1998; Van Couvering et al., 2000). The Era-
clea Minoa section at 5.332 Ma marks the MiocenePliocene
boundary. The PliocenePleistocene boundary is formally des-
ignated at the base of the claystone overlying sapropel e in the
Vrica section with an astronomical age of 1.806 Ma (Aguirre
and Pasini, 1985; Lourens et al., 1996a). Note that all men-
tioned ages are according to ATNTS 2004.
The GSSP of the youngest stage of the Miocene, the
Messinian, has been formally dened in the Oued Akrech sec-
tion located on the Atlantic side of Morocco, just outside the
Mediterranean. The boundary is astronomically dated at 7.246
Ma (Hilgen et al., 2000a,b) and tied via integrated stratigraphy
to the Mediterranean type sections. The Tortonian GSSP at a
level close to the CO of Discoaster kugleri in the tuned section of
Monte dei Corvi in northern Italy (Hilgen et al., 2002) was rat-
ied by IUGS in 2003. A proposal for the Serravallian GSSP is
anticipated mid 2004. However, it is expected that the remain-
ing stage boundaries (Langhian and Burdigalian GSSPs) will
take somewhat longer to dene because suitable candidate sec-
tions in the Mediterranean that have been tuned are currently
lacking.
21.3.7 Incorporation of zonal schemes
The standard low-latitude calcareous plankton zonal schemes
are directly tied to the new time scale via biostratigraphic data
obtained from the same sequences that have been used to con-
struct the new time scale (Figs. 21.1 and 21.6; Tables A2.2 and
436 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S

PLIOCENEPLEISTOCENE TIME SCALE

POLARITY
CALCAREOUS NANNOPLANKTON PLANKTONIC FORAMINIFERA
Time (Ma)

PERIOD
CHRON

EPOCH

T STAGE
Mediterranean Atlantic Pacific Mediterranean Atlantic Pacific
eastern western equatorial eastern equatorial eastern western equatorial eastern equatorial

L
MNN21 a NN21 CN15 NN21 CN15 c
Pt1b
NN20 b NN20 b
MIDDLE
C1n MNN20
0.5 IONIAN MPL8 b
PLEISTOCENE

CN14

CN14
f a a a
1 r Pt1 N22
1.0 n
e
CALABRIAN

MNN19 NN19 bD NN19 bD Pt1a

EARLY

C1r
bC bC MPL7

CN13

CN13
2r d
1.5 bB bB
c
bA bA
b a a
C2n a
MPL6 b
GELASIAN

2.0 1 r a
LATE

NN18 d Pl6
n MNN18 b
C2r NN17/18 c/d
2r c
NN17 N18/22
2.5
Pl5/6

NN20/21
MNN17 b b MPL5
Pl5
CN12

1
CN12
a
PIACENZIAN
MIDDLE
NEOGENE

3.0 C2An NN16 Pl4

r
PLIOCENE

aB
2 n NN16
aB
r MNN16
b
3.5 3n MPL4 Pl3
Pl4
aA
aA a
C2Ar
4.0 MNN14/15 NN14/15 b
CN11

MPL3 Pl2
ZANCLEAN

n
EARLY

1 NN13/15 CN10c/11 a
r
4.5

M14/Pl3
n MNN13
2 NN13
C3n r N19
n c MPL2
3 r
CN10

5.0 Pl1
4n
b b MPL1
CN10

NN12 NN12
MNN12 a a
5.5
MESSINIAN
MIOCENE

C3r N18
LATE

bC MMi13c
M13b/14

CN9
CN9

NN11b NN11b M13b N17

6.0 N17
C3An n MNN11 bB
1
(a)
Figure 21.6 Correlation of planktonic foraminifer and calcareous A2.3 in Appendix and references therein. (a) The Pliocene and
nannoplankton zonal schemes for the Mediterranean, Atlantic, and Pleistocene. (b) The MiddleLate Miocene.
Pacic. Astronomically tuned ages are based on Tables A2.1 through

A2.3 in Appendix). Sample resolution is still low in the older plankton zonations in the Mediterranean back to almost 14 Ma
part of the Miocene at Ceara Rise but we refrain from us- and for the eastern equatorial Pacic ODP Sites 677, 846, and
ing biostratigraphic information from other cores because we 849 over the past 6.0 myr (Table A2.2).
value direct rst-order calibrations to the astronomical time We have used revised astronomical ages for the plank-
scale. First-order calibrations also exist for regional calcareous tonic foraminiferal bioevents (Table A2.3) used in the middle
 The Neogene Period 437

MIDDLELATE MIOCENE TIME SCALE

CALCAREOUS NANNOPLANKTON PLANKTONIC FORAMINIFERA

POLARITY
Time (Ma)

PERIOD
CHRON

EPOCH
Mediterranean Atlantic Mediterranean Atlantic

STAGE
western
eastern western equatoriai eastern equatorial
c MPL2

EARLY

ZANC-
CENE
PLIO-
C3n 4n

LEAN
NN13 b MPL1

CN10
N19
NN12 Pl1
MNN12 a
5.5
C3r N18
bC
c
6.0 MESSINIAN
n
1

MMi13
c Pl1
C3An r b bB
6.5
2n b

NN11

CN9
C3Ar
7.0 a

M13b/14
b
C3Bn bA N17
1 r/n c
C3Br
2 r/n
7.5 3r MNN11
n b
r 1
C4n a a
2n
8.0
LATE

a
MMi12
r
n 1
C4r
8.5 2r a
-1
NEOGENE

C4An
TORTONIAN

9.0 NN10 CN8

b
MNN10
1 r N16
n M13a
a
9.5 C4Ar r
2
n b
MMi11

n
1r
10.0 MNN9
NN9 CN7 M12 N15
a

10.5 C5n 2n b
MNN8
MIOCENE

a
NN8 CN6
MMi10
11.0 M11 N14
1 r/n c
-1
2 r NN7 b MMi9
11.5
C5r n MNN7
MMi8 M10 N13
b
3r
c
12.0
n
CN5

1 r
C5An

a
MMi7
SERRAVALLIAN

2n
a/b M9b
12.5 N12
1 r
C5Ar

NN6 a
n
2nr
13.0 3r MNN6 MMi6
C5AAn
C5AAr ? M8/9a
MIDDLE

13.5 C5ABn
C5ABr N11

M7
C5ACn
14.0 N10
LANGHIAN

C5ACr NN5 CN4

C5ADn
14.5 MNN5 M6 N9
C5ADr
n N8
M5b
C5Bn1 r NN4 CN3

(b)
Figure 21.6 (cont.)
438 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
Miocene zonal scheme of Foresi et al. (2002) because the de-
tailed tuning of Monte dei Corvi and Tremiti island (Hilgen
et al., 2003) is considered an improvement of the tuning pro-
posed by Lirer et al. (2002) and Sprovieri et al. (2002a) for
time equivalent sections in the Mediterranean (Fig. 21.6b).
Moreover, we used revised astronomical ages for the planktonic
foraminiferal and calcareous nannofossil bioevents of the mid-
dle and late Pleistocene zonal schemes of Cita (1976) and Raf
and Rio (1979), because a new detailed re-tuning of ODP Sites
964 and 967 and core MD69KC01B (Lourens, unpublished
data) is considered an improvement of the tuning proposed by
Emeis et al. (2000), Kroon et al. (1998), Rossignol-Strick et al.
(1998), and Langereis et al. (1997; Fig. 21.6a).
The ages for the (sub)chron reversal boundaries (Table
A2.1) allow microfossil zonal schemes that are not directly tied
to the astronomical time scale, but which are calibrated to CK95
to be converted to the new time scale. This approach holds
for the low-, mid-, and high-latitude planktonic foraminiferal
zonal schemes of Berggren et al. (1995a,b), and the radiolarian
zonal scheme of Sanlippo and Negrini (1998a; Figs. 21.1 and
21.2).
The incorporation of, for instance, the North American
Land Mammal Ages (NALMAs) to the new time scale is
problematical due to lack of fossil sites in long and contin-
uous sections having a well-calibrated magnetostratigraphy.
Ages for most NALMA boundaries are based on different
radiometric dating techniques, which need to be evaluated
and re-calibrated using the inter-calibration of radioisotopic
and astronomical dating methods. Evidently, the chronomet-
ric consequences are largest for the Early Miocene.
21.3.8 Advantages of the new time scale
A geological time scale should preferably have a high accu-
racy and a high temporal and spatial resolution, requirements
that are crucial to unravel cause-and-effect relationships and
to determine rates of change. The systematic application of
Milankovitch cycles has led to a Neogene time scale with an
unprecedented resolution and accuracy thus fullling these
requirements. The new time scale has a temporal resolution
of <20 or <40 kyr depending on the period of the shortest
orbital cycle used in the tuning procedure. In principle, this
will eventually allow paleoclimatic and oceanographic stud-
ies in the entire Neogene with a resolution comparable to
that of the late Pleistocene. Other stratigraphic tools such as
high-resolution biostratigraphy, beyond the resolution of most
commonly applied zonal schemes and magnetostratigraphy,
including the use of short subchrons and cryptochrons, are
then crucial to applying the astronomically tuned integrated
stratigraphic framework in other less-favorable continental and
shallow-marine settings that often lack a distinct type of Mil-
ankovitch cyclicity. Nevertheless, these successions may be
more suitable for high-resolution stratigraphic studies of the
Milankovitch-type of cyclicity than is generally assumed, as
has been convincingly demonstrated (e.g. Van Vugt et al., 1998;
Steenbrink et al., 2000).
Accuracy of absolute age determinations that underlie a
geological time scale is the other critical quality as it allows the
reliable determination of rates of change especially when linked
to a high-resolution stratigraphy. Absolute age calibrations
underlying geological time scales for the younger part of
Earths history (apart from the already incorporated tuned
PliocenePleistocene) are increasingly based on 40 Ar/39 Ar dat-
ing thereby replacing the conventional KAr technique. Full
error propagation, which can be solved both analytically and
numerically (Min et al., 2000), for 40 Ar/39 Ar dating typically
results in errors in the range of 2%. But even in this case, ad-
ditional errors such as geological constraints for the reliability
of mineral dating standards (see discussion on FCT) are not
included (see Chapter 6).
By contrast, astronomically tuned ages are typically pre-
sented in three digits without error bars. The main uncertain-
ties in astronomical dating and, hence, on the astronomical
ages depend on the accuracy of the astronomical solution from
which the target was derived and on the correctness of the tun-
ing. The exact error in the presently used La2003 solution is
difcult to calculate due to the complexity of the solution, but
it is expected that an important uncertainty is caused by the
dissipative evolution of the EarthMoon system. This uncer-
tainty may result from changes in the dynamical ellipticity of
the Earth and/or tidal dissipation by the Moon. The La93 solu-
tion for the rst time offered the possibility of modifying these
two parameters. Both these parameters affect the precession
and obliquity frequencies and will be reduced when entering
an ice age (Laskar et al., 1993). On longer time scales, dynami-
cal ellipticity may also vary as a consequence of secular changes
in mantle convection (Forte and Mitrovica, 1997). A sensitive
test was carried out to estimate the error, which results from
changing the dynamical ellipticity and/or tidal dissipation over
the past 3 myr (Lourens et al., 2001). This study revealed that
the La93 solution including half the present-day tidal dissipa-
tion value or 0.9997 times the present-day dynamical ellipticity
value resulted in the optimum t between the precession and
obliquity components of the insolation target curve and their
related components derived from an exceptional climate proxy
record of the eastern Mediterranean.
 The Neogene Period 439

tidal dissipation should be incorporated in the astronomical

< 3 cycles offset

< 2 cycles offset
< 1 cycle offset
< anti-phase
solution.
< in-phase Other errors may come from the correctness of the tuning
20
itself. A mistuning of one cycle typically results in an error of
20 kyr, or of 40 kyr where obliquity is used in the tuning.
0 However, such a tuning error may be restored if the ampli-
tude modulation of precession (by eccentricity) or obliquity is
Precession
20 also taken into account. Other potential tuning errors in the
La20039 (1,1,0)-La2003(0.5,1,0) (kyr)

astronomical ages may stem from the presence of time lags be-
40 tween insolation forcing and climate response and registration
in the stratigraphic record, and from an uncertainty in phase
60 relations between the astronomically forced variations in the
Obliquity
climate proxy records used for tuning and the initial insola-
80
tion forcing. For the moment, we consider it less likely that
phase relations used for building the astronomical time scale
100
are incorrect, while the problem of time lags will result in a
possible error of the order of one to several thousand years at
120
a maximum.
140
In summary, the errors in the astronomical ages over the
0 5 10 15 20 25 last 10 myr will be of the order of 0.10.2% and possibly even
Age (Ma) less. This is probably the case for the last 13 myr in view of the
Figure 21.7 Comparison between two La2003 solutions including excellent t between details in the Milankovitch cycle patterns
the present-day and half the present-day tidal dissipation value. in the Mediterranean (as conrmed in parallel sections) and the
Plotted are the differences in age between the two solutions for the insolation target. For older time intervals, the error will remain
correlative minima in precession and obliquity. Note that very small, but the tuning of Ceara Rise has to be independently
eccentricity is similar for both solutions. conrmed.

To illustrate the uncertainty in the La2003 solution due to

21.3.9 Summary
tidal dissipation we have plotted the difference (in thousands
of years) of correlative minimum values in the obliquity and An astronomically tuned Neogene time scale (ATNTS2004)
precession cycles between the La2003(1,1,0) and La2003(0.5,1,0) has been presented based on cyclic sedimentary successions
solutions for the last 25 myr (Fig. 21.7). The differences for from the western Equatorial Atlantic Ocean and Mediter-
both cycles indicate an anti-phase relationship around 10 Ma ranean. It continues the development that led Berggren
and an in-phase relationship around 15 Ma, but the precession et al. (1995a) to incorporate the Pliocene and Pleistocene as-
and obliquity time series are stretched in the La2003(0.5,1,0) trochronology of Shackleton et al. (1990) and Hilgen (1991a,b)
solution due to a reduced dissipitative effect and as a result into their Neogene time scale. Construction of ATNTS2004
contain one cycle less around 15 Ma. At 23 Ma, both pre- was made possible through: (i) technological and procedural
cession and obliquity cycles derived from the La2003(0.5,1,0) improvements in deep-sea drilling, (ii) high-resolution studies
solution contain three cycles less than that obtained by the of exposed marine sections in tectonically active areas where
La2003(1,1,0) solution. Consequently the maximum uncer- ancient seaoor has been rapidly uplifted, and (iii) improve-
tainty here will be 68 kyr where proxy records are tuned ments in the accuracy of astronomical solutions resulting in the
to precession and 123 kyr if tuned to obliquity. However, La2003 numerical solution. A seaoor anomaly prole from
the additional use of amplitude modulations of precession the AustraliaAntarctic plate pair was employed to complete
(by eccentricity) and obliquity, and precession/obliquity in- the polarity time scale for the interval between 13 and 23 Ma
terference patterns may help to constrain the correct tun- due to the lack of magnetostratigraphic records for ODP Leg
ing of the proxy records. It is anticipated that extension of 154 sites. Biostratigraphic zonal schemes are either directly
the type of study carried out by Lourens et al. (2001) will tied to the new time scale via rst-order calibrations, such as
solve the problem of which values for dynamical ellipticity and the standard low-latitude calcareous plankton zonations, or
440 PA RT I I I G E O L O G I C P E R I O D S
are recalibrated to the associated polarity time scale. Formally
designated chronostratigraphic boundaries (GSSPs of Neo-
gene stages), dened in sections used to build the astronom-
ically tuned integrated stratigraphic framework, are directly
tied to the new time scale.
The new time scale results in a signicantly younger
age of 23.03 Ma for the OligoceneMiocene boundary than
the 23.8 Ma preferred in previous time scales; the latter
age is based on radiometric age determinations that are
not fully acceptable according to current standards. Inter-
calibration of independent astronomical and radiogenic iso-
topic dating methods is not yet possible, but new results
(Kuiper, 2003) point to an astronomical-derived age of 28.24
0.01 Ma for the Fish Canyon Tuff (FCT) sanidine and
favor the introduction of an astronomically dated 40 Ar/39 Ar
standard.
The astronomically tuned Neogene time scale, with
its unprecedented accuracy (140 kyr) and resolution
(<10 kyr), opens new perspectives for paleoclimatic and paleo-
oceanographic studies of the entire period with a temporal res-
olution comparable to that of Pleistocene research (Krijgsman
et al., 1999; Zachos et al., 2001a).
22 The Pleistocene and Holocene Epochs
. .
This chapter focuses on the major subdivisions and events in the
terrestrial sequences of the Pleistocene and Holocene, with correla-
tions to the marine record. Current proposals for formal subdivision
are outlined.
22.1 PLEISTOCENE SERIES
22.1.1 Evolution of terminology
The classication and interpretation of the youngest strati-
graphic sequences, variously known as Pleistocene, Holocene,
and Quaternary, have been, and still are, a matter of debate.
During the rst two decades of the nineteenth century, many of
the sequences were attributed to the biblical ood (the Dilu-
vial theory). This theory could account for unconsolidated
sediments that rested unconformably on Tertiary rocks and
capped hills, and that commonly contained exotic boulders and
the remains of animals, many still extant. This origin for the
Diluvium was accepted by most eminent geologists of the
time, including Buckland and Sedgwick.
Floating ice had frequently been seen transporting exotic
materials, providing an explanation for the transport of the
boulders, and reinforcing the Diluvial theory. This explanation
lead to adoption of the term drift to characterize the sedi-
ments. However, geologists working in the Alps and northern
Europe had been struck by the extraordinary similarity of the
drift deposits and their associated landforms to those being
formed by modern mountain glaciers. Several observers such
as Perraudin, Venetz-Sitten, and de Charpentier proposed that
the glaciers had formerly been more extensive, but it was the pa-
leontologist Agassiz who rst advocated that this extension rep-
resented a time that came to be termed the Ice Age by Goethe.
After having convinced Buckland and Lyell of the validity
of his Glacial Theory in 1840, Agassizs ideas became pro-
gressively accepted. The term Drift became established for the
widespread sands, gravels, and boulder clays thought to have
been deposited by glacial ice. Meanwhile, Lyell had already
proposed the term Pleistocene in 1839 for the post-Pliocene
period closest to the present. He dened this period on the
basis of its molluscan faunal content, the majority of which
441
are still extant. However, the term Quaternary (Quaternaire or
Tertiaire recent) had already been proposed in 1829 by Desnoy-
ers for marine sediments in the Seine Basin (Bourdier, 1957,
p. 99) although the term had been in use from the late
eighteenth century.
Both terms Pleistocene and Quaternary have become
synonymous with the Ice Age. However, unlike the Pleistocene
concept, the span of the Quaternary included Lyells original
Recent, later named Holocene by the Third International
Geological Congress (IGC) in London in 1885. The term
Holocene (meaning wholly recent) refers to the percentage of
living organisms and was dened by Gervais (18671869) for
the post-diluvial deposits approximately corresponding to the
post-glacial period (Bourdier, 1957, p. 101). The Holocene
period was originally considered to represent a fth era or
Quinquennaire (Parandier, 1891), but this division was deemed
to be excessive; details are given in Bourdier (1957) and
de Lumley (1976).
Because the terms Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary have
been abandoned, the continued use of Quaternary is regarded
by some stratigraphers as somewhat archaic. Alternative terms
of Anthropogene (extensively used in the former USSR) or
Pleistogene (suggested by Harland et al., 1990) have been pro-
posed, but neither found favor. Other proposals place the
Holocene in the Pleistocene epoch as a stage (cf. the Flandrian:
see below).
The Quaternary is traditionally considered to be the in-
terval of oscillating climatic extremes (glacial and interglacial
episodes) that was initiated at about 2.6 Ma, therefore encom-
passing the Holocene and Pleistocene epochs and Gelasian
stage of late Pliocene. A formal decision on its chronostrati-
graphic status is pending, as advocated by ICS and INQUA
(Pillans, 2004).
22.1.2 The PliocenePleistocene boundary and the
status of the Quaternary
In 1948 at the IGC in London, an attempt was made to iden-
tify a basal-Pleistocene boundary. The requirement that it be
442 GEOLOGIC PERIODS
located in exposed marine sediment led its placement near or
at the base of the Calabrian strata in southern Italy (a stage
introduced by Gignoux in 1910). This horizon was close to
the rst indication of climatic deterioration in Italy that took
place after the deposition of the Italian Neogene (Oakly, 1950).
The initial Calabrian boundary was thought to be marked by
the rst appearance of the cold-water mollus indicators Arctica
islandica and Hyalinea baltica (Sibrava, 1978), but Ruggieri and
Sprovieri (1979) showed that Hyalinea baltica appears slightly
later. Moreover, he argued for the suppression of Calabrian
and its replacement by Santernian, together with a revision
of the rest of the sequence. Subsequently, various sections in
southern Italy competed for the position of stratotype. Haq
et al. (1977) correlated the boundary with the top of, or slightly
above, the short-lived Olduvai magnetostratigraphic event at
1.8 Ma.
The GSSP for the PliocenePleistocene boundary and the
beginning of the Pleistocene was placed by a joint INQUA
and ICS working group (IGCP Project 41) near the top of the
Olduvai subchron (1.8 Ma) and approved by ICS in 1983. The
GSSP is at Vrica (39 32 18.61 N, 17 08 05.79 E), approx-
imately 4 km south of Crotone in the Marchesato Peninsula,
Calabria, southern Italy (Aquirre and Pasini, 1985; Bassett,
1985). Stratigraphic details are given in Chapter 21 (Section
21.1.4)
The decision to assign the base-Pleistocene GSSP was
isolated from other more or less related problems, such as . . .
the status of the Quaternary within the chronostratigraphic scale
(Aguirre and Pasini, 1985). Many Quaternary workers, es-
pecially those working with terrestrial and climatic records,
now favor dening Quaternary as beginning signicantly Lower, Middle, and Upper has been in use since the 1930s.
before the base-Pleistocene GSSP. As a result, the status (as
of 2004) and chronostratigraphic rank of Quaternary has not
been established, and different options for formally dening
Quaternary are being considered (e.g. Ogg, 2004; Pillans,
2004; Pillans and Naish, 2004).
The London 1948 IUGS recommendations included the
notion that the base-Pleistocene boundary should be placed at
the rst evidence of climatic cooling. However, the Vrica GSSP
boundary level is not the rst severe cold climate oscillation of
the late Cenozoic. It can be argued that the rst severe cold
climate takes place at a stratigraphic position equivalent to the
base of the Dutch terrestrial Praetiglian Stage, and some earth
scientists studying Quaternary strata in northern Europe tend
to begin their Pleistocene at this level. Since the record on
land is highly fragmentary and difcult to correlate, eastern
Europeans have their own terminology in which the Eopleis-
tocene follows the Pliocene (cf. Section 22.2 below). These
alternative sequence terminologies have been included in
Fig. 22.1.
This older level corresponds to the Gauss/Matuyama mag-
netic epoch boundary (2.6 Ma) and the base of the Pliocene
Gelasian Stage (Rio et al., 1998). An equivalent level in
marine sediments occurs at Monte San Nicola in Sicily and
can be easily correlated with Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 104
in the ocean sediments (see discussion in Suc et al., 1997). The
event is clearly dened in the marine oxygen isotope stratig-
raphy and coincides with the rst major inux of ice-rafted
debris into the middle latitude of the North Atlantic (Shackle-
ton et al., 1984; Shackleton, 1997; Partridge, 1997a). The fossil
mammalian record also shows changes that are obvious near the
Gauss/Matuyama reversal. Opposing views on the position for
the PliocenePleistocene boundary have been discussed by Van
Couvering (1997) and by Partridge (1997b).
22.1.3 Division of the Pleistocene
Two major types of subdivisions have been proposed for
the Pleistocene Series. A standard subdivision at stage level
has been advocated by workers based on sections in ele-
vated shallow-marine sediments in Italy (see Chapter 21 and
Fig. 22.1). Earth scientists concerned with terrestrial and to
a lesser extent shallow-marine sequences have adopted re-
gional subdivision schemes. The regional schemes have found
favor despite the difculties of world-wide correlation. In these
schemes, larger, subseries- (sub epoch) scale units have been
adopted and are advocated here.
A quasi-formal tripartite subdivision of the Pleistocene into
The rst usage of the terms Lower, Middle, and Upper Pleis-
tocene was at the second International Quaternary Association
(INQUA) Congress in Leningrad 1932 (Woldstedt, 1962),
although they may have been used in a loose way before this
time. Their rst use in a formal sense in English was by Zeuner
(1935, 1959) and Hopwood (1935) and was based on charac-
teristic assemblages of vertebrate fossils in the European se-
quence.
The desire to make these units identiable world-wide
led the INQUA Commission on Stratigraphy/ICS Working
Group on Major Subdivision of the Pleistocene (Richmond,
1996) to place the LowerMiddle boundary at the Brunhes
Matuyama magnetic reversal epoch boundary; the Toronto
Proposal of Richmond (1996). Unfortunately, it is less easy
to dene the MiddleUpper boundary in the same fashion
and therefore it seems expedient to consider it equivalent
to the base of marine isotope stage 5 (MIS 5) following the

long-established convention that the basal boundary of the
Upper Pleistocene corresponds with that of the last interglacial
stage (proposed at INQUA Commission on Stratigraphy work-
ing group meeting, Berlin 1995, unpublished). This proposal
naturally follows from the acceptance that MIS 5, substage e,
is the ocean equivalent of the terrestrial northwest European
Eemian Stage interglacial (Shackleton, 1977).
The proposals of the INQUA/ICS Working Group on
Major Subdivision of the Pleistocene (Richmond, 1996) can
be summarized as follows:
lt was proposed that the initial Middle Pleistocene bound-
ary be placed at the MatuyamaBrunhes magnetic polarity
reversal. The reversal has not been dated directly by radio-
metric controls. It is signicantly older than the Bishop
Tuff (revised KAr age 738 ka; Izett, 1982), and the esti-
mated KAr age of 730 ka assigned to the reversal by Mank-
inen & Dalrymple (1979) is too young. In Utah, the Bishop
volcanic ash bed overlies a major paleosol developed in sed-
iments that record the MatuyamaBrunhes reversal (Eard-
ley et al., 1973). The terrestrial geologic record is compatible
with the astronomical age of 788 ka assigned to the reversal
by Johnson (1982).
[Note: The age of this MatuyamaBrunhes reversal is es-
timated as 781 ka in the astronomical-tuned time scale, see
Chapter 20.] The initial Late Pleistocene boundary, placed
arbitrarily at the beginning of MIS 5 (at the midpoint of
Termination II or the MIS 65 transition), is not dated di-
rectly. It was assigned provisional ages of 127 ka by CLIMAP
Project members (1984) and 128 ka by SPECMAP Project
members (Ruddiman and Mcintyre, 1984), based on uranium
series ages of the MI substage 5e high eustatic sea-level stand.
However, more recent re-evaluation of the boundary indicates
that following historical precedent in northwest Europe, the
MiddleUpper Pleistocene subseries boundary should corre-
spond to the SaalianEemian Stage boundary rather than to
the boundary in marine isotope records which is not coeval (see
below). The former is positioned at the boundary stratotype of
the latter at 63.5 m below surface in the Amsterdam Terminal
borehole (52 E 0913: 52 22 45 N; 4 54 52 E). This parastratotype
locality is also the Eemian Stage unit-stratotype (Cleveringa
et al. 2000; van Kolfschoten and Gibbard, 2000; van Leeuwen
et al., 2000). Both the stage and the stage boundary are rec-
ognized on the basis of multidisciplinary biostratigraphy, the
boundary being placed at the expansion of forest tree pollen
above 50% of the total pollen assemblage, the standard practice
in northwest Europe (Gibbard, 2003). The SaalianEemian
Stage boundary is identied at 126 kyr in deep-sea sediment
The Pleistocene and Holocene Epochs 443
off Iberia by Sanchez-Goni et al. (1999) and Shackleton et al.
(2002).
Independently, groups of workers have advocated a sub-
division based on standard stages comparable in scale to
those dened for the Neogene, as already noted. Of particular
importance is the scheme that has been developed for shallow-
marine sequences in southern Italy (Fig. 22.1) and summarized
in Chapter 21.
Other shallow-marine sequences, such as that from New
Zealand, have also been developed. In the former USSR, and
particularly in European Russia, the Pleistocene is divided
into the Eopleistocene, equivalent to the Early Pleistocene
subseries, and the Neopleistocene, equivalent to the Mid-
dle and Late Pleistocene subseries (Anonymous, 1982, 1984;
Krasnenkov et al., 1997). The most recent proposal for a re-
vised stratigraphical scheme for the last 1 Ma in the Eastern
European Plain is given by Shik et al. (2002).
22.2 TERRESTRIAL SEQUENCES
In contrast to the rest of the Phanerozoic, the uppermost Ceno-
zoic has a long-established tradition of sediment sequences be-
ing divided on the basis of represented climatic changes, par-
ticularly sequences based on glacial deposits in central Europe
and mid-latitude North America. This approach was adopted
by early workers for terrestrial sequences because it seemed
logical to divide till (glacial diamicton) sheets and non-glacial
deposits or stratigraphical sequences into glacial (Glaciation)
and interglacial periods, respectively (cf. West, 1968, 1977;
Bowen, 1978). In other words, the divisions were fundamen-
tally lithological. The overriding inuence of climatic change
on sedimentation and erosion has meant that, despite the enor-
mous advances in knowledge during the last century and a half,
climate-based classication has remained central to the subdi-
vision of the succession. Indeed, the subdivision of the mod-
ern ocean sediment isotope stage sequence is itself based on
the same basic concept (see below). It is this approach which
has brought Quaternary geology so far, but at the same time
causes considerable confusion to workers attempting to cor-
relate sequences from enormously differing geographical and,
thus, environmental settings. This is because of the great com-
plexity of climatic change and the very variable effects of the
changes on natural systems.
The recognition of climatic events from sediments is an
inferential method and by no means straightforward. Sed-
iments are not unambiguous indicators of contemporane-
ous climate, and other evidence such as fossil assemblages,
characteristic sedimentary structures (including periglacial
444 GEOLOGIC PERIODS

Polarity Chron Marine isotope record Vostok ice core

Period

Epoch
18 18
O atmospheric O
5.5 5 4.5 4 1.5 1.0 0.5 0 0.5
0.0 0.0 2

Late
4
0.1 Blake 0.1 0.1
0.12 6
0.2 0.2 0.2
8

Brunhes
0.3 0.3 0.3
10

Middle
0.4 Emperor 0.4 12 0.4
0.42
0.5 0.5 14

0.6 0.6 Planktonic Calcareous

16 foraminifera nannoplankt.
0.7 0.7 18

Globigerinoides fistulosusTruncorotalia truncatulinoides IZ

Pleistocene

0.78 a

CN14
0.8 0.8 20

Globigerinoides fistulosusGloborotalia tosaensis ISZ

22
0.9 0.9 24
0.99 26
1.0 1.0 28
Jaramillo 30
1.07 32
1.1 1.1
34

T1a

NN19
1.2 1.21 Cobb 1.2 36
Neogene

Early

1.24 Mtn. 38
1.3 1.3 40
42
44 b
1.4 1.4

CN13
46
48

P
1.5 1.5 50
Matuyama

52
54
1.6 1.6
56
Gils
1.7 1.68 1.7 58
60
1.77 62
1.8 GSSP 1.8 64

Globigerinoides fistulosus IZ
Olduvai 68 a
1.9 1.9 Menardella miocenica
70
1.95 72
74
PL6

2.0 2.0
76
Gelasian

78
2.1 2.1 80
2.14
Pliocene

Runion 82
2.2 2.19 2.2 84
NN18

86
88 d
CN12

2.3 2.3 90
Dentoglobigerina altispira

2.33
Menardella miocenica IZ

2.39 92
2.4 2.4 94
'X' 2.44
PL5

96
2.5 2.5 98
100
2.58 102
2.6 2.6
Gauss

104
NN17

Figure 22.1 The Pleistocene-Holocene and upper Pliocene time
scale. The Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) for the base
of the Pleistocene Epoch is indicated. The calibration of the geomag-
netic polarity time scale is from oceanographic data collected and
processed by S. J. Crowhurst (Delphi Project 2002) and modied
from Funnell (1996). The composite marine 18 O isotope sequence
is from the Delphi Project (database at http://131.111.44.196 at
106 c
2.7
Godwin Laboratory, University of Cambridge, UK). The micro-
paleontological zonations are from Berggren et al. (1995a). The
atmospheric oxygen isotope curve from the Vostok ice coring is from
Petit et al. (2001, Vostok Ice Core Data for 420, 000 Years, IGBP
PAGES/World Data Center for Paleoclimatology Data Contri-
bution Series #2001-076, at NOAA/NGDC Paleoclimatology
Program, Boulder, CO, USA; original reference is Petit et al., 1999).
 The Pleistocene and Holocene Epochs 445

Chinese Loess Russian Plain NW European North Italian Stages New Zealand
Sequence Stages Stages American (marine) Stages
Stages
S0 0.0

Taran-
Weichselian

tian
L1 Valdaian Wisconsian
Mikulinian Eemian Sangamonian Tyrrhenian 0.1
S1
Moscovian Warthe Illinoian
L2 Dnieper Drenthe
Haweran 0.2

Saalian
S2 Schoeningen
L3
S3
Neopleistocene
Reinsdorf
A 0.3
L4 Fuhne
S4 Holsteinian 0.4
L5

Ionian
Okian Elsterian
B

'Cromerian Complex'
Noordbergum 0.5

Putikian
S5 Glacial c
C

Castlecliffian
Muchkapian Rosmalen
0.6
L6 Donian Glacial b
S6 Westerhoven
D
Ilynian 0.7
L7 Glacial a
S7 Pekrovian
L8 E 0.8

Okehuan
S8 Petropavlovian Waardenburg
L9 Port-Katonian Dorst F 0.9
Bayelian

S9 Leerdam
S10 L10
S11 L11 1.0

Sicilian
L12 Ostrogozhian Linge
S12 Bavel
L13 1.1
Diviogorye
Eopleistocene

S13 L14 Menapian

S14 1.2
Usperian G
pre- Illinoian

L15 1.3

Emilian
Calabrian

1.4
WS1
Waalian 1.5
WL1
Santernian

WS2 1.6
Kutienikovian

WL2 1.7
Marahauan
Eburonian
H
I 1.8
Nukumaruan

Tiglian C5-6
WS3
1.9
Tiglian C4c J
2.0
Liventsonian
WL3 Tiglian C1-3
2.1
Gelasian

Byelogorgan
Tigkian B 2.2
Hauta-
Aktschagyl

wan

WS4 2.3
Storozhevian
Tiglian A
2.4
WL4
Os'kinovian
Manga- 2.5
Praetiglian panian
K 2.6
RS Reuverian C
2.7
Figure 22.1 (cont. ) This curve can be downloaded from European Russia succession were compiled from the
www.ngdc.noaa.gov/paleo/icecore/antarctica/vostok/ Stratigraphy of the USSR: Quaternary System (Anonymous, 1982,
vostok isotope.html. The Chinese loess sequence is a magnetic 1984), Krasnenkov et al. (1997), and Shik et al. (2002). North
susceptibility signature from Luochuan (An Zhisheng et al., 1990); America successions from Richmond (unpublished). The stage
S, soil horizon; L, loess interval; W and R, numbered older successions based on shallow-marine sequences of Italy (van
successions. The Quaternary continental successions were compiled Couvering, 1997) and New Zealand (Pillans, 1991) are
from Zagwijn (1992), de Jong (1988), Tzedakis et al. (1997). included.
446 GEOLOGIC PERIODS

structures) or textures, soil development, and so on must be Stacked Marine Isotope Record
(with Marine Isotope Stages) Terrestrial Chronostratigraphy
relied upon wherever possible to illuminate the origin and cli- 1 18O 0 1 N.W. Europe British Isles North America
0
matic afnities of a particular unit. Local and regional vari- 1 Holocene Flandrian Holocene

ability of climate complicates this approach in that sequences 2 Termination I

Late Late Late
Weichselian Devensian Wisconsian
are the result of local climatic conditions, yet there remains
3 Middle Middle
the need to equate them with a global scale. For at least the Devensian Wisconsian
50 Middle
rst half of the twentieth century the preferred scale was that Weichselian
Early
Wisconsian

Time (ka BP)

developed for the Alps at the turn of the century by Penck and 4

Bruckner (1909). 5a Early

Devensian Eo-Wisconsian
5b Early
For the Alps, the sequence in increasing age is: Weichselian
100 5c

5d
Wurm Glacial (Wurmian)
5e Eemian Ipswichian Sangamonian
RissWurm Interglacial
6
Termination II
Riss Glacial (Rissian) Saalian Wolstonian Illinoian
150
MindelRiss Interglacial
Mindel Glacial (Mindelian) Figure 22.2 Marine and continental chronostratigraphy for the
GunzMindel Interglacial past 150 kyr. The stacked marine oxygen isotope sequence and
Gunz Glacial associated stages are from Martinson et al. (1987), and the terrestrial
climato- and chronostratigraphical divisions in northwest Europe
DonauGunz Interglacial
and North America are modied from Lowe and Walker (1997).
Donau Glacial
?Biber Glacial
climate. In addition, both need to be considered in relation
For northern Europe, the sequence (with increasing age) is
to the extremely high-resolution (potentially annual) records
(see also Figs. 22.1 and 22.2):
of the ice-core sequences (see below).
Flandrian (i.e. Holocene), i.e. present interglacial, up to and Because stages are the fundamental working units in
including the present day. chronostratigraphy they are considered appropriate in scope
Weichselian Glacial and rank for practical intra-regional classication (Hedberg,
Eemian Interglacial 1976). However, the denition of stage-status chronostrati-
Saalian Glacial Complex graphical units, with their time-parallel boundaries placed in
Holsteinian Interglacial continuous successions wherever possible, is a serious chal-
Elsterian Glacial lenge especially in terrestrial Quaternary sequences. In these
Cromerian Complex situations, boundaries in one region may be time-parallel
Bavelian Complex but over greater distances problems may arise as a result of
Menapian Glacial diachroneity. It is probably correct to say that only in con-
Waalian Interglacial tinuous sequences which span entire interglacialglacial
Eburonian Glacial interglacial climatic cycles can an unequivocal basis for the
Tiglian Complex establishment of stage events using climatic criteria be truly
Praetiglian Glacial successfully achieved. There are the additional problems which
accompany such a denition of a stage, including the ques-
More recently, the northern European scheme tends to be- tion of diachroneity of climate changes themselves and the
come replaced by the marine isotope record (Bowen, 1978). detectable responses to those changes. For example, it is
Today the burden of correlation lies in equating local, highly well known that there are various lag times of geologi-
fragmentary, yet high-resolution terrestrial and shallow- cal responses to climatic stimuli. Thus, in short, climate-
marine sediments on the one hand, with the potentially con- based units cannot be the direct equivalents of chronos-
tinuous, yet comparatively lower resolution ocean isotope se- tratigraphical units because of the time-transgressive na-
quence on the other. Both are required, particularly because ture of the former. This distinction of a stage in a terres-
the ocean record sums a global situation while terrestrial se- trial sequence from that in a marine sequence should be
quences are dependent on local and regional conditions of remembered.

Before the impact of the ocean core isotope sequences,
an attempt was made to formalize the climate-based strati-
graphical terminology in the American Code of Stratigraphic
Nomenclature (American Commission, 1961), where so-called
geologic-climate units were proposed. Here a geologic-climate
unit is based on an inferred widespread climatic episode de-
ned from a subdivision of Quaternary rocks (American Com-
mission, 1961). Several synonyms for this category of units have
been suggested, the most recent being climatostratigraphical
units (Mangerud et al., 1974) in which an hierarchy of terms is
proposed. These units are neither referred to in the standard
stratigraphic codes by Hedberg (1976) nor Salvador (1994),
and are not followed in New Zealand, but are included in the
local Norwegian Code (Nystuen, 1986). Boundaries between
geologic-climate units were to be placed at those of the strati-
graphic units on which they were based.
The American Commission (1961) denes the fundamental
units of the geologic-climate classication as follows:
A Glaciation is a climatic episode during which extensive
glaciers developed, attained a maximum extent, and re-
ceded. A Stadial (Stade) is a climatic episode, representing
a subdivision of a glaciation, during which a secondary ad-
vance of glaciers took place. An Interstadial (Interstade) is
a climatic episode within a glaciation during which a sec-
ondary recession or standstill of glaciers took place. An In-
terglacial (Interglaciation) is an episode during which the
climate was incompatible with the wide extent of glaciers
that characterise a glaciation.
In Europe, following the work of Jessen and Milthers
(1928), it is customary to use the terms interglacial and in-
terstadial to dene characteristic types of non-glacial climatic
conditions indicated by vegetational changes (Table 22.1);
interglacial to describe a temperate period with a climatic op-
timum at least as warm as the present interglacial (Holocene,
Flandrian: see below) in the same region, and interstadial to de-
scribe a period that was either too short or too cold to allow the
development of temperate deciduous forest or the equivalent
of interglacial-type in the same region.
In North America, mainly in the USA, the term inter-
glaciation is occasionally used for interglacial (cf. American
Commission, 1961). Likewise, the terms stade and interstade
may be used instead of stadial and interstadial, respectively
(cf. American Commission, 1961). The origin of these terms
is not certain but the latter almost certainly derive from the
French word stade (m), which is unfortunate since in French
stade means (chronostratigraphical) stage (cf. Michel et al.,
1997), e.g. stade isotopique marin = marine isotope stage.
The Pleistocene and Holocene Epochs 447
It will be readily apparent that, although in longstanding
usage, the glacially based terms are very difcult to apply out-
side glaciated regions, i.e. most of the world. Moreover, as Sug-
gate and West (1969) recognized, the term Glaciation or Glacial
is particularly inappropriate since modern knowledge indicates
that cold rather than glacial climates have tended to character-
ize the periods intervening between interglacial events. They
therefore proposed that the term cold stage (chronostratig-
raphy) be adopted for glacial or glaciation. Likewise, they
proposed the use of the term warm or temperate stage for
interglacial, both being based on regional stratotypes. The local
nature of these denitions indicates that they cannot necessar-
ily be used across great distances or between different climatic
provinces (Suggate and West, 1969; Suggate, 1974; West, 1968,
1977) or indeed across the terrestrialmarine facies boundary
(see below). The use of mammalian biostratigraphic data, in
particular the evolution of voles, offers the possibility of long-
distance correlations between local assemblages. In addition, it
is worth noting that the subdivision into glacial and interglacial
is mainly ap plied to the Middle and Late Pleistocene.
Both interglacial and glacial, or temperate and cold stages,
have been subdivided into substages and zones. This is achieved
in interglacial stages using paleontological, particularly vege-
tational, assemblages. The cyclic pattern of interglacial veg-
etation that typies all known temperate events in Europe
was developed as a means of subdividing, comparing, and,
therefore, characterizing temperate events by West (1968,
1977) and Turner and West (1968). In this scheme, temperate
(interglacial) event sequences are subdivided into four sub-
stages: pre-temperate, early temperate, late temperate, and
post-temperate. Finer-scale zonation schemes are also com-
monly in use throughout Europe and the former USSR
(Table 22.1).
Late Middle- and Late-Pleistocene glacial stages have been
divided on various bases, but in the northern hemisphere the
division is based on a combination of vegetation, lithology,
and occasionally pedological evidence, often resulting in an
unfortunate intermixture of chrono-and climatostratigraphi-
cal terminology. The last glacial stage (Weichselian, Valdaian,
Devensian, Wisconsinian) has particularly been divided into
three or four substages (Early, Middle or Pleni-glacial, Late
Weichselian, etc., and Late-glacial), using geochronology
(14 C). Boundaries are dened at specic dates, especially in
the last 30 ka (Table 22.1).
An independent record of Late Pleistocene and Holocene
climatic changes has been derived from 16 O/ 18 O ratios in
cores through the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets ( Johnsen
et al., 1972; Dansgaard et al., 1993) and from other areas. In the
448 GEOLOGIC PERIODS

Table 22.1 Examples of chronostratigraphical substage divisions of interglacial (temperate) stages and related cold (glacial) stages of the
Middle and Late Pleistocenea,b

Vegetational Characteristic
Chronostratigraphical substagesc aspect vegetation

Cold stage e An e Wo e De early glacial herb-dominated

Flandrian (post-10ka)
Ipswichian (125ka)
Cromerian (750ka)
Temperate stage

Cr IV Ho IV Ip IV post-temperate birchpine forest

Hoxnian (350ka)
Cr III Ho III Ip III Fl III late-temperate mixed deciduous
coniferous forest
Cr II Ho II Ip II Fl II early-temperate deciduous forest
Cr I Ho I Ip I Fl I pre-temperate birchpine forest
Cold stage l Be l An l Wo l De late-glacial herb-dominated

a Modied after West (1968) and West & Turner (1968).

b For the Holocene (Flandrian), correlations with the zones of Godwin (1975) are also indicated.
c e, early; l, late; Be, Beestonian; An, Anglian; Wo, Wolstonian; De, Devensian.

past three decades, the drilling of cores into ice sheets in various systems (see Lowe and Walker, 1997, for a more detailed dis-
parts of the world has revolutionized our records of detailed cussion).
climatic change. Boreholes sunk particularly in Antarctica and
in Greenland, and more recently into smaller ice shields in
22.3 OCEAN SEDIMENT SEQUENCES
tropical mountain areas, have provided spectacularly unrivalled
sequences which allow annual resolution of climatic events. Because the span of Quaternary time includes our own, a dif-
From a stratigraphical point of view, it is the recognition of ferent order of discrimination is possible and different meth-
patterns of a wide range of climatically controlled parameters ods are rapidly developing. The principal development in the
that provide potentially very high-resolution correlation tools. Pleistocene time scale depends on the regularity of the climatic
Detailed patterns arise from determination of aerosol parti- cycle that was discovered around 1875 by Croll and developed,
cles, dust, trace elements, spores, or pollen grains, etc., that especially, by Milankovitch. This approach was not taken se-
have fallen onto the ice surface and become incorporated into riously by Quaternary geologists until Zeuner (1945), Emil-
the annual ice layers. They include, for example, dust from iani (1955), and Evans (1971) were among those to recalculate
wind activity or volcanic eruptions. Trace gases such as carbon and relate the astronomical parameters, testing, for example,
dioxide or methane can be trapped in air bubbles within ice 42 and 100 kyr cycles against other phenomena, such as the
crystals, etc. These gases can themselves be analyzed to de- newly established oxygen isotope curve from the oceans. The
termine their stable isotope content, particularly that of 18 O rst rigorous treatment using wide-ranging techniques was by
and the sequences obtained can be compared to those from Hays et al. (1976). Isotope studies from the bottom sediments
ocean sediments. In addition, naturally and articially occur- of the worlds oceans since then have indicated as many as 52
ring radioactive isotopes present in the ice layers can be used Late Cenozoic glacial ages and that the continental evidence is
to provide an independent chronology for dating the ice core so incomplete as compared with the oceanic sequences that ter-
sequences. restrial glacialinterglacial stratigraphy in future must depend
Most cores span the Holocene and provide an annually on the ocean record for chronological foundation as outlined
resolved sequence for the interglacial. However, the Vostok in Chapter 21.
core in Antarctica spans a period of up to 400 kyr (Fig. 22.1; The marine oxygen isotope scale makes use of the fact that,
Petit et al., 1999), but it is in Greenland that detailed cores when continental ice builds up as a result of global cooling
from the Greenland Ice Core Project (GISP) and the Green- and sea level is lowered, the ice is depleted in 18 O relative
land Ice Sheet Project (GISP) have been obtained that provide to the ocean water, leaving the ocean water enriched in 18 O.
a sequence that extends at least as far back as the Last In- The oxygen isotope composition of calcareous foraminifera
terglacial (Eemian). These sequences have revolutionized our and coccoliths, and of siliceous diatoms, varies in direct pro-
understanding of patterns and rates of global climate changes, portion to that of the water (cf. Shackleton and Opdyke, 1973,
as well as the interlinking of the oceanatmosphereterrestrial for discussion of the limitations of isotope stratigraphy). The

16 stages of Emiliani (1955, 1966) obtained from Caribbean
and Atlantic sediment cores were extended to 22 by Shack-
leton and Opdyke (1973) after analysis of the V28238 core
from the equatorial Pacic. Subsequently another equatorial
Pacic core, V28239 (Shackleton and Opdyke, 1973), and
an Atlantic core (Van Donk, 1976) extended the reconstruc-
tion of glacialinterglacial variability through the Pliocene
Pleistocene boundary. Later developments under the ag of
the Deep Sea Drilling Program resulted in the extension of
the isotope record into the Early Pleistocene and Pliocene
(Shackleton and Hall, 1989; Ruddiman et al., 1987; Raymo
et al., 1989). The sequence shown in Fig. 22.1 is a combination
of measurements from cores V1930, ODP677, and ODP846
(Crowhurst, 2002). The isotope stages recognized in core V28
238, from the eastern Pacic (Shackleton and Opdyke, 1973),
are generally regarded as the type for the Late Pleistocene,
while those dened in cores ODP 677 and 846 are those for
the Middle Pleistocene and Pliocene, respectively (Shackleton
and Hall, 1989; Shackleton et al., 1995).
As regards nomenclature, the events differentiated in iso-
tope sequences are termed marine isotope stages (MIS); this
term is preferred by palaeoceanographers to the previously
widely used oxygen isotope stages (OIS). This is because of the
need to distinguish the isotope stages recognized from those
identied from ice cores or speleothem sequences (Shackle-
ton, pers. comm.). The stages are numbered from the present-
day (MIS 1 ) backwards in time, such that cold-climate or
glacial events are assigned even numbers and warm or inter-
glacial (and interstadial) events are given odd numbers. Indi-
vidual events or substages in marine isotope stages are indicated
either by lower-case letters or in some cases by a decimal sys-
tem, thus MIS 5 is divided into warm substages 5a, 5c, and
5e, and cold substages 5b and 5d, or 5.1, 5.3, 5.5, and 5.2 and
5.4, respectively, named from the top downwards. This ap-
parently unconventional top-downwards nomenclature origi-
nates from Emilianis (1955) original terminology and reects
the need to identify oscillations down cores from the ocean
oor.
The biggest problem with climate-based nomenclature,
like the marine isotope stratigraphy, is where the boundaries
should be drawn. Ideally, the boundaries should be placed at
a major climate change. However, this is problematic because
of the multifactorial nature of climate. But since the events
are only recognized through the responses they initiate in de-
positional systems and biota, a compromise must be agreed.
Although there are many places at which boundaries could be
drawn, in principle in ocean-sediment cores they are placed
at midpoints between temperature maxima and minima. The
The Pleistocene and Holocene Epochs 449
boundary points thus dened in ocean sequences are assumed
to be globally isochronous, although a drawback is that tem-
peratures may be very locally inuenced and may also show
time lag. The extremely slow sedimentation rate of ocean-oor
deposits and the relatively rapid mixing rate of oceanic wa-
ters argue in favour of the approach. Attempts to date these
MIS boundaries are now well established (Martinson et al.,
1987).
2 2 . 4 L A N D S E A C O R R E L AT I O N
In recent years it has become common to correlate terrestrial
sequences directly with those in the oceans. This arises from
the need felt to correlate local sequences to a regional or global
time scale, mentioned above, occasioned by the fragmentary
and highly variable nature of terrestrial sequences. The real-
ization that more events are represented in the deep-sea, and
indeed ice-core, sequences than were recognized on land, to-
gether with the growth in geochronology, has often led to the
replacement of locally established terrestrial scales. Instead, di-
rect correlations of terrestrial sequences to the global isotope
scale are advanced, as advocated, for example, by Kukla (1977).
The temptation to do this is understandable, but there are
serious practical limitations to this approach (cf. Schluchter,
1992).
In reality, there are very few means of directly and reli-
ably correlating between the ocean and terrestrial sediment
sequences. Direct correlation can be achieved using markers
that are preserved in both rock sequences, such as magnetic re-
versals, radiometric dating, or tephra layers, and, rarely, fossil
assemblages (particularly pollen). However, this is normally
impossible over most of the record and in most geographical
areas. Thus these correlations must rely totally on direct dating
or less reliably on the technique of curve matching; a widely
used approach in the Quaternary. The latter can only reli-
ably be achieved where long, continuous terrestrial sequences
are available, such as long lake proles (e.g. Tzedakis et al.,
1997), but even here it is not always straightforward (e.g. Watts
et al., 1995) because of overprinting by local factors. More-
over, the possibility of failure to identify leads-and-lags in
timing by the matching of curves is very real. Loesssoil se-
quences, such as those in China (An Zhisheng et al., 1990; Fig.
22.1), have also provided very important and locally reliable
correlative sequences, but they are also restricted by the need
to have continuous or at least quasi-continuous sedimentation
without subsequent disturbance. In discontinuous sequences,
which typify land and shelf environments, correlations with
ocean-basin sequences are potentially unreliable, in the
450 GEOLOGIC PERIODS
absence of fossil groups distributed across the facies boundaries
or potentially useful markers.
In recent years, the growth of stratigraphy recognized
from short-duration, often highly characteristic, events has
led to attempts to use these features as a basis for correla-
tion. This event stratigraphy (e.g. Lowe et al., 1999), typi-
cally deposition of a tephra layer or magnetic reversals, can
also include geological records of other potentially signicant-
type events such as oods, tectonic movements, changes of
sea level, climatic oscillations or rhythms, and the like. Such
occurrences, often termed sub-Milankovitch events, may
be preserved in a variety of environmental settings and thus
offer important potential tools for high- to very high-resolution
cross-correlation.
Of particular importance are the so-called Heinrich Lay-
ers which represent major iceberg-rafting events in the North
Atlantic Ocean (Heinrich, 1988; Bond et al., 1992; Bond and
Lotti, 1995). These detritus bands can potentially provide im-
portant lithostratigraphical markers for intercore correlation in
ocean sediments and the impact of their accompanying sudden
coolings (Heinrich Events) may be recognizable in certain sen-
sitive terrestrial sequences (see summary in Lowe and Walker,
1997). Similarly, the so-called essentially time-parallel periods
of abrupt climate change termed terminations (Broecker and
van Donk, 1970), seen in oxygen isotope proles, can also be
recognized on land as sharp changes in pollen assemblage com-
position or other parameters, for example, where sufciently
long and detailed sequences are available, such as in long lake
cores (cf. Tzedakis et at., 1997). However, their value for cor-
relation may be limited in high-sedimentation-rate sequences
because these terminations are not instantaneous but have
durations of several thousand years (Broecker and Henderson,
1998). These matters essentially concern questions of resolu-
tion and scale.
Of greater concern for the development of a high-resolution
terrestrial stratigraphy is the precise recognition and timing
of boundaries or events from the marine isotope stages on
land, and indeed vice versa. Until very recently this has not
been perceived as a problem since it has generally been as-
sumed that boundaries identied using a variety of proxies on
land are precisely coeval with those seen in ocean sediments.
Yet we know that different proxies respond at different rates
and in different ways to climate changes and these changes
themselves may be time-transgressive. Moreover, changes in
ocean currents, sea level, wind patterns, tectonics, and so on,
may further complicate local responses reected in coastal re-
gions. This has been forceably demonstrated recently by work
off Portugal by Sanchez-Goni et al. (1999) and Shackleton
et al. (2002) where the MIS 6/5 boundary has been shown to
have not been coeval with the SaalianEemian Stage boundary
on land, as previously assumed. The same point concerns the
MIS 12 boundary, which pre-dates the HolocenePleistocene
(FlandrianWeichselian) boundary by some 20004000 years.
Thus high-resolution land sequences and low-resolution ma-
rine sequences must be correlated with an eye to the detail
since it cannot be assumed that the boundaries recognized in
different situations are indeed coeval.
A different, yet equally relevant, example is the situation
that occurs during MIS 3. This period was generally inter-
preted by ocean sediment workers as being of an interstadial
character because it showed a decrease in 18 O relative to the
preceding and following MISs. Moreover, today it is known to
include considerable climatic variability of a lower amplitude
cyclic character (e.g. Bond cycles: Bond et al., 1992; Bond and
Lotti, 1995). However, on land, particularly in northwest Eu-
rope, this period is not wholly interstadial (sensu Jessen and
Milthers, 1928; see above), but is characterized by a variable,
predominantly cold, climate that is interrupted by short mi-
nor climatic ameliorations (interstadials), as evidenced by the
occurrence of frozen-ground features and of biota indicating
warmer and/or arid conditions (e.g. Guthrie and van Kolf-
schoten, in press).
Notwithstanding these problems of detail, which will no
doubt be further resolved as new evidence becomes available,
it is now generally possible to relate the onshoreoffshore se-
quences fairly reliably at a coarse scale at least for the last
glacialinterglacial cycle (Upper Pleistocene). This was rst
proposed by Woillard (1978), but is now well established (e.g.
Tzedakis et al., 1997). Beyond, things are very much more
complicated. Witness, for example, the longstanding dis-
agreements over the nature and duration of the northwest
European Saalian Stage, already referred to above (Litt and
Turner, 1993). Questions of whether the HolsteinianHoxnian
temperate (interglacial) stage relates to MIS 9 or 11, and thus
the immediately preceding ElsterianAnglian glacial stage (cf.
Zagwijn, 1992) to MIS 10 or 12 (Turner, 1998; de Beaulieu
and Reille, 1995) or even MIS 8, and precisely how many
interglacial-type events occur within the Saalian, leave much
potential for inaccuracy that cannot be resolved by counting-
backwards methods. In the absence of reliable dating these
correlations represent little more than a matter of belief. The
situation becomes signicantly more difcult in the early Mid-
dle Pleistocene (Turner, 1998), in spite of the fact that there
is the important marker of the BrunhesMatuyama magnetic
reversal event with which to correlate. In the Early Pleis-
tocene, where the dominant cyclicity of the climate signal is the

42 kyr periodicity, not the 100 kyr periodicity of the later
Quaternary, oceanterrestrial sequence correlation is virtually
impossible at present, except close to the major magnetic re-
versal boundaries.
To add further to these problems the phenomenon of de-
layed preservation of the magnetic signal that has been detected
in some terrestrial sediments, in particular in Chinese loess
(Zhou and Shackleton, 1999). This therefore suggests that it is
questionable whether magnetic reversals can be used as reliable
markers for inter-regional correlation in high-resolution, high
sedimentation-rate sequences.
Nevertheles, dating through astronomical (and subastro-
nomical) cycles is clearly a geochronological tool of consider-
able future potential, already realized in respect of the ocean
and ice-core sequences (e.g. Bjorck et al., 1998), and of singular
importance to understanding rates of process operation on land
once the problems of cross-facies correlation have been over-
come. Perhaps the way forward should be to date xed events
probably magnetic reversals or major climatic events as ac-
curately as possible, then use the astronomical cyclicity to
provide a ner-scale chronology. In future, it is important that
this scheme be phased-in to run in parallel and perhaps even-
tually to replace the fundamentally palaeontologically tuned
scheme that has served stratigraphical geology so well in the
past.
22.5 PLEISTOCENEHOLOCENE
B O U N DA RY
In the previous edition of this book it was stated that this
boundary was thought to correspond to a climatic event
around 10 000 radiocarbon years before present (BP). At
the time, the boundary was considered likely to be standard-
ized in a varved lacustrine sequence in Sweden (cf. Morner,
1976). It was originally proposed at the Eighth INQUA
Congress in Paris in 1969 and was subsequently accepted by the
INQUA Holocene Commission in 1982 (Olausson, 1982). The
climatic amelioration on which this boundary is identied
is well established in a variety of sediments, particularly in
northern Europe and North America. In Scandinavia, it cor-
responds to the following boundaries: European Pollen Zones
IIIIV, the Younger Dryaspre-Boreal and Late Glacialpost-
glacial (Morner, 1976; Mangerud et al., 1974). However, this
boundary denition was not formally ratied by the ICS. If it
is nally dened precisely at 10 000 (14 C yr BP), it would
be the rst stratigraphic boundary later than the Protero-
zoic to be dened chronometrically. This statement remains
broadly accurate, albeit seen in the light of the abundant ice
The Pleistocene and Holocene Epochs 451
core evidence, now available from both hemispheres (see be-
low), it appears highly likely that the boundary should ac-
tually occur at 11.5 kyr (ice-accumulation years: Dansgaard
et al., 1993). In spite of the potential accuracy of less than
ve years that can now be achieved in the annually laminated ice
cores, it is possible that the basal boundary stratotype of the
Holocene (or potentially a parastratotype) will be placed in an
annually laminated lacustrine sequence in western Germany
(Litt et al., 2001). This is because here it can be identied to
the nearest year and can be precisely radiocarbon-dated. More-
over, the sequence has yielded an excellent, easily correlated
fossil record, principally pollen and other freshwater microfos-
sils, which facilitates regional biostratigraphical correlation.
22.6 HOLOCENE SERIES
Holocene is the name for the most recent interval of Earth
history and includes the present day (see Section 21.2.4). It is
generally regarded as having begun 10 000 radiocarbon years,
or the last 11 500 calibrated (i.e. calender) years, before present
(i.e. 1950). The term Recent as an alternative to Holocene
is invalid and should not be used. Sediments accumulating or
processes operating at present should be referred to as mod-
ern or by similar synonyms.
The term Flandrian, derived from marine transgression
sediments on the Flanders coast of Belgium (Heinzelin and
Tavernier, 1957), has often been used as a synonym for
Holocene (Fig. 22.2). It has been adopted by authors who con-
sider that the last 10 000 years should have the same stage sta-
tus as previous interglacial events and thus be included in the
Pleistocene. In this case, the latter would thus extend to the
present day (cf. West, 1968, 1977, 1979; Hyvarinen, 1978). This
usage, although advocated particularly in Europe, has been los-
ing ground in the last two decades (cf. Lowe and Walker, 1997,
p. 16).
Various zonation schemes have been proposed for the
Holocene (Flandrian) Epoch. The most established is that of
Blytt and Sernander (cf. Lowe and Walker, 1997), which was
developed for peat bogs in Scandinavia in the late nineteenth
to earliest twentieth centuries. Their terminology, based on in-
terpreted climatic changes, comprised, in chronological order,
the pre-Boreal, Boreal, Atlantic, sub-Boreal, and sub-Atlantic.
This scheme was rened by the Swede von Post and others, us-
ing pollen analysis throughout Europe. Today this terminology
remains in use in northern Europe, although it has been largely
displaced by absolute chronology, particularly 14 C. Dating has
shown that the biostratigraphically dened zone boundaries
are diachronous (cf. Godwin, 1975). An attempt to x these
452 GEOLOGIC PERIODS
boundaries to precise dates was proposed for northern Europe
by Mangerud et al. (1974).
In prehistoric times, as well as later, climatic events have
largely served to identify the divisions elaborated by mod-
ern 14 C, other dating techniques, tephrachronology, and den-
drochronology as well as successively by archeology and
human history. Using these techniques Holocene time can
be divided into ultra-high-resolution divisions. For example,
recent developments indicate that cyclic patterns of climate
change of durations as short as 200 yr can be differentiated
and potentially used for demonstrating equivalence in peat
sequences.
Part IV Summary
23 Construction and summary of the geologic time scale
. . , . . , . .
A geologic time scale (GTS2004) is presented that integrates currently
available stratigraphic and geochronologic information. Key features
of the new scale are outlined, how it was constructed, and how it can
be improved. Major impetus to the new scale was provided through:
(a) advances in stratigraphic standardization and renement of the
International Chronostratigraphic Scale;
(b) enhanced methods of extracting linear time from the rock record,
leading to numerous high-resolution ages;
(c) progress with the use of global geochemical variations, Mi-
lankovitch climate cycles, and magnetic reversals as important
stratigraphic calibration tools;
(d) improved statistical techniques for extrapolating ages and as-
sociated uncertainties to the relative stratigraphic scale, using
high-resolution biozonations, including composite standards,
that scale stages.
2 3 . 1 C O N S T RU C T I O N O F G T S 2 0 0 4
23.1.1 The components of GTS2004
The Geologic Time Scale 2004 (GTS2004) project, that com-
menced in 1998, has compiled integrated scales of selected
components of Earth history including:
1. Formal international subdivisions of the rock-time
chronostratigraphic scale as ratied, or being considered,
by the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS).
The brief historical review of these subdivisions shows the
progress toward the goal of a full international standard for
chronostratigraphy. Due to space limitations, correlations
of selected regional stratigraphic scales to the international
standard are only included for some periods. The choice
was ours.
2. An informal proposal to subdivide Precambrian time into
eons and eras that reect natural stages in planetary evolu-
tion rather than a subdivision in arbitrary numerical ages.
A Geologic Time Scale 2004, eds. Felix M. Gradstein, James G. Ogg, and Alan
G. Smith. Published by Cambridge University Press.
c F. M. Gradstein,
J. G. Ogg, and A. G. Smith 2004.
455
3. Major biostratigraphic zonations and datums for each ge-
ologic period in the Phanerozoic. Composite zonations
derived from graphical correlation or constrained op-
timization methods were assembled for most Paleozoic
periods, and parts of the Triassic.
4. Magnetic reversal patterns throughout the Phanerozoic.
5. Major geochemical trends of strontium, carbon, and oxy-
gen isotopes in seawater.
6. High-resolution cyclic climatic and oceanographic
changes physically and chemically recorded in the sed-
imentary record.
7. Other signicant events (large igneous provinces, impacts,
etc.) which are important for global correlation or may
have this future potential.
8. Radiometric dates selected for their stratigraphic impor-
tance and reliability.
This massive array of information was melded together to pro-
duce a framework for Earth geologic history scaled to linear
time. The summary of the geologic time scale in Fig. 23.1
(see also Table 23.1) is a calibration of the Phanerozoic part
of the International Stratigraphic Chart. Ages of chronostrati-
graphic boundaries and durations of stages include estimates
of the 95% uncertainty (2-sigma). The Neogene portion is cal-
ibrated by astronomical cycles to within an orbital-precession
oscillation (20 kyr). Parts of the Paleocene, Cretaceous, Juras-
sic, and Triassic are also scaled using Milankowitch cycle
durations.
We are still a considerable distance from the goal where
geologic time scale calibration is achieved by precise direct
astronomical tuning or radiometric age dating of all successive
stage, zonal, or magnetic polarity chron boundaries. In fact, it is
doubtful if the rock record on Earth harbors all the precise age
information. This sparse skeleton of age control, especially
prior to 30 Ma (as of 2004), leaves considerable room for
interpolation in construction of a geologic time scale. Future
time scales will undoubtedly re-examine and reprocess a more
expanded array of Earth history data, and will undoubtedly
employ even more sophisticated means of interpolation.
456 PA RT I V S U M M A RY

GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

PHANEROZOIC PRECAMBRIAN
CENOZOIC MESOZOIC PALEOZOIC
AGE Period Epoch Stage AGE AGE Period Epoch Stage AGE AGE Period Epoch Stage AGE AGE Eon Era Period AGE
(Ma) (Ma) (Ma) (Ma) (Ma) (Ma) (Ma) (Ma)
0 Holocene 65.5 Changhsingian 251.0 542
Quaternary

proterozoic
Pleisto- Maastrichtian 255 253.8 600 Ediacaran
cene
Lopingian Wuchiapingian ~630
1.81 70 70.6 260 260.4
Pliocene

Gelasian

Neo-
L 2.59 700

Permian
Piacenzian 265 Guada- Capitanian
3.60
75
lupian Wordian 265.8 Cryogenian
Campanian 268.0 800
E Zanclean 270 Roadian
270.6
5 80 Kungurian 850
5.33 275 275.6 900
Messinian Late 83.5 280 Artinskian
Tonian
85 Santonian 85.8 1000
7.25 284.4 1000
Coniacian 285 Cisuralian
L 90 89.3 Sakmarian
290 Stenian

proterozoic
1100
Neogene

Tortonian Turonian
10 93.5 295 294.6
Asselian 1200

Meso-
95 1200
Cretaceous

Cenomanian 300 299.0

Late
Gzhelian

sylvanian
11.61 303.9
99.6 1300 Ectasian
Miocene

Penn-

Proterozoic
100 305 Kasimovian
Serravallian 306.5

Carboniferous
310 Middle Moscovian 1400
M 13.65 105 311.7 1400
Albian 315 Early Bashkirian
15 Langhian 318.1 1500 Calymmian
320

Late
15.97 110
112.0 Serpukhovian
325 1600 1600
115 326.4

Mississippian
330
Burdigalian Statherian

Middle
1700
Aptian 335 Visean
E 120
20 340 1800 1800
20.43 Early

proterozoic
125 125.0 345 345.3
Aquitanian 1900
Barremian Orosirian

Paleo-
350
Early

23.03 130 130.0 Tournaisian 2000

355
Hauterivian 2050
135 360 359.2 2100
25 136.4
L Chattian Valanginian 365 Rhyacian
Oligocene

140 140.2 Famennian 2200

370
Berriasian Late
Devonian

374.5 2300 2300

145 145.5 375
28.4
Tithonian 380 Frasnian 2400 Siderian
30 150 150.8 385 385.3
E Rupelian Late Kimmeridgian 390 Givetian 2500 2500

archean archean
155 155.7 Middle 391.8

Neo-
395 Eifelian 2600
Oxfordian 397.5
160 400
33.9 161.2 Emsian 2700
Callovian 405
35 165 164.7 Early 407.0
L Priabonian
Jurassic

Bathonian
167.7 410 Pragian 2800 2800
Middle 411.2
170 Bajocian 415 Lochkovian
37.2 416.0 2900
Meso-

171.6 Pridoli 418.7

Silurian

Aalenian 420 Ludlow Ludfordian

421.3
Gorstian
Bartonian 175 175.6 Homerian 422.9 3000
425 Wenlock 426.2
Sheinwoodian
40 428.2
40.4 180 Toarcian 430 3100
Telychian
Paleogene

183.0 435 Llandovery 436.0

185 Aeronian 3200 3200
Pliensbachian 440 439.0
M Rhuddanian
Eocene

Early
archean

443.7 3300
445
Paleo-

189.6 Hirnantian
190 445.6
Lutetian
Ordovician

45 Sinemurian 450 3400

Late
Archean

195 455
196.5 455.8
Hettangian 460 3500
200 199.6 460.9
48.6
Rhaetian 465 Middle Darriwilian 3600 3600
203.6 468.1
205 470
50 471.8 3700
475
210 Norian 478.6
480 Early 3800
E Ypresian 215 Late 485 Tremadocian
3900
216.5 488.3
Eoarchean

490
Triassic

220 495 Furongian 4000

55
55.8 Carnian Paibian
500 4100
Cambrian

225 501
L Thanetian 228.0 505
Middle 4200
230
Paleocene

58.7 510
Ladinian 515
513
4300
60 235
M Selandian Middle 237.0 520
4400
61.7 240 525
Anisian Early Lower limit
530 4500
E Danian 245 245.0 is not
535 4600
Early Olenekian defined
65 65.5 250 Induan 249.7 540
251.0 542.0

Figure 23.1 Summary of A Geologic Time Scale 2004.

 Construction and summary of the geologic time scale 457

Table 23.1 Summary of ages and durations of stages in GTS2004a

EON, Era, System, Age of Est. myr Est. myr

Series, Stage Base (Ma) (2-sigma) Comment Duration (2-sigma)

PHANEROZOIC
Cenozoic Era
Neogene System
Holocene Series
base Holocene 11.5 ka 0.00
Pleistocene Series
base Upper Pleistocene 0.126 0.00 0.115 0.0
subseries
base Middle Pleistocene 0.781 0.00 0.655 0.0
subseries
base Pleistocene Series 1.806 0.00 1.025 0.0
Pliocene Series
base Gelasian Stage 2.588 0.00 0.782 0.0
base Piacenzian Stage 3.600 0.00 1.01 0.0
base Zanclean Stage, base 5.333 0.00 1.73 0.0
Pliocene Series
Miocene Series
base Messinian Stage 7.248 0.00 1.92 0.0
base Tortonian Stage 11.608 0.00 4.36 0.0
base Serravallian Stage 13.65 0.00 2.04 0.0
base Langhian Stage 15.97 0.0 2.32 0.0
base Burdigalian Stage 20.43 0.0 4.46 0.0
base Aquitanian Stage, base 23.03 0.0 2.60 0.0
Miocene Series, base
Neogene System

Paleogene System
Oligocene Series
base Chattian Stage 28.4 0.1 5.4 0.0
base Rupelian Stage, base 33.9 0.1 5.4 0.0
Oligocene Series
Eocene Series
base Priabonian Stage 37.2 0.1 3.3 0.0
base Bartonian Stage 40.4 0.2 3.2 0.0
base Lutetian Stage 48.6 0.2 8.2 0.1
base Ypresian Stage, base 55.8 0.2 7.2 0.1
Eocene Series
Paleocene Series
base Thanetian Stage 58.7 0.2 2.9 0.0
base Selandian Stage 61.7 0.2 3.0 0.0
base Danian Stage, base 65.5 0.3 3.7 0.0
Paleogene System, base
Cenozoic

Mesozoic Era
Cretaceous System
Upper
base Maastrichtian Stage 70.6 0.6 Duration uncertainty increased to 5.1 0.5
reect correlation problems to GSSP
base Campanian Stage 83.5 0.7 Duration uncertainty increased to 12.9 0.7
reect correlation problems to GSSP
(cont.)
458 PA RT I V S U M M A RY

Table 23.1 (cont.)

EON, Era, System, Age of Est. myr Est. myr

Series, Stage Base (Ma) (2-sigma) Comment Duration (2-sigma)

base Santonian Stage 85.8 0.7 2.3 0.1

base Coniacian Stage 89.3 1.0 0.2 myr added to uncertainty to 3.5 0.3
account for offset to actual proposed
GSSP marker
base Turonian Stage 93.5 0.8 4.2 0.3
base Cenomanian Stage 99.6 0.9 6.1 0.3
Lower
base Albian Stage 112.0 1.0 12.4 0.3
base Aptian Stage 125.0 1.0 13.0 0.5
base Barremian Stage 130.0 1.5 5.0 0.5
base Hauterivian Stage 136.4 2.0 6.4 1.0
base Valanginian Stage 140.2 3.0 3.8 1.0
base Berriasian Stage, base 145.5 4.0 5.3 1.7
Cretaceous System

Jurassic System
Upper
base Tithonian Stage 150.8 4.0 5.3 1.8
base Kimmeridgian Stage 155.7 4.0 Boreal placement 4.2 1.5
base Oxfordian Stage 161.2 4.0 6.2 1.5
Middle
base Callovian Stage 164.7 4.0 3.5 1.0
base Bathonian Stage 167.7 3.5 3.0 1.0
base Bajocian Stage 171.6 3.0 3.9 1.0
base Aalenian Stage 175.6 2.0 4.0 1.0
Lower
base Toarcian Stage 183.0 1.5 7.4 1.0
base Pliensbachian Stage 189.6 1.5 6.6 0.8
base Sinemurian Stage 196.5 1.0 6.9 0.8
base Hettangian Stage, base 199.6 0.6 3.1 0.5
Jurassic System

Triassic System
Upper
base Rhaetian Stage 203.6 1.5 4.0 1.0
base Norian Stage 216.5 2.0 12.9 0.5
base Carnian Stage 228.0 2.0 11.5 0.5
Middle
base Ladinian Stage 237.0 2.0 9.0 0.5
base Anisian Stage 245.0 1.5 8.0 1.5
Lower
base Olenekian Stage 249.7 0.7 4.7 1.0
base Induan Stage, base 251.0 0.4 1.3 0.3
Triassic System,
base Mesozoic

Paleozoic Era
Permian System
Lopingian Series
base Changhsingian Stage 253.8 0.7 2.8 0.1
base Wuchiapingian Stage 260.4 0.7 6.6 0.1
 Construction and summary of the geologic time scale 459

Table 23.1 (cont.)

EON, Era, System, Age of Est. myr Est. myr

Series, Stage Base (Ma) (2-sigma) Comment Duration (2-sigma)

Guadalupian Series
base Capitanian Stage 265.8 0.7 5.4 0.1
base Wordian Stage 268.0 0.7 2.2 0.0
base Roadian Stage 270.6 0.7 2.6 0.1
base Kungurian Stage 275.6 0.7 5.0 0.1
base Artinskian Stage 284.4 0.7 8.8 0.2
base Sakmarian Stage 294.6 0.8 10.2 0.2
base Asselian Stage, base 299.0 0.8 4.4 0.1
Permian System

Carboniferous System
Pennsylvanian Subsystem
base Gzhelian Stage 303.9 0.9 4.9 0.1
base Kasimovian Stage 306.5 1.0 2.6 0.0
base Moscovian Stage 311.7 1.1 5.2 0.1
base Bashkirian Stage, base 318.1 1.3 6.4 0.2
Pennsylvanian Subsystem
Mississippian Subsystem
base Serpukhovian 326.4 1.6 8.4 0.2
base Visean 345.3 2.1 18.9 0.7
base Tournaisian, 359.2 2.5 13.9 0.6
base Mississippian
Subsystem, base
Carboniferous System

Devonian System
Upper
base Famennian Stage 374.5 2.6 15.3 0.6
base Frasnian Stage 385.3 2.6 10.8 0.4
Middle
base Givetian Stage 391.8 2.7 6.5 0.3
base Eifelian Stage 397.5 2.7 5.7 0.2
Lower
base Emsian Stage 407.0 2.8 9.5 0.4
base Pragian Stage 411.2 2.8 4.2 0.2
base Lochkovian Stage, base 416.0 2.8 4.8 0.2
Devonian System

Silurian System
Pridoli Series
base Pridoli Series (not 418.7 2.7 Uncertainties ramped from 2.7 0.1
subdivided in stages) computed base-Devonian to low
value at base-Silurian
Ludlow Series
base Ludfordian Stage 421.3 2.6 2.5 0.1
base Gorstian Stage 422.9 2.5 1.7 0.1
Wenlock Series
base Homerian Stage 426.2 2.4 3.3 0.1
base Sheinwoodian Stage 428.2 2.3 2.0 0.1
(cont.)
460 PA RT I V S U M M A RY

Table 23.1 (cont.)

EON, Era, System, Age of Est. myr Est. myr

Series, Stage Base (Ma) (2-sigma) Comment Duration (2-sigma)

Llandovery Series
base Telychian Stage 436.0 1.9 7.8 0.2
base Aeronian Stage 439.0 1.8 3.0 0.1
base Rhuddanian Stage, base 443.7 1.5 4.7 0.1
Silurian System

Ordovician System
Upper
base Hirnantian stage 445.6 1.5 1.9 0.1
base of sixth stage 455.8 1.6 10.2 0.3
(not yet named)
base of fth stage 460.9 1.6 5.1 0.2
(not yet named)
Middle
base Darriwilian Stage 468.1 1.6 7.3 0.2
base of third stage 471.8 1.6 3.7 0.1
(not yet named)
Lower
base of second stage 478.6 1.7 6.8 0.1
(not yet named)
base of Tremadocian Stage, 488.3 1.7 9.7 0.2
base Ordovician System

Cambrian System
Upper (Furongian)
Series
upper stage(s) in Furongian not dened
base Paibian Stage, 501.0 2.0 Age of boundary is approximate
base Furongian Series estimate (see text)
Middle 513.0 2.0 Age of boundary is approximate
estimate (see text)
Lower
base Cambrian System, base 542.0 1.0
Paleozoic, base
PHANEROZOIC

a Uncertainties are 2-sigma (95% condence).

23.1.2 Calibration methods to linear time used in
GTS2004
The main steps involved in GTS2004 time scale construction
were:
Step 1. Construct an updated global chronostratigraphic
scale for the Earths rock record.
Step 2. Identify key linear-age calibration levels for the
chronostratigraphic scale using radiometric age dates,
and/or apply astronomical tuning to cyclic sediment or
stable isotope sequences which had biostratigraphic or
magnetostratigraphic correlations.
Step 3. Interpolate the combined chronostratigraphic and
chronometric scale where direct information is insuf-
cient.
Step 4. Calculate or estimate error bars on the combined
chronostratigraphic and chronometric information to
obtain a geologic time scale with estimates of uncertainty
on boundaries and on unit durations.
Step 5. Peer review the geologic time scale

The rst step, integrating multiple types of stratigraphic
information in order to construct the chronostratigraphic scale,
is the most time-consuming; it summarizes and synthesizes
centuries of detailed geological research. The second step,
identifying which radiometric and cycle-stratigraphic studies
would be used as the primary constraints for assigning linear
ages, is the one that is evolving most rapidly since the last
decade. Historically, time scale building went from an exercise
with very few and relatively inaccurate radiometric dates, as
used by Holmes (1947, 1960), to one with many dates with
greatly varying analytical precision (like GTS89 or, to some
extent, SEPM95). Next came studies that selected a few radio-
metric dates with high internal analytical precision (e.g. Cande
and Kent, 1992a, 1995; Obradovich, 1993; Cooper, 1999b) or
measure time relative to present using astronomical cycles (e.g.
Hilgen et al., 1995, 2000c; Shackleton et al., 1999). This new
philosophy is also adhered to in this book.
In addition to selecting radiometric ages based upon their
stratigraphic control and analytical precision, we also applied
the following criteria or corrections:
1. Stratigraphically constrained radiometric ages with the
UPb method on zircons were accepted from the isotope
dilution mass spectrometry (TIMS) method, but gener-
ally not from the high-resolution ion microprobe (HR-
SIMS, also known as SHRIMP) that uses the Sri Lanka
(SL)13 standard. An exception is the Carboniferous Pe-
riod, where there is a dearth of TIMS dates and more
uncertainty.
2. 40 Ar/39 Ar radiometric ages were re-computed to be in
accord with the revised ages for laboratory monitor stan-
dards: 523.1 4.6 Ma for MMhb-1 (McClure Mountain
hornblende), 28.34 0.28 Ma for TCR (Taylor Creek
Rhyolite sanidine) and 28.02 0.28 Ma for FCT (Fish
Canyon Tuff sanidine). Systematic (external) errors and
uncertainties in decay constants were partially incorpo-
rated (see Chapters 6 and 8). No glauconite dates were
used.
The bases of the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic are
bracketed by analytically precise ages at their GSSP or pri-
mary correlation markers 542 1.0, 251.0 0.4 and
65.5 0.3 Ma, respectively and there are direct age dates
on base-Carboniferous, base-Permian, base-Jurassic, and base-
Oligocene; but most other period or stage boundaries prior to
the Neogene lack direct age control. Therefore, the third step,
linear interpolation, plays a key role for most of GTS2004. This
detailed and high-resolution process incorporated several tech-
niques, depending upon the available information (Fig. 23.2):
Construction and summary of the geologic time scale 461
1. A composite standard of graptolite zones spanning the
latest Cambrian, Ordovician, and Silurian interval was
derived from 200+ sections in oceanic and slope environ-
ment basins using the constrained optimization method
(see Chapters 12 and 13). With zone thickness taken as di-
rectly proportional to zone duration, the detailed compos-
ite sequence was scaled using selected, high-precision zir-
con and sanidine age dates. For the Carboniferous through
Permian, a composite standard of conodont, fusulinid, and
ammonoid events from many classical sections was cali-
brated to a combination of UPb and 40 Ar/39 Ar dates
with assigned external error estimates. A composite stan-
dard of conodont zones was used for Early Triassic. This
procedure directly scaled all stage boundaries and bio-
stratigraphic horizons.
2. Detailed direct ammonite-zone ages for the Late Creta-
ceous of the Western Interior of the USA were obtained
by a cubic-spline t of the zonal events and 25 40 Ar/39 Ar
dates. The base-Turonian age is directly bracketed by this
40
Ar/39 Ar set, and ages of other stage boundaries and
stratigraphic events are estimated using calibrations to
this primary scale.
3. Seaoor-spreading interpolations were done on a compos-
ite marine magnetic lineation pattern for the Late Jurassic
through Early Cretaceous in the Western Pacic and for
the Late Cretaceous through early Neogene in the South
Atlantic Ocean. Ages of biostratigraphic events were as-
signed according to their calibration to these magnetic
polarity time scales.
4. Astronomical tuning of cyclic sediments was used for the
Neogene and Late Triassic, and portions of the Early and
Middle Jurassic, the middle part of the Cretaceous, and
the Paleocene. The Neogene astronomical scale is directly
tied to the Present; the astronomical scale provides linear-
duration constraints on polarity chrons, biostratigraphic
zones, and entire stages.
5. Proportional scaling relative to component biozones or
subzones. In intervals where none of the above infor-
mation under Items 14 was available it was necessary
to return to the methodology employed by past time
scales. This procedure was necessary in portions of the
Middle Triassic and Middle Jurassic. Devonian stages
were scaled from approximate equal duration of a set of
high-resolution subzones of ammonoids and conodonts,
tted to an array of high-precision dates.
The actual geomathematics employed for the above data sets
(Items 1, 2, 3, and 5) constructed for the OrdovicianSilurian,
462 PA RT I V S U M M A RY

&
est lihooitting
ite
ing

tion
rd pos

ima d
ect

err x. likeline f
ing

cal
ing

es l
zon ona

nda om
ing dir
tun

ing

dat

ma ic sp
sta d c
spr floor

subporti
dat ailed
ead
ital

ect

or
l

cub
sea

sca
orb

pro
det
dir
Ma
0
Cenozoic

90
Cretaceous

180 Jurassic

Triassic
270 Permian

Carboniferous
360
Devonian
Silurian
450
Ordovician
Cambrian
540
Methods used to construct Geologic Time Scale 2004 (GTS 2004)
Figure 23.2 Methods used to construct A Geologic Time Scale 2004 of data available within different intervals.
(GTS2004) integrate different techniques depending on the quality

Devonian, CarboniferousPermian, Late Cretaceous, and Pa-
leogene involved cubic-spline curve tting to relate the ob-
served ages to their stratigraphic position. During this process
the ages were weighted according to their variances based on
the lengths of their error bars. A chi-square test was used for
identifying and reducing the weights of relatively few outliers
with error bars that were much narrower than could be ex-
pected on the basis of most ages in the data set.
Stratigraphic uncertainty was incorporated in the weights
assigned to the observed ages during the spline-curve tting. In
the nal stage of analysis, Ripleys MLFR algorithm, for max-
imum likelihood tting of a functional relationship, was used
for error estimation, resulting in 2-sigma (95% condence) er-
ror bars for the estimated chronostratigraphic boundary ages
and stage durations. The uncertainties on older stage bound-
aries generally increase owing to potential systematic errors in
the different radiometric methods, rather than to the analyti-
cal precision of the laboratory measurements (Table 23.1 and
Fig. 23.3). In this connection, we mention that biostratigraphic
error is fossil event and fossil zone dependent, rather than age
dependent.
In Mesozoic intervals that were scaled using the seaoor-
spreading model or proportionally scaled using paleontological
subzones, the assigned uncertainties are conservative
estimates based on variability observed when applying differ-
ent assumptions (see discussions in Chapters 5, 1719). Ages
and durations of Neogene stages derived from orbital tun-
ing are considered to be accurate to within a precession cycle
(20 kyr) assuming that all cycles are correctly identied and
that the theoretical astronomical tuning for progressively older
deposits is precise.
23.2 FUTURE TRENDS IN GEOLOGIC TIME
SCALES
The changing philosophy in time scale building has made
it more important to undertake high-resolution radiomet-
ric study of critical stratigraphic boundaries and extend the
 Construction and summary of the geologic time scale 463

Cenozoic
Neogene Milankovitch-cycle tuning

Paleogene Milankovitch-cycle
tuning and spline-fitted
C-sequence spreading model
Spline fit to
ArAr dating of
100 ammonite zones Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous
M-sequence spreading model has high
uncertainty owing to lack of high-precision
calibrations

Mesozoic
UPb age on
proposed
baseJurassic
200 GSSP
Systematic error of 2 myr on
Bracketing Late Triassic cycle-scaled
UPb dates on Newark magnetic scale
Age of stage boundary (Ma)

base-Triassic
GSSP

300
Progressive increase in systematic errors
applied to radiometric scaling on composite
standards of biostratigraphy from Permian
through Carboniferous

Paleozoic
400

Ramping to join two independent

spline-fitted data sets

Progressive increase in
systematic errors
500 applied to radiometric
scaling on composite
graptolite scale
UPb age
on ash near
basal-Cambrian
cambrian

events
Pre-

600
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
Uncertainty (myr; 95% confidence)
Figure 23.3 Estimated uncertainties (95% condence) on linear The Triassic through middle Cretaceous generally has higher
ages of stage boundaries. These estimates partially incorporate uncertainties owing to the dearth of precise radiometric ages and
potential systematic errors in radiometric methods. Orbital tuning inadequate calibration of seaoor-spreading models.
relative to the present yields negligible uncertainties in the Neogene.

astronomical tuning into progressively older sediments. Good
examples are Bowring et al. (1998) for basal-Triassic, Amthor
et al. (2003) for basal-Cambrian, and Hilgen et al. (2000c)
for base-Tortonian. The philosophy is that obtaining high-
precision age dating at a precisely dened stratigraphic bound-
ary avoids stratigraphic bias and its associated uncertainty in
rock and in time. In this respect, it is of vital importance that the
ICS not only completes the denition of all stage boundaries,
but also actively considers denition of subdivisions within the
many long stages (see Chapter 2). Regional and philosophical
464 PA RT I V S U M M A RY
arguments between stratigraphers should be actively resolved
to reach consensus conclusions with focus on global correla-
tion implications. Stratigraphic standardization precedes lin-
ear time calibration.
Even more rened and more time extensive scaling of zones
and stages with the deterministic and probabilistic quantitative
methods outlined in Chapter 3 and in Chapters 1116 is prob-
ably feasible today, and should be pursued actively. Progress
with a natural time scale for the Precambrian is also a high and
challenging priority (Chapter 10), not in the least because a
solar scale for all of science should soon be over the horizon.
In the process of assembling the pieces of the new time scale,
i.e. GTS2004, several decisions had to be made with respect
to the global radiometric data set. This data set should be sub-
jected to further scrutiny, both within radiometric laboratories
and in the eld. For example, signicant discrepancies exist be-
tween UPb dates on the PT boundary beds and in the middle
Triassic, both of which appear to be a zircon problem, and the
misalignment of HRSIMS dating, using the SL13 standard,
and TIMS dating in parts of the Paleozoic. Other decisions
(Chapter 6), i.e. which 40 Ar/39 Ar monitor age value to use, and
which decay constant, also need further study and consensus
building among radiometric specialists. For example, intercal-
ibration of independent astronomical and radioisotopic dating
methods is not yet solved, but new results (Kuiper, 2003)
point to an astronomically derived age of 28.24 0.01 Ma
for the Fish Canyon Tuff (FCT) sanidine. This precise age
requires careful evaluation in the geochronologic community.
Enhanced utilization of geochemical trends and magnetic
reversal patterns to resolve linear scaling of critical intervals
such as the long JurassicEarly Cretaceous and parts of the
Triassic are also highly desirable. The virtual absence of reliable
radiometric age dates for the long JurassicCretaceous interval
needs urgent correction.
In summary, improvement and consolidation of the time
scale will depend on denition of the remaining stage bound-
aries, on astronomical tuning of durations of as many intervals
as possible, on more evenly time-distributed high-resolution
age dating, and on more detailed relative scaling of stages with
biozones. For example, tuning and calibration of the Paleo-
gene time scale at much higher levels of resolution and preci-
sion than are presently available will be achieved within this
decade. Astronomical calibrations of the geologic time scale in
its earlier parts is more challenging than in the Neogene and re-
quires careful evaluation of uncertainties. In the medium term,
it can be predicted that complete coverage of astronomically
calibrated geological markers will exist for the entire Cenozoic
and that traditional geochronological scales, astronomical cali-
brations, and magneto- and biostratigraphic datums and zonal
composites will become more closely intertwined and aligned
in the Mesozoic and Paleozoic.
A high-resolution geologic time scale allows more insight
into the cause and effect of all physical, chemical, and biological
processes that have left their enduring and wondrous mark on
Earth. The order of things and the order in nature is our goal,
such is the reward of our undertakings.
Appendix 1 Recommended color coding of stages
. . . .
Ever since time scale charts have become wallpaper items in
geological ofces the world over, color of stratigraphic units
has been a hot topic. Colors stir the senses, imagination,
and also indignation. In this respect, the senior editor (FMG)
of this book recalls strong emotional reactions of colleagues
when he innocently tried to adopt the logical, pragmatic, and
easily reproducible spectral color scheme in use with the US
Geological Survey for an early version of the Gradstein and
Ogg (1996) wall chart, courtesy of Saga Petroleum. He had
to backtrack to so-called standard colors, i.e. Harland et al.s
(1990) emulation of the cryptic UNESCO color scheme.
Since there is consensus among geologists that the strati-
graphic color scheme should be a reproducible and practical
one, we will dwell on this issue below. At the end, our choice
of colors will be made clear.
There are several well-known time scale charts in circula-
tion, e.g.
1. A Geologic Time Scale 1989 sponsored by BP for Harland
et al. (1990).
2. The A3 format and hand-held plasticized card of the Geo-
logical Time Scale by Gradstein and Ogg (1996) in Episodes.
3. The fth edition of the Geological Time Table (Haq and van
Eysinga, 1998).
4. The Geological Time Chart 2001 compiled by Okulitch
(2002) for the Canadian Geological Atlas.
5. The Phanerozoic Timescale Wall Chart as part of the book
An Australian Phanerozoic Time Scale (Young and Laurie,
1996).
6. The International Stratigraphic Chart (Remane, 2000) spon-
sored by ICS, IUGS, CGMW, and UNESCO.
Unfortunately, all these charts differ in their use of color,
particularly and largely so with respect to the pre-Cretaceous.
The Cretaceous, in shades of green, and the Cenozoic, in shades
of yellow/brownish, are more or less, but not quite, harmo-
nized. The Gradstein and Ogg (1996) chart tried to emulate
the color scheme of Harland et al. (1990) popular in parts of
Europe, but did not quite succeed. The colors used in Remane
(2000) for the divisions down to stage rank are supposed to
465
be the same as those employed with the Commission for the
Geological Map of the World (CGMW/CCGM), reason why
it is instructive to learn from the discussion in Harland et al.s
book (1990, p. 221), which we update below with our own
ndings.
The Commission for the Geological Map of the World
(CGMW) was conceived at the Second International Geo-
logical Congress, Bologna, 1881, and the choice of colors for
(largely) time-stratigraphic purposes is discussed at length in
the Congress Proceedings. Apart from color plates in the Pro-
ceedings volume, an early example of the agreed standard color
scheme is presented by the Geological Map of Europe 1:500 000
prepared in accordance with the Congresss resolutions. It
seemed appropriate to Harland et al. (1982) to consider adopt-
ing the 1881 scheme, but the idea was abandoned at an early
stage when they found the original descriptions of the colors
to be imprecise while, after the passage of nearly 100 years, the
colors in the Proceedings volume and on two separate examples
in the Proceedings of the European map no longer matched and
no standard colors could therefore be determined.
The work of the CGMW has continued, mainly since
the Eleventh International Geological Congress in Stockholm,
1910, with interruptions in the war years 19141918 and 1939
1945. The work is pursued in Paris, where it is connected with
the IUGS and with UNESCO, which publishes its maps. The
UNESCO Geological World Atlas (Choubert and Faure-Muret,
1976) represents the culmination of decades of trials and the
rst sheets were produced in 1974. Vojacek (1979) outlined the
history of this project and provided useful background techni-
cal information about the printing of the atlas. This author also
noted at that time that with this project UNESCO also hopes
to set international standards for the presentation of geological
symbols and for the color designs of geological maps.
This seemed a laudable aim, and sufcient justication for
adopting the UNESCO colors, but there proved to be a serious
commercial obstacle to this course of action. UNESCO used
no less than 35 colors (including black) in printing their atlas
(Vojacek, 1979). This was impractical for the low-cost com-
mercial printing operation envisaged by Cambridge University
Table A1.1 Standard color scales for geologic time units (screen proportions or percentages) according to the Commission for the Geological Map of the World (CGMW) and the
US Geological Survey. The CGMW colors were used for all color gures in this book. Tables of both scales (and displayed as color graphics) can be downloaded from the ICS
website (www.stratigraphy.org) under Time Scale webpages

Comm. Geol. Map of World (Paris) color set USGS color set
Geologic unit CODE RGB Exact CMYK Rounded RGB CMY CMY
CMYK code

PHANEROZOIC PH light blue 154/217/229 40/0/1,7/0 40/0/0/0 light blue 179/226/209 301 30/0/13
Cenozoic CZ yellow 250/253/1 1.9/0/100/0 5/0/100/0 yellow 255/255/0 00X 0/0/100
Neogene N yellow hues 255/232/0 0/9/100/0 0/10/100/0 yellow hues 253/204/138 024 0/20/40
Holocene Q2 255/251/240 0/1.5/5/0 0/0/5/0 255/255/179 003 0/0/30
Pleistocene Q1 255/247/176 0/3/30/0 0/5/30/0 255/235/98 0A6 0/8/60
Pliocene N2 255/255/153 0/0/40/0 0/0/40/0 254/235/172 0A3 0/8/30
Miocene N1 255/255/0 0/0/100/0 0/0/100/0 255/222/0 01X 0/13/100
Paleogene E tan hues 253/154/82 0/40/60/0 0/40/60/0 orangish-brown 255/179/0 03X 0/30/100
hues
Oligocene E3 254/224/144 0/12/40/0 0/15/40/0 234/198/114 A25 8/20/50
Eocene E2 254/209/59 0/18/75/0 0/20/75/0 234/173/67 A37 8/30/70
Paleocene E1 235/192/109 7.6/22.5/51.8/0 10/25/50/0 235/147/1 A4X 8/40/100
Mesozoic MZ darker blue 103/197/202 60/0/10.2/0 60/0/10/0 dull green 127/173/81 517 50/8/70
Cretaceous K green hues 197/229/71 22.8/0/75/0 25/0/75/0 green hues 127/195/28 50X 50/0/100
Upper K2 226/243/152 11.4/0/40/0 10/0/40/0 22/241/151 104 13/0/40
Lower K1 65/170/84 75/0/75/0 75/0/75/0 179/223/127 305 30/0/50
Jurassic J bluish hues 226/244/224 11.4/0/10.2/0 10/0/10/0 turquoise hues 77/180/126 705 70/0/50
Upper J3 179/226/230 30/0/3.4/0 30/0/5/0 204/235/197 202 20/0/20
Middle J2 130/215/232 50/5/0/0 50/5/0/0 127/202/147 504 50/0/40
Lower J1 0/160/198 100/0/0/0 100/0/0/0 102/192/146 604 60/0/40
Triassic T purplish hues 107/1/125 60/100/0/0 60/100/0/0 greenish-blue hues 103/195/183 602 60/0/20
Upper T3 228/197/225 10/20/0/0 10/20/0/0 204/236/225 20A 20/0/8
Middle T2 177/137/193 30/40/0/0 30/40/0/0 153/215/190 402 40/0/20
Lower T1 152/57/153 40/75/0/0 40/75/0/0 103/179/159 6A3 60/8/30
Paleozoic PZ pale green 153/192/141 40/10/40/0 40/10/40/0 blue 128/181/213 510 50/13/0
Permian P orange-red hues 240/64/40 5/75/75/0 5/75/75/0 cyan hues 103/198/221 600 60/0/0
Lopingian P3 250/154/163 0/40/20/0 0/40/20/0 179/227/238 300 30/0/0
Guadalupian P2 240/150/82 5/40/60/0 5/40/60/0 153/216/216 40A 40/0/8
Cisuralian P1 202/60/64 20/75/60/0 20/75/60/0 128/206/201 501 50/0/13
Carboniferous C 103/171/160 60/12/27.6/0 60/10/30/0 light-blue 153/189/218 410 40/13/0
Pennsylvanian C2 153/196/181 40/9/20.7/0 40/10/20/0 blue 104/159/202 620 60/20/0
Mississippian C1 103/148/109 60/22.5/51.8/0 60/25/50/0 bluish-gray 128/145/173 531 50/30/13
 Devonian D dark tan 203/140/55 20/40/75/0 20/40/75/0 bluish-purple hues 153/153/201 430 40/30/0
Upper D3 grayish-green hues 204/206/169 20/12/27.6/0 20/10/30/0 203/189/220 220 20/20/0
Middle D2 153/165/109 40/22.5/51.8/0 40/25/50/0 153/131/190 440 40/40/0
Lower D1 153/148/73 40/30/69/0 40/30/70/0 128/125/186 540 50/40/0
Silurian S light cyan hues 179/226/208 30/0/13.6/0 30/0/15/0 purple hues 177/114/182 350 30/50/0
Pridoli S4 245/251/240 3.8/0/5/0 5/0/5/0 233/199/226 A20 8/20/0
Ludlow S3 226/244/224 11.4/0/10.2/0 10/0/10/0 202/167/209 230 20/30/0
Wenlock S2 197/232/195 22,8/0/20.4/0 20/0/20/0 177/137/179 34A 30/40/8
Llandovery S1 153/215/179 40/0/25.5/0 40/0/25/0 152/88/168 460 40/60/0
Ordovician O dark turquoise 0/146/112 100/0/60/0 100/0/60/0 pink hues 249/129/166 051 0/50/13
Upper O3 102/192/146 60/0/40/0 60/0/40/0 251/180/189 031 0/30/13
Middle O2 65/156/104 75/10/60/0 75/10/60/0 250/154/177 041 0/40/13
Lower O1 1/128/85 100/10/75/0 100/10/75/0 230/125/164 A51 8/50/13
Cambrian C greenish-brown hues 64/133/33 75/20/100/0 75/20/100/0 orange-brown 251/128/95 055 0/50/50
hues
Upper C 3 215/211/170 15.2/12/27.6/0 15/10/30/0 253/205/184 022 0/20/20
Middle C 2 182/174/109 28.5/22.5/51.8/0 30/25/50/0 232/174/151 A33 8/30/30
Lower C 1 102/169/75 60/10/75/0 60/10/75/0 231/124/114 A54 8/50/40
PRECAMBRIAN P-C red 247/67/112 0/75/30/0 0/75/30/0 brown 178/134/83 346 30/40/60
PROTEROZOIC PR dull orange-reddish 251/154/148 0/40/27.6/0 0/40/30/0 204/216/145 2A4 20/8/40
Neoproterozoic NP dark tan-orange 254/179/67 0/30/69/0 0/30/70/0 pinkish-brown 202/165/149 233 20/30/30
hues
Ediacaran NP3 234/216/188 A12 8/13/20
Cryogenian NP2 220/171/170 132 13/30/20
Tonian NP1 203/164/108 235 20/30/50
Mesoproterozoic MP light tan 253/180/105 0/30/51.8/0 0/30/50/0 221/194/136 124 13/20/40
Paleoproterozoic PP red 247/67/115 0/75/27.6/0 0/75/30/0 179/178/94 326 30/20/60
ARCHEAN AR pinkish-red 240/2/127 0/100/0/0 0/100/0/0 gray hues 153/173/172 422 40/20/20
NA 249/155/197 0/40/3.45/0 0/40/5/0 203/205/200 211 20/13/13
MA 234/102/177 5/60/0/0 5/60/0/0 221/194/136 322 30/20/20
PA 244/68/159 0/75/0/0 0/75/0/0 153/151/145 433 40/30/30
EA 218/2/127 10/100/0/0 10/100/0/0 128/144/144 533 50/30/30
468 APPENDICES
Press for the Harland et al. 1982 and 1990 time scales,
and represents a standard unlikely to be emulated by many
organizations, government or private. Hence, these authors,
upon kindly obtaining proof sheets of the UNESCO color
scheme through the courtesy of H.J. Vojacek of Mercury-
Walch in Hobart, Tasmania, simply tried to match the
UNESCO legend colors as closely as possible. Their Table
A6.1, on p. 222, shows the degree of equivalency in strati-
graphic units.
This, then, was the situation when we (i.e. the team respon-
sible for GTS2004) started our investigation of color, in the
footsteps of all the charts mentioned earlier. Seemingly, the task
would be easier now, since Remane (2000) in his Appendix 2
lists the composition of the colors of eons, eras, periods, and
epochs with reference to Gamme de Colors BRGM, 1989;
for the green color: ref. Pantone 354; for the orange color: ref.
Pantone 1454, followed by percent mixing tables for all units.
However, none of our professional and able drafting per-
sonnel managed to create the colors with the code provided. A
letter to CGMW in mid 2001 generated a reply acknowledging
code printing errors and offered some corrections. Unfortu-
nately to no avail; from many directions reactions were received
like: cannot match colors and cannot match colors according
to their [i.e. CGMW] new instructions on any normal graphics
program.
Now, color mixers for electronic media come in three
options: CMYG (cyanmagentayellowgray), RGBG (red viations of the stratigraphic units, i.e. the stage, epoch, period,
greenbluegray), or IHG (intensityhuegrayness color era, and eon notations, follow the ICS International Strati-
wheel). The CGMW scheme, which means jumping between
those schemes and the Pantone standard listed, is one not sup-
plied with standard drafting programs available.
Another obstacle to the CGMW scheme, other than inabil-
ity to match colors scientically, is that some colors for periods
are difcult to use. There are two reasons for the latter: rst,
the Early Paleozoic has shades of green that can be hard to
distinguish from the Cretaceous, and the same is true for the
Pennsylvanian and MiddleLate Jurassic. Second, it would be
more logical to have a color scheme that goes from darker to
lighter and is light enough in itself to allow good contrast with
the names of the units in black letters. One remedy, to invert
colors and have white letters on dark, intense background col-
ors, we do not encourage.
Having gone to great lengths to investigate the UNESCO
legend published by Remane (2000), we have come to the con-
clusion that, in the long term, it is better to have a pragmatic
color scheme that can be readily used by drafting personnel and
geologists the world over. Nowadays electronic reproduction
is within reach of a great many scientists, and with it comes
the requirement of an easy and logical color scheme. The ICS
also displays its charts on the World Wide Web and encourages
students and professionals to make copies of it for embedding
in applications.
The choice we have made has come out in favor of two
color schemes, both in RGB modes that are easily repro-
ducible on modern personal computers. The rst one matches
in RGB code the color scheme according to the Commission
for the Geological Map of the World (CGMW) in Paris, France
(Table A1.1). The scheme runs from shades of reddish/pink
for Precambrian units to greenish/brown and reddish/orange
for the Paleozoic; to purple, bluish, and greenish for the Meso-
zoic; and to shades of yellowish/green for the Cenozoic. Fifty-
nine stratigraphic units are color coded, and, for example,
D-203/140/55 represents the Devonian with a color mix of
203 Red, 140 Green, and 55 Blue. Stratigraphic units are also
letter coded, with D being Devonian; D1, Lower Devonian;
D2, Middle Devonian; and D3, Upper Devonian. The abbre-
graphic Chart in concert with the World Geological Map.
The second scheme matches the color code according to
the US Geological Survey, and is known as the spectral color
scheme (Table A1.1). The scheme runs from shades of gray-
brown for Precambrian units to reddish/pink and bluish-gray
tones in the Paleozoic, blue-greenish hues in the Mesozoic,
and light brownish and yellow shades for the Cenozoic. For
example, RGB153/189/218 represents the Carboniferous with
a color mix of 153 Red, 189 Green, and 218 Blue.
Both color schemes can be readily downloaded from the
ICS website at www.stratigraphy.org, and now provide prag-
matic and satisfactory standards.
Appendix 2 Orbital tuning calibrations and conversions for the
Neogene Period
. , . , . . , . , .

Table A2.1 Comparison of magnetic reversal ages based on Cande and Kent (1995) and ATNTS2004a

Polarity Chron CK95 time scale ATNTS2004

Chron Top Base Duration Young Old Duration Reference

C1n (Brunhes) 0.000 0.780 0.780 0 0.781 0.781 1, 2

C1r.1r (Matuyama) 0.780 0.990 0.210 0.781 0.988 0.207 1, 2
C1r.1n (Jaramillo) 0.990 1.070 0.080 0.988 1.072 0.084 1, 2
C1r.2r 1.070 1.201 0.131 1.072 1.173 0.101 1, 2
C1r.2n (Cobb Mountain) 1.201 1.211 0.010 1.173 1.185 0.012 2
C1r.3r 1.211 1.770 0.559 1.185 1.778 0.593 2
C2n (Olduvai) 1.770 1.950 0.180 1.778 1.945 0.167 2
C2r.1r 1.950 2.140 0.190 1.945 2.128 0.183 2, 3, 4, 5
C2r.1n (Reunion) 2.140 2.150 0.010 2.128 2.148 0.020 3, 4, 5
C2r.2r (Matuyama) 2.150 2.581 0.431 2.148 2.581 0.433 3, 4, 5
C2An.1n (Gauss) 2.581 3.040 0.459 2.581 3.032 0.451 3, 4, 5, 6
C2An.1r (Keana) 3.040 3.110 0.070 3.032 3.116 0.084 4, 7, 8, 9
C2An.2n 3.110 3.220 0.110 3.116 3.207 0.091 4, 7, 8, 9
C2An.2r (Mammoth) 3.220 3.330 0.110 3.207 3.330 0.123 4, 7, 8, 9
C2An.3n (Gauss) 3.330 3.580 0.250 3.330 3.596 0.266 4, 7, 8, 9
C2Ar (Gilbert) 3.580 4.180 0.600 3.596 4.187 0.591 4, 7, 8, 9
C3n.1n (Cochiti) 4.180 4.290 0.110 4.187 4.300 0.113 4, 8, 9, 10
C3n.1r 4.290 4.480 0.190 4.300 4.493 0.193 4, 8, 9, 10
C3n.2n (Nunivak) 4.480 4.620 0.140 4.493 4.631 0.138 4, 8, 9, 10
C3n.2r 4.620 4.800 0.180 4.631 4.799 0.168 4, 8, 9, 10
C3n.3n (Sidufjall) 4.800 4.890 0.090 4.799 4.896 0.097 4, 8, 9, 10
C3n.3r 4.890 4.980 0.090 4.896 4.997 0.101 4, 8, 9, 10
C3n.4n (Thvera) 4.980 5.230 0.250 4.997 5.235 0.238 4, 8, 9, 10
C3r (Gilbert) 5.230 5.894 0.664 5.235 6.033 0.798 4, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12
C3An.1n 5.894 6.137 0.243 6.033 6.252 0.219 11, 12
C3An.1r 6.137 6.269 0.132 6.252 6.436 0.184 11, 12
C3An.2n 6.269 6.567 0.298 6.436 6.733 0.297 11, 12
C3Ar 6.567 6.935 0.368 6.733 7.140 0.407 11, 12, 13
C3Bn 6.935 7.091 0.156 7.140 7.212 0.072 13
C3Br.1r 7.091 7.135 0.044 7.212 7.251 0.039 13
C3Br.1n 7.135 7.170 0.035 7.251 7.285 0.034 13
C3Br.2r 7.170 7.341 0.171 7.285 7.454 0.169 13, 14, 16
C3Br.2n 7.341 7.375 0.034 7.454 7.489 0.035 14, 16
C3Br.3r 7.375 7.432 0.057 7.489 7.528 0.039 14, 16
C4n.1n 7.432 7.562 0.130 7.528 7.642 0.114 14, 16
C4n.1r 7.562 7.650 0.088 7.642 7.695 0.053 14, 16
C4n.2n 7.650 8.072 0.422 7.695 8.108 0.413 14, 16
C4r.1r 8.072 8.225 0.153 8.108 8.254 0.146 14, 16
C4r.1n 8.225 8.257 0.032 8.254 8.300 0.046 14, 16
(cont.)

469
470 APPENDICES

Table A2.1 (cont.)

Polarity Chron CK95 time scale ATNTS2004

Chron Top Base Duration Young Old Duration Reference

C4r.2r 8.257 8.699 0.442 8.300 8.769 0.469 14, 16

C4r.2r-1 8.635 8.651 0.016 8.661 8.699 0.037 14, 16, 17
C4An 8.699 9.025 0.326 8.769 9.098 0.329 17
C4Ar.1r 9.025 9.230 0.205 9.098 9.312 0.214 14, 16, 17
C4Ar.1n 9.230 9.308 0.078 9.312 9.409 0.097 14, 16, 17
C4Ar.2r 9.308 9.580 0.272 9.409 9.656 0.247 14, 16, 17
C4Ar.2n 9.580 9.642 0.062 9.656 9.717 0.060 14, 16, 17
C4Ar.3r 9.642 9.740 0.098 9.717 9.779 0.063 14, 16, 17
C5n.1n 9.740 9.880 0.140 9.779 9.934 0.155 17
C5n.1r 9.880 9.920 0.040 9.934 9.987 0.053 17
C5n.2n 9.920 10.949 1.029 9.987 11.040 1.053 17, 18
C5r.1r 10.949 11.052 0.103 11.040 11.118 0.078 18
C5r.1n 11.052 11.099 0.047 11.118 11.154 0.036 18
C5r.2r 11.099 11.476 0.377 11.154 11.554 0.400 18
C5r.2r-1 11.267 11.298 0.031 18
C5r.2n 11.476 11.531 0.055 11.554 11.614 0.060 18
C5r.3r 11.531 11.935 0.404 11.614 12.014 0.400 18
C5An.1n 11.935 12.078 0.143 12.014 12.116 0.102 18
C5An.1r 12.078 12.184 0.106 12.116 12.207 0.091 18
C5An.2n 12.184 12.401 0.217 12.207 12.415 0.208 18
C5Ar.1r 12.401 12.678 0.277 12.415 12.730 0.315 18
C5Ar.1n 12.678 12.708 0.030 12.730 12.765 0.035 18
C5Ar.2r 12.708 12.775 0.067 12.765 12.820 0.055 18
C5Ar.2n 12.775 12.819 0.044 12.820 12.878 0.058 18
C5Ar.3r 12.819 12.991 0.172 12.878 13.015 0.137 18, 19
C5AAn 12.991 13.139 0.148 13.015 13.183 0.168 19
C5AAr 13.139 13.302 0.163 13.183 13.369 0.186 19
C5ABn 13.302 13.510 0.208 13.369 13.605 0.236 19
C5ABr 13.510 13.703 0.193 13.605 13.734 0.129 19
C5ACn 13.703 14.076 0.373 13.734 14.095 0.361 19
C5ACr 14.076 14.178 0.102 14.095 14.194 0.099 19
C5ADn 14.178 14.612 0.434 14.194 14.581 0.387 19
C5ADr 14.612 14.800 0.188 14.581 14.784 0.203 19
C5Bn.1n 14.800 14.888 0.088 14.784 14.877 0.093 19
C5Bn.1r 14.888 15.034 0.146 14.877 15.032 0.155 19
C5Bn.2n 15.034 15.155 0.121 15.032 15.160 0.128 19
C5Br 15.155 16.014 0.859 15.160 15.974 0.814 20
C5Cn.1n 16.014 16.293 0.279 15.974 16.268 0.293 19, 20
C5Cn.1r 16.293 16.327 0.034 16.268 16.303 0.035 19
C5Cn.2n 16.327 16.488 0.161 16.303 16.472 0.169 19
C5Cn.2r 16.488 16.556 0.068 16.472 16.543 0.071 19
C5Cn.3n 16.556 16.726 0.170 16.543 16.721 0.178 19
C5Cr 16.726 17.277 0.551 16.721 17.235 0.514 19
C5Dn 17.277 17.615 0.338 17.235 17.533 0.298 19
C5Dr.1r 17.615 18.281 0.666 17.533 17.717 0.184 19
C5Dr.1n 17.717 17.740 0.023 19
C5Dr.2r 17.740 18.056 0.316 19
C5En 18.281 18.781 0.500 18.056 18.524 0.468 19
C5Er 18.781 19.048 0.267 18.524 18.748 0.224 19
C6n 19.048 20.131 1.083 18.748 19.722 0.974 19
 Appendix 2 Orbital tuning conversions 471

Table A2.1 (cont.)

Polarity Chron CK95 time scale ATNTS2004

Chron Top Base Duration Young Old Duration Reference

C6r 20.131 20.518 0.387 19.722 20.040 0.318 19

C6An.1n 20.518 20.725 0.207 20.040 20.213 0.173 19
C6An.1r 20.725 20.996 0.271 20.213 20.439 0.226 19
C6An.2n 20.996 21.320 0.324 20.439 20.709 0.270 19
C6Ar 21.320 21.768 0.448 20.709 21.083 0.374 19
C6AAn 21.768 21.859 0.091 21.083 21.159 0.076 19
C6AAr.1r 21.859 22.151 0.292 21.159 21.403 0.244 19
C6AAr.1n 22.151 22.248 0.097 21.403 21.483 0.080 19
C6AAr.2r 22.248 22.459 0.211 21.483 21.659 0.176 19
C6AAr.2n 22.459 22.493 0.034 21.659 21.688 0.029 19
C6AAr.3r 22.493 22.588 0.095 21.688 21.767 0.079 19
C6Bn.1n 22.588 22.750 0.162 21.767 21.936 0.169 19
C6Bn.1r 22.750 22.804 0.054 21.936 21.992 0.056 19
C6Bn.2n 22.804 23.069 0.265 21.992 22.268 0.276 19
C6Br 23.069 23.353 0.284 22.268 22.564 0.296 19
C6Cn.1n 23.353 23.535 0.182 22.564 22.754 0.190 19
C6Cn.1r 23.535 23.677 0.142 22.754 22.902 0.148 19
C6Cn.2n 23.677 23.800 0.123 22.902 23.030 0.128 21

a References for Neogene age scaling of polarity chrons: 1. Shackleton et al. (1990), 2. Horng et al. (2002), 3. Hilgen (1991a), 4. Lourens et al. (1996a),
5. Zijderveld et al. (1991), 6. Langereis et al. (1994), 7. Zachariasse et al. (1989), 8. van Hoof (1993), 9. Hilgen (1991b), 10. Langereis and Hilgen (1991),
11. Krijgsman et al. (1999), 12. Sierro et al. (2001), 13. Hilgen et al. (2000b), 14. Hilgen et al. (1995), 15. Krijgsman et al. (1994), 16. Hilgen et al. (in press),
17. Abdul-Aziz (unpubl.), 18. Abdul-Aziz et al. (2003), 19. interpolated ages (in italics) derived from seaoor-spreading-rate history model of the Australia
Antarctic plate pair (this paper), 20. Shackleton et al. (2001), and 21. Shackleton et al. (2000).
Table A2.2 Recalculated age estimates of calcareous nannofossil datum events according to ATNTS2004a-c

Eastern
ODP Legs 111 and 138 ODP Sites 925, 926 Mediterranean Morocco
Species event Zone/subzone (transition) Age (Ma) Reference Age (Ma) Reference Age (Ma) Reference Age (Ma) Reference

PLEISTOCENEHOLOCENE 0.0115 Ma (a)

Bottom acme Emiliania huxleyi MNN21aMNN21b 0.05 17, 18
Bottom Emiliania huxleyi CN14bCN15, NN20NN21, 0.29 1, 2 0.29 9, 10 0.27 17, 18
MNN20MNN21a
Bottom acme small 0.27 17, 18
Gephyrocapsa spp.
Top Pseudoemiliania lacunosa CN14aCN14b, NN19NN20, 0.44 15 0.44 9, 10 0.47 11, 1719
MNN19fMNN20
Top Gephyrocapsa sp3 0.61 17, 18, 20
Top (common) Reticulofenestra 0.91 911 0.90 11, 18, 21
asanoi
Bottom Gephyrocapsa sp3 MNN19eMNN19f 1.02 15 0.97 17, 18, 21
Reentrance medium Gephyrocapsa CN13bDCN14a 1.04 15 1.01 911 0.96 11, 1719,
(>4 m) 21
Bottom (common) 1.14 911 1.08 18, 19, 21
Reticulofenestra asanoi
Top large Gephyrocapsa CN13bCCN13bD, 1.24 15 1.26 911 1.25 11, 2224
(>5.5 m) MNN19dMNN19e
Top Helicosphaera sellii 1.34 15 1.26 11, 2224
Bottom large Gephyrocapsa CN13bBCN13bC, 1.46 15 1.56 911 1.62 11, 2224
(>5.5 m) MNN19cMNN19d
Top Calcidiscus macintyrei CN13bACN13bB, 1.60 15 1.61 911 1.66 11, 2224
MNN19bMNN19c
Bottom medium Gephyrocapsa CN13aCN13bA, 1.67 15 1.69 911 1.73 11, 2224
(>4 m) MNN19aMNN19b

PLIOCENEPLEISTOCENE
GelasianE. Pleist. sub-epoch 1.806 Ma (b)
Top Discoaster brouweri CN12dCN13a, NN18NN19, 2.06 47 1.93 9, 10 1.95 11, 2225
MNN18MNN19a
Bottom acme Discoaster triradiatus 2.14 9, 10 2.22 22, 25
Top Discoaster pentaradiatus CN12cCN12d, NN17NN18, 2.39 9, 10 2.51 20, 22, 25,
(quintatus) MNN17MNN18 26
Top Discoaster surculus CN12bCN12c, NN16NN17 2.52 47 2.49 9, 10 2.54 20, 22, 25,
26
 PiacenzianGelasian 2.588 Ma (c)
Bottom acme Discoaster 2.64 22, 25
pentaradiatus (quintatus)
Subtop Discoaster tamalis CN12aBCN12b, 2.87 47 2.80 10, 12 2.80 20, 22, 25,
MNN16aMNN16b/17 26
Subtop Discoaster asymmetricus 2.83 22, 25
Second acme Gephyrocapsa spp. 3.29 22, 25
Top paracme Discoaster 3.61 22, 25
pentaradiatus (quintatus)

ZancleanPiacenzian 3.600 Ma (d)

Subtop Sphenolithus spp. CN12aACN12aB 3.65 47 3.54 10, 12 3.70 22, 25
Top Reticulofenestra pseudoumbilica CN11bCN12aA, 3.79 47 3.70 10, 12 3.84 22, 25
NN14/15NN16,
MNN14/15MNN16a
Bottom paracme Reticulofenestra 3.89 22, 25
pseudoumbilica
Subbottom Discoaster pentaradiatus 3.93 22, 25
Subbottom Discoaster tamalis 3.97 22, 25
Top C. tricorniculatus
Subbottom Discoaster asymmetricus CN11aCN11b, 4.13 57 4.12 22, 25
NN13NN14/15,
MNN13MNN14/15
Subbottom Discoaster brouweri 4.12 22, 25
Subbottom Gephyrocapsa spp. 4.33 22, 25
Top Amaurolithus primus CN10cCN11a 4.50 58
Subbottom Reticulofenestra MNN 1213 4.91 22, 25
pseudoumbilica
Subbottom Discoaster ovata 4.91 22, 25
Top Reticulofenestra antarctica 4.91 22, 25
Top Ceratolithus acutus 5.04 58 5.04 10, 12
Cross-over Ceratolithus 5.05 13, 14
acutusC. rugosus
Bottom Ceratolithus rugosus CN10bCN10c, NN12NN13 5.12 58 5.05 13, 14
Top Triquetrorhabdulus rugosus 5.28 13, 14

MIOCENEPLIOCENE
MessinianZanclean 5.332 Ma (e)
Bottom Ceratolithus larrymayeri 5.34 13, 14
sp1
Bottom Ceratolithus acutus CN10aCN10b 5.32 58 5.35 13, 14
(cont.)
Table A2.2 (cont.)

Eastern
ODP Legs 111 and 138 ODP Sites 925, 926 Mediterranean Morocco
Species event Zone/subzone (transition) Age (Ma) Reference Age (Ma) Reference Age (Ma) Reference Age (Ma) Reference

Top Discoaster quinqueramus CN9bCCN10a, NN11bNN12 5.59 58 5.58 10, 13 5.54 38

Top Nicklithus amplicus CN9bBCN9bC, 5.98 13, 14 5.94 2729 6.00 38
MNN11cMNN12
Last observed specimen 5.99 2729
Reticulofenestra rotaria
Top Discoaster cf toralus 6.12 2729
Top common occurrence 6.12 58 5.98 13, 14 6.14 2729
Nicklithus amplicus
Bottom Discoaster cf toralus 6.25 2729
Cross-over Nicklithus amplicus 6.79 13, 14
T. rugosus
Bottom Nicklithus amplicus CN9bACN9bB, 6.91 10, 13 6.68 2729
MNN11bMNN11c
Top Reticulofenestra rotaria 6.79 31, 32
Bottom (common) Helicosphaera 7.00 2732
cf. sellii
Bottom common Amaurolithus 7.22 39
delicatus
Top paracme Reticulofenestra 7.08 13, 14 7.17 28, 3335
pseudoumbilicus
Bottom common Reticulofenestra 7.24 3035 7.27 39
rotaria
Bottom Reticulofenestra rotaria 7.41 28, 3035 7.46 39
Bottom Amaurolithus spp.bottom CN9aCN9bA, NN11aNN11b, 7.36 10, 13 7.42 28, 3035
Amaurolithus primus MNN11aMNN11b

TortonianMessinian 7.246 Ma (f)

Bottom common Discoaster surculus 7.79 10, 13
Top Helicosphaera stalis 7.61 28, 33, 35
Bottom Discoaster berggrenii CN8CN9a, NN10NN11a 8.29 10, 13
Top Minylitha convallis 8.68 28, 33, 35
Bottom paracme MNN10bMNN11a 8.79 13, 14 8.71 28, 33, 35
Reticulofenestra pseudoumbilicus
Top common Minylitha convallis 8.88 28, 33, 35
Bottom common Minylitha 9.29 28, 33, 35
convallis
Bottom common Discoaster MNN10aMNN10b 9.37 28, 33, 35
pentaradiatus
Regular Minylitha convallis 9.38 28, 33, 35
Top Catinaster calyculus 9.67 13, 14
Top Discoaster hamatus CN7CN8, NN9NN10, 9.69 13, 14 9.53 28, 33, 35
MNN9MNN10
Top Catinaster coalitus 9.69 13, 14
Bottom Minylitha convallis 9.75 13, 14 9.61 28, 33, 35
Cross-over Discoaster hamatusD. 9.76 13, 14
neohamatus
Cross-over Catinaster calyculusC. 10.41 13, 14
coalitus
Bottom Discoaster neohamatus 10.52 13, 14 9.87 35, 36
Bottom Discoaster hamatus CN6CN7, NN8NN9 10.55 13, 14 10.18 35, 36
Bottom Discoaster bellus MNN8bMNN9 10.40 35, 36
Bottom common Helicosphaera MNN8aMNN8b 10.71 35, 36
stalis
Bottom Discoaster brouweri 10.76 13, 14 10.73 35, 36
Bottom Catinaster calyculus 10.79 13, 14
Cross-over Discoaster 10.85 13, 14
microstransition Catinaster
coalitus
Bottom Catinaster coalitus CN5bCN6, NN7NN8 10.89 13, 14 10.73 35, 36
Top common Helicosphaera MNN7cMNN8a 10.74 35, 36
walbersdorfensis
Top Coccolithus miopelagicus 11.02 13, 14 10.97 35, 36
Top Calcidiscus premacintyrei 11.21

SerravallianTortonian 11.600 Ma (g)

Top common Discoaster kugleri MNN7bMNN7c 11.58 13, 14 11.60 35, 36
Bottom common Discoaster kugleri CN5aCN5b, NN6NN7, 11.86 14, 15 11.90 35, 36
MNN7aMNN7b
Top Coronocyclus nitescens 12.12 10, 15
Top regular Calcidiscus MNN6MNN7a 12.45 15, 16 12.38 36
premacintyrei
Bottom common Calcidiscus 12.46 15, 16
macintyrei
Top Cyclicargolithus oridanus 13.33 10, 15
Top common Cyclicargolithus 13.33 15, 16 13.28 36
oridanus
(cont.)
Table A2.2 (cont.)

Eastern
ODP Legs 111 and 138 ODP Sites 925, 926 Mediterranean Morocco
Species event Zone/subzone (transition) Age (Ma) Reference Age (Ma) Reference Age (Ma) Reference Age (Ma) Reference

LanghianSerravallian 13.654 Ma (h)

Top Sphenolithus heteromorphus CN4CN5a, NN5NN6, 13.53 14, 15 13.65 37
MNN5bMNN6
Top Helicosphaera ampliaperta CN3CN4, NN4NN5 14.91 10, 15
Top abundant Discoaster deandrei 15.80 10, 15

BurdigalianLanghian 15.974 Ma (i)

Bottom common Sphenolithus 17.71 10, 15
heteromorphus
Top common Sphenolithus belemnos CN2CN3, NN3NN4 17.95 10, 15
Top Triquetrorhabdulus carinatus CN1CN2, NN2NN3 18.28 10, 15
Bottom Sphenolithus belemnos 19.03 15

AquitanianBurdigalian 20.428 Ma (j)

Bottom Helicopontosphaera 20.43 15, 41
ampliaperta
Cross-over Helicosphaera 20.92 15, 41
euphratis/Helicosphaera carteri
Bottom common Helicosphaera 22.03 15, 41
carteri
Bottom Sphenolithus disbelemnos 22.76 15, 41
Bottom Discoaster druggi NN1NN2 22.82 40

OLIGOCENEMIOCENE
ChattianAquitanian 23.030 Ma (k)
Top Sphenolithus delphix 23.11 10, 15
Bottom Sphenolithus delphix 23.21 10, 15

a Zonations: NN = Martini (1971), CN = Bukry (1973, 1975b), MNN = Raf and Rio (1979), Fornaciari and Rio (1996), Fornaciari et al. (1996), Raf et al. (2003).
b Bases of Neogene stages:

(a) Holocene: termination 1 in the GRIP-ice core (proposal by Bjorck et al., 1998).
(b) Pleistocene: top sapropel e in the Vrica section, Calabria, Italy (Aguirre and Pasini, 1985; Rio et al., 2000).
(c) Gelasian Stage (uppermost Pliocene): midpoint sapropel A5 in the San Nicola section, Sicily, Italy (Rio et al., 1998).
(d) Piacenzian Stage: base beige layer of CaCO3 cycle 77 in the Punta Piccola section, Sicily, Italy (Castradori et al., 1998).
(e) Pliocene (Zanclean Stage): base CaCO3 cycle 1 in section Eraclea Minoa, Sicily, Italy (Van Couvering et al., 2000).
(f) Messinian Stage (uppermost Miocene): base red layer 15 in the Oued Akrech section, Morocco (Hilgen et al., 2000c).
(g) Tortonian Stage: midpoint sapropel 76 in the Monte dei Corvi section, Italy (proposal by Hilgen et al., in press).
(h) Serravallian Stage: adopted age of the top S. heteromorphus in the Mediterranean (working group).
(i) Langhian Stage: adopted age of C5Cn.1n (top; working group).
(j) Burdigalian Stage: adopted age of bottom H. ampliaperta at Ceara Rise (working group).
(k) Miocene (Aquitanian Stage): C6Cn.2n (base) in the LemmeCarrosio section, Italy (Steininger et al., 1997a,b; Shackleton et al., 2000).
c References: 1. Shackleton et al. (1990), 2. Shipboard Scientic Party (1988), 3. Raf et al. (1993), 4. Mix et al. (1995a,b), 5. Raf and Flores (1995), 6. Shackleton et al. (1995a), 7. Shackleton et al. (1995b),
8. Plike (unpubl.), 9. Bickert et al. (1997a), 10. Shipboard Scientic Party (1995), 11. Raf et al. (2003), 12. Tiedemann and Franz (1997), 13. Shackleton and Crowhurst (1997), 14. Backman and Raf (1997),
15. Shackleton et al. (1999), 16. Turco et al. (2003), 17. Castradori (1993), 18. Lourens (unpubl.), 19. Sprovieri et al. (1998), 20. Staerker (1998), 21. Maiorano et al. (in press), 22. Lourens et al. (1996a), 23. Lourens
et al. (1996b), 24. Lourens et al. (1998), 25. Driever (1988), 26. Lourens et al. (2001), 27. Krijgsman et al. (1999), 28. Raf et al. (2003), 29. Hilgen and Krijgsman (1999), 30. Negri and Villa (2000), 31. Negri
et al. (1999). 32. Krijgsman et al. (1997a), 33. Hilgen et al. (1995), 34. Hilgen et al. (2000a), 35. Hilgen et al. (in press), 36. Hilgen et al. (2000c), 37. Hilgen and Raf (unpubl.), 38. Krijgsman et al. (unpublished),
39. Hilgen et al. (2000b), 40. interpolated age from Fornaciari and Rio (1996) using the position of this event (36.6 m) in relation to that of S. delphix LO (19.8 m) and S. disbelemnos FO (40.5 m) in the Poggio
dAncona section, Italy, by using the ages derived from Ceara Rise, and 41. Fornaciari (1996).
Table A2.3 Recalculated age estimates of planktonic foraminifer datum events according to ATNTS2004a,b

Eastern
ODP Legs 111 and 138 ODP Sites 925, 926 Mediterranean Morocco
Species event Zone/subzone (transition) Age (Ma) Reference Age (Ma) Reference Age (Ma) Reference Age (Ma) Reference

PLEISTOCENEHOLOCENE 0.0115 Ma (a)

Bottom Globigerinoides MPL8bMPL8c 0.33 15
ruber rosa
Top common Neogloboquadrina sp. MPL8aMPL8b 0.61 15
(sin)
Top Globorotalia tosaensis Pt1aPtb 0.61 1,2
Bottom common Truncorotalia MPL7MPL8a 0.94 15,16
(Globorotalia) truncatulinoides
(excelsa)
Top paracme Neogloboquadrina sp. 1.21 1719
(sin)
Top Globoturborotalita obliquus 1.30 79
Bottom paracme Neogloboquadrina 1.37 1719
sp. (sin)
Top Neogloboquadrina acostaensis 1.58 79
Top Globoturborotalita apertura 1.64 79
Bottom common Neogloboquadrina MPL6bMPL7 1.79 1721
sp. (sin)

PLIOCENEPLEISTOCENE
GelasianE. Pleist. subepoch 1.806 Ma (b)
Top Globigerinoides stulosus Pl6Pt1a 1.77 3,4 1.88 79
Bottom Truncorotalia (Globorotalia) N20/N21N22, MPL6aMPL6b 1.93 79 2.00 17, 20, 21
truncatulinoides
Top Globigerinoides extremus 1.98 79
Top Menardella limbata 2.24 1, 2, 5, 6
Bottom Pulleniatina nalis 2.04 79
Top Menardella exilis 2.09 79
Bottom Globoconella (Globorotalia) MPL5bMPL6a 2.09 17, 20, 21
inata
Reappearance Pulleniatina 2.26 79
Top Globoturborotalita woodi 2.30 79
Top Menardella pertenuis 2.30 79
Top Menardella limbata 2.39 79
Top Menardella miocenica Pl5Pl6 2.39 79
Top Globoconella (Globorotalia) MPL5aMPL5b 2.41 17, 20, 21
puncticulata (bononiensis)
Top Neogloboquadrina atlantica (sin) 2.41 17, 20, 21

PiacenzianGelasian 2.588 Ma (c)

Bottom Neogloboquadrina 2.72 17,20,21
atlantica (sin)
Top Globoturborotalita decoraperta 2.75 810
Top Menardella multicamerata 2.98 810
Top Dentoglobigerina Pl4Pl5 3.47 1, 2, 5, 6 3.13 810 3.17 17, 22, 23
(Globoquadrina) altispira
Top Sphaeroidinellopsis seminulina Pl3Pl4, MPL4bMPL5a 3.59 1, 2, 5, 6 3.13 810 3.19 17, 22, 23
Top Globoquadrina baroemoenensis 3.23 810
Top Hirsutella cibaoensis 3.23 810
Reappearance Globoconella 3.31 17, 22, 23
(Globorotalia) puncticulata
(bononiensis)
Reappearance Truncorotalia 3.35 17, 22, 23
(Globorotalia) crassaformis
Disappearance Pulleniatina 3.41 810
Bottom Menardella pertenuis 3.52 810
Disappearance Globoconella MPL4aMPL4b 3.57 17, 22, 23
(Globorotalia) puncticulata
Bottom Truncorotalia 3.60 17, 22, 23
(Globorotalia) crassaformis

ZancleanPiacenzian 3.600 Ma (d)

Bottom Menardella miocenica N19N20/N21 3.77 810
Top Globorotalia plesiotumida 3.77 810
Top Hirsutella (Globorotalia) Pl2Pl3, MPL3MPL4a 3.85 810 3.81 17, 23, 24
margaritae
Top common Hirsutella 3.98 17, 23, 24
(Globorotalia) margaritae
Pulleniatina sin dex coiling change 4.08 810
Bottom Truncorotalia (Globorotalia) 4.31 810
crassaformis s.l.
Top Globoturborotalita nepenthes Pl1Pl2 4.37 810
Bottom Menardella exilis 4.45 810
Bottom Globoconella (Globorotalia) MPL2MPL3 4.52 17, 23, 24
puncticulata
Bottom Sphaeroidinellopsis kochi 4.53 810
(cont.)
Table A2.3 (cont.)

Eastern
ODP Legs 111 and 138 ODP Sites 925, 926 Mediterranean Morocco
Species event Zone/subzone (transition) Age (Ma) Reference Age (Ma) Reference Age (Ma) Reference Age (Ma) Reference

Bottom common Hirsutella MPL1MPL2 5.08 17, 23, 24

(Globorotalia) margaritae
Top acme Sphaeroidinellopsis 5.21 17, 23, 24
Bottom acme Sphaeroidinellopsis 5.30 17, 23, 24
Bottom Sphaeroidinellopsis dehiscens N18N19 5.53 8, 11

MIOCENEPLIOCENE
MessinianZanclean 5.332 Ma (e)
Bottom Globorotalia tumida N17N18, M13b/M14Pl1 5.57 2, 5, 6 5.72 8, 11
Bottom Globorotalia humilis 5.81 8, 11
Bottom Hirsutella (Globorotalia) 6.08 8, 11
margaritae
2nd inux sinistral Neogloboquadrina 6.08 2527
acostaensis (40%)
First inux sinistral Neogloboquadrina 6.12 2527
acostaensis (90%)
Bottom Globigerinoides conglobatus 6.20 8, 11
Inux dextral Hirsutella 6.29 2527
(Globorotalia) scitula gr.
Neogloboquadrina acostaensis 6.35 2527 6.37 33
sin dex coiling change
Bottom common Turborotalita MMi13bMMi13c 6.42 2527
multiloba
Top Globorotalia miotumida 6.52 2527
(conomiozea) gr.
Top Globorotalia nicolae MMi13aMMi13b 6.72 2527
Bottom Globorotalia nicolae 6.83 2530
Top dominant sinistral Hirsutella 7.08 2528, 30
(Globorotalia) scitula gr.
Inux conical Globorotalia miotumida 7.18 2528, 30 7.22 34
Bottom common Globorotalia MMi12cMMi13a 7.24 2530 7.24 34
miotumida (conomiozea) gr.
Top (common) Menardella
(Globorotalia) menardii 5
TortonianMessinian 7.246 Ma (f)
Top paracme dominant dextral 7.28 28, 30 7.28 34
Hirsutella (Globorotalia)
scitula gr.
Bottom common Menardella MMi12bMMi12c 7.36 28, 29, 30 7.36
(Globorotalia) menardii 5
Top Catapsydrax parvulus 7.45 28, 30
Top common Menardella 7.51 28, 30 7.50 34
(Globorotalia) menardii 4
Bottom paracme dominant 7.58 28, 30
dextral Hirsutella (Globorotalia)
scitula gr.
Highest regular occurrence 7.72 28, 30
Sphaeroidinellopsis seminulina
Bottom Globorotalia miotumida MMi12aMMi12b 7.89 28, 30
(conomiozea) gr.
Lowest regular occurrence 7.92 28, 30
Sphaeroidinellopsis seminulina
Frequency shift Catapsydrax parvulus 8.43 28, 30
Bottom Candeina nitida 8.44 8, 11
Bottom Globorotalia plesiotumida N16N17 8.58 8, 11
Bottom Globigerinoides extremus M13aM13b/M14 8.93 11, 13
Top common Catapsydrax parvulus 8.89 28, 30
(ls)
Inux Globoquadrina dehiscens 8.99 28, 30
Top Globorotalia lenguaensis (M13M14?) 8.97 11, 13
Top dextral Globorotalia lenguaensis 9.21 11, 13
Lowest common Menardella MMi11bMMi12a 9.31 28, 30
(Globorotalia) menardii 4
Bottom dextral Globorotalia 9.34 11, 13
lenguaensis
Bottom Hirsutella cibaoensis 9.44 8, 11
Top regular dominant dextral 9.54 28, 30
Neogloboquadrina acostaensis
Bottom Hirsutella juanai 9.69 8, 11
Neogloboquadrina gr. sin dex 9.90 31
coiling change
Top Globorotalia partimlabiata MMi11aMMi11b 9.94 31, 32
Neogloboquadrina gr. dex sin 10.05 31, 32
coiling change
(cont.)
Table A2.3 (cont.)

Eastern
ODP Legs 111 and 138 ODP Sites 925, 926 Mediterranean Morocco
Species event Zone/subzone (transition) Age (Ma) Reference Age (Ma) Reference Age (Ma) Reference Age (Ma) Reference

Top regular small-sized 10.48 31, 32

Neogloboquadrina atlantica s.s.
Bottom regular Neogloboquadrina N15N16, M12M13a, 9.83 8, 11, 13 10.57 31, 32
acostaensis s.s. MMi10MMi11a
Top large sized dextral 10.84 31, 32
Neogloboquadrina atlantica
Top Globoquadrina sp 1 10.89 31, 32
Bottom large-sized Neogloboquadrina 11.12 31, 32
atlantica (dex)
2nd inux Neogloboquadrina group 11.15 31, 32
Top Globorotalita challengeri 11, 13
9.99
Top Paragloborotalia siakensis N14N15, M11M12, 10.46 11, 13 11.19 31, 32
MMi9MMi10
Bottom Menardella limbata 10.64 8, 11
Top Cassigerinella chipolensis 10.89 11, 13
Bottom Globoturborotalita apertura 11.18 8, 11
Bottom Globorotalita challengeri 11.22 11, 13
Bottom Globorotaloides falconarae 11.36 31, 32
Bottom regular Globoturborotalita 11.25 11, 13 11.54 31, 32
obliquus obliquus
Bottom Globoturborotalita decoraperta 11.49 8, 11
Top paracme Catapsydrax parvulus (ls) 11.52 11, 13
Top Globigerinoides subquadratus 11.54 11, 13
Top common Globigerinoides MMi8MMi9 11.56 31, 32
subquadratus

SerravallianTortonian 11.600 Ma (g)

Bottom Globoturborotalita nepenthes N13N14, M10M11 11.63 11, 13
Bottom Neogloboquadrina gr. 11.78 31, 32
Top Fohsella fohsi s.l. N12N13, M9bM10 11.79 8, 11
Bottom Globoquadrina sp1 MMi7cMMi8 11.80 31, 32
Top Clavatorella bermudezi 12.00 11, 13
Top 2nd acme Paragloborotalia 12.02 31
siakensis
Top Paragloborotalia mayeri MMi7a/bMMi7c 12.07 31
Bottom 2nd acme Paragloborotalia 12.44 31
siakensis
Top 1st acme Paragloborotalia siakensis 12.61 31
Bottom Paragloborotalia partimlabiata MMi6MMi7a/b 12.77 31
Bottom (common) Paragloborotalia 12.77 31
mayeri
Bottom Globorotalia lenguaensis 12.84 8, 11
Bottom Fohsella fohsi 12.85 11, 12, 13
Bottom Sphaeroidinellopsis subdehiscens 13.02 11, 12, 13
Bottom Fohsella robusta M8/9aM9b 13.13 8, 11, 12
Top Cassigerinella martinezpicoi 13.27 11, 12, 13
Bottom 1st acme Paragloborotalia 13.32 31
siakensis
Bottom Fohsella fohsi N11N12, M7M8/9a 13.41 8, 11, 12
Bottom paracme Catapsydrax 13.58 12, 13
parvulus (ls)

LanghianSerravallian 13.654 Ma (h)

Top Globorotalia praescitula 13.73 12, 13
Bottom Fohsella praefohsi N10N11 13.77 12, 13
Top Fohsella peripheroronda 13.80 12, 14
Top regular Clavatorella bermudezi 13.82 12, 13
Top Globorotalia archeomenardii 13.87 12, 14
Bottom Fohsella peripheroacuta N9N10, M6M7 14.24 12, 14
Bottom Globorotalia praemenardii 14.38 12, 14
Top Praeorbulina sicana 14.53 12, 14
Top Globigeriantella insueta s. str. 14.66 12, 14
Bottom Orbulina universa N8N9, M5bM6 14.74 12, 14
Bottom Praeorbulina circularis 14.89 12, 14
Bottom Clavatorella bermudezi 14.89 12, 14

BurdigalianLanghian 15.974 Ma (i)

Bottom Globorotalia archeomenardii 16.26 12, 14
Bottom Praeorbulina glomerosa M5aM5b 16.27 12, 14
Bottom Praeorbulina sicana N7N8, M4M5a 16.97 12, 14
Top Catapsydrax dissimilis N6N7, M3M4 17.54 12, 14
Bottom Globigeriantella insueta s. str. N5N6, M2M3 17.59 12, 14
Top Globiquadrina binaiensis 19.09 12, 14
Bottom Globigerinatella sp. 19.30 12, 14
Bottom Globiquadrina binaiensis 19.30 12, 14
(cont.)
Table A2.3 (cont.)

Eastern
ODP Legs 111 and 138 ODP Sites 925, 926 Mediterranean Morocco
Species event Zone/subzone (transition) Age (Ma) Reference Age (Ma) Reference Age (Ma) Reference Age (Ma) Reference

AquitanianBurdigalian 20.428 Ma (j)

Top Paragloborotalia kugleri N4N5, M1M2 21.12 12, 14
Top Paragloborotalia pseudokugleri 21.31 12, 14
Top Globigerina ciperoensis 22.90 12, 14
Bottom Globigerinoides trilobus s.l. 22.96 12, 14
Bottom Paragloborotalia kugleri P22N4, P22M1 22.96 12, 14

OLIGOCENEMIOCENE
ChattianAquitanian 23.030 Ma (k)

a Zonations: N = Blow (1969), PLPT = Berggren et al. (1995b), MPL = Cita (1973, 1975a,b), MMi = Sprovieri et al. (2002b). See Table A2.2 caption for notes on stage boundaries.
b References: 1. Mix et al. (1995a), 2. Shipboard Scientic Party (1990), 3. Shackleton et al. (1990), 4. Shipboard Scientic Party (1988), 5. Shackleton et al. (1995a), 6. Shackleton et al. (1995b), 7. Bickert
et al. (1997a), 8. Chaisson and Pearson (1997), 9. Shipboard Scientic Party (1995), 10. Tiedemann and Franz (1997), 11. Shackleton and Crowhurst (1997), 12. Shackleton et al. (1999), 13. Turco et al. (2003),
14. Pearson and Chaisson (1997), 15. Lourens (unpubl.), 16. Sanvoisin et al. (1993), 17. Lourens et al. (1996a), 18. Lourens et al. (1996b), 19. Lourens et al. (1998), 20. Zijderveld et al. (1991), 21. Hilgen (1991a),
22. Zachariasse et al. (1989), 23. Hilgen (1991b), 24. Langereis and Hilgen (1991), 25. Krijgsman et al. (1999), 26. Hilgen and Krijgsman (1999), 27. Sierro et al. (2001), 28. Krijgsman et al. (1994), 29. Krijgsman
et al. (1997a), 30. Hilgen et al. (1995), 31. Hilgen et al. in press, 32. Hilgen et al. (2000a), 33. Krijgsman et al. (unpubl.), 34. Hilgen et al. (2000b).
Appendix 3 Geomathematics
. .

A . 3 . 1 M AT H E M AT I C S O F M E T H O D S U S E D the variance s 2 (Y  ) = s 2 (a) + x 2 s 2 (b ) + 2x s (a, b ), as in-

F O R F I NA L S T R A I G H T- L I N E F I T T I N G troduced at the end of section 8.1.4, would be enlarged by the
factor (i.e. by c ).
When there is no (or negligibly small) stratigraphic uncertainty,
For example, application of the preceding algorithm to the
as for the Late Cretaceous, the line of best t is calculated
values in the rst three columns of Table 8.10 give a = 0.041
according to the following standard method. We are interested
and b = 1.000 48, with s (a) = 0.445, s (b ) = 0.005 12, and
in the linear relation vi = + xi , where vi is observed as yi
s (a, b ) = 0.002 27. Estimated Y  values are shown in col-
(i.e. vi + error). If i
= s 2 (y) represents variance of yi , the
umn 4 of Table 8.10.
problem reduces to minimizing the expression
 Clearly, the differences between values in columns 1 and

Q= (yi xi )2 /i . 4 of Table 8.10 are negligibly small. If the values in column
1 are written as Y = f (x), then Y  = Y. For this reason, we
Partial differentiation of Q with respect to and and
will continue to use the values of column 1 for the Late Creta-
setting the results equal to zero at the point where = a, and
ceous time scale. These values fall on the spline curve of Fig.
= b yields the normal equations:
  8.15, which was used to estimate the Late Cretaceous stage
[(yi a bxi )/i ] = 0; [xi (yi a bxi )/i ] = 0. boundary ages.
The preceding method of constructing error bars on esti-
Press et al. (1992) discuss the following algorithm. Intro-
mated chronostratigraphic boundary ages can be generalized
ducing weights wi = 1/i , and replacing i by s 2 (yi ), the
to account for stratigraphic uncertainty. Ripley and Thompson
following sums can be computed:
   (1987) have developed a maximum likelihood tting method
S= wi , Sx = wi xi , Sy = wi yi , for a functional relationship (MLFR) that can be adapted
 
Sxx = wi xi2 , and Sxy = wi xi yi . for use in our situation. Their method generalizes Adcocks
original major axis method to the situation that the vari-
The normal equations become: ances of X and Y are not equal and different for every single
aS + bSx = Sy ; aSx + bSxx = Sxy , observation.
We now are interested in the linear relation vi = + u i ,
with solution where u i and vi are observed as xi (= u i + error), and yi (= vi
a = [Sxx Sy Sx Sy ]/; b = [SSxy Sx Sy ]/, + error), respectively. If i = s 2 (x) and i = s 2 (y) represent
where  = SSxx Sx2 . the variances of xi and yi , respectively, the problem reduces to
minimizing the expression
Furthermore, it can be shown (Press et al., 1992, p. 657)  
that: Q= (xi u i )2 /i + (yi u i )2 /i

s 2 (a) = Sxx /; s 2 (b ) = S/; over u i . First minimizing over u i and introducing the weights
wi = 1/(i + 2 i ), this minimum is reached when
s (a, b ) = Sx / = xm s (b ), where
2
xm = Sx /S.

The estimates a and b would not change if all values of s (yi ) Q min (, ) = wi (yi xi )2 .
are increased by the same constant c . However, in this situa- The weights wi depend on and so does the estimate of that
tion, the variances s 2 (a) and s 2 (b ), and the covariance s (a, b ), satises
are increased by the same factor equal to c 2 . Consequently,   
the error bar, proportional to s (Y  ), being the square root of a= wi (yi xi )2 wi .

485
486 APPENDICES
The slope b is found by minimizing
 as the vi values because a 0 and b 1.
Q min (a, ) = wi (yi a xi )2 .
This, in turn, yields the weights wi and intercept a.
Ripley has written a computer algorithm in FORTRAN
that provides a and b as estimates of and , together with their
standard deviations s (a) and s (b ). As will be discussed later in
this section, in our application a 0 and b 1. This simplies
matters considerably because estimates (a + b xi xi ) of vi are
already provided by the spline-curve values Yk .
The covariance s (a, b ) can be calculated from the rela-
tion s (a, b ) = xm s 2 (b ), where xm = wi xi / wi is the
weighted mean xi (cf. Fuller, 1987). From these statistics, it is
possible to calculate the variance s 2 (Yk ) = s 2 (a) + x 2 s 2 (b ) +
2xk s (a, b ), where the subscript k denotes a chronostrati-
graphic boundary of interest.
Another feature of Ripleys algorithm is that it provides a
plot of the scaled residuals
r i = (yi a b xi ) wi (b ),
where wi = 1/(i + b 2 i ). The sum r i2 should be around
(n 2) and a plot of r i against Xi representing estimates of
u i should not show any noticeable pattern. These estimates
satisfy
Xi = wi [i xi + i b (yi a)].
In our applications of the MLFR method, the xi values are
estimated in millions of years obtained after spline-curve t-
ting. Spline-curve tting is based on the method of least
squares with all errors assumed to be restricted to the de-
pendent variable (yi values with variances i ). In general, the
xi values already provide good estimates of the u i values as well
The null hypotheses = 0 and = 1 can be tested statis-
tically by calculating the ratios a/s (a) and (b 1)/s (b ) in two
Z-tests (Ripley and Thompson, 1987, p. 379). In the absence of
signicant bias, both ratios should be inside the (1.96, 1.96)
interval with 95% probability. In our applications, a is a small
negative value with a/s (a) greater than 1.96, and b is slightly
greater than 1 with (b 1)/s (b ) less than 1.96.
If = 0 and = 1, Xi = Yi . Also, each weight wi is
simply the inverse of the sum of the variances of xi and yi ,
or wi = 1/s 2 (t), where s 2 (t) = s 2 (x) + s 2 (y). The estimated
spline-curve values are not signicantly improved when the
MLFR method is applied. However, the approach offers three
advantages: (1) replacing s 2 (yi ) by s t2 (yi ) allows a new type
of approximate spline-curve tting in which stratigraphic un-
certainty is considered from the beginning; (2) scaled residu-
als r i = (yi Yi )/s t (yi ) can be used to check whether or not
any s t (yi ) value is too large; and (3) it enables us to calculate
s 2 (Yk ) and 2-sigma error bars for estimated ages of chrono-
stratigraphic boundaries (subscript i denotes observations and
k is for chronostratigraphic boundaries).
Spline tting with weights wi = 1/s t2 (yi ) provides an ap-
proximate solution. If the best-t spline is a straight line, the
validity of this approximation can be veried. In all applica-
tions performed to date, setting = 1 makes no difference to
the end product. However, this approximation may become less
satisfactory if the spline locally deviates strongly from a straight
line. Nevertheless, it can be assumed that use of s t2 (y) generally
provides better results than use of s 2 (y) with all stratigraphic
uncertainty set equal to zero.
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Stratigraphic Index
Aalenian 32, 321
Aeronian 37, 189
Albian 31, 360
Anisian 34, 278
Aptian 31, 359
Aquitanian 30, 412
Archean 40, 43,131
Arenig 170
Artinskian 35, 253
Ashgill 170
Asselian 35, 250
Bajocian 32, 321
Barremian 31, 359
Bartonian 30, 388
Bashkirian 35, 230
Bathonian 32, 321
Bavelian 446
Berriasian 32, 353
Boomerangian 154
Burdigalian 29, 413
Calabrian 418
Callovian 32, 322
Calymmian 40
Cambrian 147164
Campanian 31, 364
Capitanian 34, 254
Caradoc 170
Carboniferous 222248, 222248
Carnian 33, 279
Cenomanian 31, 362
Cenozoic 45, 384, 457
Changhsingian 34, 256
Chattian 30, 389
Cisuralian 34, 250
Coniacian 31, 363
Cretaceous 344383
Cromerian 446
Cryogenian 40
Danian 30, 387
Darriwillian 186
Datsonian 155
Delamaran 156
Devonian 201222
Dyeran 156
Eburonian 446
Ectasian 40,
Ediacaran 39, 138, 146
Eemian 446
Eifelian 36, 207
Emsian 36, 206
Elsterian 446
Eoarchean 40
Eocene 388
Eratosthenian 144
Famennian 36, 207
Flandrian 446
Floran 154
Frasnian 36, 207
Furongian 39,
Gelasian 28, 417
Givetian 36, 207
Gorstian 37, 192
Guadalupian 34, 254
Gzehlian 35, 233
Hadean 145
Hauterivian 31, 358
Hettangian 33
Hirnantian 38, 169
Holocene 28, 419, 451
Holsteinian 446
Homerian 37, 192
Idamean 154
Imbrian 144
Induan 34, 277
Iverian 155
Neoproterozoic 39, 132
Jurassic 307343 Norian 33, 280
Kasimovian 35, 232
Kimmeridgian 32, 324
Kungurian 35, 253
Ladinian 33, 278
Langhian 29, 413 Ordovician stage 338, 186
Llandovery 37, 189
Llanvirn 170
Lochkovian 36, 203, 255
Lopingian 34
Lower Cambrian 39, 147
Lower Carboniferous 228
Lower Cretaceous 345
Lower Devonian 203 Paleocene 384
Lower Jurassic 308
Lower Miocene 412
Lower Ordovician 166
Lower Permian 250
Lower Pleistocene 418
Lower Pliocene 416
Lower Silurian 189
Lower Triassic 277
587
Ludfordian 37, 192
Ludlow 37, 192
Lutetian 30, 388
Maastrichtian 31, 364
Marjuman 156
Menapian 446
Mesoarchean 40
Mesoproterozoid 45, 132
Mesozoic 15, 44
Messinian 29, 415
Middle Cambrian 39
Middle Devonian 207
Middle Jurassic 320
Middle Miocene 414
Middle Ordovician 168
Middle Permian 254
Middle Pleistocene 418
Middle Pliocene 416
Middle Triassic 278
Mindyallan 154
Miocene 29, 412
Mississippian 35, 228
Montezuman 155
Moscovian 35, 231
Nectarian 144
Neoarchean 40
Neogene 409440
Olenekian 34, 277
Oligocene 389
Ordian 154
Ordovician 165187
Ordovician stage 238, 186
Ordovician stage 538, 169
Ordovician stage 638, 169
Orosirian 40
Oxfordian 32, 323
Paibian 39
Paleoarchean 40
Paleogene 384408
Paleoproterozoic 132
Paleozoic 10, 44
Payntonian 155
Pennsylvanian 35
Permian 249270
Phanerozoic 44
Piacenzian 29, 416
588 Stratigraphic Index

Pleistocene 28, 417, 442 Serpukhovian 35, 229 Undillan 154

Pliensbachian 33, 312 Serravallian 29, 414 Upper Cretaceous 362
Pliocene 28, 415 Sheinwoodian 37 Upper Devonian 207
Praetiglian 446 Siderian 40 Upper Jurassic 323
Pragian 36, 203 Silurian 188201 Upper Miocene 414
Precambrian 43, 129146 Sinemurian 33, 309 Upper Ordovician 169
Pre-Nectarian 144 Skullrockian 156 Upper Permian 255
Priabonian 30, 388 Statherian 40 Upper Pliocene 417
Pridoli 37, 192 Stenian 40 Upper Pleistocene 28, 419
Proterozoic 39, 43, 131 Sunwaptan 156 Upper Silurian 189
Upper Triassic 279
Quaternary 28, 411412, 441 Telychian 37, 189
Templetonian 154 Valanginian 31, 354
Rhaetian 33, 280 Thanetian 30, 387 Visean 36, 229
Rhuddanian 37, 189 Tiglian 446
Waalian 446
Rhyacian 40, Tithonian 32, 325
Weichselian 446
Roadian 34, 254 Toarcian 33, 320
Wenlock 37, 191
Rupelian 30, 389 Tonian 40
Wordian 34, 254
Tortonian 29, 414
Wuchiapingian 34, 255
Saalian 446 Tournaisian 36, 228
Sakmarian 35, 253 Tremadocian 38, 170 Ypresian 30, 388
Santonian 31, 364 Triassic 271306
Selandian 387 Turonian 31, 363 Zanclean 29, 416
General Index

acritarchs 138, 208 erathem 20-Table 2.1 orbital obliquity 56

age 20-Table 2.1 eustasy 175, 197, 213 orbital parameters 5556
ammonites 327 orbital precession 56
ammonoid zones 208, 233, 283, 366 Foraminifera 233, 366, 390393, 420, Table A2.3 orbital tuning 5562, 430434, 469
Ar-Ar method 9194, 426 Fusulinacea 263 oxygen isotope stratigraphy 135, 196,
archaeocyathan 157 427429
atomic second 7 Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point
2126, 40 Pangea 223
biochron 20-Table 2.1 Global Standard Stratigraphic Age 26 Permian-Triassic boundary 276
Brachiopoda Gondwana 223 Planktonic Foraminifera 334, 367, 390, 420,
Brunhes 65, GSSA 26 Table A2.3
GSSP 2126, 40 polarity chron 20-Table 2.1, 64
calcareous nannofossils 334, 367, 393, 421, 472 Graphic Correlation 4951, 199200, 244247 precession 56
Calpionellids 366 graptolites 171, 193
carbon isotope chronology 426 Gauss 65 radiolarians 234, 394, 421
carbon isotope stratigraphy 135, 196 geomathematics 106125 Ranking and Scaling 50, 5254
Chitinozoans 194 Gilbert 65 Rhenium-Osmium method 9495, 337
cesium clock 7
color codes 465468 Heinrich events 429, 450 sequence stratigraphy 236, 287, 338, 370, 424
chron 20-Table 2.1 HR-SIMS method 9091, 177 series 20-Table 2.1
chronograms 107 SHRIMP 90, 177
composite standard 108, 244, 200, 244 Illawara Geomagnetic Reversal 263 Smaller Benthic Foraminifera 334, 393
conodonts 158, 171, 194, 208, 233, 263, 284 insolation 57 spores 208, 234
Constrained Optimization 5052, 177186 International Commission of Stratigraphy xvi, stage 20-Table 2.1
cross-validation 108 21, 24 straight-line tting 109110
Cryptochrons 65 isotope geochronology 8795 stratigraphic uncertainty 107108, 463
cubic smoothing spline 107108 isotope stratigraphy 133, 136, 235, 286, 368, strontium stratigraphy 96, 175, 369, 402,
cyanobacteria 138 401403, 427429 425
cycle stratigraphy 5961, 212, 287, 338, 369, 403, Sr-Sr method 96105, 134
427 J-Factor 93,113 Sulfur Isotope Stratigraphy 135136
system 20-Table 2.1
dacrycononarid zonation 208 K-Ar method 9192
Dansgaard-Oescher cycles 429 tektites 425
decay constants 8788 Larger Benthic Foraminifera 392 tentaculitids 208
diatoms 421 Laskar 2003 solution 433 time scale methods 8, 106, 455, 462
dinoagellates 358, 429, 454 Lowess Fit 100 time scale calibration methods 460
dinosaurs 327, 366 TIMS method 90
mammals 397400, 419420 trilobites 149153, 157
eccentricity 56 magnetostratigraphy 6386
Ediacaran fossils 138139 Matuyama 65 U-Pb methods 8891
eon 20-Table 2.1 maximum likelihood method 107 universal time 7
eonothem 20-Table 2.1 MLFR 106
ephemeris time 7 vertebrates 397400, 419420
epoch 20-Table 2.1 Old Red Sandstone 222
era 20-Table 2.1 orbital eccentricity 56 zone 20-Table 2.1

589