Introduction To Non Conventional Energy Systems

Introduction to Non-
Conventional Energy Systems

Dr.L.Umanand
L. Umanand NCES/M1/V1/2004 1
Why Fossil Fuel Base?
Applications need concentrated energy
i.e. high energy densities.
Extraction, storage, distribution and
service infrastructure is well established
and stable
Large scale production results in
affordable running cost.
Why fossil fuel base?
Wh/kg density Wh/m3 Wh/lt.
Fuel Kg/m3
1 Gasoline 12300 ~700 9348000 9348
2 Natural Gas 9350 ~800 7480000 7480
3 Methanol 6200 791 4904200 4904
5 Kerosene 12300 870 10701000 10701
6 Coal 8200 1250-1550 10250000 10250
- -
7 Battery (lead- acid) 35 80
- - -
8 Flywheel 15
- -
9 Solar thermal** 900/day 0.9/day
- -
10 Solar PV* 500/day 0.5/day
*Efficiency is assumed as 10% and 1m height is required for installation with appropriate inclination.
**Efficiency is assumed as 18% and 1m height is required for installation with appropriate inclination.
COSTS
Cost of petrol Rs.40/lt > Rs.4.27/KWh
Cost of kerosene Rs.15/lt > Rs.1.4/KWh
Cost of PV Rs.200/W > Rs.40000/KWh of
capital investment
Petrol/diesel fuel stations infrastructure
is available
LPG gas is distributed at your doorstep
LPG and CNG service infrastructure is
also well established
Customer need not bother about
storage and service infrastructure costs.
Payment is only for running cost of fuel.
Then why move away from
fossil fuel base?
Depletion of fossil fuels
Environmental hazards
Health hazards
Life Cycle costs versus running costs
How long will fossil fuel last?
Let the earth be made of a thin shell that is
filled entirely with fossil fuels.
Consider the earth as a sphere of radius
R=6378.137 kms.
This amounts to about 1.1x1021 m3 of fossil
fuel.
take the average energy density of fossil fuel
to be about 10000Wh/lt or 10000 KWh/m3
(refer table on energy densities slide 03)
the amount of stored energy within the
earth is 1.1x1025 KWh
The current annual world energy
consumption is about 55x1012 KWh
Considering a 7% growth in energy
consumption annually
in 372 years with an annual energy
consumption growth rate of 7%, all the
fossil fuel is emptied within the earth
even though we started with earth
being full of fossil fuel. However, earth
is not composed fully of fossil fuel. Only
a fraction of its volume is stored as
fossil fuel.
The pinnacle of fossil fuel usage is
passed. Its usage will now decay
exponential and in the next 100 years
will gradually die.
So now a Paradigm shift
Concentrated usage of energy to
Distributed usage of energy
A case for enviroment
..rush hour pictures.
1. Majestic railway station
2. MGRoad
3. Shivajinagar bus station
A case for enviroment
Green house effects
Climate change
Depletion of stratospheric ozone layer
Green house effect
Green house gases carbon dioxide,
nitrous oxide, methane, chloro fluoro
carbons.
Green house gases are the temperature
stabilisers of the earths atmosphere.
Temperature stabilisation is by trapping
radiated heat from the earths surface
by these green house gases.
Global warming
Due to emissions from the fossil fuel
based systems, the green house gases
in the atmosphere increases.
As a result, the average temperature of
the earth is becoming higher.
Effects of Global warming
changes in rainfall patterns
rise in sea level
impacts on flora and fauna
impacts on human health
Health is an issue!
CO poisoning.
Asthma.
Skin diseases and cancer due to
depletion of stratospheric ozone.
Cost in the long run
Life cycle costing gives more realistic
estimates.
This gives a much better correlation of
cost to energy used.
What are the alternatives?
Nuclear fuel is it viable?
What are its implications?
Then what?
Non-conventional fuel base
Muscular
Solar thermal
Solar PV
Wind
Hydro
Biomass
Wave
Hybrids
Scope for alternative
energies
75% of energy comes from
fossil fuels such as crude oils,
coal and natural gas
12% from bio fuels such as
methane
9% from hydro based
3% from nuclear
1% from windmills and
Scope to increase
photovoltaic put together
Indian Institute of Science CEDT
1. Traditional Energy Systems

Introduction
For any activity involving other than muscle power a base energy and capital energy are
required. This can be illustrated considering following two examples:
Consider a person walking between 2 points A B. the energy required will be
Fd(=m*a*d) joules.
Now if the person uses a car the total energy will be Etranslational+Ecapital
Where Ecapital is the energy invested in making car.
A d B
Considering the example of energy required for ploughing a field:

When a tractor is used there energy spent on Ecapital. The various relative values can be
tabulated as follows:
Eplough KWh Ecapital KWh Energy efficiency
Traditional farming 6000 60 90%
Modern farming 6000 60000 10%
From above it is clear that though the energy efficiency for traditional farming is high
the time required for modern farming is less.
Sources
The working speed for most draught animals is about 1 metre/second (3.6 km/h, 2 mph).
A bull consumes about 3.3 Joules for each Joule of work. There are limitations on the
performance of animals, such as sensitivity to food supply, getting sick etc.
Sustainable power of individual animals in good

condition
Animal Typical Pull- Typical Typical Power Working Energy
weight weight pull N working output hours output
kN (kgf) ratio (kgf) speed W per day per
m/s day MJ
Ox 4.5(450) 0.11 500(50) 0.9 450 6 10
650
Buffalo 5.5 (50) 0.12 0.8 520 5 9.5
(65)
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4.0 500
Horse 0.13 1.0 500 10 18
(400) (50)
1.5 200
Donkey 0.13 1.0 200 4 3
(150) (20)
3.0 400
Mule 0.13 1.0 400 6 8.5
(300) (40)
5.0 650
Camel 0.13 1.0 650 6 14
(500) (65)
Note: For animals of different weight the power output and energy
output per day may be adjusted proportionately
Source: Tools for Agriculture, 1992
http://www.fao.org/sd/EGdirect/EGan0006.htm
Force Force
Velocity Power Standard Velocity Power
Animal Exerted Exerted
(ft/sec) (ft-lbs/sec) Horsepower (m/s) (W)
(lbs.) (N.)
draft horse 120 3.6 432 0.864 535 1.1 587
ox 120 2.4 288 0.576 535 0.7 391
mule 60 3.6 216 0.432 267 1.1 293
donkey 30 3.6 108 0.216 134 1.1 147
man 18 2.5 45 0.090 80 0.8 61

http://www2.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/animalpower.htm Metric conversion by Tim Lovett
For a hard day's work the horse reigns supreme, delivering 500W for 10 hours. The ox is known
for its compliance and is less fussy about food - a good choice for the less demanding
applications. The camel has the highest power output. Forget the donkey.
http://geoimages.berkeley.edu/GeoImages/Powell/Afghan/100.html
Camel powered pump in Afghanistan: For millenia waterwheels have been used to lift water for
irrigation and domestic use.
This camel keeps walking in a tight circle to turn an axle which powers the waterwheel.
http://private.addcom.de/asiaphoto/burma/bdia085.htm
An ox crushes peanuts on a tiny mill in Thailand. Note the two arms - one steering the animal at
the neck, while the other takes the power from behind the animal.
Power for common activities
Energy Consumed
Activities
Moving a body of unit mass with an acceleration 2m/s2 on a smooth 555.56x 10-6
horizontal plane Whr/kg/m
Moving a body of unit mass with an acceleration 2m/s2 on a 1100x10-6 Whr/kg/m

horizontal plane with coefficient of friction =0.2
Moving a body of unit mass with uniform velocity on a horizontal 544x10-6
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plane with coefficient of friction =0.2 Whr/kg/m
Lifting a body of unit mass by unit height 2722x10-6

Whr/kg/m
Energy required for rotating a disc of J=2kg-m2 with an angular 1111x10-6 Whr
acceleration =2 rad/sec2 per unit radian
Energy required to raise the temperature of unit mass of water from 58.05 Whr/kg
250 to 750
Energy required to deliver water from a horizontal pipe with a 555.56x 10-6
delivery rate of 0.1lt/sec at a pressure of 20N/m2 Whr/kg/m
Energy required to move a body up an inclined plane inclined at an 2863x10-6

angle 45o with an acceleration of 2m/s2 with a frictional coefficient of
Whr/kg/m
=0.2
Energy required for physical activities of human being (M=68kg)

Walking at a speed of 7 km/hr for a time of 1hr 464x10-3 Whr
Running at a speed of 10 km/hr for a time of 1hr 812.7x10-3 Whr
Cycling at a speed of 16 km/hr for a time of 1hr 510.8x10-3 Whr
Swimming at a speed of 2.4 km/hr for a time of 1hr 557.33x10-3 Whr
Energy Storage
Typical rechargeable batteries 40-100 Wh/kg
Electrochemical capacitor 5-15 Whr/kg
Spring 0.1-0.3 Whr/kg
Reference:
1. www.brainmac.demon.co.uk
2. www.spi.auburn.edu\prospector
L.Umanand 3/3 12/11/2007

1. Solar Radiation
The output of sun is 2.81023KW. The energy reaching the earth is 1.51018KWH/year.
When light travels from outer space to earth, solar energy is lost because of following
reasons:
Scattering:
The rays collide with particles present in atmosphere
Absorption:
Because of water vapor there is absorption.
Cloud cover:
The light rays are diffused because of clouds.
Reflection:
When the light rays hit the mountains present on the earth surface there is reflection.
Climate:
Latitude of the location, day (time in the year) also affects the amount of solar energy
received by the place.
The above mentioned factors determine the amount of power falling on the surface.
Insolation:
It is a quantity indicating the amount of incident solar power on a unit surface,
commonly expressed in units of kW/m2. At the earths outer atmosphere, the solar
insolation on a 1 m2 surface oriented normal to the suns rays is called SOLAR
CONSTANT and its value is 1.37 kW/m2. Due to atmospheric effects, the peak solar
insolation incident on a terrestrial surface oriented normal to the sun at noon on a clear
day is on the order of 1 kW/m2. A solar insolation level of 1 kW/m2 is often called
PEAK SUN. Solar insolation is denoted by ' I '.
The graph shown gives the amount of power present in different wavelengths of
radiation. It can be seen from the graph that 50% of solar energy is in the form of
thermal energy. Solar PV captures the energy in visible region. Solar thermal captures
energy in infrared region.
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KW/m2
9% 40% 51%
0.2m 0.4m 0.7m 4m

Ultraviolet Visible Infrared
Wavelength
Irradiance:
It is an amount of solar energy received on a unit surface expressed in units of kWh/m2.
Solar irradiance is essentially the solar insolation (power) integrated with respect to
time. When solar irradiance data is represented on an average daily basis, the value is
often called PEAK SUN HOURS (PSH) and can be thought of as the number of
equivalent hours/day that solar insolation is at its peak level of 1 kW/m2. The worldwide
average daily value of solar irradiance on optimally oriented surfaces is approximately 5
kWh/m2 or 5 PSH. Solar irradiance is denoted by ' H '.
Now we know the definition of two basic terms commonly used in design of a
photovoltaic systems. Of course, these terms are often used interchangeably. Hence, one
has to be careful in looking at the unit that has been used. In designing a photovoltaic
system, it is important to know the amount of insolation available to us at a given time
so that the power can be captured using solar panels and convert it into electricity.
Depending on the requirement, the size of the panel can be then designed.
2. Radiation Measurement
We know that the atmosphere is made up of ions and other particles including clouds.
Hence, when the incident radiation passes through the atmosphere, some radiation
penetrates and falls directly on to the panel, some radiation diffuses in atmosphere and
travels to the panel and some radiation gets reflected from the surroundings of the panel
and reaches the panel, the effect being called albedo effect. It becomes extremely
important to know the amount of energy that has reached the panel through all the paths.
There are several factors on which this energy is dependent. They are as follows:
Latitude and longitude of the geographical location.
Climatic conditions such as presence of clouds, water vapor etc.
Time of the day.
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Time of the year.

Angle of tilt.
Collector design.
Now, let us see how we make use of this information in calculating the solar energy
available at the panel. The steps are as follows:
1. Find the sun position with respect to the location. This is a function of latitude
(), hour angle () and declination angle ().
SunPositio n = f ( , , )
2. Find the available solar energy or irradiance with no atmosphere, HO. This is a
function of sun position.
H O = f ( SunPosition)
3. Find the solar energy available on horizontal surface with atmospheric effects,
HOA. This is a function of HO and clearness index KT.
H OA = K T H O
4. Find the actual solar energy available at the panel, Ht. This is a function of HOA
and the tilt factor RD.
H t = R D H OA
All the above mentioned steps can be written as an algorithm so that the moment
available data is fed, the actual solar energy available at the panel can be calculated
instantly. The algorithm would involve the following equations:
Enter ,
N = 1 365
2 (N 80 ) st st
= 23.45 sin Degrees, N = 1 on Jan 1 , N = 365 on Dec 31
365
sr = cos 1 ( tan tan )
360 N
I O = I SC 1 + 0.033 cos KW/m2
365
24 I O
H ot = (cos( ) cos cos sr + sr sin ( )sin ) KWh/m2/day on a

tilted surface with no atmospheric effects.
24 I O
Ho = (cos( ) cos cos sr + sr sin ( )sin ) kWh/m2/day

K T = (curve fitting data ) - Clearness Index
1 + cos 1 cos
R D = K R (1 K D ) + K D + - Tilt Factor
2 2
L. Umanand 3/51 12/11/2007

where is the reflection factor which ranges between 0.2 to 0.7.

H t = K T RD H o kWh/m2/day
This algorithm can be translated into any of the programming languages like C, C++ or
MATLAB. Entering the known parameters, it becomes convenient to find out the solar
energy available at any geographical location.
Insolation at any location
We need to develop an algorithm, which calculates insolation (Ht) in kWh/m2 at any
place, once we input the following parameters:
a. Day of the year (N)
b. Latitude of the location ()
c. Tilt angle ()
d. Angle of declination ()
e. Clearness Index (KT)
f. Reflection co-efficient (varies from 0.2 to 0.7)
Following flow chart gives an idea for developing the algorithm:
ETR
KT
Ht
We can see that once , N and are input, Extra Terrestrial Radiation (ETR) can be
determined. , the declination angle of the sun is assumed to be the same every year and
= 0 in March 21st. Following Fourier series can be used to calculate :
= Ao + A1 cos t + A2 cos 2t + A3 cos 3t + B1 sin t + B2 sin 2t + B3 sin 3t where
L. Umanand 4/51 12/11/2007

360
t= ( N 80) degrees
365
A0, A1B3 = ?
ETR can be calculated from the following expression:
ETR = 24 k I SC (cos cos sin sr + sr sin sin ) kWh/m2 where
360 N
k = 1 + 0.033 cos
365
ISC = mean solar constant = 1.37 kW/m2
= latitude in degrees/radians
= declination angle in degrees/radians
sr =hour angle at sunrise in degrees/radians = cos-1(-tantan )
The next parameter that needs to be known is KT, the clearness index. It is one of the
most important and difficult factors to be determined since it depends on atmospheric
conditions such as absorption, pressure, cloud-cover at the place etc., which are not
constant at a given place. However, a model for KT could be developed based on the
irradiance level (H) measured at different places and using the relationship KT =
H/ETR. KT was initially modeled using linear polynomial regression and multiple
regression techniques. Since the results obtained with these models were not very
accurate, a model was developed using Fourier series techniques of curve fitting since
KT is a periodic function of period one year.
We have seen earlier that the irradiance in kWh/ m2 can be calculated for any location
by inputting latitude of the location, declination angle, day number of the year for a
given tilt angle using algorithm. The plot of irradiance as a function of the year is shown
in the following figure.
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Irradiance Vs N
Average Ht in kWh/m2
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 100 200 300 400
Day of the year N
We can see that the level varies with the day of the year. It may reach a peak at some
day of the year and reach a bottom on some other day of the year. The peaks and valleys
are the direct result of the amount of irradiance reaching the earth. This is a graph that
gives us the irradiance level over one year period.
3. Heat Transfer Concepts
The important terminology one needs to know to understand the heat transfer
mechanism is the following:
a) Radiation
b) Conduction
c) Convection
d) Mass transport
To understand the meaning of each of these terms, let us take an example. Let us
consider a typical flat plate solar collector that is used in solar water heater system and
shown in the following figure.
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Flat Plate Solar

Collector
Radiation
Convection
Conduction through Air
through Metal
Mass
Transport
Water In Water Out

In the above figure it can be seen that the heat is transferred from Sun to the flat plate
solar collector by radiation. Radiation is the process of heat transfer from source to the
target directly. The plate gets heated and transfers part of the heat to the copper tubes
carrying water by conduction. Conduction is a process of heat transfer between two
metals or solids. Part of the heat from the plate gets lost due to convection of heat.
Convection is a process of heat transfer from solids to the surroundings via fluids. The
heat transferred to the copper tube gets eventually transferred to the water flowing
through the tubes by mass transport. Mass transport is a process of heat transfer similar
to convection with little difference. Convection is an uncontrolled process where as
mass transport is a controlled process where the discharge rate of the fluid can be
controlled. It is important to note at this point that the above-mentioned heat transfer
processes are all dependent on the properties of materials.
Modeling of Heat transfer system:
To understand modeling concept, let us consider a spherical space as shown in the

following figure:
L. Umanand 7/51 12/11/2007

Thermal Insulator Thermal Conductor
Hot Body
T1
Tsi Tso Ta
Most part of the spherical space is enclosed by a thermal insulating material such as
thermo-foam. The balance part is covered by a thermal conducting material. Let a hot
body at temperature T1 is placed at the middle of the space. The heat from the hot body
flows outwards towards the boundary of the space by radiation and convection. Let the
temperature at the inner surface of the conductive window of the space be Tsi. The heat
flows through the thermal conductive window. Let the temperature at the outer surface
of the window be Tso. The heat further flows into the atmosphere by convection and
radiation. Let the ambient temperature outside the surface be Ta. It can be observed that
T1>Tsi>Tso>Ta. The decrease of temperatures during the outflow is attributed to the loss
of heat in the process of convection, radiation and conduction of heat. The following
block diagram can represent the outward flow of heat from the hot body to ambient:
Rv1 Rc1 Rv2

T1 Tsi Tso
Convection Conduction Convection Ta
Rr1 Rr2
Radiation Radiation
In the block diagram, T1 is the temperature of the hot body, Tsi is the temperature at the
inner surface of the thermal conductor window, Tso is the temperature at the outer
surface of the thermal conductor window, and Ta is the ambient temperature. Also, Rv1
is the thermal resistance of the convection path between hot body and the inner surface
of the thermal conductor, Rr1 is the thermal resistance of the radiation path between hot
body and the inner surface of the thermal conductor, Rc1 is the thermal resistance of the
conduction path between inner and out surface of the thermal conductor window, Rv2 is
the thermal resistance of the convection path between outer surface of the thermal
L. Umanand 8/51 12/11/2007

conductor and the ambient, and Rr2 is the thermal resistance of the radiation path
between outer surface of the thermal conductor and the ambient.
The heat flow from the hot body to the ambient is analogous to ohms law (v = I r).
That is effort = flow x resistance. With reference to the heat flow, effort is the
temperature difference, flow is the power and resistance is the thermal resistance of the
path. Hence, we can write
T = P x R.
Based on this analogy, let us find the following terms:
Thermal Resistance of the convection path is given by

(T1 Tsi )
R v1 = , C/W
P v1
Power transmitted through convection is given by
(T1 Tsi )
P v1 = ,W
R v1
Normalizing the power transmitted through convection by dividing it by unit area, we
get
P v1 T
= =q
A r v1
Where rv1 = Rv1 x A = Thermal Resistivity measured in C m2/W
In general we can write
T
q= = h T
r
Here h is called the Thermal Coefficient, one of the most important terms in heat
transfer.
Conduction
Conduction is a mode of heat transfer in which transfer of energy takes place from the
more energetic to the less energetic particles of a substance due to interactions between
the particles. Heat transfer processes by conduction can be quantified in terms of rate
equation known as Fouriers law. Let us consider a thin rectangular solid slab as shown
in the following figure:
L. Umanand 9/51 12/11/2007

T2
T1
x
In the figure, q is the heat flux and is the rate of heat transfer in the x direction per unit
area perpendicular to the direction of transfer. T1 is the temperature of the hotter side of
the slab and T2 is the temperature of the colder side of the slab. We have seen earlier
that the heat flux is proportional to the temperature difference (T1 T2). That is
q (T1 T2).
Hence, we can write
q = h T
where h is the thermal coefficient in W/C m2
Now, let us define another constant called thermal conductivity, k, in terms of thermal
coefficient and the thickness of the slab x. That is
k = h x [(W/C m2) m]; [W/C m]
Hence, we can write
L. Umanand 10/51 12/11/2007

k
h=
x
Substituting this in the expression for heat flux, we get
T
q=k
x
Thermal conductivity, k, is a transport property and is the characteristic of the slab
material.
Now, if A is the area of the slab then the heat rate by conduction, P is the product of heat
flux and the area. That is
T
P = q A = k A
x
Let us summarize the units of various constants we have considered so far.
a) Thermal resistance R = C/W or K/W
b) Thermal resistivity r = C m2/W or K m2/W
c) Thermal co-efficient h = W/C m2 or W/K m2
d) Thermal conductivity k = W/C m or W/K m
Also, we can write expression for all the above-mentioned constants in terms of thermal
conductivity as follows:
a) Thermal conductivity = k
k
b) Thermal co-efficient h =
x
x
c) Thermal resistivity r =
k
x
d) Thermal resistance R =
kA
Thermal conductivity is an important property of material and plays an important role in
the conduction process. The k values for different materials are given in the following
table:
Material k value in W/C/m
Copper 385
Aluminum 211
Steel 47.6
Glass 1.05
Brick 0.6
L. Umanand 11/51 12/11/2007

Concrete 1.7
Asbestos 0.32
Polyurethane 0.025
Polystyrene 0.035
Still air 0.026
Problem:
Calculate Thermal resistance of the path if
a) The slab is made up of glass having area of 1 m2 and thickness of 5 mm.
b) The slab is made up of brick having area of 1 m2 and thickness of 220 mm.
Solution:
x
We know that the expression for thermal resistance is given by R =
kA
a) x = 5 mm = 5 x 10-3 m; k = 1.05; A = 1 m2
5 x103
R = = 0.004762 C/W
1.05 1
b) x = 220 mm = 220 x 10-3 m ; k = 0.6 ; A = 1 m2

220 x103
R = = 0.366667 C/W
0.6 1
A typical example of heat transfer by conduction is the case of heat dissipation in

semiconductor devices such as junction transistors (BJT and FET). Any device that has
a voltage across it and current through it simultaneously dissipates power. This power is
equal to the product of the voltage and the current. We know that the power is the rate at
which energy is converted from one form to another. In semiconductor devices, the
energy changes from electrical energy to heat energy.
Now, heat energy can be compared to current and temperature to voltage. When current
flows in a semiconductor device, a voltage is produced and when heat energy flows in
any substance, the temperature rises. The thermal resistance measured in C/W of the
substance determines how much the temperature rises when heat energy flows in it.
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The maximum operating temperature of a semiconductor junction is about 200 C.

Depending upon the type of case material, any given semiconductor device may have a
lower maximum operating temperature. If this maximum temperature is exceeded, the
device gets destroyed. An important part of the design process for large signal
semiconductor circuit is making sure that the junction does not rise to a destructive
temperature. To safeguard this, heat sinks are frequently used with semiconductor
devices. Thermal resistance of the heat sink is the one that controls the temperature. We
have seen earlier that the thermal resistance R can be given by the following
expression:
x
R =
kA
Here, the thermal resistance depends on the thickness of the heat sink material, thermal
conductivity of the material and the area of the heat sink material. Normally, the
thickness of the material is almost standardized and the thermal conductivity is the
property of the material. That leaves the flexibility of varying only the surface area of
the heat sink to vary the thermal resistance of the heat sink. To design heat sink with
appropriate surface area, we need to know the maximum allowable temperature for the
junction and the ambient temperature. The temperature of a piece of the material
depends upon both the temperature rise caused by heat energy flowing in a thermal
resistance and the temperature of the surrounding air. Stated mathematically:
Temperature = TA + PDiss R t
TJ max TA
R t =
PDiss ,max
Following figure shows how a semiconductor device is mounted on to a heat sink.

Heatsink Fins
Junction
Case
Leads
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The thermal resistance of the whole unit is made up of the following three parts:
1. RJC is the thermal resistance from junction of the device to case of the
device. This specifies how many degrees hotter than the case the
semiconductor junction will become for each watt dissipated.
2. RCS is the thermal resistance from case to heat sink. It specifies how
many degrees hotter than the heat sink the case of the device will become
for each watt dissipated.
3. RSA is the thermal resistance from heat sink to ambient. It specifies how
many degrees hotter than the surrounding air the heat sink will become
for each watt dissipated.
Since all three thermal resistances appear in series with the flow of heat energy, the total
thermal resistance is the sum of the three as shown in the following figure:
TJ TC TS TA
RJC RCS RSA
P Diss
TA
R t = R JC + R CS + R SA
Substituting for Rot in the above equation we get the following:
TJ max TA
R JC + R CS + R SA =
PDiss ,max
Normally, RJC is provided in the data sheet of any device and RCS can be assumed to
be 1 C/W. Hence, the thermal resistance of the heat sink can be calculated by
rearranging the terms as follows:
TJ max TA
R SA = R JC R CS
PDiss ,max
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Convection
Convection is a mode of heat transfer between a solid and a fluid when there is a
temperature difference between a fluid and a solid. The convection heat transfer mode is
comprised of following two mechanisms:
Energy transfer due to random molecular motion (diffusion).

Energy transferred by the bulk motion of the fluid.
Such motion in the presence of a temperature gradient contributes to heat transfer.
Let us consider a fluid flow over a heated surface as shown in the following figure:
TF
x Fluid
TS
Heated Surface
The interaction between the fluid and the heated surface results in the development of a
region in the fluid through which the velocity varies from zero at the surface to a finite
value associated with the flow. This region of the fluid is known as the velocity
boundary layer. Also, if the surface and flow temperature differ, there will be a region of
the fluid through which the temperature varies from TS at the surface to TF in the outer
flow. This layer is called the thermal boundary layer. If TS > TF, convection heat transfer
will occur between the surface and the outer flow.
The convection heat transfer mode is sustained both by random molecular motion and
by the bulk motion of the fluid within the boundary layer. The contribution due to
random molecular motion dominates near the surface where the fluid velocity is low.
The contribution due to bulk fluid motion originates from the fact that the boundary
layer grows as the flow progresses in the x direction. In effect, the heat that is conducted
into this layer is swept downstream and is eventually transferred to the fluid outside the
boundary layer.
Convection heat transfer may be classified into the following types:
1. Free Convection: Here the flow is induced by buoyancy forces, which arise from
density differences, caused by temperature variations in the fluid.
L. Umanand 15/51 12/11/2007
2. Forced Convection: Here the flow is caused by external means such as fan,
pump or atmospheric winds.
Let us derive expressions for convective thermal resistance, convective thermal

resistivity, convective thermal conductivity and convective thermal coefficient. We
have seen in earlier that the expression for power (heat flow) is given by the following:
T
P=k A , W; where
x
k = Thermal conductivity
A = Cross sectional area perpendicular to the heat flow
T = TS TF = Temperature difference between surface and outer flow
x = Thickness of the fluid
Here most of the parameters are measurable except the fluid thickness, by. It can vary
with surroundings. Hence, an additional parameter is added which is measurable and the
fluid thickness is taken as a fraction of the measurable parameter as given by the
following expression:
X T
P=k A ; W; where
x X
X = Characteristic dimension
The ratio of Characteristic dimension to the fluid thickness is called as the Nusselt
number, a dimensionless quantity represented by N. Hence
T
P = k A; W
X
Rearranging the terms, we can get the expression for heat flow rate/unit area (heat
density) and convective thermal resistance as
P T
= q = k ; W/m2
A X
L. Umanand 16/51 12/11/2007

T X
R v = = ; C/W
P k A
Now, we know that the thermal resistivity is the product of thermal resistance and area.
X X
r v = A= ; Cm2/W
k A k
From the above expression, we can write the expression for convective thermal
coefficient (reciprocal of thermal resistivity) as
k
h v = ; W/C/m2
X
Substituting for convective thermal coefficient in the expression for heat density and
heat flow rate we get the following expressions:
q = h v T ; W/m2
P = h v T A ; W
Determination of Nusselt Number:
Nusselt Number is a dimensionless number that can be determined experimentally only.

In convection mode of heat transfer, we need to know the following for determining the
Nusselt Number:
Speed of the fluid flow

Property of the fluid
Geometry of the solid
Nusselt Number for different classes of convection is different. They are called
1. Rayliegh Number for free convection. It is represented by A and is given by the

L. Umanand 17/51 12/11/2007

g X 3 T
= ; where

g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 sec/m2

= Coefficient of thermal expansion
X = Characteristic Dimension
= Thermal diffusivity
= Kinemetic viscosity of fluid
2. Reynolds Number for forced convection. It is represented by R and is given by

the following expression:
uX
R= ; where

u = mean velocity of flow

X = Characteristic dimension
= Kinemetic viscosity of fluid
We can see that the Nusselt number is a function of both Rayliegh Number and
Reynolds Number, that is
N = f ( A, R )
The boundary layer in convection mode of heat transfer can be any of the following:
Laminar: In the laminar boundary layer, fluid motion is highly ordered and it is
possible to identify streamlines along which particles move. Since the velocity
component u is in the direction normal to the surface, it can contribute
significantly to the transfer of momentum and energy through the boundary
layer.
Turbulent: In the turbulent boundary layer, fluid motion is highly irregular and
is characterized by velocity fluctuations. These fluctuations enhance the transfer
of momentum and energy and hence increase surface friction as well as
convection transfer rates.
L. Umanand 18/51 12/11/2007

The boundary layer can be classified into laminar or turbulent based on the Rayliegh
Number and Reynolds Number.
For Rayliegh Number:
a) A 105 : Turbulent flow

b) 103 A 105 : Laminar flow
c) A < 103 : Free convection is not possible
For Reynolds Number:
a) R 2300 :Turbulent flow

b) R < 2300 : Laminar flow
Let us find expressions for Nusselt number for various shapes and for Laminar &
Turbulent flows in terms of either Rayliegh Number or Reynolds Number for free
convection and forced convection respectively.
Free Convection - Rayliegh Number:
Horizontal flat plate of length a and breadth b as shown in the following figure:
(a + b)
Characteristic Dimension: X =
2
For Laminar Flow:

102 < A < 105
N = 0.54 A 0.25
For Turbulent Flow:
L. Umanand 19/51 12/11/2007

A > 105
N = 0.14 A 0.33
Circular plate with diameter d as shown in the following figure:
Characteristic Dimension: X = d
For Laminar Flow:

102 < A < 105
N = 0.54 A 0.25
For Turbulent Flow:

A > 105
N = 0.14 A 0.33
Horizontal cylinder with diameter d as shown in the following figure:
Characteristic Dimension X = d
For Laminar Flow:

104 < A < 109
L. Umanand 20/51 12/11/2007

N = 0.47 A 0.25
For Turbulent Flow:

A > 109
N = 0.10 A 0.33
Vertical cylinder with length l as shown in the following figure:
Characteristic dimension X = l
For Laminar Flow:

104 < A < 109
N = 0.56 A 0.25
For Turbulent Flow:

109 < A < 1012
N = 0.20 A 0.4
Parallel plates at an angle as shown in the following figure:
Characteristic Dimension X = Distance between parallel plates
L. Umanand 21/51 12/11/2007

For < 50
For Laminar Flow:

Not possible
For Turbulent Flow:

A > 105
N = 0.062 A 0.33
Forced Convection Reynolds Number
Flat plate of length a or Circular plate of diameter a as shown in the following

figure:
Characteristic Dimension X = a
For Laminar Flow:

R < 5 x 105
N = 0.664 x R 0.5 x (/) 0.33
For Turbulent Flow:

R > 5 x 105
N = 0.37 x R 0.8 x (/) 0.33
Vertical cylinder with length l and diameter D where the flow is over the cylinder as
shown in the following figure:
L. Umanand 22/51 12/11/2007

Characteristic Dimension X = Diameter, D
For Laminar Flow:

0.1 < R < 1000
N = (0.35 + 0.56 R 0.52) x (/) 0.3
For Turbulent Flow:

1000 < R < 5 x 105
N = 0.26 R 0.6 x (/) 0.3
Horizontal cylinder with diameter d where the flow is into the cylinder as shown in
the following figure:
Characteristic Dimension X = Length, L
For Laminar Flow:

R < 2300
N = 1.86 (R x / x D/L) 0.33
For Turbulent Flow:

R > 2300
L. Umanand 23/51 12/11/2007

N = 0.027 x R 0.8 x (/) 0.33
Application of Convection Principles
Problem 1:
Consider two conducting square plates measuring 1 m on each side, placed parallel to
each other, separated by a distance of 3 cm. Let air is the medium of their separation.
Let the vertical sides formed by the plates are thermally insulated so that no heat flows
through them. Let the bottom plate is at 70 C and the top plate is 45 C. Calculate the
heat flow in watts from the bottom plate to the top plate by convection through the air
separating the plates.
Solution:
Following figure explains the problem.
1m
45 C
1m
3 cm
70 C
Insulator
We have seen earlier that the expression for the power flow P is given by the following
expression:
N k
P = A T , W, where
X
A = Area of the surface perpendicular to the heat flow = 1 m2

N = Nusselt number
k = Thermal conductivity of the fluid (air) = 0.028 W/mK
X = Characteristic dimension = Vertical distance between the plates for parallel plates.
T = Temperature difference between the plates
L. Umanand 24/51 12/11/2007

Let us assume free convection. Hence we need to first find Rayliegh Number to
evaluate Nusselt number. The Rayliegh Number, A, is given by the following
expression:
g X 3 T
A= , where

g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2

1
= Coefficient of thermal expansion of the fluid (air) =
330o K
X = Characteristic dimension for parallel plates = 3 cm = 0.03 m
T = (273 + 70) K (273 + 45) K = 25 K
= Thermal diffusivity of the fluid (air) = 2.6 x 10-5 m2/s
= Kinemetic viscosity of the fluid (air) = 1.8 x 10-5 m2/s
Substituting the above values we can evaluate the value of Rayliegh number as:
A=
( 9.81m / s ) (1 330 K ) ( 0.03m ) 25 K
2 o 3 o
( 2.6 x10 m / s ) (1.8x10 m / s )

5 2 5 2
A = 0.42876 x 105
Since A > 105, the flow is laminar. Hence, the Nusselt Number is given by the
N = 0.062 A 0.33
N = 0.062 x ( 0.42876 x 105 )0.33
N = 2.09422
Now, substituting the value of Nusselt Number in the expression for heat flow, P, we
get:
L. Umanand 25/51 12/11/2007

2.09422
P = 1m 2 ( 0.028W / m K ) ( 25 K )
o o
0.03m
P = 48.865 W
Problem 2:
Consider a cylindrical pot having a diameter of 22 cm. Let the pot is filled with water to
a height of 11 cm. Let the ambient temperature be 20 C. Calculate the energy required
to maintain boiling temperature of the pot at 100 C under the following conditions:
a) If the pot is sheltered from wind

b) If the pot is exposed to breeze traveling at 3 m/s
Solution:
Following figure shows the cylindrical pot.
11 c m 100 C TA = 20 C
22 c m
a) The pot is sheltered from the wind:
Since there is no wind involved here, it is the case of free convection. Hence,
Rayliegh Number needs to be evaluated to calculate Nusselt Number. The
energy from the pot is lost due to convection in two directions, viz., through the
top portion of the pot and through the sides of the pot. This energy needs to be
refurbished so that the pot is maintained at the boiling temperature. Hence, the
solution to calculate energy required to keep the pot at 100 C for an hour has
two components:
Energy lost from the top of the pot

Energy lost from the sides of the pot
L. Umanand 26/51 12/11/2007
It is assumed that the body of the pot has negligible thermal resistance. To
calculate the energy lost due to convection, we need to first calculate Rayliegh
Number, then the Nusselt Number and finally the power flow or the heat flow.
Following are the steps:
i) Top portion of the pot: Top portion can be considered as a circular

plate. The Rayliegh Number can be calculated from the following
expression:
g X 3 T
A (top) = , where X, the characteristic dimension of the

circular plate is the diameter of the plate.
Substituting the known values we get:
A (top) =
( 9.81m / s ) (1 330 K ) ( 0.22m ) (80 K )
2 o 3 o
( 2.6 x10 m / s ) (1.8x10 m / s )

5 2 5 2
A (top) = 5.41087 x 107
Since A > 105, the Nusselt Number is calculated from the following
expression:
N = 0.14 A 0.33
N = 0.14 (5.41087 x 107)0.33
N = 49.901
Now the expression for heat flow is given by the following expression:
N
P = A k T , W
X
L. Umanand 27/51 12/11/2007


Here, A is the surface area of the circular plate given by A = (d ) 2 , d
4
being the diameter of the plate.
Substituting the known values we get the following:
2 49.901
P = ( 0.22m ) ( 0.028W / m K ) ( 80 K )
o o
4 0.22m
P (top) = 19.3139 W
ii) Side portion of the pot: Side portion of the pot can be considered as a
vertical cylinder, where the characteristic dimension X is the length of
the cylinder. Substituting the know values, we get the following:
A (side) =
( 9.81m / s ) (1 330 K ) ( 0.11m ) (80 K )
2 o 3 o
( 2.6 x10 m / s ) (1.8 x10 m / s )

5 2 5 2
A (side) = 6.7636 x 106
Since 104 < A < 109, the Nusselt Number can be found from the
N = 0.56 A 0.25
N = 0.56 x (6.7636 x 106) 0.25
N = 28.5583
We have seen that the expression for the heat flow is given by:
N
P = A k T , W
X
Here A is the surface area of the side of the cylinder given by A = d h,

where d is the diameter of the cylinder rim and h is the height.
Substituting the known values, we get the value of heat flow as:
L. Umanand 28/51 12/11/2007

28.5583
P = ( 0.22m 0.11m ) ( 0.028W / m K ) ( 80 K )
o o
0.11m
P (side) = 44.2133 W
The total heat flow is the sum of the above two. That is
P (total) = P (top) + P (side)

P (total) = 19.3139 W + 44.2133 W
P (total) = 63.5272 W
Hence, the energy required to maintain the pot at the boiling temperature of 100
C for one hour is = 63.5272 W x 1 h = 63.5272 Wh.
b) Wind flows across the pot at an average velocity of 3 m/s:
The convection here is the forced convection and hence Reynolds Number needs
to be calculated to find Nusselt Number. Expression for Reynolds Number is
given by the following expression:
u X
R= , where

u is the average velocity in m/s
X is the characteristic dimension in m
is the kinemetic viscosity of the fluid in m2/s
As in the case of free convection, the loss of energy is in two directions, top and
sides. The loss of energy in each direction can be found as follows:
i) Top portion of the pot: Top portion can be considered as a circular flat.
The characteristic dimension X of the circular plate is its diameter. The
Reynolds number for this plate can calculated as follows:
L. Umanand 29/51 12/11/2007

R=
( 3m / s ) ( 0.22m )
(1.8 x10 5
m2 / s )
R = 0.3667 x 105
Since R < 5 x 105, the flow is laminar. Now the Nusselt Number can be
found from the following expression:
N =0.664 x R 0.5 x (/)0.33, where
is the thermal diffusivity of the fluid
Substituting the known values, we get the Nusselt Number as follows:
0.33
1.8 x105 m 2 / s
N = ( 0.664 ) ( 0.3667 x10 )
5 0.5
5 2
2.6 x10 m / s
N = 112.622
Having the Nusselt Number, we can calculate the heat flow from the
N
P (top) = A k T , where
X
D2
A is the area of the circular plate = , m2
4
K is the thermal conductivity of the fluid
T is the temperature difference
Substituting the known values, we get the value of heat flow as:
2 112.622
P (top) = ( 0.22m ) ( 0.028W / m K ) ( 80 K )
o o

4 0.22 m
P (top) = 43.5897 watts

L. Umanand 30/51 12/11/2007
ii) Side portion of the pot: Side portion constitutes a vertical cylinder. The
characteristic dimension X for this case is the diameter of the cylinder.
Hence the Reynolds Number in this case also would be same. That is:
R = 0.3667 x 105 or 3.667 x 104
Since 1000 < R < 5 x 104, the flow is turbulent. The Nusselt Number is
evaluated from the following expression:
N = 0.26 R 0.6 (/)0.3

0.3
1.8 x105 m 2 / s
N = ( 0.26 ) ( 3.667 x10 )
4 0.6
5 2
2.6 x10 m / s
N = 127.541
Having the Nusselt Number, the heat flow can be calculated by following
expression:
N
P (side) = A k T , W, where
X
A = Surface area of the cylinder = D h , m2
127.541
P (side) = ( 0.22m 0.11m ) ( 0.028W / m K ) ( 80 K ) , W
o o
0.22m
P (side) = 98.728 watts
Hence the total heat flow is the sum of the heat flow through the top and
through the sides.
P (total) = ( 43.5897 + 98.728 ) watts
P (total) = 142.3177 watts
L. Umanand 31/51 12/11/2007

Hence, the energy required to maintain the pot at the boiling temperature
of 100 C for one hour is = 142.3177 W x 1 h = 142.3177 Wh.
Comment:
We have calculated the energy required for keeping the pot at the boiling temperature of
100 C for one hour for both free convection and forced convection separately at their
worst case condition respectively. However, in real situations, the resultant convection
flow would be the combination of both free and forced convection and would be
difficult to predict or calculate accurately. Ideal design process would be to take the
worst-case results of each type and sum them up to get the total energy lost.
Radiation
Thermal radiation is energy emitted by matter that is at a finite temperature. The

emission may be attributed to changes in the electron configurations of the constituent
atoms or molecules. The energy of the radiation field is transported by electromagnetic
waves. The transfer of energy by radiation does not require the presence of a material
medium. In fact, radiation transfer occurs most efficiently in a vacuum.
Let us consider a hot body at temperature T1 as shown in the following figure:
T2
Radiation
T1
Let T2 be the temperature at some horizontal surface parallel to the radiating body such
that T2 < T1. We have seen in the earlier heat flow modes that the expression for heat
flow is given by the following expression:
P = hr A T , W, where
hr is the radiation thermal coefficient

A is the surface area perpendicular to the flow of radiation
T is the temperature difference between the radiating body and the reference point
L. Umanand 32/51 12/11/2007

Now the radiating thermal coefficient is given by the following expression:
3
T +T
hr = 4 eff (1 ) 1 2 , where
2
= Stefan Boltzmans constant = 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2/K4
eff = effective emittance
= Shielding factor
The shielding factor o for parallel plates is zero. The emittance depends on the
properties such as surface type and the color of the material. Following table gives the
emittance of some of the materials:
Material Type Emittance
Anodized Aluminum 0.800

(Black)
Polished Aluminum 0.095
Rough Surface 0.180

Aluminum
Rough Surface Iron 0.170
Tungsten at 1500 C 0.330
Brick 0.930
Concrete 0.940
Glass 0.940
Wood 0.900
A material, which has emittance of 1.000, it is called a black body and is a perfect
radiator. It also means that the material cannot retain any heat and the heat would lose
completely over a period. Such materials would be useless in applications where heat
retention is required. To understand the concept, let us solve the following problem.
Problem:
L. Umanand 33/51 12/11/2007

There are two parallel plates each having area of 1 m2. Let the first plate is made up of
glass and kept at a temperature of 350 K. Let the second plate is made up of rough
surfaced aluminum. Let the temperature of the second plate is at 300 K. Find the
radiation heat flow from first plate to the second plate.
Solution:
Let us consider the following figure to understand the problem:
2 1m
2
T2
1
T1
The bottom plate is a glass plate which is at 350 K and from the table the emittance of
glass is e1 = 0.940. The top plate is made up of rough surfaced aluminum having
emittance of 0.18. The temperature at that plate is 300 K. The radiation heat flow is
from plate 1 to plate 2. The radiation thermal coefficient of the path between plate 1 and
plate 2 can be calculated from the following expression:
3
T +T
hr = 4 eff (1 ) 1 2 , W/m2/K, where
2
= Boltzmans constant = 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2/K4

= Shielding factor = 0 for parallel plates
1 2
eff =
1 + 2 1 2
Substituting the known values we get:
( 0.94 ) ( 0.18)
3
350o K + 300o K
hr = 4 ( 5.67 x10 W / m / K )
8 2 o 4
(
1 0 )

0.94 + 0.18 ( 0.94 ) ( 0.18 ) 2
Hr = 1.3855 W/m2/K
L. Umanand 34/51 12/11/2007

Hence, the radiation heat flow can now be calculated from the following expression:
P = hr A T , W
P = (1.3855 W/m2/K) (1m2) (350 K 300 K)

P = 69.275 watts
This implies that 69.275 watts of heat flow (power) is lost due to radiation from plate 1
to plate 2.
Whenever a wave of energy hits a surface, part of the energy gets reflected, part of
energy is absorbed by the surface and part of the energy gets transmitted depending on
the type of surface. The amount of energy that gets reflected depends on a constant
called the reflectance of the surface denoted by . The amount of energy that is
absorbed depends on a constant called the absorptance of the surface denoted by . The
amount of energy that gets transmitted depends on a constant called transmittance of the
surface denoted by . For any surface, the following relationship holds good:
+ + = 1
The relationship is called the conservation of energy and these constants depend on the
type of surface. Following figure shows the distribution of energy when it strikes a glass
surface.
, reflectance
Sun ray
, absorptance
Glass surface
, transmittance
For a glass surface, is almost equal to 0, is equal to 0.92 and is equal to 0.08. And
the sum is equal to 1, satisfying the above relationship.
L. Umanand 35/51 12/11/2007

Heat transfer by mass transport
Let us consider the fluid flow through a heated pipe as shown in the following figure:
T1 T2
dm\dt
Heat
Let T1 is the temperature at the entry point and at ambient temperature. Let T2 is the
temperature at the exit point such that T1 < T2. Let m be the mass of the fluid in Kg,
flowing through the pipe and (dm/dot) is the mass flow rate in Kg/s. Hence the net heat
flow due to the mass transfer Pm is given by the following expression:
dm
Pm = s (T2 T1 ) , W, where
dt
S is called the specific heat of the fluid given in J/Kg/K. This is a constant for a given
fluid. Now the thermal resistance of the process can be found from the following basic
relationship:
(T2 T1 ) = Pm Rm
Hence Rm =
(T2 T1 ) , K/W
Pm
Substituting the value of Pm from the above expression, we get the expression for
thermal resistance as:
Rm =
(T2 T1 ) =
1
, K/W
( dm dt ) s (T2 T1 ) ( dm dt ) s
Here temperature is not a driving function for the heat transfer unlike conduction, free
convection and radiation. The heat flow is determined by external factors controlling the
rate of mass flow, (dm/dot).
L. Umanand 36/51 12/11/2007

The most effective means of heat transfer is as latent heat of vaporization. Latent heat of
vaporization is the amount of energy required to vaporize 1 Kg of water that is already
at 100 C. It is denoted by . To vaporize 1 Kg of water, 2.4 MJ of heat is required
where as to heat water through 100 C, only 0.42 MJ is required. Heat taken from the
heat source at T1 is carried to wherever the vapor condenses at T2. The associated heat
flow is given by:
dm
Pm = , W, where
dt
(dm/dot) is the rate at which fluid is being evaporated and is the latent heat of
vaporization. Now the associated thermal resistance can be given by the following
expression:
Rm =
(T1 T2 ) = (T1 T2 ) , K/W
Pm ( dm dt )
4. Applications
1. Solar thermal power plants

The two main types of solar thermal power plants are
1. Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) plants.

2. Solar Chimneys
1.1 Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) plants

Solar thermal power plants generally use reflectors to concentrate sunlight into a heat absorber.
Such power plants are known as Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) plants.
Concentrating solar power plants produce electric power by converting the sun's energy into
high-temperature heat using various mirror configurations. The heat is then channeled through a
conventional generator. The plants consist of two parts, one that collects solar energy and
converts it to heat, and another that converts heat energy to electricity.
Concentrating solar power systems can be sized for village power (10 kilowatts) or grid-
connected applications (up to 100 megawatts). Some systems use thermal storage during
cloudy periods or at night. There are four CSP technologies being promoted internationally. For
each of these, there exists various design variations or different configurations.
The amount of power generated by a concentrating solar power plant depends on the amount of
direct sunlight. Like concentrating photovoltaic concentrators, these technologies use only
direct-beam sunlight, rather than diffuse solar radiation.
Types of CSP plants:
L. Umanand 37/51 12/11/2007

a. Parabolic Trough Systems:

The sun's energy is concentrated by parabolically curved, trough-shaped reflectors onto a
receiver pipe running along the inside of the curved surface. This energy heats oil flowing
through the pipe and the heat energy is then used to generate electricity in a conventional
steam generator.
A collector field comprises many troughs

in parallel rows aligned on a north-south
axis. This configuration enables the
single-axis troughs to track the sun from
east to west during the day to ensure
that the sun is continuously focused on
the receiver pipes. Individual trough
systems currently can generate about 80
megawatts of electricity.
Trough designs can incorporate thermal
storagesetting aside the heat transfer
fluid in its hot phaseallowing for
electricity generation several hours into
the evening.
Currently, all parabolic trough plants are
"hybrids," meaning they use fossil fuel to
supplement the solar output during periods of low solar radiation.
Another option under investigation is the approximation of the parabolic troughs by segmented
mirrors according to the principle of Fresnel.
B. Power Tower Systems:

A power tower converts sunshine into clean electricity for the electricity grids. The technology
utilizes many large, sun-tracking mirrors (heliostats) to focus sunlight on a receiver at the top of
a tower. A heat transfer fluid heated in the receiver is used to generate steam, which, in turn, is
used in a conventional turbine-generator to produce electricity.
Early power towers (such as the

Solar One plant) utilized steam as
the heat transfer fluid; current
designs (including Solar Two,
shown in fig) utilize molten nitrate
salt because of its superior heat
transfer and energy storage
capabilities. Current European
designs use air as heat transfer
medium because of its high
temperature and its good hand
ability.
Individual commercial plants will
be sized to produce anywhere
from 50 to 200 MW of electricity.
L. Umanand 38/51 12/11/2007

c. Parabolic Dish Systems:

Parabolic dish systems consist of a parabolic-shaped point focus concentrator in the form of a
dish that reflects solar radiation onto a receiver mounted at the focal point. These concentrators
are mounted on a structure with a two-axis tracking system to follow the sun.
The collected heat is typically utilized

directly by a heat engine mounted on
the receiver moving with the dish
structure. Stirling and Brayton cycle
engines are currently favored for power
conversion.
Projects of modular systems have been
realized with total capacities up to 5
MW. The modules have max sizes of
50 kW and have achieved peak
efficiencies up to 30% net.
1.2 Solar chimney

A solar chimney is a solar thermal power plant where air passes under a very large agricultural
glass house (between 2 and 30 kilometers in diameter); the air is heated by the sun and
channeled upwards towards a convection tower. It then rises naturally and is used to drive
turbines, which generate electricity.
A solar chimney is an
apparatus for harnessing solar
energy by convection of heated
air. In its simplest form, it simply
consists of a black-painted
chimney. During the daytime,
solar energy heats the chimney
and thereby heats the air within
it, resulting in an
Updraft of air within the chimney.
The suction this creates at the
chimney base can also be used
to ventilate, and thereby cool,
the building below. In most parts
of the world, it is easier to
harness wind power for such
ventilation, but on hot windless
days such a chimney can provide ventilation where there would otherwise be none. This
principle has been proposed for electric power generation, using a large greenhouse at the
base rather than relying on heating of the chimney itself. The main problem with this approach is
the relatively small difference in temperature between the highest and lowest temperatures in
L. Umanand 39/51 12/11/2007

the system. Carnot's theorem greatly restricts the efficiency of conversion in these
circumstances.
2. Water heating
Water heating is required in most countries of the world for both domestic and commercial use.
There are a wide variety of solar water heaters available. The simplest solar water heater is a
piece of black plastic pipe, filled with water, and laid in the sun for the water to heat up. Simple
solar water heaters usually comprise a series of pipes, which are painted black, sitting inside an
insulated box fronted with a glass panel. This is known as a solar collector. The fluid to be
heated passes through the collector and into a tank for storage. The fluid can be cycled through
the tank several times to raise the heat of the fluid to the required temperature. There are two
common simple configurations for such a system and they are outlined below.
a. The thermosyphon system makes use of the natural tendency of hot water to rise above
cold water. The tank in such a system is always placed above the top of the collector and as
water is heated in the collector it rises and is replaced by cold water from the bottom of the tank.
This cycle will continue until the temperature of the water in the tank is equal to that of the
panel. A one-way valve is usually fitted in the system to prevent the reverse occurring at night
when the temperature drops. As hot water is drawn off for use, fresh cold water is fed into the
system from the mains. As most solar collectors are fitted on the roofs of houses, this system is
not always convenient, as it is difficult to site the tank above the collector, in which case the
system will need
A pump to circulate the water.
b. Pumped solar water heaters use a pumping device to drive the water through the collector.
The advantage of this system is that the storage tank can be sited below the collector. The
disadvantage of course is that electricity is required to drive the pump. Often the fluid circulating
in the collector will be treated with an anti-corrosive and /or anti-freeze chemical. In this case a
heat exchanger is required to transfer the heat to the consumers hot water supply.
L. Umanand 40/51 12/11/2007

2.1 Solar District Heating

If an entire housing estate should be fitted with solar systems, one solution is a solar district
heating system (see Figure). The collectors are either distributed on the houses, or replaced by
a large, central solar collector. The collectors then heat up a big central storage tank, from
which much of the heat is distributed back to the houses. The surface-to-volume ratio of a
central storage tank is much better than that for distributed storage systems, so the storage
losses are much lower, and even permit seasonal heat storage. Solar district heating is also an
option if room heating is to be covered by solar energy. There are higher piping losses with a
central tank, but some solar district heating demonstration systems have already been
successfully tested.
Cost Benefits of solar water heating system:
L. Umanand 41/51 12/11/2007

The most cost- effective way to install a solar geyser is to integrate the collector assembly, cold-
water supply and piping with the design of a new house under construction. Solar geysers can
easily be installed in group houses and apartments, especially during construction, if adequate
provisions are made for piping, collector assembly and cold-water supply. Proper load matching
is required to ensure that the capacity of the system installed is optimized to meet
The daily hot water needs of the end-user.
Current prices of domestic SWHs are around Rest. 20,000 for a 100 litres per day system. The
life-cycle cost of energy of saved electrical energy is Rest. 5600 per year at the point of end-
user. If the SWH is purchased as an add-on to an existing geyser, the simple payback period for
the consumer would be 5.45 years. If the SWH is purchased instead of a conventional geyser,
the payback period for the consumer would reduce to 3.58 years.
3. Solar Dryer:
Controlled drying is required for various crops and products, such as grain, coffee, tobacco,
fruits vegetables and fish. Their quality can be enhanced if the drying is properly carried out.
Solar thermal technology can be used to assist with the drying of such products. Solar drying is
in practice since the time imp-memorable for preservation of food and agriculture crops. This
was done particularly by open sun drying under open the sky.
In open air Solar drying the heat is supplied by direct absorption of solar radiation by material
being dried. The vapor produced is carried away by air moving past the material, the air motion
being due either to natural convection resulting from contact with the heated material or to
winds.
This process has several disadvantages
Disadvantages of mechanical and artificial drying:

1. Spoilage of product due to adverse climatic condition like rain, wind etc
2. Loss of material due to birds and animals
3. Deterioration of the material by decomposition, insects and fungus growth
4. Highly energy intensive and expensive
Solar dryer make use of solar radiation, ambient temperature, relative humidity. Heated air is
passed naturally or mechanically circulated to remove moisture from material placed in side the
enclosure.
Solar dryer is a very useful device for
1. Agriculture crop drying
2. Food processing industries for dehydration of fruits, potatoes, onions and other
vegetables,
3. Dairy industries for production of milk powder, casein etc.
4. Seasoning of wood and timber.
5. Textile industries for drying of textile materials.
Working of solar dryer:

The main principle of operation is to raise the heat of the product, which is usually held within a
compartment or box, while at the same time passing air through the compartment to remove
moisture. The flow of air is often promoted using the stack effect which takes advantage of the
fact that hot air rises and can therefore be drawn upwards through a chimney, while drawing in
L. Umanand 42/51 12/11/2007

Cooler air from below. Alternatively a fan can be used. The size and shape of the compartment
Varies depending on the product and the scale of the drying system. Large systems can use
Large barns while smaller systems may have a few trays in a small wooden housing.
Solar crop drying technologies can help reduce environmental degradation caused by the use
Of fuel wood or fossil fuels for crop drying and can also help to reduce the costs associated
With these fuels and hence the cost of the product.
The principal types of solar dryers are enumerated below.
1. Solar cabinet dryer
2. Solar green house dryers
3 Indirects sonars drayer
4. Solar Distillation/De-salination:
Solar Stills
Solar still is a device to desalinate impure water like brackish or saline water. It a simple device
to get potable/fresh distilled water from impure water, using solar energy as fuel, for its various
applications in domestic, industrial and academic sectors. A solar still consist of shallow
triangular basin made up of Fiber Reinforced Plastic (FRP). Bottom of the basin is painted black
so as to absorb solar heat effectively. Top of the basin is covered with transparent glass tilt fitted
so that maximum solar radiation can be transmitted in to the still. Edges of the glass are sealed
with the basin using tar tape so that the entire basin becomes airtight. Entire assembly is placed
on a structure made of MS angle. Out let is connected with a storage container. Provision has
been made to fill water in the still basin. A window is provided in the basin to clean the basin
from inside. Water is charged in to the basin in a thin layer.
Solar Stills have got major advantages over other

conventional Distillation / water purification /de-
mineralization systems as follows:
1. Produces pure water
2. No prime movers required
3. No conventional energy required
4. No skilled operator required
5. Local manufacturing/repairing
6. Low investment
7. Can purify highly saline water (even sea water)
Working of solar still:
Working of solar still is based on simple scientific principle of Evaporation and condensation.
Brackish or saline water is filled in still basin, which is painted black at the bottom. Solar
radiation received at the surface is absorbed effectively by the blacken surface and heat is
transferred to the water in the basin. Temperature of the water increases that increases rate of
evaporation. Water vapor formed by evaporation rises upward and
condenses on the inner surface of the cover glass, which is relatively cold.
L. Umanand 43/51 12/11/2007

Condensed water vapor trickles down in to troughs from there it is collected in to the
storage container.
The operation of Solar Still is very simple and no special skill is required for its operation and
maintenance. Solar stills is an useful devise to get fresh/ distilled water which is required in
Industries for industrial processes Hospitals and Dispensaries for sterilization Garages and
Automobile Workshop for radiator and battery maintenance Telephone Exchange for battery
maintenance Laboratory Use for analytic work Marshy and costal area To get fresh potable
water
5. Solar box cooker
A solar box cooker is an insulated transparent-topped box with a reflective lid. It is designed to
capture solar power and keep its interior warm. The major parts of a solar cooker are
enumerated below.
Important Parts of Solar Cooker:
1. Outer Box: The outer box of a solar cooker is generally made of G.I. or aluminum sheet or
fiber reinforced plastic.
2. Inner Cooking Box (Tray): This is made from aluminum sheet. The inner cooking box is
slightly smaller than the outer box. It is coated with black paint so as to easily absorb solar
radiation
And transfer the heat to the cooking pots.
3. Double Glass Lid: A double glass lid covers the inner box or tray. This cover is slightly larger
than the inner box. The two glass sheets are fixed in an aluminum frame with a spacing of 2
centimeters between the two glasses. This space contains air which insulates and prevents heat
escaping from inside. A rubber strip is affixed on the edges of the frame to prevent any heat
leakage.
4. Thermal Insulator: The space between the outer box and inner tray including bottom of the
tray is packed with insulating material such as glass wool pads to reduce heat losses from the
cooker. This insulating material should be free from volatile materials.
5. Mirror: Mirror is used in a solar cooker to increase the radiation input on the absorbing space
and is fixed on the inner side of the main cover of the box. Sunlight falling on the mirror gets
reflected from it and enters into the tray through the double glass lid. This radiation is in addition
to the radiation entering the box directly and helps to quicken the cooking process by raising the
inside temperature of the cooker.
6. Containers: The cooking containers (with cover) are generally made of aluminum or stainless
steel. These pots are also painted black on the outer surface so that they also absorb solar
radiation directly.
The solar box cooker typically reaches a temperature of 90 C; not as hot as a standard
oven, but still enough to warm food over an hour. Because it doesn't reach too high a
temperature, food can be safely left in it all day without burning. The cooker is often
used to make a large pot of food in the morning, and then people eat servings or snack
from it all day. The cooker is usually used to warm food and drinks but can also be used
to pasteurize milk and sanitize water.
Horace de Assure, a Swiss naturalist, invented solar cookers as early as 1767
L. Umanand 44/51 12/11/2007

We can cook a large number of items, like pulses, rice, cheer

etc. The time taken to cook will depend upon the type of the
food, time of the day and solar intensity. However, the time
taken to cook some of the dishes in a solar cooker is as
follows:
1. Rice (45 minutes to one hour),

2. Vegetables (about one to two hours),
3. Black gram and Raja (about two hours),
4. Cake (one hour).
6. Community Solar Cooker:
Numerous households all over the country are using Surry Cooker to cook their meals. This
family-sized cooker can cook meals for 4-5 persons. A larger version of the family size box-type
cooker was also developed and used for canteen application. The canteen size solar cookers
are just larger in size and can cook for 10-15 persons. For meeting still larger demands a large
Community Solar Cooker has been developed with Solar Concentrator technology. It is an ideal
cooking device for hostels, guesthouses etc.
Firewood is the most commonly used cooking fuel in community kitchens and traditional
woodstove - a Chula are the most commonly used cooking device. These chelas have an
efficiency of 5-10 % only. The implications of utilizing such inefficient devices are higher fuel
consumption & environment pollution. As a result more trees are felled each year for meeting
the ever-increasing energy demands. This leads to rapid deforestation and environment
degradation. In addition, the smoke from chelas causes serious health hazard to kitchen
workers. The Community Solar Cooker, in contrast, poses no such health hazards as it utilizes
the freely available eco-friendly solar energy from nature.
L. Umanand 45/51 12/11/2007

This Community Solar Cooker employs a parabolic reflecting concentrator that can cook large
quantities of food at much faster rate. The best part is that the cooking can take place within an
Enclosed kitchen. It can replace LPG, kerosene and firewood which are either cumbersome to
use, very expensive or which are in short supply. This Cooker is technologically far superior to
the box-type community cooker, having overcome a number of shortcomings of the box type
cooker.
This cooker is capable of achieving higher temperature unto 250C as against 100-125 C in
box type cooker. This helps cooking much faster. The conventional cooking arrangement within
the kitchen does not require to be changed and the cooking can be done inside the kitchen.
Additionally roasting & frying can be done with this cooker, which is not possible in the old box
type solar cooker.
The cost of Cooker, inclusive of all attachments and installation charges is about Rest. 55,000.
7. Solar Air conditioning:
The basic principle behind solar thermal driven cooling is the thermo-chemical process of
Sorption: a liquid or gaseous substance is either attached to a solid, porous material called
Adsorption or is taken in by a liquid or solid material called Absorption.
The sorbet, silica gel, a substance with a large inner surface area is provided with heat
From a solar heater and is dehumidified. After this "drying", the process can be repeated in the
opposite direction. When providing water vapor or steam, it is stored in the porous storage
medium (adsorption) and simultaneously heat is released.
Processes are differentiated between closed refrigerant circulation systems, for producing
Cold water, and open systems according to the way in which the process is carried out. That
Is, whether or not the refrigerant comes into contact with the atmosphere. The latter is used
For dehumidification and evaporative cooling
Basic structure of a solar air conditioning system:
L. Umanand 46/51 12/11/2007

8. Proposed application:
A solar power satellite, or SPS, is a satellite built in high Earth orbit that uses microwave
power
Transmission to beam solar power to a very large antenna on Earth where it can be used in
place of conventional power sources. The advantage to placing the solar collectors in space is
the unobstructed view of the Sun, unaffected by the day/night cycle, weather, or seasons.
However, the costs of construction are very high, so it is unlikely the SPS will be able to
compete with conventional sources unless there is a big reduction in the costs associated
with launching massive satellites into space, unless a space-based manufacturing
industry develops and
they can be built in orbit.
Another problem is the dangers involved in transmitting such high power radiations through the
atmosphere.
Case study:
1. Passive solar buildings for cold areas of the Himalayan Range
Latah is located in the Western Himalayan range of India closed to the Tibetan and Pakistan
borders. It is a cold desert between 2,800 m and 4,500 m above sea level. The winter is very
cold, sometimes below - 30C.Under this extremely cold and dry climate, no trees can grow.
Therefore, during the winter, the inhabitants, the Leachy, burn dung to cook and warm their
homes. Due to the extreme coldness, the space heating needs during the winter are very high.
The concept used is Passive solar architecture Passive solar architecture is the way to
construct a building so that its structure benefits as much as possible from the external climate
to make the interior space as comfortable as possible. A passive solar building is an insulated
building with a high thermal mass coupled with a solar gain component. It is build along an east-
west axis. The solar radiations are collected trough the south face and trapped inside trough the
glazing, greenhouse or any other passive solar component. This heat is stored during the day
inside the walls and released during the night to maintain the atmosphere warm. The other
external
Walls, the ground and the roof are insulated to retain the heat and reduce the heat loss.
The insulation value of the traditional construction materials (mud, stone) is not sufficient and
other local materials have to be selected as insulator such as straw, sawdust, leaves, dung...
The east, west and north walls are cavity walls constructed by mud brick and the air layer is
filled with the insulator.
The building can be designed by some local NGOs (Ledge, Secom, Ledge, LEHO) or
administration (PWD) sometimes assisted by resource organization such as TERI,
GERES.
As the thermal efficiency of a passive solar building depends on the quality of the construction,
some skilled mason and carpenter have been trained the local and international NGOs.
The over-cost of the passive solar components is 10 to 20% of the building investment. But no
running costs are required and the maintenance is cheap and easy.
L. Umanand 47/51 12/11/2007

During the winter, the education, the handicraft, the gathering activities are limited by the
coldness, the lack of fuel wood and the space heating cost. The integration of passive solar
architecture can facilitate these activities. The internal temperature of these buildings is never
below 13C during the day or 8C during the night when the external temperature is -20C.
The fuel wood required is reduced by more than 90%. Even if the weather is cloudy, enough
energy is stored in the walls to maintain a comfortable temperature during 4 days. The over cost
of the solar passive architecture is 10 to 15% of the cost of a traditional building
The passive solar technology have been implemented in many areas, some examples are:
1. This technology has been implemented in more than 20 schools by the Leachy govt. The
over cost of passive solar component is between 20, 000 Rest to 40, 000 Rest per classroom.
2. It has also been implemented in Administration buildings (e.g. Latah Autonomous Hill
Council).
3. Handicrafts center (LEHO has constructed 3 villages training center in Dakar,
Chicot and Diskette to facilitate the production of Patina shawl during the winter period.)
4. Community halls
5. Hospital and dispensary: The comfort and hygiene conditions are very good compared with
the usual system. In maternity wards and operating theatres, the passive solar technology can
be combined with a radiant floor heating to optimize the hygiene condition.
6. The domestic building can be heated with attached greenhouse or Thrombi wall on the south
face. The investment to build an attached Greenhouse and to insulate the external walls of 2
south facing rooms is 20 000 Rest.
The investment cost to construct 2 Thrombi walls and to insulate the external walls of 2 south
facing rooms is 27 000 Rest.
2. Solar Water Heating System Installed at Cattle Feed Factory, Kantar.
A Solar Water Heating System of capacity 54000 Litres/Day has been installed and
commissioned at Cattle feed Factory Kantar, a unit of AMUL Dairy Anand. This system
produces 54000 liters of hot water at 60 C. Hot water produced by Solar System is used as pre
heated boiler feed water and helps to save about 200 lit of furnace oil per day. The system
consists of 361 Nos. of Solar Flat Plate Collectors, and insulated tank of 54000 lit capacity for
storage of hot water. Controls are provided for automatic functioning of the system. Necessary
instruments are provided for regular monitoring of the system. This is the single largest solar
water heating system in Gujarat installed in a Dairy Industry.
Cost of the system is Rest. 6, 10,000/- of which Gujarat Energy Dev. Agency has provided Rest
18, 05,000/- as subsidy.
Subsidies available:
The capital subsidy for solar water heating systems was abolished in 1994 and provisions were
made for soft loans. Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA) and six other
designated banks provide the financing for solar thermal systems.
L. Umanand 48/51 12/11/2007

Fig. Financing structure for solar water heating systems in India
L. Umanand 49/51 12/11/2007

Solar water heater at IISc New Hostel complex rooftop
L. Umanand 50/51 12/11/2007

Conclusion:
Solar energy offers many advantageous features over other alternative sources of energy
and as shown in the paper the simple principle of heat energy can be applied in a variety
of applications. Various other possible applications could be Solar Oven, Solar heating
of swimming pools etc.
But solar energy has its own drawbacks or limitations like high initial cost, dependence on
weather, energy storage.
Many government plans have come up under which they provide loans & subsidies as an effort
towards promoting solar energy use. The energy storage problem especially power generation
Could be solved by connecting the plant to the grid. The power flow in either direction can be
metered separately. With all these features and opportunities in hand the percentage
contribution of Solar energy to Global energy demand could be increased in near future thus
reducing stress on the use of fossil fuels.
References:
1. www.globalresourceoptions.com
2. http://www.consumerenergycenter.org/renewable/basics/solarthermal/thermal.html#top
3. http://www.southface.org/solar/solar-roadmap/solar_how-to/solar-how_solar_works.htm
4. http://www.itdg.org/docs/technical_information_service/solar_thermal_energy.pdf
5. http://www.geda.org.in/solar/so_slr_hmlight.htm
6. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_power
7. http://www.volker-quaschning.de/articles/fundamentals4/index_e.html
8. http://www.ieiglobal.org/ESDVol1No1/solarwater.pdf
9. http://www.solarserver.de/solarmagazin/artikeljuni2002-e.html
10. http://www.teri.res.in/teriin/opet/reports/solarthermal.pdf
11. Renewable Energy World 02/2004 pp. 95-99
12. Lecture notes Design of Photovoltaic systems, Dr L Umanand, CEDT IISc Bangalore.
L. Umanand 51/51 12/11/2007

CEDT-IISc Photovoltaic System design Date: 12/11/2007
1. Operating Principle
History
In 1839 Edmond Becquerel accidentally discovered photovoltaic effect when he was
working on solid-state physics.
In 1878 Adam and Day presented a paper on photovoltaic effect.
1n 1883 Fxitz fabricated the first thin film solar cell.
In 1941 ohl fabricated silicon PV cell but that was very inefficient.
In 1954 Bell labs Chopin, Fuller, Pearson fabricated PV cell with efficiency of 6%.
In 1958 PV cell was used as a backup power source in satellite Vanguard-1. This
extended the life of satellite for about 6 years.
Photovoltaic Cell
A photovoltaic cell is the basic device that converts solar radiation into electricity. It
consists of a very thick n-type crystal covered by a thin n-type layer exposed to the sun
light as shown in the following figure:
Sunlight
Glass
Contact
I
n
Anti reflective coating p-type
L
O
p A
Load
D n-type Resistance
Base metallization V R
A PV cell can be either circular in construction or square.
Cells are arranged in a frame to form a module. Modules put together form a
panel. Panels form an array. Each PV cell is rated for 0.5 0.7 volt and a current of
30mA/cm2. Based on the manufacturing process they are classified as:
Mono crystalline: efficiency of 12-14 %. This are now predominantly available
in market
Poly crystalline: efficiency of 12%
Amorphous: efficiency of 6-8%
Page No - 1 of 52
Life of crystalline cells is in the range of 25 years where as for amorphous cells it is in
the range of 5 years.
PV module PV panel Array
Equivalent circuit of PV cell:
I
Id Ish
Il
Rshunt
Page No - 2 of 52
Current Current
Voltage Voltage
Constant voltage source Constant current source
Current
Voltage
Characteristics of photovoltaic cell
Symbol of PV cell:
+
I
Page No - 3 of 52
PV Module I-V Characteristics
Terminology:
Solar Cell: The smallest, basic Photovoltaic device that generates electricity when
exposed to light.
PV Module: Series and parallel connected solar cells (normally of 36Wp rating).
PV Array: Series and parallel connected PV modules (generally consisting of 5 modules).
A solar cell delivers different amount of current depending on the irradiation (or
insolation) to the cell, the cell temperature and where on the current-voltage curve the
cell is operated.
A PV cell behaves differently depending on the size/type of load connected to it. This
behaviour is called the PV cell 'characteristics'. The characteristic of a PV cell is
described by the current and voltage levels when different loads are connected. When the
cell is not connected to any load there is no current flowing and the voltage across the PV
cell reaches its maximum. This is called open circuit' voltage. When a load is connected
to the PV cell current flows through the circuit and the voltage goes down. The current is
maximum when the two terminals are directly connected with each other and the voltage
is zero. The current in this case is called short circuit' current.
Experimental Setup:
There are two ways of measuring the characteristics of the PV module, via is,
1. Noting down each operating point on the characteristics by varying the load
resistance. The setup is as shown in Fig 1.
2. Applying a varying signal (sinusoidal) to the cell and observing the characteristics in
the XY mode of the oscilloscope.
One of the requirements in the second method is that the variable source should have the
sinking capability. This can be achieved by connecting the configuration as shown in the
Fig 2. The disadvantage with this setup is the application of the negative supply to the
cell. The cell is protected by an anti-parallel diode and if a large negative voltage is
applied then diode may fail resulting in failure of the solar cell also. This reverse
breakdown region of operation was observed on the scope. The characteristics are as
shown in the Fig 4.
The correct setup of applying the variable load is as shown in Fig 3.
Page No - 4 of 52
D1
R2
Voltage 500E, 1125W
R4
Fig 1: Circuit configuration for
S3
PV Module 10K, 1W measuring the discrete points on PV
44W
characteristics.
A K
D2
R1
0.5E, 10W
Current Ref
D1
230V/18V
T2 T1 Voltage
1 1 5
230V AC 2 R4
Fig 2: Circuit configuration
3 4 8
10K, 1W PV Module
44W S3
for measuring the on PV
characteristics on scope
A K
D2
(disadvantage operating the
diodes D1 and D2 in reverse
R1 biased mode resulting in large
reverse current).
0.5E, 10W
Ref Current
D1
230V/18V Fig
T2 T1 D3 R2 Voltage 3:
1 1 5 Q1
2N3055 Exp
230V AC 2 22E, 10W R4
10K, 1W
PV Module
44W S3 erim
3 4 8
ental
A K
D2
R3
100E, 1W
setu
p for
R1
L.Umanand 5/52
0.5E, 10W
12/11/2007
Ref Current
measuring the PV module characteristics.
Waveforms:
Below are the PV module IV characteristics taken at different time instances of the
day with the experimental setup shown in Fig 3?
PV module IV Characteristics (Date - 22/05/03 PV Module IV Characteristics (Date - 22/05/03

Time - 10:15 AM) Time - 12:15 PM)
2.5 2.5
Current (Amps)
Current (amps)
2
1.5 1.5
1 1
0.5 0.5
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Voltage (volts) Voltage (volts)
PV Module IV Characteristics (Date - 22/05/03

PV Module IV Characteritics (Date - 22/05/03
Time - 2:45 PM)
Time - 1:30 PM)
2
2.5
Current (Amps)
2 1.5
Current (Amps)
1.5 1
1 0.5
0.5
0
0
0 5 10 15 20
0 5 10 15 20
Voltage (volts)
Voltage (volts)
PV Module IV Characteristics (Date - 22/05/03

Time - 4:30 PM)
1.2
1
Current (Amps)
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 5 10 15 20
Voltage (volts)
L.Umanand 6/52 12/11/2007

The PV characteristics as measured by the experiment setup shown in Fig 2,
PV Module Characteristics (Date - 22/05/03 Time - 10:30

AM)
5
Current (Amps)
4
`
3
0
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
Voltage (volts)
Fig 4: PV module IV characteristics as measured for setup shown in Fig 2.
Inferences:
The PV module power varies depending on the insolation and load (operating
point). So it is very much necessary to operate the PV at its maximum power point.
The PV module short-circuit current is directly proportional to the insolation.
The solar cell operates in two regions, that is, constant voltage and constant current.
So it can be modeled as shown in Fig 5,
Rs
Isc D1 Rp
L.Umanand 7/52 12/11/2007

Fig 5: Solar Cell model
Resistance Rp decides the slope of the characteristics in the constant current region.
Resistance Rs decides the slope of the characteristics in the constant voltage region.
This effect is also experimentally verified and the waveform for R1 (refer Fig 3)
equal to 3.5E is as shown in Fig 6.
PV Module IV Characteristics (Date -

22/05/03 Time - 10:15 AM)
2
Fig 6: PV module characteristics
Current (Amps)
1.5
measured with R1 = 3.5 E in Fig 3.
1 There is a decrease in slope in the
0.5 constant voltage region of the
0 characteristics.
0 5 10 15 20
Voltage (volts)
There is also a low pass (hysterisis) effect observed in Fig 6. This is due to the different
switching characteristics during ON and OFF instance of the transistor.
2. PV Cell concepts
Several mathematical models exist representing a PV cell. One of the simplest models
that represents PV cell to satisfaction is shown in the following figure:
I
Rs
RP
+
V RL
-
ID IRp
Iph
Applying Kirchoffs current law to the node where Iph, diode, Rp and Rs meet, we get
the following equation:
I ph = I D + I Rp + I .(1)
We get the following expression for the photovoltaic current from the above equation:
I = I ph I D I Rp (2)
L.Umanand 8/52 12/11/2007

V + I Rs V + I R s
I = I ph I o exp 1 ...(3)
VT R p
where
Iph = Insolation current
I = Cell current
Io = Reverse saturation current
V = Cell voltage
Rs = Series resistance
Rp = Parallel resistance
VT = Thermal voltage = KT/q
K = Boltzman constant
T = Temperature in Kelvin
q = charge of an electron
V-I characteristics of the cell would look as shown in the following figure:
Current
(Amps)
ISC
Imp
Voltage (Volts) Vmp VOC
Let us try to look at the characteristic curve closely and define two of the points. First
one is the short circuit current ISC and the second one is the open circuit voltage VOC.
Short circuit current is the current where the cell voltage is zero. Substituting V = 0 in
equation 3, we get the following expression for the short circuit current:
I R I SC Rs
I SC = I ph I o exp SC s 1 .(4)
VT R p
L.Umanand 9/52 12/11/2007

We can see that for a given temperature, Io and VT are constants and hence the second
term is almost a constant and the third term is also a constant. This implies that the short
circuit current ISC depends on Iph, the insolation current. Mathematically we can write:
ISC Iph ....(5)
Open circuit voltage is the voltage at which the cell current is zero. The expression for
the open circuit voltage can be obtained by substituting I = 0 in equation 3 and
simplifying. We obtain the following expression:
I ph V
VOC = VT ln OC + 1 (6)
I o I o R p
Again we see from the above expression that VOC is a function of natural log of Iph. VOC
increases with Iph. Following figure explains the behavior of both ISC and VOC with the
insolation level:
Lower irradiance
reduces current
VOC drop slowly with lower V

irradiance
We also should know that the short circuit current and open circuit voltage decreases
with increase in temperature. Both the parameters are inverse functions of temperature.
Efficiency of the cell:
The efficiency of the cell is defined as the ratio of Peak power to Input solar power. It is
given as:
Vmp I mp
= where A is the area of the cell and I is the Insolation.
I (kW / m 2 ) A(m 2 )
L.Umanand 10/52 12/11/2007

Quality of cell:
Every cell has a life expectancy. As time progresses, the quality of cell goes down.
Hence, it is essential to check the quality, periodically so that it can be discarded once
the quality falls below certain level. To calculate the quality of a cell, let us consider the
V-I characteristics of the cell shown earlier. In the figure, we had two more terms, Imp
and Vmp. These are the current at maximum power and voltage at maximum power.
Now knowing all the four quantities, VOC, ISC, Vmp and Imp, the quality of the cell called
Fill Factor (FF) can be calculated as follows:
Vmp I mp
FF =
VOC I SC
Ideally, the fill factor should be 1 or 100%. However, the actual value of FF is about 0.8
or 80%. A graph of the FF vs the insolation gives a measure of the quality of the PV
cell.
Rse
Rsh
R series
R shunt
Current Current
Voltage Voltage
To find the quality of the solar panel fillfactor is used.

It is defined as (Vmp*Imp)/ (Voc*Isc)
A good panel has fill factor in the range of 0.7 to 0.8. for a bad panel it may be as low as
.4
Vmp, Imp, Voc Isc are defined as shown in figure.
The variation fill factor with insolation is as shownin figure 2.
L.Umanand 11/52 12/11/2007

Vmp ,Imp
Isc
Current
Fill factor
Voc
Insolation
Voltage
3. Series and Parallel combination of cells

Cells in Series:
When two identical cells are connected in series, the short circuit current of the system
would remain same but the open circuit voltage would be twice as much as shown in the
following figure:
I
I
+
VOC1
- +
I1
RL
+
-
VOC2
I2 -
V
VOC1 VOC1+VOC2
We can see from the above figures that if the cells are identical, we can write the
following relationships:
I1 = I2 = I
VOC1 + VOC2 = 2VOC
Unfortunately, it is very difficult to get two identical cells in reality. Hence, we need to
analyze the situation little more closely. Let ISC1 be the short circuit current and VOC1 be
the open circuit voltage of first cell and ISC2 and VOC2 be the short circuit current and
open circuit voltage of the second cell. When we connect these in series, we get the
following V-I characteristics:
L.Umanand 12/52 12/11/2007

1/RL
ISC2
ISC
ISC1
V
VOC1 VOC2 VOC1+VOC2
We can see from the V-I characteristics that when we connect two dissimilar cells in
series, their open circuit voltages add up but the net short circuit current takes a value in
between ISC1 and ISC2 shown by red color curve. To the left of the operating point, the
weaker cell will behave like a sink. Hence, if a diode is connected in parallel, the
weaker cell is bypassed, once the current exceeds the short circuit current of the weaker
cell. The whole system would look as if a single cell is connected across the load. The
diode is called a series protection diode.
The characteristics of the PV cell along with the protection diode should also be shown.
Cells in parallel:
When two cells are connected in parallel as shown in the following figure, the open
circuit voltage of the system would remain same as a open circuit voltage of a single
cell, but the short circuit current of the system would be twice as much as of a single
cell.
I
ISC1+ISC2
ISC1+ISC2
ISC1 ISC2
+
+ + ISC1
VOC
VOC1 VOC2 RL
-
- -
V
VOC
We can see from the above figures that if the cells are identical, we can write the
following relationships:
ISC1 + ISC2 = 2ISC
VOC1 = VOC2 = VOC
L.Umanand 13/52 12/11/2007

However, we rarely find two identical cells. Hence, let us see what happens if two
dissimilar cells are connected in parallel. The V-I characteristics would look as shown in
the following figure:
I
ISC1+ISC2
1/RL
ISC2
ISC1
V
VOC1 VOC2
VOC
From the above figure we can infer that, when two dissimilar cells are connected in
parallel, the short circuit currents add up but the open circuit voltage lies between VOC1
and VOC2, represented by VOC. This voltage actually refers to a negative current of the
weaker cell. This results in the reduction of net current out of the system. This situation
can be avoided by adding a diode in series of each cell as shown earlier. Once the cell is
operating to the right of the operating point, the weaker cells diode gets reverse biased,
cutting it off from the system and hence follows the characteristic curve of the stronger
cell.
Here also the characteristics of the PV cell along with the protection diode should also
be shown.
4. Maximum Power Point

We have seen in earlier section that the quality of a cell can be determined once we
know open circuit voltage, short circuit current, and voltage at maximum power
point and current at maximum power point.
How do we get the last two points?
It is a two-step procedure. First step is to plot voltage Vs power graph of the cell.
Power is calculated by multiplying voltage across the cell with corresponding current
through the cell. From the plot, maximum power point is located and corresponding
voltage is noted. The second step is to go to the V-I characteristics of the cell and locate
the current corresponding to the voltage at maximum power point. This current is called
the current at maximum power point. These points are shown in the following figure:
L.Umanand 14/52 12/11/2007

I/P
Load line
ISC 1/Ro
Imp Operating Point
I-V Plot
Pm
P-V Plot
V
Vmp VOC
The point at which Imp and Vmp meet is the maximum power point. This is the point at
which maximum power is available from the PV cell. If the load line crosses this point
precisely, then the maximum power can be transferred to this load. The value of this
load resistant would be given by:
Vmp
Rmp =
I mp
What do we do such that PV always sees this constant load resistance Ro = Rmp?
Before we can answer this question, first let us review some basic DC-DC converters.
Following are the three basic types of DC-DC converters:
Buck Converter. This is a converter whose output voltage is smaller than the input
voltage and output current is larger than the input current. The circuit diagram is shown
in the following figure. The conversion ratio is given by the following expression:
Vo I in
= = D (1)
Vin I o
Where D is the duty cycle. This expression gives us the following relationships:
Vo
Vin = ..(2)
D
S1 L1
Vin 1 2 Vo
V1 S2 C1 R1
L.Umanand 15/52 12/11/2007

I in = I o D (3)
Knowing Vin and Iin, we can find the input resistance of the converter. This is given by
Vin (Vo D ) (Vo I o ) Ro
Rin = = = = 2 ..(4)
I in Io D D2 D
Where Ro is the output resistance or load resistance of the converter. We know that D
varies from 0 to (0 to 1 not inf). Hence Rin would vary from to Ro as D varies from
0 to 1 correspondingly.
Boost Converter. This is a converter whose output voltage is larger than the input
voltage and output current is smaller than the input current. The circuit diagram is
shown in the following figure.
L1 S2
Vin 1 2 Vo
V1 S1
R1
C1
The conversion ratio is given by the following expression:

Vo I in 1
= = (5)
Vin I o 1 D
Where D is the duty cycle. This expression gives us the following relationships:
Vin = Vo (1 D) ...(6)
Io
I in = .(7)
1 D
Vin V (1 D) V
Rin = = o = o (1 D )2 = Ro (1 D) 2 ...(8)
I in (I o (1 D )) I o
Here, Rin varies from Ro to 0 as D varies from 0 to 1 correspondingly.
Buck-Boost Converter: As the name indicates, this is a combination of buck
converter and a boost converter. The circuit diagram is shown in the following figure:
L.Umanand 16/52 12/11/2007

Vin Vo
1
S1 S2
L1
V1 C1 R1
2
Here, the output voltage can be increased or decreased with respect to the input voltage
by varying the duty cycle. This is clear from the conversion ratio given by the following
expression:
Vo I in D
= = ..(9)
Vin I o 1 D
Where D is the duty cycle. This expression gives the following relationships:
1 D
Vin = Vo .(10)
D
D
I in = I o .(11)
1 D
Vin Vo (1 D )2 (1 D )2
Rin = = = Ro (12)
I in I o D 2

D2

Here, Rin varies from to 0 as D varies from 0 to 1 correspondingly.
Now let us see how these converters come into picture of PV. We had seen earlier that
maximum power could be transferred to a load if the load line lies on the point
corresponding to Vm and Im on the V-I characteristics of the PV cell/module/panel. We
need to know at this point that there is always an intermediate subsystem that interfaces
PV cell/module and the load as shown in the following figure:
Rin Interface Box Load

Ro
This subsystem serves as a balance of system that controls the whole PV system. DC-to-
DC converter could be one such subsystem. So far we have seen three different types of
converters and its input resistance Rins dependency on the load resistance and the duty
cycle. To the PV cell/module, the converter acts as a load and hence we are interested in
the input resistance of the converter. If we see that Rin of the converter lies on the Vmp-
L.Umanand 17/52 12/11/2007

Imp point, maximum power can be transferred to the converter and in turn to the load.
Let us see the range of Rin values for different converters as shown in the following
figures:
1. Buck Converter:
I Rin=Ro
1/Rin
At D=1
V
Rin=
At D=0
2. Boost Converter:
Rin = 0 1/Rin
At D = 1
Rin = Ro
At D = 0
L.Umanand 18/52 12/11/2007

3. Buck-Boost Converter:
1/Rin
Rin = 0
At D = 1
Rin =
At D = 0
V
Now we know the range of Rin for various converters. This also implies the range of
load that the PV cell/panel can deliver maximum power. Hence, we need to look at the
following requirements from an application:
a. Range of load variation.
b. Maximum power point Pmp (Vmp, Imp).
c. Converter type that satisfies the range.
It is apt at this point to mention the need for a capacitor across the PV
cell and explain why it is needed.
An Example of DC DC Converter:
In our earlier discussion we have seen different types of DC DC converters such as
Buck, Boost and Buck Boost converters. We had also seen the range of operation in
conjunction with the PV cell/module characteristics. The selection of type of converter
to be used for an application would depend on the operating point of the load. However,
we have seen that the range of operation of Buck Boost converter covers the entire V-I
characteristics of the PV cell/module and hence it is a safe converter to be picked for
any application. Following figure gives a general block diagram of the whole system
incorporating DC DC converter:
L.Umanand 19/52 12/11/2007

DC-DC
Load
PV C Converter
module
Control parameter
D (Duty Cycle)
A capacitor is connected at the output of the PV module to eliminate any ripple or noise
present. Normally a high value of capacitor is chosen to do the job. The capacitor also
provides a constant voltage to the input of the DC DC converter. We had seen earlier
that the conversion ratio of any converter is a function of duty cycle and hence it
becomes the control parameter to the converter.
Let us take a Buck Boost converter in detail, as it is the most versatile converter that
can be used in any application and for any operating point. The circuit diagram of a
Buck - Boost converter is shown in the following figure:
Q1 D1
-
2
V1 L1
C1 R1
Vo
1
+
Q1 and D1 are the two switches, which are open one at a time. To derive an expression
for the conversion ratio, we can apply any of the following principles under steady state
conditions:
4. Volt-Second balance across inductor L1.
5. Amp-Second balance across capacitor C1.
If one of the above two are obtained, power balance across the entire circuit. That is,
assuming zero losses in the circuit, input power = output power.
Let us apply volt-second balance to the inductor. The voltage across inductor for Q1-
ON, D1-OFF and for Q1-OFF, D1-ON, assuming negligible ripple is as shown in the
following figure:
L.Umanand 20/52 12/11/2007

Q1-ON Q1-OFF
vL D1-OFF D1-ON
V1
t
T
DT (1-D)T
-Vo
Applying volt-second balance we get:

V1 DT + [ V o (1 D )T ] = 0
V1 D = Vo (1 D)
Vo D
= = M ( D) = Conversion Ratio
V1 1 D
Conversion ratio can also be derived by using Amp-second balance. We can see that the
conversion ratio is a function of the duty cycle D.
Let us set up an experiment to see the relationship between the duty cycle and the panel
characteristics. Let us use the Buck - Boost converter to transfer DC voltage of the panel
to the load. Let us use TL494 SMPS for controlling the duty cycle. To construct Buck-
Boost converter, we need the following parts:
d. A pnp transistor for active switching TIP127.
e. A diode for passive switching IN4007.
f. Two resistors for biasing the transistor.
g. A load resistor of 10 and 100 .
h. Two capacitors, one at the output of the PV module and one as a part of
the converter 1000 F.
i. A resistor and a capacitor for changing the duty cycle, to be connected
externally to TL494.
j. A one k resistor connected to Dead Time Control pin (DT) of TL494.
k. A 5V supply connected to VCC terminal of TL494.
The biasing and duty cycle components are to be designed. Once all the components
value are known and procured, they can be rigged up as shown in the following figure:
L.Umanand 21/52 12/11/2007

Q1 TIP127
R1 D1
L1 C2 R3
C1 R2
U1
11
10
8
9
TL494
E1
E2
C1
C2
7
12 GND
VCC
COMP
VREF
IN1+
IN2+
DTC
IN1-
IN2-
OC
CT
RT
V1
16
15
14
13
1
2
5
6
3
4
R5
C3 R4
The procedure for doing the experiment is as follows. After rigging up the circuit setting
R3 = 10 , the module currents and module voltages are measured for different duty
cycle. The duty cycle can be set by varying the values of CT and RT connected to Pin
numbers 5 and 6 of TL494. From the readings of Vmodule and Imodule, power of the
module and Rin for the converter can be calculated for each duty cycle. From the P-V
plot and I-V plot of the module, several parameters can be found such as Pmp, Imp, Vmp
and Dmp. We can also verify that the Rin calculated is equal to the Rin expression we had
(1 D )2
derived earlier for a buck-boost converter given by: Rin = Ro 2

D
The values can be tabulated as shown in the following table:
Vmod ule (1 D )2
R3 D Imod Vmod Pmod = I mod Vmod Rin = Rin = Ro 2

I mod ule
D
0.1
0.3
10
0.5
0.7
0.9
The experiment is repeated by replacing R3 value by 100 .
L.Umanand 22/52 12/11/2007

Maximum power point tracking

We had seen in the experimental set-up how to locate the maximum power point for a
given load by physically varying the duty cycle that controlled the DC-DC converter.
From the maximum power point, we could find the values of Imp, Vmp and Dmp. In real
life situations, one needs to have a system that automatically sets the D value to Dmp
such that maximum power can be transferred to the load. This is called Maximum
Power Point Tracking or MPPT.
We know that the current from the panel depends directly on insolation. This means that
the V-I characteristics of a panel would change whenever there is a change in the
insolation. This in turn would result in change of maximum power point, which may not
coincide, with the operating point of the load and hence maximum power point would
not be transferred to the load. This can be seen in the following figure:
I 1/RO1
1/RO2
ISC1
Dmp1
ISC2 Pmp1
Pmp2
Dmp2
V
VOC1
VOC2
In the figure, ISC1, VOC1 and Pmp1 are the short circuit current, open circuit voltage and
maximum power point of the module at instant 1. 1/Ro1 is the slope of the load line that
cuts the V-I characteristics of the module corresponding to Pmp1. Hence, maximum
power is transferred to the load.
ISC2, VOC2 and Pmp2 are the short circuit current, open circuit voltage and maximum
power point of the same panel at reduced insolation that we call as instant 2. Now 1/Ro2
is the slope of the load line that would cross the characteristic curve corresponding to
Pmp2. However, we know that Ro1 is the actual load and that cannot be changed. Hence
we need to translate the load Ro1 to Ro2 such that maximum power can be transferred to
it. This is achieved by changing the value of Dmp which controls the power conditioner
circuit. The power conditioner circuit could be any of the types of dc-dc converters. We
had seen earlier that actual load is connected to the output of a converter and there is a
relationship between input resistance and output resistance of the converter. We also
know that the input resistance of the converter is same as the output resistance of the PV
L.Umanand 23/52 12/11/2007

cell/module. Hence, we can have a relationship between the output resistance of the PV
cell/module and the actual load. For maximum power transfer using buck-boost
converter, we may have the following relationship:
(1 D ) 2
Rout (mod ule ) = Ro ( Load )

mp
2
Dmp
Since Ro(Load) cannot be changed, the right hand side quantity can be matched to
Rout(module) by changing the value of Dmp through a feedback network as shown in the
following block diagram:
Power
Conditioner RLoad
Buck-Boost
v Converter
i
Dmp
Therefore, maximum power point tracking system tracks the maximum power point of
the PV cell/module and adjusts Dmp from the feedback network based on the voltage and
current of the PV module to match the load.
Let us take an example of charging a battery (load) using a PV module. Following are
the steps that we need to follow before we connect the load to the module.
l. Obtain source (PV module) V-I characteristics.
m. Obtain load (battery) V-I characteristics.
n. Superpose one over the other.
o. Check for intersection of the characteristics and stability. This would be
the operating point.
p. Check for the requirement of a power conditioner circuit. This would
happen if there was no intersection point.
q. Check for the requirement of MPPT.
L.Umanand 24/52 12/11/2007

In the example, let us try to charge a 24 V battery with a PV module having VOC 20 V as
shown in the following block diagram:
Battery, 24 V
Following the above-mentioned steps, let us obtain the V-I characteristics of load and
source and superpose one over the other. Following are the characteristics:
1/Ro(module)
1/Rload
A
B
Pmp
V
Vmp=16 V VOC=20 V VB=24 V
We can see in the figure that the V-I characteristics of the PV module and the load
(battery) do not intersect at any point. Hence, we need to have a power conditioner
circuit to match the loads. Since we need to charge a 24-volt battery and we have only
Vmp of 16 V from the PV module, we can use either a boost converter or a buck-boost
converter. Ideally, the V-I characteristics of the battery should be a vertical line
indicating a constant voltage source. However, we see a slope. This is due to the internal
resistance of the battery. Hence, the battery can be modeled as a voltage source in series
with a resistance as shown in the following figure:
L.Umanand 25/52 12/11/2007
rb
VB
In the V-I characteristics, we also notice three important points marked as A, B and C.
A represents the peak power point (Vmp, Imp), B represents the operating point of the
battery and C represents the intersection point of load line with the V-I characteristics
of the PV module. We know that as such maximum power cannot be transferred to the
load since the load line does not pass through the peak power point (A). However, this
load line can be translated by varying the duty cycle D to the converter such that it
matches with the output resistance of the PV module governed by the relationship given
earlier.
Algorithms for MPPT
We have seen that any PV module would have a maximum power point for given
insolation. If a load line crosses at this point, maximum power would be transferred to
the load. When insolation changes, maximum power point also changes. Since the load
line does not change, it does not pass through the maximum power point and hence
maximum power cannot be transferred to the load. To achieve the transfer of maximum
power, it requires that the load follows the maximum power point and this is achieved
by translating the actual load line point to maximum power point by varying the duty
cycle governed by the following relationship in the case of buck-boost converter:
(1 D ) 2
Rout (mod ule ) = Ro ( Load )

mp
2
Dmp
Maximum power point tracking can be achieved in a number of ways. One of the
simpler ways based on Reference Cell is shown in the following block diagram:
L.Umanand 26/52 12/11/2007

K
VOC V*mp + _
e Control
-
+
Reference Cell
Short Circuited Vmodule
DC-DC Load
Converter
The first step is to define K = (Vmp/VOC) where 0<K<1. In the block diagram, reference
cell is supposed to be an identical cell that is being used in an application. The Vmp of
this cell is used to compare the voltage of the actual cell. Vmp of the reference cell is
obtained by multiplying VOC with K. When Vmodule matches with Vmp, there will be zero
error and the module is delivering maximum power. If error is not zero, then the error
signal is fed into a controller that would create a rectangular pulse of appropriate duty
cycle which is fed to the power conditioner circuit (here it is a DC-DC converter).
Depending on the D value, Vmodule would change. Once Vmodule matches with Vmp of the
reference cell, then we know that maximum power is transferred to the load. At this
point the error signal is zero and the D value remains same as long as the error signal
remains zero. The control works as follows:
If Vmodule increases beyond Vmp, the error becomes negative. This would make the
control unit to generate pulses with larger D value. This decrease Vmodule automatically
such that it matches with Vmp. Similarly, if Vmodule decreases below Vmp, we get a
positive error. This would make the control unit to generate pulses with smaller D value
such that it increases the value of Vmodule.
Reference Cell Based algorithm:
Method 2
A second method based on Reference cell based algorithm is to define K as a ratio of
Current at maximum power point to the Short circuit current of the module given by:
I mp
K=
I SC
This is more constant than the ratio of Voltage at maximum power point to open circuit
voltage of the module since the module current is linearly related to the insolation. The
following block diagram describes the algorithm:
L.Umanand 27/52 12/11/2007

K
V ISC V Imp*
+
_ Controller Modulator
+
_
Imodule
Reference
Module
Actual
Module Power
Conditioner
Load
Current from the reference cell is converted to proportional voltage through an op-amp
and fed to a multiplier. This quantity is multiplied with K resulting in Imp. This is
compared to the current from the actual module. If the currents match, then the module
is delivering maximum power to the load. If the currents do not match, an error signal is
generated. The polarity of the signal would depend on if the module current were
greater than the Imp or smaller than Imp. Let us say that the module current is smaller
than Imp*, then the error produced is positive. The controller would than increase the
duty cycle of the rectangular pulses coming out of the modulator and into the power
conditioner circuit. This would result in increase of module current till it matches the
Imp* and the error is zero. Exactly opposite happens if the module current was found to
be more than Imp* initially resulting in negative error signal. The controller then would
reduce the duty cycle that is being used as a control unit for the power conditioner
circuit. The module current decreases till it matches with the Imp* and the maximum
power is transferred to the load at that point. One thing we need to remember is that the
output of the op-amp and multiplier are both voltages but proportional to short circuit
current and current at maximum power point respectively.
These were the reference cell based algorithms. Let us look at some of the non-
reference cell based algorithms. The following block diagram shows one such
algorithm.
L.Umanand 28/52 12/11/2007

Method 3
Q
DC-DC Load
Converter
S
Modulator
V Vmodule VOC* Vmp*

K Controller
C
V Vmodule
The sense voltages should be connected to module terminal voltage. During the period
when open circuit voltage is to be sensed, S is closed and Q are opened. This will
disconnect the power conditioner and load from the module. The capacitor voltage will
charge up to Voc. Then S is open and Q is closed for normal operation of the module
and load. It is be noted that the duty cycle for switching S should be very small i.e. less
than 1%, so that the normal operation is not affected.
The algorithm works as follows. Since there is no reference cell and still we need to
have the Vmp value for comparison, we need to measure the VOC of the same cell. This is
done with the help of switch S. While measuring VOC, we need to disconnect rest of the
circuitry. This is done with an active switch Q. To start with, Q is opened and S is closed
for a short while. Capacitor C gets charged to a voltage that is proportional to VOC.
Now, Q is closed and S is opened. A voltage V proportional to the module voltage is
measured. This voltage is compared with Vmp*. If these two voltages match, maximum
power is transferred to the load through the DC-DC converter. If the voltages do not
match, then an error signal is generated. Depending on the polarity of the error signal,
duty cycle is increased or decreased such that the voltages match. This method is much
more accurate than the earlier two methods since we are measuring the open circuit
voltage of the module that we are using in the application and hence comparing the
L.Umanand 29/52 12/11/2007
voltage at the maximum power to the voltage of the module. A small price we are
paying for the improved accuracy is the power losses in the switches.
An improved algorithm compared to the previous one is shown in the following block
diagram.
Method 4
We do not have switches in this method and hence no losses due to the switches. This
method is based on the P-V characteristics of the module. We know that the value of the
power increases with an increase in the voltage up-to a point that we call as the
maximum power point. Power beyond this point decreases with an increase in the
module voltage. In the region where the power is directly proportional to the voltage,
power and voltage have same phase and in the region where the power is inversely
proportional to the voltage, they are in opposite phase. This fact is used in the algorithm
for tracking maximum power point of the module. P-V characteristics shown in the
following figure explains the logic.
P & V in phase
Decrease D
Pmp P & V out of phase
Increase D
The following block diagram explains the algorithm for tracking maximum power
point:
L.Umanand 30/52 12/11/2007

Load
Vmodule
DC - DC
Converter
Imodule
Modulator
Pmodule
Vmodule
DC ZCD
Block Phase + VCC
Detecter

ZCD
DC
Block - VCC
For clarity, draw the waveforms at the output of the phase detector, output of the
integrator and the modulator output.
A rectangular pulse is given at the base of the transistor. A voltage proportional to the
voltage of the module is fed into a multiplier. This voltage has both dc component of the
module over which an ac rectangular pulse is riding. Current from the module is also
fed into the multiplier. The output of the multiplier is the power P of the module. This
signal also has the ac rectangular pulse riding on a dc value. It is made to pass through
the dc block. The result is only the ac rectangular pulses symmetric about the x-axis and
hence it would have both positive peak and negative peak. This is fed to the zero
crossing detector (ZCD). The output of the detector is either a +VCC or a VCC
depending on the pulse. If the pulse is positive, the output of the ZCD will be + VCC and
if the pulse is negative, the output of the ZCD is VCC. This is fed to the phase detector
as one of the inputs. Following block diagram explains the working of the ZCD:
+Vcc
dc- ZCD
block
-Vcc
The voltage from the module is fed to another dc block. The output of which is an ac
rectangular pulse. This is fed to the ZCD. Similar to the earlier case, the output could be
L.Umanand 31/52 12/11/2007

a + VCC or a VCC. This goes as a second input to the phase detector. Phase detector
compares the phases of the power signal and the voltage signal. If the phases of both
power and voltage signals are in phase, the output of the phase detector is + VCC and if
the phases are opposite to each other, the output of the phase detector is VCC. The
signal from the phase detector is fed to an integrator and then to a modulator to vary the
duty cycle D. This is fed to the DC-DC converter. The value of D is decreased if the
phases of power and voltage are same and the value is increased of P and V is in
opposite phase. Once the D value changes, the load line changes and if it matches with
the load line of the module at maximum power point, then maximum power is
transferred to the load.
Method 5:
This method is based on the previous one where we had used the PV characteristics.
Here, instead of comparing the phase of power with the phase of the voltage, we are
going to compare two levels of power. The source for two levels is the same, the power
of the module. However, this power is made to go through two different RC networks
making them to respond at two different levels. If we call one level as Pslow and other
level as Pfast, we can have an algorithm that compares these two power levels and
changes the duty cycle of the DC-DC converter. Following block diagram shows the
algorithm.
Vmodule Load
DC-DC
Converter
Vd
D
Modulator Average
Imodule Pslow
+5V
Large RC
P
+ Q
-
Small RC Pfast Toggle FF
Voltage and current of the module are fed to a multiplier resulting in the power of the
module. This power is fed through two different RC networks, one having a small RC
value giving faster response and the second one with the large RC values giving slower
response. Let us call the faster response power as Pfast and the slower response power as
Pslow respectively. These two values are fed to a differential amplifier, the input to the
amplifier being (Pslow Pfast).
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To understand the algorithm further, let us re-visit the P-V characteristics of the module
Pmp
Pfast
Pslow
To the left of the peak power point, when the voltage increases and D value decreases,
there will be two values of power, Pfast and Pslow. Pfast is going to be a higher value
compared to Pslow. The difference is going to be negative. As the voltage is further
increased, the value of Pfast increases till it reaches Pmp and then starts decreasing
beyond that point. A point is reached at which Pslow would have a higher value compared
to Pfast. The net difference at this point would be positive. This would trigger the
positive edge triggered toggle flip-flop changing its output state. If the output was
initially high, it would go to a low state decreasing the average value of the flip flop.
This changes the modulator output resulting in increase in the duty cycle D. The
increase in the D value would decrease the voltage, decreasing the power. Again, Pfast
value would be higher than Pslow and the net input to the differential amplifier would be
a negative value. At this point, both Pfast and Pslow are on the right of Pmp point. When
Pfast crosses over to left of Pmp, a point is reached when value of Pslow would be higher
than Pfast, resulting in a net positive value, triggering the flip flop. The output of the flip-
flop goes high state now, increasing the average value. This decreases the duty cycle.
This increase and decrease of D value goes on till Pfast and Pslow closes on each other
around the Pmp point. At this point, maximum power from the solar module is
transferred to the load. The wave forms at the output of each stage are shown in the
following figures:
L.Umanand 33/52 12/11/2007

Pslow-Pfast
Trigger
Vd
D D
5. Energy Storage
We have seen how photovoltaic energy can be generated and transferred to a load. We
have also seen how to track maximum power point of a solar module so that maximum
power can be transferred to the load. Availability of photovoltaic energy depends on the
availability of the source, the Sun. This means, any application based on photovoltaic
energy can be utilized only when the sun light is available unless we can store the solar
energy in some form and then use it in the absence of sun light. Following table
provides a list of storage devices, storage mechanism, releasing mechanism and their
efficiency:
Sl. No Storage Storage Releasing Efficiency

Device Mechanism Mechanism
1 Battery Electro-chemistry Electro-chemical 70%
2 Potential of Pumps dc, ac, Water turbine, 80%

lifted centrifugal alternator, dc
water/fluid generator
L.Umanand 34/52 12/11/2007

3 Compressed Air compressor Gas turbine, 70%

air/fluid alternator, dc
generator
4 Inertias Motors ac, dc; Generator ac, dc 70%-80%

Flywheel Springs
Let us take the first storage device in the table, the Battery. This is the widely used
storage device in most of the photovoltaic applications. Some of the terminology
commonly used with battery is as follows:
Sizing of Battery: Size of battery is classified in terms of charge it holds. The stored
energy in a battery is given by the following expression:
Energy = Whr (Watt-Hour) and
Whr
Ch arg e = = Ahr
V
Since voltage is almost constant in a battery, Ampere-Hour is used as a basic unit in
classifying a battery. Two terms one needs to know about battery are:
Depth of discharge (DOD): Depth of charge withdrawal.
State of charge (SOC): This is the amount of charge left in the battery.
We have to be aware of the allowed DOD for any battery since there is a good
possibility of destroying a battery permanently if it is discharged to a level below DOD
specified for the battery. The following figure explains the meaning of the term depth of
discharge:
Reference
DOD x%
100%
energy,
100%
charge
Any rechargeable battery is charged 100% for the first time. While using the battery
after initial charge, one has to be aware of DOD rating of the battery so that it is not
discharged below that level. DOD rating of the battery depends on the type of battery.
Following are the types of batteries commonly used:
L.Umanand 35/52 12/11/2007

SLI battery: It is an abbreviation for Starter, Lighting, Ignition batteries. From the
name itself we can say that they must have been designed to be used in automobiles.
They are valve regulated batteries. They have very high power density but low energy
density. They can give immense amount of power for a very short time and hence are
used for ignition. The normal DOD rating of these batteries is 20 %.
Tubular battery: These are deep discharge batteries having a DOD of 80%. They
have very low power density but very high energy density. These batteries can be used
for a longer period since the depth of discharge can go up to 80%
Capacity of battery: Capacity of battery gives the energy storing capacity of a
battery. The actual capacity is measured in watt-hours (Whr). Since the voltage across
the battery is normally constant, the capacity is given in amp-hours (Ahr),
commercially. Normally, the batteries are marked as C10, C5, C2, C1 or C0.5. The
subscripts 10, 5 2 1 or 0.5 gives the charge/discharge rate. In general, capacity of a
battery is indicated by the notation Cx, x being the charge/discharge rate. The amount of
current drawn can be calculated by dividing C by x. The following example will make it
clearer in understanding the terminology. If we have a battery denoted by C10, having a
capacity of 40 Ahr, then (40/10) = 4 Amps of current can be drawn from such a battery
for 10 hours. Following graph explains the battery usage.
C
40 Ah
I discharge
1.5 A C/x 8A
4A
As long as we draw C/x amps from a Cx battery, we are not harming the battery. The
capacity of the battery remains constant. But if the current drawn is more than C/x
amps, we see the detoriation in the capacity of the battery.
Life of battery: Life of a rechargeable battery is given in terms of number of cycles.
One cycle is equal to one charge and one discharge. If a battery has life of 1000 cycles,
it means that the battery can be charged 1000 times and discharged 1000 times. After
1000 times, no matter what you do, the cell will not get charged.
L.Umanand 36/52 12/11/2007

Charge controller:
To understand the need for charge controller, let us re-visit the earlier section where we
discussed about the capacity of the battery. This is an important measure of the battery.
Based on the load requirement, we select the battery. Every battery has a depth of
discharge (DOD) and depending the type of the battery, DOD may be shallow or deep.
For most of our applications, we can assume the DOD to be about 40%. The watt-hour
size of the battery is obtained by dividing watt-hour required by the DOD value.
DOD Wh/B
Battery
should be
rated for
this
As we have seen in the earlier section, commercially the capacity of the battery is give
in Ahrs and it is equal to:
Whrequired

C= B
Ahrs
DOD V Bno min al
Let us take a simple example to find the capacity of a battery required to meet our load
requirement. Following are the specifications:
Whrequired = 1000 Whrs
DOD = 40%
VBnominal = 12 V
B = 70%
For this specification, the capacity of the battery can be calculated as:
Cx =
(
1000 )
0.7 = 297 Ahrs 300 Ahrs.
0.4 x12
Now we know the general capacity of the battery required in terms of Ahrs. To know the
specific capacity of the battery in terms of Cx where x is unknown, we need to know the
exact requirement of the load such as the one shown in the following figure. This is a
graph showing the power required over a period of time. From this graph we can get an
important data as peak power required by the load and hence peak current require by the
L.Umanand 37/52 12/11/2007

load over a time period and the average current required by the load over a period. With
these data available, the exact capacity of the battery can be easily found.
I utilized
30 amps
20 amps
time
From the graph we can see that the maximum current required by the load is about 30
amps and the average current required by the load is 20 amps. Based on these results,
we can calculate the exact capacity of the battery as follows:
C 300 Ahrs
x= = = 10
I max 30 Amps
Hence the exact capacity of the battery is C10. The total time this battery lasts before it
needs a re-charge can be calculated as follows:
C 300 Ahrs
time = = = 15hrs
I average 20 Amps
Hence this battery would last for 15 hours before it would need re-charging. At the point
where the battery needs a re-charge, the voltage of the battery is referred as Vmin. Now,
let us look at a typical set up where a charge controller would be needed. The system is
Vmax-ref
Charge Controller
Vmin-ref
VB
S1 S2
PV Load
Battery
The system consists of a PV panel acting as a source, a battery for storing the charge
from the source and a load, all of them connected in parallel through two switches S1
and S2. Charge controller has two reference points Vmax and Vmin. These are preset.
There is a third point which takes in the battery voltage, compares it with Vmax and Vmin
L.Umanand 38/52 12/11/2007

and depending on the value of VB, it closes the switch S1 or S2. The job of the charge
controller can summarized as follows:
r. VB Vmax then open S1 and close S2. Energy is transferred to load.
s. VB Vmin then close S1 and open S2. Charge battery from PV
t. Vmin VB Vmax then close S1 and close S2. Connect load to PV.
Simple charge controller can be realized using relays as shown in the following figure:
S1 S2
Vo
Vpv
VB
R1
1k
0
2
2
L1
D1 L2 R7
D2
Q1
4
U1
1 Q2
R2 1 2
V-
1 OS1 -
6
OUT R8
5 3
V+
R3 OS2 + Vo
0
7
R5
R4
D3
0
R6
When VB is less than Vmin, the output of the op-amp acting as a differential amplifier
does not turn on the transistor Q2 and hence the switch S2 remains open. The value of
VB is large enough to drive transistor Q1 and hence the relay closes the switch S1. PV
panel charges the battery. Once the value of VB reaches Vmax, the op-amp turns the
transistor Q1 ON and the relay connected to collector of Q2 closes the switch S2
connecting load to the battery. Since Q2 is ON, the emitter base junction of Q1 gets
reverse biased and hence Q1 goes OFF opening the switch S1.
6. Applications
PUMP
Let us consider the following application where a DC motor is connected to PV panel
on one side and some load such as a pump on the other side as shown in the following
figure:
L.Umanand 39/52 12/11/2007

ia Ra La Rf
1 2
Vf
+ +
1 Lf 2
T
Va eb
GY
- - w
Ra represents the armature resistance of the motor, La represents the armature

inductance of the motor, eb is the back emf developed across the motor, Va is the voltage
developed across the armature of the motor, Lf is the inductance of the field coil, Rf is
the resistance of the field coil and Vf is the voltage source for the field coil. Field coil is
used to excite the motor resulting in constant flux. T represents the torque developed by
the motor and the angular velocity of the shaft connected to the pump. The DC motor
works as a Gyrator. To understand the concept of gyrator first we need to understand the
concept of a transformer. If we call voltage as an effort and current as flow, in a
transformer, effort on the primary side is related to the effort on the secondary side as a
multiple by a constant depending on the turns ratio of the transformer. Similarly, the
flow on the primary side is related to the flow on the secondary side as a multiple by a
constant again, depending on the turns ratio. If we call the primary side as input and the
secondary side as the output then we see that input effort is related to the output effort
and input flow is related to the output flow. This is the concept of a transformer. In a
gyrator, the relationships are different. The effort on the input side is related to the flow
on the output side and the effort on the output side is related to the flow on the input
side. Now, let us consider the DC motor. For a DC motor, eb is the input effort, Ia is
input flow, T is the output effort and is the output flow. Now, let us look at some of
the relationships for a DC motor. The first relation ship is given by:
Td I a ... (1)
Td = K I a . (2)
where K is a constant proportional to constant flux.
Here, Td is the output effort and Ia is the input flow. We see a cross relationship. Let us
see the second relationship given by:
eb
.. (3)

eb
= .... (4)
K
where K is a constant proportional to constant flux.
Here, eb is the input effort and is the output flow. We again see a cross relationship.
Hence, we can see that the DC motor is a gyrator.
For the above circuit, we can write the following relationship:
L.Umanand 40/52 12/11/2007
v a = ia Ra + eb (5)
va is the voltage across the PV panel and ia is the current from the panel. Substituting
equations (2) and (4) in equation (5), we get the following expression:
Td
va = Ra + K . (6)
K
Here Td is the load torque required at the motor shaft. From equation (2), this depends
on the panel current. The corresponding panel voltage needed can be obtained from the
V-I characteristics of the panel as shown in the following figure:
ia
V
va
From equation (4), we have seen that the angular velocity of the shaft is related to the
back emf, eb developed at the motor. Re-arranging equation (5), we can write the
expression for eb as:
eb = v a ia Ra . (7)
Here, we can see the relationship between eb and va. Equation (4) gives an important
relationship between eb and that specifies eb required for the desired speed of the
motor. From the equations (4) and (7), we would know va required for desired speed of
the motor.
It is clear from the above discussion that DC motor takes electrical input and delivers
mechanical output. This output may be used for driving a load such as a pump. Hence,
in a big picture, we need to match the characteristics of the PV panel providing the
electrical input to the characteristics of the load that is being driven by the mechanical
output. The parameters describing the characteristics of the panel are voltage and
current. The parameters describing the characteristics of the load are torque and angular
L.Umanand 41/52 12/11/2007

velocity or speed. The following figure explains how we match the characteristics of the
source and load.
PV Panel
Load
We see the load characteristics in the third quadrant given as a function of torque (T)
and the speed (). This characteristic is translated into second quadrant using equation
(2) that relates torque to the current. Finally, the characteristic is translated into first
quadrant using equation (4). This characteristic is superimposed on the characteristics of
the PV panel to do the matching, as shown in the following figure:
L.Umanand 42/52 12/11/2007

1/Ra
Starting ia
Minimum
insolation
required
When the motor is at rest, it does not have eb. Hence the current required for starting the
motor can be obtained from equation (5) by substituting eb = 0.
va
ia = ........ (8)
Ra
The point indicated by the arrow gives the minimum insolation required for producing
the starting current.
This was an example where the characteristics of the PV panel were matched to the
mechanical (rotational) characteristics of the load. Following table gives the parameters
describing characteristics of different types of loads:
Mechanical Mechanical
Electrical Hydraulic
(Linear) (Rotational)
Voltage Force Torque Pressure
Current Linear velocity Angular velocity Rate of discharge
Pumps:
We had seen briefly how the characteristics of PV panel are matched to the
characteristics of a load such as a pump. Let us know about the pump itself now. Pumps
are of two types, reciprocating and centrifugal. Reciprocating pumps have positive
displacement and the rate of discharge does not depend on the height to which the water
has to be lifted. Centrifugal pumps have dynamic displacement. Its rate of discharge is a
L.Umanand 43/52 12/11/2007

function of height to which the water has to be lifted. Let us take these pumps in little
more detail:
Reciprocating Pump:
Following figure shows the working of the pump:
Delivery
Head, Hd
Stroke
Length, S Suction
Head, Hs
In the figure, A is the cross sectional area and S is the stroke length. If is the angular
velocity then the rate of discharge is given as:
dQ
A S
dt
Since area of the sectional area, and the stroke length are constants for a given piston,
we can write:
dQ

dt
We can see that the rate of discharge is independent of head. However, there is a
theoretical limit of 10.33 meters and a practical limit of 6 meters on the suction head,
Hs. The static head of the reciprocating pump is the sum of delivery head and suction
head.
StaticHead = H S + H d
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Centrifugal Pump:
The rate of discharge of these pumps depends on the head. A simple centrifugal pump
setup is shown in the following figure:
Delivery
Head, Hd
Impeller
Suction
Head, Hs
Foot valve
L.Umanand 45/52 12/11/2007

The static head is equal to the sum of the delivery head and suction head. We need to
know at this point the amount of energy required to pump the water overhead.
Following block diagram gives the entire system, starting from the PV panel as source.
Power
PV Conditio Motor Pump Water
Panel Load
ner
Before we calculate the energy required, we need to know the following expressions:
Energy = m g h Joules, where
m = mass of water = Kg
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2
h = height = meter
Energy = Q g h Joules, where
= density of water = Kg/m3
Q = discharge = m3
h = height = meter
dQ
Power = g h watts, where
dt
dQ/dt = rate of discharge = m3/s
h = height = meter
1 Kilowatt-Hour = 1000 watts x 3600 seconds = 3.6e6 watt-second = 3.6e6 Joules
1 m3 = 1000 liters
Example: Let us take a simple example for calculating size of a PV panel required to
provide power for lifting 1000 liters of water per day to an over-head tank placed at a
height of 10 meters.
Discharge required (Q) = 1000 liters/day
= 1 m3/day
Head = 10 meters
g = 9.81 m/s2
Assuming 4 hours of good insolation over a day, we can calculate the rate of discharge
as:
dQ 1m 3 1m 3
= =
dt (4 x3600) sec 14400 sec
L.Umanand 46/52 12/11/2007

1gram 1e 3Kg 1Kg 1Kg 1000 Kg

water = = = = =
1ml 1e 3liters 1liter 1e 3m 3
m3
dQ 1000 Kg 1m 3 9.81m 981Kg m 2
Power = g h = 10 m = = 6.81watts
dt m3 14400s s 2 144 s 3
This is the power required by the pump for pumping water into over head tank.
Assuming 80% efficiency of the motor, the power generated by the motor should be:
6.81watts
= 8.5125 watts
0 .8
Assuming 80% efficiency of the power conditioner unit, the power supplied by the
power conditioner unit is:
8.5125 watts
= 10.641watts
0. 8
Assuming 80% efficiency of the PV panel, the panel should generate:
10.641watts
= 13.3watts
0 .8
Hence, a 20watt PV panel should serve the purpose.
Peltier Cooling
Peltier junction is normally used for applications like thermo Electric Coolers. The
experiment aims to curve fit the characteristics of the peltier junction. The energy input
to the peltier is the photovoltaic module of 220W. It is shown that a peltier junction
characteristic behaves exponentially as compared to the linear fit.
The Peltier device is a small solid-state electronic component. It consists of a large
number of small n- and p-type semiconductor elements (generally made from bismuth
telluride). When a current is passed through the semiconductor elements, the motion of
charge carriers through the material also transfers heat. The elements are arranged in
series electrically, but are oriented so they all work together to transfer heat from the
cold face of the device to the hot face. In addition, if a temperature difference is
maintained between the two faces of the device, it will generate a voltage. Peltier
devices can therefore be used to generate power in an external circuit if the temperature
difference can be maintained.
L.Umanand 47/52 12/11/2007

Experimental Setup:
Isc Ratio 100A/100mA
Hall effect
Sensor
D1 D3 D5 D7 D9
+15 VDC -15 VDC
Vsc
PV Module PV Module PV Module PV Module PV Module R1 Peltier
44W 44W 44W 44W 44W 10K, 1W
S1 S2 S3 S4 D10 S5 R2 Junction
D2 D4 D6 D8 54 Ohm, 1/4W
A K
A K
A K
A K
A K
Ref
Observation Table:
Ambient Peltier temp

Time Vsc in volts Isc in amps temp in C in C
10:05 0.255 4.72 20 3
10:10 0.22 4.07 20 2
10:15 0.184 3.41 21 5
10:20 0.212 3.93 21 4
10:25 0.344 6.37 21 2
10:30 0.278 5.15 21 3
10:35 0.315 5.83 21 2
10:40 0.302 5.59 21 3
10:45 0.308 5.70 21 3
10:50 0.292 5.41 21 4
10:55 0.288 5.33 21 4
11:00 0.275 5.09 21 4
11:05 0.244 4.52 21 5
L.Umanand 48/52 12/11/2007

11:10 0.236 4.37 21 5
11:30 0.192 3.56 21 6
11:35 0.165 3.06 21 7
11:40 0.216 4.00 21 7
11:45 0.217 4.02 21 6
11:50 0.286 5.30 22 4
12:00 0.3 5.56 22 3
12:05 0.374 6.93 22 2
13:00 0.156 2.89 22 10
13:40 0.071 1.31 22 12
13:45 0.106 1.96 22 11
13:50 0.123 2.28 22 10
13:55 0 0.00 22 21
Data Analysis:
Curve fitting was done on the above data using two methods,
1.) Linear regression &
2.) Exponential fit
The scatter diagram plot along with curve fitting is shown below,
L.Umanand 49/52 12/11/2007

Current v/s Temperature
25
20
y = -2.3732x + 15.765
Temperature (C)
15
10
0
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00
-5
Current (Amps)
Fig 1: Plot of the data points along with the linear fit
Fig 2: Plot of the data points along with the exponential fit
Current v/s Temperature
25
20
-0.3465x
y = 20.293e
Temperature (C)
15
10
0
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00
Current (Amps)
Conclusions:
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The experimental data fits better with an exponential curve. The mean square error is
less in case of the exponential fit. The mean square error for linear fit is 3.05 as
compared to 1.15 with exponential fit.
One of the applications of the peltier junction is TEC (Thermo Electric Coolers).
The Cold and Hot side effect: The TEC is generally built by having Negative and
Positive type semi-conductors made of bismuth-telluride, sandwiched between two
ceramic plates. When current passes through the TEC, electrons jumping from the P
type to the N type semi-conductors leap to an outer level of electrons, they absorb
energy, thus "absorbing" heat. On the other hand, when they jump from the N type to
the P type, they drop one level, thus releasing energy and heat. This is what creates the
Cold and Hot sides of the peltier
Wattage: TECs measure their potential heat-dissipation in watts. Be careful though, a

156 Watt TEC will NOT dissipate 156 Watts of outside energy. To calculate outside heat
dissipation implies complicated calculations having to deal with different Temperatures,
Voltages, Amperages, insulation, etc, which is described in the advanced peltier
studying article.
Delta T (Temperature difference between hot and cold side) : TECs work by pumping
heat from the hot side to the cold side, but there IS a limit to this. Regular TECs have a
Delta T (meaning the difference between hot and cold side) of about 68 to 70 degrees
Celsius. This basically means that the coldest you can keep the hot side, the cooler the
cold side will be. In order for this to work, your TEC must be able to dissipate all the
heat produced by the CPU, or else both sides of the peltier will heat up and make your
system run hotter than a CPU without a heatsink!
Condensation: If using a TEC that will drop the temperature below ambient
temperature, there is extra care to be taken. Any air contacting a surface cooler than
itself will condense, thereby creating small droplets of water that can kill your system.
Before using high Wattage devices such as 120 or 156 Watt peltiers, one should know
about preventing condensation.
Lab Work:
In lab we tried to build a TEC and measure the cooling effect of the peltier junction for
a given volume. The experiment was not successful due to the following reasons,
1.) The container enclosing the peltier junction was not air-tight.
2.) The container was made of metal which is a good conductor of heat.
The proper design of the container (that is covering it with a insulating material such as
thermocol, cotton wool, etc.; which is bad conductor of heat) with no air leakages can
improve the efficiency of the TECs.
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Hydro Electric Power (Hydel Power)

Operating Principle
Hydro-electric power is generated by the flow of water through turbine, turning the
blades of the turbine. A generator shaft connected to this turbine also turns and hence
generates electricity. Following figure shows how hydro-electric power is generated:
The main components of a hydel power plant are:

1. Dam/Reservoir/Large buffer tank
2. Penstock
3. Power House
a. Turbines
b. Generators
c. Step-up Transformers
Depending on the capacity, hydel power plants are divided into the following
categories:
Category Capacity Application
Large Hydel Plant 50 MW to 1000 MW Large Cities
Small Hydel Plant 1 MW to 50 MW Small cities to Towns
Mini Hydel Plant 100 kW to 1000 kW Towns
Micro Hydel Plant < 100 kW Rural community
L.Umanand 1/8 12/11/2007

Pico Hydel Plant < 5 kW Individual home
Hydel plants have an efficiency of 75%. The power delivered is given by the following
expression:
dQ
Power _ Delivered = 7 H Kilo watts, where
dt
H = Head in meters
DQ/dt = Rate of discharge in m3/s.
In the figure we see that the turbine is coupled to a generator for generating electrical
power. The generator can be of any of the following types:
Permanent magnet DC generator (PMDC)
Alternator (Synchronous Generator)
Induction Generator
Synchronous reluctance Generator
To select the best among the listed options, we need to know the requirement of a
generator. Following list gives the requirement:
1. Rugged and easy to maintain
2. Simple to fabricate
3. High efficiency
4. Fail safe or should not fail at all
5. Sinusoidal output
6. Good voltage regulation
7. Cost effective for given power
8. Ease of servicing/operation
9. Safety
10. Reliability
When we try to match the requirements to the types of generators, Induction generator
fits the bill better than others and hence, this is the type normally used for power
generation. The only drawback with induction generators is its poor voltage regulation.
To improve the voltage regulation, normally load governors are used in parallel to the
actual load.
Hydraulic Energy
The power that is obtainable from a stream depends primarily on two factors. These are,
1. Head
2. Flow
L.Umanand 2/8 12/11/2007

The head is the vertical height from the top of the penstock to the bottom of the
penstock. Larger the head, higher will be the speed of the turbine and larger will be the
power output.
The flow is the volume of water which flows in one second.
Energy = m g h Joules, where
m = mass of water = Kg
h = height = meter
Energy = Q g h Joules, where
Q = discharge = m3
h = height = meter
dQ
Power = g h watts, where
dt
dQ/dt = rate of discharge = m3/s
h = height = meter
1 Kilowatt-Hour = 1000 watts x 3600 seconds = 3.6e6 watt-second = 3.6e6 Joules
1 m3 = 1000 liters
Considering an efficiency of 70 to 75%, the hydraulic power is given by
dQ
Power _ Delivered 7 H kilo watts, where
dt
h = Head in meters
dQ/dt = Rate of discharge in m3/s.
Layouts
As the physical layout of the micro hydel plant will affect the power output, cost,
ruggedness etc., it is worth to consider the following options in choosing the plant
layout.
Layout decision is based on what factors?
Locations of homes: The distance of the homes from the micro hydel plant will affect
the cost of the overall plant.
Water rights: Water may be used downstream by many others for many purposes. The
water usage has to be checked with everyone affected and negotiated right at the
L.Umanand 3/8 12/11/2007

beginning of the planning process. Typical questions to be asked are whose land will
be used for the plant? Who else uses the water and for what purpose? What is the
agreement on water sharing? etc.
Power generation: The generated power depends on the head and flow of the water.
These are both affected by the physical layout.
Cost: The major cost factor in the plant is the penstock and the distribution system. The
challenge is to keep the penstock and distribution system as short as possible. Both the
cost and the losses increases as these become longer.
Site Survey
It is important to measure the head and the flow with reasonable accuracy to ensure that
the power requirements are met. It is better to under estimate the head and the flow
rather than to over estimate them to obtain conservative hydraulic power capability of
the stream.
Measuring Head
Three popular methods for head measurement are
1. Water filled plastic tube
2. Altimeter
3. Abney level
Water filled plastic tube

This is the most inexpensive method of head measurement. It requires a piece of
transparent plastic tube about 20m long and a diameter of 10mm. Fill the tube with
water so that when the two ends are held together, the water level is about 300mm from
the top. The water inside the tube will always find the same level on either side. A
plastic funnel will help to pour in the water.
One person holds one end of the tube at the water level of the reservoir/forebay tank.
The second person moves downhill till his eyes are in level with the water level of the
fore bay tank. His end of the tube is adjusted till the water level in the tube is in level
with his eyes. Now record that one reading has been taken. After this the tube is lowered
such that the water level in the tube is in line with the soles of his feet.
Now the first person moves downhill till his eye level is in line with the soles of the feet
of the first person. He now raises the tube till the water level is in line with his eye. Now
record that a second reading has been taken. This process is repeated till the location of
the turbine. The number of readings taken is summed up. This is multiplied with the
average height to eye level of the two people who took the measurements. This gives
the total head. This procedure should be repeated two to three times to obtain good
accuracy.
A variation of this method is to connect one end of the tube with a pressure gauge. The
pressure at each measuring point is recorded and the sum of the total pressures can be
used to calculate the overall head.
L.Umanand 4/8 12/11/2007

Altimeters
Altimeters are an instrument to measure the head. Height is calculated using changes in
air pressure. All that the user had to do is to record one reading at the expected fore bay
location. Then he has to record the second reading at the turbine in order to determine
the head. The second reading should be taken as quickly as possible to prevent any
atmospheric changes to affect the reading.
Abney level
The Abney level is a hand held sighting meter. With this method, the angle of the slope
() is measured. The linear distance (L) is also measured. The head is H is given by
H = L. sin ()
Two posts are driven into the ground one at the position of the proposed fore bay and
the other at a position that is 20m to 30m downhill. A clear line of site between the top
of the posts is required. The angle between the tops of the two posts is measured using
the Abney level and the distance between them is also recorded. The head is measure
between these two posts using the above relationship. Now, the first post is shifted
further downhill as compared to the second post and the measurement recorded. This
process is repeated till the position of the proposed turbine is reached. The heights are
all added up to obtain the overall head.
Measuring Flow
The flow should be measured during the worst case condition. During the rainy season,
the flow will be high and will provide high power output. However, during the dry
season, the flow will be low. It should be estimated whether the load requirement will
be met even during the worst case dry seasons. Therefore, the flow measurement should
be done during the dry seasons. Three simple methods of flow measurements are
1. Bucket method
2. Float method
3. Salt Gulp Analysis
Bucket Method
Take a 15 liter bucket or any container with known volume. If the volume of the
container is not known then it can be found out by filling the container with water from
a 1litre bottle. Count the number of liter that has been added. This is giving the volume
of the container.
The most challenging task in this method is to find a location in the stream where the
water can be directed into the bucket. It is important as little as possible escapes. This is
done by placing the bucket at the bottom of a natural narrow fall in the stream path or
by building a simple weir by using a wooden channel or a corrugated sheet such that the
stream water flows through this weir during measurement. Now, using a stopwatch,
record the time it takes to fill the bucket. Repeat the experiment three times and take the
average. The volume of the bucket divided by the average time it takes to fill the bucket
gives the flow rate of the water.
L.Umanand 5/8 12/11/2007

Float method
This method works well in canals and channels because this method requires the
knowledge of the cross sectional area of water flowing. The speed of the water flowing
is found out by using a float and timing its travel between two points in the stream.
Estimating the cross sectional area of a channel or canal is relatively easy as the cross
sectional geometry is known. But in the case of a river or stream it is much more
difficult to calculate the cross sectional area. To estimate the area at a particular section,
measure the width of the stream at that point. Then with the help of a long pole, take the
depth measurements at regular intervals across the stream where the width has been
measured. Plot this depth measurement on a grid sheet and estimate the area of the cross
section by calculating the number of squares of the grid sheet enclosed.
To measure the surface flow, place two markers at a distance of about 10m. Start the
stopwatch when the float pass the first marker and stop it when the float passes the
second marker. Repeat the experiment at least three times to obtain consistent results.
The flow is the product of the average stream area and the average velocity of the flow.
Since the water moves the fastest at the surface than the other layers of the stream, the
average velocity of the stream is found by incorporating a correction factor to the
surface velocity. The following table gives typical correction factors that can be used.
Type of stream Velocity correction factor (vice)
A rectangular channel with smooth sides and bed 0.85
A deep, slow moving stream 0.75
A small stream with a smooth bed 0.65
A quick, turbulent stream 0.45
A very shallow, rocky stream 0.25
The flow is now given by

dQ
= A vsurface vcf
dt
Salt gulp method

This method requires more calculations than the other methods but is easier to conduct
the experiment. It needs a conductivity meter and an instrument to accurately weigh
salt. The flow rate is determined by measuring the speed and concentration of a cloud of
salty water as it passes downstream.
A known mass of salt is mixed with some water in a bucket until it is fully dissolved.
Record the mass of the salt added to the nearest gram. All the salt water solution is then
tipped into the stream. The mass of salt used depends on the size of the flow. As a
thumb rule, use about 25g of salt for every 5 lisper second flow.
The conductivity meter probe is placed in a fast moving area of flow 25m to 30m
downstream from where the salt solution was added. The normal conductivity level of
L.Umanand 6/8 12/11/2007

the water is recorded. This is called background conductivity. As soon as the

conductivity readings begin to climb, record then every 5 seconds. Readings should be
recorded until the conductivity has returned to its background level.
Now plot a graph of changing salt concentration versus time. A smooth curve with a
peak value at least twice the level of the background level indicates that the experiment
has been carried out reasonably well. The area under the curve must be established in
order to calculate the flow rate. The equation for calculating the flow rate is
dQ Mk 1
=
dt A
Where M = mass of salt
K-1 = conversion factor
A = area under the concentration versus time curve
The conductivity is converted into salt concentration by multiplying with a conversion
factor that takes water temperature into account. It has the units of ohm-1/mg lt-1. The k-1
value is around 2 for water at 25 deg. C.
Turbine
The turbine is a device which converts the hydraulic power from the water to rotating
mechanical energy. There are several turbines that have been developed for specific
purposes. Turbines are classified into
1. Impulse turbines for high heads.
2. Reaction turbines for low heads.
3. Submersible propeller turbines.
Some of the turbines are Elton, cross flow, turbo, Francis, Harris etc.
Generator
Generally, induction generators and synchronous generators are used to produce the
power. Induction generators are especially suited for providing electricity in remote
areas because they are rugged and reliable. However, synchronous generators and dc
generators have also been used for some applications.
The three phase induction motors can be used as generators. These are easily available
and quite inexpensive. For most home applications, a single phase supply is required. It
is required to produce a single phase supply from a three phase motor. This is done by
connecting unequal amounts of excitation capacitance across the windings of the
machine.
Load Control
The speed of the turbine changes when the load connected to the generator changes.
Since this change of speed affects the voltage and frequency, the load on the generator
must be kept constant or the flow of water through the nozzle must be adjusted. The
most reliable method of controlling the load and keeping the voltage and frequency
constant is by using an electronic load controller. The unused power of the induction
generator is sent to a ballast or dummy load so that the total load on the generator
L.Umanand 7/8 12/11/2007

remains constant. For example if the generator produces 1000W and the total load
connected is 700W, then the remaining 300W will be dissipated in the ballast load?
References
Pico Hydro for village power, Phillip Maher and Nigel Smith, 2nd edition, April 2001.
L.Umanand 8/8 12/11/2007

Wind Generation
1. History of Wind-Mills
The wind is a by-product of solar energy. Approximately 2% of the sun's energy
reaching the earth is converted into wind energy. The surface of the earth heats and
cools unevenly, creating atmospheric pressure zones that make air flow from high- to
low-pressure areas.
The wind has played an important role in the history of human civilization. The first
known use of wind dates back 5,000 years to Egypt, where boats used sails to travel
from shore to shore. The first true windmill, a machine with vanes attached to an axis to
produce circular motion, may have been built as early as 2000 B.C. in ancient Babylon.
By the 10th century A.D., windmills with wind-catching surfaces having 16 feet length
and 30 feet height were grinding grain in the areas in eastern Iran and Afghanistan.
The earliest written references to working wind machines in western world date from
the 12th century. These too were used for milling grain. It was not until a few hundred
years later that windmills were modified to pump water and reclaim much of Holland
from the sea.
The multi-vane "farm windmill" of the American Midwest and West was invented in the
United States during the latter half of the l9th century. In 1889 there were 77 windmill
factories in the United States, and by the turn of the century, windmills had become a
major American export. Until the diesel engine came along, many transcontinental rail
routes in the U.S. depended on large multi-vane windmills to pump water for steam
locomotives.
Farm windmills are still being produced and used, though in reduced numbers. They are
best suited for pumping ground water in small quantities to livestock water tanks. In the
1930s and 1940s, hundreds of thousands of electricity producing wind turbines were
built in the U.S. They had two or three thin blades which rotated at high speeds to drive
electrical generators. These wind turbines provided electricity to farms beyond the reach
of power lines and were typically used to charge storage batteries, operate radio
receivers and power a light bulb. By the early 1950s, however, the extension of the
central power grid to nearly every American household, via the Rural Electrification
Administration, eliminated the market for these machines. Wind turbine development
lay nearly dormant for the next 20 years.
A typical modern windmill looks as shown in the following figure. The wind-mill
contains three blades about a horizontal axis installed on a tower. A turbine connected to
a generator is fixed about the horizontal axis.
L.Umanand 1/28 12/11/2007

Like the weather in general, the wind can be unpredictable. It varies from place to place,
and from moment to moment. Because it is invisible, it is not easily measured without
special instruments. Wind velocity is affected by the trees, buildings, hills and valleys
around us. Wind is a diffuse energy source that cannot be contained or stored for use
elsewhere or at another time.
2. Classification of Wind-mills
Wind turbines are classified into two general types: Horizontal axis and Vertical axis. A
horizontal axis machine has its blades rotating on an axis parallel to the ground as
shown in the above figure. A vertical axis machine has its blades rotating on an axis
perpendicular to the ground. There are a number of available designs for both and each
type has certain advantages and disadvantages. However, compared with the horizontal
axis type, very few vertical axis machines are available commercially.
Horizontal Axis
This is the most common wind turbine design. In addition to being parallel to the
ground, the axis of blade rotation is parallel to the wind flow. Some machines are
designed to operate in an upwind mode, with the blades upwind of the tower. In this
case, a tail vane is usually used to keep the blades facing into the wind. Other designs
operate in a downwind mode so that the wind passes the tower before striking the
blades. Without a tail vane, the machine rotor naturally tracks the wind in a downwind
mode. Some very large wind turbines use a motor-driven mechanism that turns the
machine in response to a wind direction sensor mounted on the tower. Commonly found
horizontal axis wind mills are aero-turbine mill with 35% efficiency and farm mills with
15% efficiency.
Vertical Axis
Although vertical axis wind turbines have existed for centuries, they are not as common
as their horizontal counterparts. The main reason for this is that they do not take
advantage of the higher wind speeds at higher elevations above the ground as well as
horizontal axis turbines. The basic vertical axis designs are the Darrieus, which has
curved blades and efficiency of 35%, the Giromill, which has straight blades, and
efficiency of 35%, and the Savonius, which uses scoops to catch the wind and the
efficiency of 30%. A vertical axis machine need not be oriented with respect to wind
direction. Because the shaft is vertical, the transmission and generator can be mounted
at ground level allowing easier servicing and a lighter weight, lower cost tower.
Although vertical axis wind turbines have these advantages, their designs are not as
L.Umanand 2/28 12/11/2007

efficient at collecting energy from the wind as are the horizontal machine designs. The
following figures show all the above mentioned mills.
There is one more type of wind-mill called Cyclo-gyro wind-mill with very high
efficiency of about 60%. However, it is not very stable and is very sensitive to wind
direction. It is also very complex to build.
Main Components of a wind-mill
Following figure shows typical components of a horizontal axis wind mill.
L.Umanand 3/28 12/11/2007

Rotor
The portion of the wind turbine that collects energy from the wind is called the rotor.
The rotor usually consists of two or more wooden, fiberglass or metal blades which
rotate about an axis (horizontal or vertical) at a rate determined by the wind speed and
the shape of the blades. The blades are attached to the hub, which in turn is attached to
the main shaft.
Drag Design
Blade designs operate on either the principle of drag or lift. For the drag design, the
wind literally pushes the blades out of the way. Drag powered wind turbines are
characterized by slower rotational speeds and high torque capabilities. They are useful
for the pumping, sawing or grinding work. For example, a farm-type windmill must
develop high torque at start-up in order to pump, or lift, water from a deep well.
Lift Design
The lift blade design employs the same principle that enables airplanes, kites and birds
to fly. The blade is essentially an airfoil, or wing. When air flows past the blade, a wind
speed and pressure differential is created between the upper and lower blade surfaces.
The pressure at the lower surface is greater and thus acts to "lift" the blade. When blades
are attached to a central axis, like a wind turbine rotor, the lift is translated into
rotational motion. Lift-powered wind turbines have much higher rotational speeds than
drag types and therefore well suited for electricity generation.
Following figure gives an idea about the drag and lift principle.
L.Umanand 4/28 12/11/2007

Tip Speed Ratio

The tip-speed is the ratio of the rotational speed of the blade to the wind speed. The
larger this ratio, the faster the rotation of the wind turbine rotor at a given wind speed.
Electricity generation requires high rotational speeds. Lift-type wind turbines have
maximum tip-speed ratios of around 10, while drag-type ratios are approximately 1.
Given the high rotational speed requirements of electrical generators, it is clear that the
lift-type wind turbine is most practical for this application.
The number of blades that make up a rotor and the total area they cover affect wind
turbine performance. For a lift-type rotor to function effectively, the wind must flow
smoothly over the blades. To avoid turbulence, spacing between blades should be great
enough so that one blade will not encounter the disturbed, weaker air flow caused by the
blade which passed before it. It is because of this requirement that most wind turbines
have only two or three blades on their rotors.
Generator
The generator is what converts the turning motion of a wind turbine's blades into
electricity. Inside this component, coils of wire are rotated in a magnetic field to
produce electricity. Different generator designs produce either alternating current (AC)
or direct current (DC), and they are available in a large range of output power ratings.
The generator's rating, or size, is dependent on the length of the wind turbine's blades
because more energy is captured by longer blades.
It is important to select the right type of generator to match intended use. Most home
and office appliances operate on 240 volt, 50 cycles AC. Some appliances can operate
on either AC or DC, such as light bulbs and resistance heaters, and many others can be
adapted to run on DC. Storage systems using batteries store DC and usually are
configured at voltages of between 12 volts and 120 volts.
Generators that produce AC are generally equipped with features to produce the correct
voltage of 240 V and constant frequency 50 cycles of electricity, even when the wind
speed is fluctuating.
DC generators are normally used in battery charging applications and for operating DC
appliances and machinery. They also can be used to produce AC electricity with the use
of an inverter, which converts DC to AC.
Transmission
The number of revolutions per minute (rpm) of a wind turbine rotor can range between
40 rpm and 400 rpm, depending on the model and the wind speed. Generators typically
require rpm's of 1,200 to 1,800. As a result, most wind turbines require a gear-box
transmission to increase the rotation of the generator to the speeds necessary for
efficient electricity production. Some DC-type wind turbines do not use transmissions.
Instead, they have a direct link between the rotor and generator. These are known as
direct drive systems. Without a transmission, wind turbine complexity and maintenance
requirements are reduced, but a much larger generator is required to deliver the same
power output as the AC-type wind turbines.
L.Umanand 5/28 12/11/2007

Tower
The tower on which a wind turbine is mounted is not just a support structure. It also
raises the wind turbine so that its blades safely clear the ground and so it can reach the
stronger winds at higher elevations. Maximum tower height is optional in most cases,
except where zoning restrictions apply. The decision of what height tower to use will be
based on the cost of taller towers versus the value of the increase in energy production
resulting from their use. Studies have shown that the added cost of increasing tower
height is often justified by the added power generated from the stronger winds. Larger
wind turbines are usually mounted on towers ranging from 40 to 70 meters tall.
Towers for small wind systems are generally "guyed" designs. This means that there are
guy wires anchored to the ground on three or four sides of the tower to hold it erect.
These towers cost less than freestanding towers, but require more land area to anchor
the guy wires. Some of these guyed towers are erected by tilting them up. This
operation can be quickly accomplished using only a winch, with the turbine already
mounted to the tower top. This simplifies not only installation, but maintenance as well.
Towers can be constructed of a simple tube, a wooden pole or a lattice of tubes, rods,
and angle iron. Large wind turbines may be mounted on lattice towers, tube towers or
guyed tilt-up towers.
Towers must be strong enough to support the wind turbine and to sustain vibration,
wind loading and the overall weather elements for the lifetime of the wind turbine.
Their costs will vary widely as a function of design and height.
3. Operating Characteristics of wind mills
All wind machines share certain operating characteristics, such as cut-in, rated and cut-
out wind speeds.
Cut-in Speed
Cut-in speed is the minimum wind speed at which the blades will turn and generate
usable power. This wind speed is typically between 10 and 16 kmph.
Rated Speed
The rated speed is the minimum wind speed at which the wind turbine will generate its
designated rated power. For example, a "10 kilowatt" wind turbine may not generate 10
kilowatts until wind speeds reach 40 kmph. Rated speed for most machines is in the
range of 40 to 55 kmph. At wind speeds between cut-in and rated, the power output
from a wind turbine increases as the wind increases. The output of most machines levels
off above the rated speed. Most manufacturers provide graphs, called "power curves,"
showing how their wind turbine output varies with wind speed.
Cut-out Speed
At very high wind speeds, typically between 72 and 128 kmph, most wind turbines
cease power generation and shut down. The wind speed at which shut down occurs is
called the cut-out speed. Having a cut-out speed is a safety feature which protects the
wind turbine from damage. Shut down may occur in one of several ways. In some
machines an automatic brake is activated by a wind speed sensor. Some machines twist
or "pitch" the blades to spill the wind. Still others use "spoilers," drag flaps mounted on
L.Umanand 6/28 12/11/2007

the blades or the hub which are automatically activated by high rotor rpm's, or
mechanically activated by a spring loaded device which turns the machine sideways to
the wind stream. Normal wind turbine operation usually resumes when the wind drops
back to a safe level.
Betz Limit
It is the flow of air over the blades and through the rotor area that makes a wind turbine
function. The wind turbine extracts energy by slowing the wind down. The theoretical
maximum amount of energy in the wind that can be collected by a wind turbine's rotor
is approximately 59%. This value is known as the Betz limit. If the blades were 100%
efficient, a wind turbine would not work because the air, having given up all its energy,
would entirely stop. In practice, the collection efficiency of a rotor is not as high as
59%. A more typical efficiency is 35% to 45%. A complete wind energy system,
including rotor, transmission, generator, storage and other devices, which all have less
than perfect efficiencies, will deliver between 10% and 30% of the original energy
available in the wind.
Mathematical Expression Governing Wind Power

The wind power is generated due to the movement of wind. The energy associated with
such movement is the kinetic energy and is given by the following expression:
1
Energy = KE = m v 2 Where
2
m = Air mass in Kg = Volume (m3) x Density (Kg/m3) = Q x
Q = Discharge
v = Velocity of air mass in m/s
Hence, the expression for power can be derived as follows:
dE
Power =
dt
=
1 d

2 dt
{
m v2 }
=
1 d

2 dt
{
Q v2 }
1 dQ 2
= v
2 dt
dQ
Here, = Rate of discharge (m3/s) = A (m2) v (m/s)
dt
Where, A = Area of cross section of blade movement.
1
Power = A v3
2
L.Umanand 7/28 12/11/2007

We know that for given length of blades, A is constant and so is the air mass density .
Hence we can say that wind power is directly proportional to (wind speed) 3.
At sea level, = 1.2 Kg/m3. Therefore,
1
Power = (1.2) A v 3
2
Power
= (0.6) v 3 = Power Density in watts/m2
Area
Let us construct a chart relating the wind speed to the power density and the output of
the wind turbine assuming 30% efficiency of the turbine as shown in the following
table.
Wind Speed Wind speed Power Density Turbine Output

2
kmph m/s Watts/m 30% efficiency
1 0.278 0.013 0.004
Wind Speed Wind speed Power Density Turbine Output

2
kmph m/s Watts/m 30% efficiency
10 2.778 12.860 3.858
25 6.944 200.939 60.282
50 13.889 1607.510 482.253
75 20.833 5425.347 1627.604
100 27.778 12860.082 3858.025
125 34.722 25117.348 7535.204
The following plot gives the relationship between wind speed in KMPH and the power
density.
L.Umanand 8/28 12/11/2007

Wind Speed Vs Power Density
30000.000
25000.000
Power Density in Watts/m2
20000.000
15000.000
10000.000
5000.000
0.000
0.000 20.000 40.000 60.000 80.000 100.000 120.000 140.000
-5000.000
W ind speed in KMPH
In the last column of the table, we have calculated the output of the turbine assuming
that the efficiency of the turbine is 30%. However, we need to remember that the
efficiency of the turbine is a function of wind speed. It varies with wind speed.
Now, let us try to calculate the wind speed required to generate power equivalent to 1
square meter PV panel with 12% efficiency. We know that solar insolation available at
the PV panel is 1000 watts/m2 at standard condition. Hence the output of the PV panel
with 12% efficiency would be 120 watts. Now the speed required to generate this power
by the turbine with 30% efficiency can be calculated as follows:
Turbine output required = 120 Watts/m2
Power Density at the blades = 120/ (0.3) = 400 watts/m2
1/ 3
400
Therefore, the wind speed required to generate equivalent power in m/s = =
0 .6
8.735805 m/s = 31.4489 kmph.
We have seen that the theoretical power is given by the following expression:
1
Ptheoretical = A v3
2
However, there would be losses due to friction and hence, the actual power generated
would be smaller. The co-efficient of power is defined as the ratio of actual power to the
theoretical power. That is,
L.Umanand 9/28 12/11/2007

Pactual
Cp =
Ptheoretical
Another important ratio we need to know is the tip speed ratio. It is defined as the ratio
of tip speed of blade to wind speed. That is,
TR =
Tip _ Speed _ of _ Blade radius
= =
(radians sec ond ) meters
Wind _ Speed velocity (meters sec ond )
In general, Cp is of the order of 0.4 to 0.6 and TR is of the order of 0.8. Performance
measure of a wind mill is given by a plot of TR Vs Cp as shown in the following figure:
Example:
A small stream has a head of 60 meters and a flow of 10 liters/second. Calculate
a. The hydraulic power
b. The net head and net hydraulic power
c. The useful mechanical power
d. The useful electrical power
Solution:
Hydraulic power in watts = 9.81 x Head (meters) x Flow (liters/second)
= 9.81 x 60 x 10
= 5886 watts = 5.886 kW
Net head = Actual head loss of head due to friction
Assuming 25% loss due to friction, loss of head due to friction = 0.25 x 60 m = 15 m
Hence, Net head = 60 m 15 m = 45 m
Net hydraulic power = 9.81 x Net head (meters) x Flow (liters/sec)
= 9.81 x 45 x 10
= 4414 watts = 4.414 kW
Useful mechanical power = net hydraulic power x turbine efficiency
Assuming turbine efficiency of 65%, we get
Useful mechanical power = 4414 x 0.65
= 2870 watts = 2.87 kW
Useful electrical power = useful mechanical power x generator efficiency
Assuming generator efficiency of 80%, we get
Useful electrical power = 2870 x 0.8
= 2295 watts = 2.295 kW
L.Umanand 10/28 12/11/2007

4. Grid Connection
We have seen in the previous section the generation of electrical power by the flow of
water through turbines. The generated electrical power could be dc or ac depending on
the type of generator. After the power is generated, it needs to be transmitted and
distributed to consumers by connecting it to the grid. Following figure shows how the
grid connection is done. It has the following sections:
1. The rectifier
2. The capacitor
3. Switches
4. Inductor
The rectifier is required if the generated power is ac by alternator or induction generator.

The capacitor is required to smooth the generated power. Switches are required to
convert the power to ac to match the grid frequency and inductors are required to
develop the voltage.
Q1 Q3
D1 D3 D5 D7 Grid
L1
1 2
C1
DC/AC L2
1 2
Generator
Q2 Q4
D6 D8
D2 D4
Rectifier Inverter
Grid
Vinv VL L1 Vgrid
1 2
C1
1 2
L2
In the above figure,

di L
vL = L .. (1)
dt
L.Umanand 11/28 12/11/2007

1
L
iL = v L dt ... (2)
Also
di L v L vinv v grid
= = .. (3)
dt L L
The above equation can be realized as follows:
Vgrid
Ig* dig*/dt Vinv
Gain -1 d/dt L +
+
Vgrid
+
- controller PWM
Vinv
feedback
The starting reference is the grid voltage Vgrid. The current Ig* proportional to the grid
voltage is fed through a differentiator giving dIg*/dt. This is equivalent to a value given
in equation (3). Multiplying this value by L gives (Vinv Vgrid). Adding this to Vgrid
taken directly from the grid gives Vinv. This is compared to the actual Vinv measured at
the output of the inverter. If the error is zero, then the voltage across the grid and the
voltage at the output of the inverter are same and hence can be connected to each other.
If there is an error signal then the controller changes the duty cycle of PWM such that
the error signal becomes zero.
Harnessing wind power by means of windmills can be traced back to about four
thousand years from now when they were used for milling and grinding of grains and
for pumping of water. However there has been a renewed interest in wind energy in the
recent years as it is a potential source of electricity generation with minimum
environmental impact [1]. According to present growth the accumulated world wide
installed wind electric generation capacity will reach to 50GW at the end of year
2005[2]. India has the fifth position in the generation of wind electric generation. In
India Wind power plants have been installed in Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamilnadu and
Orissa where wind blows at a speeds of 30Km/hr during summer [3] but India has lot of
potential for generation of wind power at other places in Andhra Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh, Karnatka and Kerala. The total estimated wind power potential in India is
about 45195MW[4].
Wind electric systems directly feeding to the local load are known as the isolated wind
energy system but the wind energy system that are connected to grid are known as grid
L.Umanand 12/28 12/11/2007

connected system. Wind is not available all the time for the generation of electric power
and power output of wind turbine is proportional to the cube of the velocity of wind and
the power output is optimal for a particular wind velocity. So Large wind electric
generator (WEG) systems are connected to utility grid where they feed the power to
grid.
The connection of cage rotor Induction Generator to grid again cause the problems in
terms of drawing large magnetizing current from grid at very low power factor. Under
the low wind conditions when the machine draws only reactive power from grid and
stator power factor is very poor. Lagging power factor is compensated by connecting
capacitor banks across the line. Depending on the active power generated these
capacitors are either cut-in or cutout to regulate the power factor. The switching of
capacitors may cause the over voltage in power system [1]. So various techniques for
connecting the WEG to grid has been proposed [2,5,6]. The stand -alone system can be
better utilized by using load-matching techniques [7].
5. Wind Energy Regions in India
India has several on shore and off shore wind energy sites. India has a lot of scope in
terms of harnessing wind power using these sites. The state wise estimated wind power
potential in India is shown in table1 (Gross potential is based on assuming 1% of land
availability for wind power generation in potential areas.)
Si State Gross Potential Total Capacity Technical

No. (MW) (MW) Potential (MW)
(31-09-04)
1 Andhra 8275 101.3 1750

Pradesh
2 Gujarat 9675 218.5 1780
3 Karnataka 6620 274.2 1120
4 Kerala 875 2 605
5 Madhya 5500 26.35 825

pradesh
6 Maharashtra 3650 411.15 3020
7 Rajasthan 5400 212.0 895
8 Tamilnadu 3050 1683.6 1750
L.Umanand 13/28 12/11/2007

9 West Bengal 450 1.1 450
10 Others 2990 3.1 -
11 Total (All 45195 2884.75 12875

India)
Table: 1
WEG of 2 MW capacity is installed in suzlon (Tamilnadu) is the largest power rating in

India. Maximum WEG installations are in Tamilnadu of capacity about
1639MW.Maximum gross estimated Wind potential is in Gujarat of 9675 MW. The
map of India is shown below indicating the various wind energy sites in India.
L.Umanand 14/28 12/11/2007

L.Umanand 15/28 12/11/2007

Limitations of Present day WEG s

Most of the present day WEG s are the constant speed installations. These WEGS
have some limitations as given below
A- Poor Energy Capture

This is due to low aerodynamic efficiency of WEG and the variation in efficiency
over the entire operating range.
Power output of turbine

Pt = .5 Cp A v3
= Air density, A = swept area, v =wind velocity, Cp is called the power
coefficient and is dependent on the linear velocity of the blade tip (R) and the wind
velocity (v). The ratio, known as the tip-speed ratio, is defined as
= R/v where R is the radius of the turbine
From fig 1 it is observed that the power coefficient is maximum for a particular tip
ratio. So power capture is not optimum at other wind velocity.
Fig: 1
B- Reactive Power Consumption
L.Umanand 16/28 12/11/2007

Since most WEG s employ induction generators as electromechanical energy

converters these WEG s draw reactive power from grid for excitation. This leads to
additional T&D losses and changes in voltage stability margins.
C- Unstable grid frequency -
Most WEG s have their blade design based on expected speed of the IG
(grid frequency). The aerodynamic efficiency greatly reduces when the
grid frequency is not maintained a constant at the specified level due to
the changes in the tip speed ratio.
By considering above-mentioned problems it is preferable to run WEG at

variable speed. A variable speed WEG enables enhanced power capture
as compared to constant speed WEG. The rotor speed can be made to
vary with changing wind velocity so the turbine always operates with
max Cp within the power and speed limits of the system.
Various control schemes are used for both Isolated WEG and grid
connected WEG running at variable speed.
Isolated WEG
A- Load Matching-
When wind driven self excited Induction generator (SEIG) running at

variable
Speed, it is essential that the power output of the generator increase with
increasing power input to the prime mover, which in the case of wind
turbine varies approximately as the cube of the wind speed. If this load
matching is not planned properly, the generator would either over speed
at high wind speed or come out of excitation at low wind speeds. Further,
since the output voltage and frequency of the generator varies with wind
speed for many applications requiring constant voltage, some kind of
power electronic controller is needed between the generator and load. Fig
shows a scheme employing a PWM inverter to obtain the voltage of
required magnitude and frequency at the load terminal. Loads are
connected through control switch, which could appropriately be activated
by monitoring the wind speed as shown in the fig2.
L.Umanand 17/28 12/11/2007

PWM
inverter
Va,b,c
S
Control
Input
3Phase Load1 Load2

diode
rectifier
Firing and
control
circuit Voltage sensing
B- Scalar Control of IG -
Scalar control of IG means control of magnitude of voltage and

frequency so as to achieve suitable speed with an impressed slip. Scalar
control disregards the coupling effect on the generator; that is, the
voltage will be set to control the flux and the frequency in order to
control the torque.
If the IG is primarily in stand-alone operation, reactive power must be

supplied for proper excitation. The overall scheme of control is shown
below in fig3.
L.Umanand 18/28 12/11/2007

Battery Start up Vd Inverter

IG
Ia,b,c
Po Speed
AC IM calculator Sensor
Current Load
Control Va,b,c r
*
ia,b,c
Vs
Scalar
Control
Vs*
*
Vd*
+ Te*
The capacitor bank is bulk uncontrolled source of reactive current. The

static VAR compensator is an inverter providing a controlled source of
reactive current. Machine torque and flux input will be used in this
application to regulate both DC link voltage at the capacitance C and
generator voltage supplied for the AC load. These regulators have to
reject the disturbances produced by load and speed variations. A DC link
voltage regulator has been implemented to achieve high enough DC link
voltage for proper current controlled inverter operation. The regulator
input is the difference between the DC link reference and measured
value.
At the generator side terminal current and voltages are measured to

calculate the magnetizing current needed for the generator, and the
instantaneous peak voltage is compared to the stator voltage reference,
which generates a set point for flux through the feedback loops on the
inverter side. This system requires a charged battery startup. That can be
recharged with an auxiliary circuit after the system is operational. Since
stator voltage is kept constant the frequency can be stabilized at about
50Hz for the AC load, but some slight frequency variation is still persists
and the range of turbine shaft variation should be within the critical slip
in order to avoid instability. Therefore AC loads should not be too
sensitive for frequency variation in this stand- alone application.
L.Umanand 19/28 12/11/2007

C- Vector Control of IG-
The decoupled flux and torque control of IG is known as vector control.
For an IG operating in stand- alone mode, a procedure to regulate the

output voltage is required as shown in the fig4.
The DC link voltage across the capacitor is kept constant and machine
impressed terminal frequency will vary with variable speed.
Since the frequency of generated voltage depends on the wind speed
(rotor speed), the product of the rotor speed and the flux linkage should
be remain constant so that the terminal voltage will remain constant,
where the maximum rotor speed corresponding to maximum saturated
flux linkage. The system starts up with a battery connected to the
inverter. Then, as the system DC link voltage is regulated a higher value
across the capacitor, the battery will be turned off by the diode and the
DC load can be supplied across the capacitor. The machine terminals are
also capable of supplying the power to an auxiliary load at variable
frequency.
L.Umanand 20/28 12/11/2007

Inverter
Battery Start up Vd
DC
Load
Ia,b,c Va,b,c
Po Speed
AC Sensor
Flux slip unit
PWM Load Vector estimation
ia,b,c r
cos
VR and 2to
3phase
sin s
vds*
Vd * s*=max min/r
vqs*
+
* +
s
Stator flux
ids* Decoupler
iqs
n
Iqs* ids
3phase to 2 .ia
Phase ib
ic
Generator Connected to Grid
A -Scalar Control
A current fed link system for grid connection with constant V/Hz is
depicted in fig5.
The DC link current allows easy bi-directional flow of power. Although
the DC link current is unidirectional, a power reversal is achieved by a
change in polarity of the mean DC link voltage and symmetrical voltage
and symmetrical voltage blocking switches are required. A thyristor-
based controlled rectifier manages the three phase utility side and
machine side inverter can use a transistor with a series diode. The system
L.Umanand 21/28 12/11/2007

*
is commanded by the machine stator frequency reference ( e). A PI
control produces set point for DC link current, and firing for the thyristor
bridge controls the power exchange (Po) with the grid. The stator
frequency reference *e can be varied in order to optimize the power
tracking of IG.
PWM 3-phase fully controlled

inverter Rectifier
Po
Id
3phase
grid
e* Firing
V/Hz
Vs* - +
Id* PI
Vs -
B-Vector Control
Squirrel cage and Wound rotor IG are commonly used in WEG s. These
machines have different control strategies. The WRIG is more
advantageous as compared to SQIG for variable speed constant
frequency (VSCF) type of operation.
The variable frequency, variable voltage power generated by the machine
is converted to fixed frequency, fixed voltage power by the power
converter and supplied to the grid. The power converter supplies the
lagging excitation current to the machine while the reactive power is
supplied to the utility grid can be controlled independently as shown in
fig6. The converter is a back-to-back two level converter but the
L.Umanand 22/28 12/11/2007
converter could be theoretically any 3-phase converter allowing by bi-

directional power flow.
3-phase fully controlled Grid

PWM
inverter Rectifier
Po
Id
3phase
grid
e* Firing
V/Hz
Vs* - +
Id* PI
Vs -
Generator-Inverter Control
Input to the generator-inverter control scheme is the desired electromechanical

torque at the generator shaft. From the torque reference, the flux reference is
calculated-alternatively; the flux reference level may be set manually. Based on
measurements of the generator voltages and currents, the actual flux and torque are
estimated and compared with their respective reference values. The error is input to a
hysteresis controller. Based on the output from these two hysteresis controllers the
desired switch vector is chosen. In order to track the maximum power point, the
maximum power point algorithm can be used to set the torque as described in [1].
To control the active power through the grid inverter, the dc-link voltage is measured
and compared to the actual dc-link voltage. The dc-link voltage error is fed to a PI
controller having a power reference as output. To provide a fast response of the grid
inverter control, the measured power from the generator measured in the dc-link, is fed
forward. The power error is input to another PI controller, giving the active current
reference as output. The active current reference is compared to the actual active current
L.Umanand 23/28 12/11/2007

all transformed to the synchronously rotating reference frame. The current error is then
fed into a third PI controller having the q-axis voltage reference as output. Similarly, the
reactive current reference is compared to the actual reactive current and the error is
input to a PI controller having the d-axis voltage reference. These 2 d and q voltage
references are transformed back to stationary reference frame and the gate signals are
calculated
Above scheme has following advantages as compared to conventional system

1-For same turbine it allows higher power capture, thereby increasing the
annual energy output significantly.
2-This system is capable of providing the reactive power of IG from DC
bus capacitance.
3-Since the torque of the machine is controlled the generator cannot be
overloaded at any point of time beyond the prescribed limits.
Doubly Fed Induction Generator (DFIG)

Compared to the squirrel-cage induction generator, the main difference is that the
doubly fed induction generator provides access to the rotor windings, thereby giving the
possibility of impressing a rotor voltage. By this, power can be extracted or impressed
to the rotor circuit and the generator can be magnetized from either the stator circuit or
the rotor circuit. Speed control can be applied to the doubly fed induction generator by
slip power recovery scheme. Figure7 slip-power recovery scheme.
L.Umanand 24/28 12/11/2007

DFIG
Generator
converter Grid converter
Vdc
Grid
3phase
transformer
r P and Q
Voltage &
Voltage Current
& current Rotor control Feedback
Grid control
Feedback
Slip power recovery scheme-
The doubly fed induction generator is controlled by a bi-directional power converter- in

the present diagram back-to-back two-level converter. By this scheme, the generator can
be operated as a generator at both sub- and super synchronous speed and the speed
range depends only on the converter ratings. Besides nice features such as variable-
speed operation, active and reactive power control, and fractional power conversion
through the converter, the system suffers from the inevitable need for slip rings, which
may increase the maintenance of the system and decrease its reliability. Further, the
system comprises a step-up gear. The two inverters-the grid side inverter and the rotor
side inverter-in Fig. 8 can be controlled independently, and by a proper control the
power factor at the grid side can be controlled to unity or any desired value. By more
sophisticated control schemes the system can be used for active compensation of grid-
side harmonics.
L.Umanand 25/28 12/11/2007

Rotor-Converter Control Scheme-

Inputs to the control structure are the desired active and reactive power along with
the measured rotor currents and measured active and reactive power. The error between
measured active/reactive power and reference values are fed into a PI-controller giving
d and q axis rotor reference currents These current references are compared to the
actual currents and the errors are inputs to a set of PI-controllers giving the d and q axis
rotor voltage references as outputs. From these voltage references the gating signals for
controlling the rotor inverter are calculated, the detection of the slip angle can either be
done by the use of an optical encoder or by position-sensor less schemes.
The grid -inverter control scheme is similar to cage rotor grid inverter control scheme.
Above scheme has following advantages as compared to cage rotor IG
1-The ratings of the converters are significantly reduced.
2-A lower DC bus voltage is required. This reduces the voltage rating of capacitor
banks.
Connection of Large Wind Farm to grid with Asynchronous Link
Previously, wind turbines were sited on an individual basis or in small
concentrations making it most economical to operate each turbine as a
single unit. Today and in the future, wind turbines will be sited in remote
areas (including off-shore sites) and in large concentrations counting up
to several hundred megawatts of installed power. For such a large
system, using asynchronous link can give the best interconnection to grid
especially for weak AC system. HVDC system can give such type of
asynchronous link
Today most wind farms and single units are directly connected to the AC-grid. With
increasing wind power coming on line, it is today, Already difficult to enter high amount
of wind power in often weak Part of the AC-network. The development towards big
wind farms will in most cases make it necessary to have an interface between the wind
farm and the AC-grid. This is because out-put from a wind generator generates
disturbances to the AC-grid, which is not acceptable. In order to maintain power quality
and stability, the AC-grid must fulfill certain criterias, if not, measures have to be taken.
If the AC-grid is strong, i.e. the short circuit capacity is high in relation to the capacity
of the wind farm; it may be possible to connect the farm directly to the grid. However,
wind farms are often located in areas where the AC-grid is very weak, and can therefore
not be directly connected. The introduction of HVDC Light now offers an alternative,
superior to other techniques HVDC Light. HVDC Light is the ideal interface between
any wind farm and any AC grid. Fig gives the connection of individual wind power
generator to the grid through the central power converter. Each wind turbine contains a
power converter connected to the common DC link bus. This HVDC park solution
provides all the features of variable speed concept since all the turbines are connected
independently.
L.Umanand 26/28 12/11/2007

Fig: 8
The main features are

1- the distance from the farm to the connection point in the AC-grid has no technical
limitations.
2- the wind farm is from a disturbance point of view isolated from the AC-grid.
3- HVDC Light generates the reactive power needed by the generators.
4- the power quality at the connection point is improved.
5- Controlled power production. During periods with reduced transmission capacity in

the grid, the wind farm must be able to operate at reduced power levels with all turbines
running.
6- No re-enforcements in the AC-grid is necessary.
L.Umanand 27/28 12/11/2007

6. Conclusion
A comparison with existing scheme shows, that for a machine of similar rating energy
capture can be enhanced by using wound rotor induction generator. In this case rated
torque is maintained at super synchronous speeds whereas in a system using cage rotor
IG, field weakening has to be employ beyond synchronous speed leading to the
reduction in torque. Although DFIG has more advantages as compared to other methods
but it has drawbacks in terms of complex control structure and maintenance problems as
compared to cage rotor IG. The use of HVDC link for large wind farms is the best
choice in terms of advantages of grid interaction and long distance power transmission.
References
1-R.Dutta, Rotor side control of grid connected wound rotor induction machine and its
application to wind power generation PhD Thesis IISc. Bangalore India, Feb 2000.
2-R.Krishnan etal, Control in Power electronics Academic press, 2002.
3-I.J.Nagrath & D.P. Kothari, Power System Engg. TMH,1994.
4- http://www.windpowerindia.com/
5-M.G.Simos& F.A.Felix Renewable Energy Systems CRC press,2003
6-R.Venktesh, Technological possibilities for efficient utilization of wind energy
NPSC 2002,Vol.1, pp.9-14 IISc. Bangalore KIndia.
7-N.Kumarsen, Analysis of wind driven self excited IG with load matching
NPSC 2002,Vol.1, pp.21-26 IISc. Bangalore India
8-Lecture notes, Design of Photovoltaic Systems Prof L.Umanand, CEDT IISc.
Bangalore India.
9-T.Thringer, Grid friendly connecting of constant speed wind turbines using external
resistors IEEE trans. On Energy Conversion Vol.17 pp.537-42 Dec 2002.
10-http://www.abb.com/powersystems
11-http://www.inwea.org/windenergy.html
12-Z.Lubosny, Wind Turbine operation in electric power systems, Springer Verlag
,2003
L.Umanand 28/28 12/11/2007

Biomass Energy
In the past few years, there have been significant improvements in renewable energy
technologies along with declines in cost. The growing concern for the environment and
sustainable development, have led to worldwide interest in renewable energies and bio-
energy in particular. Biomass can be converted into modern energy forms such as liquid
and gaseous fuels, electricity, and process heat to provide energy services needed by
rural and urban populations and also by industry. This paper explains the different ways
of extracting energy from biomass and a comparison is made among them. This paper
also explains about the potentiality of biomass energy in India, analyses current
situation compares bio-energy and other options for promoting development, brings out
the advantages over the other renewables putting forth the drawbacks to be overcome to
make it still more successful. This paper analyses current situation compares bio-energy
and other options for promoting development, explore the potential for bio-energy.
1. Introduction
In past 10 years or so, considerable practical experience has accumulated in India as

well as in other developing and industrialized countries, on biomass energy production
and conversion. India is pioneer among developing countries, with significant
indigenous efforts in promoting renewable energy technologies. The importance of bio-
energy as a modern fuel has been recognized. India has about 70,000 villages yet to be
connected to the electricity grid. The supply of grid power to rural areas is characterized
by
(a) Low loads
(b) Power shortages
(c) Low reliability
(d) Low and fluctuating voltages
(e) High transmission and distribution costs and power losses
Decentralized power generation based on renewables is an attractive option to meet the
energy needs. The availability of biomass such as wood, cow-dung, leaf litter in rural
areas is more. Hence a choice of biomass energy especially in rural areas is more
reasonable but at the same time the technology is being developed to meet the large-
scale requirements using biomass.
Biomass energy has played a key role in the time of Second World War when
there was a fuel deficiency. Many vehicles, tractors and trucks used wood gasifies,
which generate producers gas, running an internal combustion Engine. One of the
major advantages of biomass energy is that it can be used in different forms. For e.g.,
Gas generated from the biomass can be directly used for cooking or it can be used for
running an internal combustion Engine for developing stationary shaft power or
otherwise coupled to generator for generating electric power.
The subsequent sections explain about the different ways of extracting energy
from biomass, explaining about technological and economic aspects followed by a case
study. The issue of land availability for biomass (wood) production is also discussed.
L.Umanand 1/13 12/11/2007

2. Motivation
There are several renewable and non-renewable energy options for power
generation at the decentralized level. It is necessary to understand why biomass-based
energy options should receive priority over other options and to discuss the advantages
to local and global communities as well as the environment.
Biomass is renewable fuel used in nearly every corner of the developing
countries as a source of heat, particularly in the domestic sector. Biomass energy
includes energy from all plant matter (tree, shrub, and crop) and animal dung. Biomass,
unlike other renewables, is a versatile source of energy, which can be converted to
modern forms such as liquid and gaseous fuels, electricity, and process heat. For
example, small-scale (5-100 KW), medium-scale (1-10 MW), and large scale (about 50
MW).
Fig 1: Expenditure on different renewable energy programmes for 1992-1997 indicating

the share of bioenergy technologies for renewables in India
It can be seen from the figure the importance of biomass energy in Indian context.
Advantages of biomass gasify energy over other renewable energy options:
1. Suitable in most locations
L.Umanand 2/13 12/11/2007

2. Varying capacity can be installed; any capacity can be operated, even at lower
loads; no seasonality.
3. Need for storage of energy is not required.
Advantages and drawbacks of biogas energy over other renewable energy options:
1. It can be used directly for cooking, or heating water from the abundantly available dung
and dried plant leaves in rural areas.
2. Capacity determined by availability of dung. Not suitable for varying loads.
3. Not feasible to locate at all the locations.
3. Different Ways of extracting energy from biomass
The different methods of biomass extraction can be broadly be classified as:
1. Anaerobic Digestion
2. Gasification
3. Liquefaction
(a) Solid fuel combustion
The simplest and most common way of extracting energy from biomass is by direct combustion
of solid matter. Majority of the developing countries especially in rural areas obtain the majority
of their energy needs from the burning of wood, animal dung and other biomass. But burning
can be inefficient. An open fireplace may let large amounts of heat escape, while a significant
proportion of the fuel may not even get burnt.
(b) Gasification
Gasification is a process that exposes a solid fuel to high temperatures and limited oxygen, to
produce a gaseous fuel. This is a mix of gases such as carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide,
nitrogen, hydrogen and methane.
Gasification has several advantages over burning solid fuel. One is convenience one of the
resultant gases, methane, can be treated in a similar way as natural gas, and used for the same
purposes.
Another advantage of gasification is that it produces a fuel that has had many impurities
removed and will therefore cause fewer pollution problems when burnt. And, under suitable
circumstances, it can produce synthesis gas, a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. This
can be used to make almost any hydrocarbon (e.g., methane and methanol), which can then be
substituted for fossil fuels. But hydrogen itself is a potential fuel of the future.
(c) Paralysis
Paralysis is an old technology with a new lease of life. In its simplest form it involves heating the
biomass to drive off the volatile matter, leaving behind the black residue we know as charcoal.
This has double the energy density of the original material. This means that charcoal, which is
L.Umanand 3/13 12/11/2007

half the weight of the original biomass, contains the same amount of energy making the fuel
more transportable. The charcoal also burns at a much higher temperature than the original
biomass, making it more useful for manufacturing processes. More sophisticated Paralysis
techniques have been developed recently to collect the volatiles that are otherwise lost to the
system. The collected volatiles produce a gas rich in hydrogen (a potential fuel) and carbon
monoxide. These compounds, if desired, can be synthesized into methane, methanol and other
hydrocarbons. 'Flash' Paralysis can be used to produce bio-crude a combustible fuel.
(d) Digestion
Biomass digestion works by the action of anaerobic bacteria. These microorganisms usually live
at the bottom of swamps or in other places where there is no air, consuming dead organic
matter to produce, among other things, methane and hydrogen.
We can put these bacteria to work for us. By feeding organic matter such as animal dung or
human sewage into tanks called digesters - and adding bacteria, we can collect the emitted
gas to use as an energy source. This can be a very efficient means of extracting usable energy
from such biomass up to two-thirds of the fuel energy of the animal dung is recovered.
Another, related, technique is to collect gas from landfill sites. A large proportion of household
biomass waste, such as kitchen scraps, lawn clippings and pruning, ends up at the local tip.
Over a period of several decades, anaerobic bacteria are at work at the bottom of such tips,
steadily decomposing the organic matter and emitting methane. The gas can be extracted and
used by 'capping' a landfill site with an impervious layer of clay and then inserting perforated
pipes that collect the gas and bring it to the surface.
(e) Fermentation
Like many of the other processes described here, fermentation isn't a new idea. For centuries,
people have used yeasts and other microorganisms to ferment the sugar of various plants into
ethanol. Producing fuel from biomass by fermentation is just an extension of this old process,
although a wider range of plant material can now be used, from sugar cane to wood fiber. For
instance, the waste from a wheat mill in New South Wales has been used to produce ethanol
through fermentation. This is then mixed with diesel to produce 'dishelm', a product used by
some trucks and buses in Sydney and Canberra.
An elaborated discussion on Digestion and Gasification, which are the major ways employed in
India, are explained in subsequent sections.
4. Anaerobic Digestion
Anaerobic Digestion is a biochemical degradation process that converts complex organic

material, such as animal manure, into methane and other byproducts.
What is Anaerobic Digester?
Anaerobic digester (commonly referred to as an AD) is a device that promotes the

decomposition of manure or digestion of the organics in manure to simple organics and
gaseous biogas products. Biogas is formed by the activity of anaerobic bacteria. Microbial
growth and biogas production are very slow at ambient temperatures. These bacteria occur
naturally in organic environments where oxygen is limited. Biogas is comprised of about 60%
methane, 40% carbon dioxide, and 0.2 to 0.4% of hydrogen sulfide. Manure is regularly put into
the digester after which the microbes break down the manure into biogas and a digested solid.
The digested manure is then deposited into a storage structure. The biogas can be used in an
L.Umanand 4/13 12/11/2007

engine generator or burned in a hot water heater. AD systems are simple biological systems
and must be kept at an operating temperature of 100 degrees F in order to function properly.
The first methane digester plant was built at a leper colony in Bombay, India. Biogas is very
corrosive to equipment and requires frequent oil changes in an engine generator set to prevent
mechanical failure. The heating value of biogas is about 60% of natural gas and about 1/4 of
propane. Because of the low energy content and its corrosive nature of biogas, storage of
biogas is not practical.
There are two major types of biogas designs promoted in India

1. Floating Drum
2. Fixed Dome
The floating drum is an old design with a mild-steel, Ferro-cement or fiberglass drum, which
floats along a central guide frame and acts as a storage reservoir for the biogas produced. The
fixed dome design is of Chinese origin and has dome structure made of cement and bricks. It is
a low-cost alternative to the floating drum, but requires high masonry skills and is prone to
cracks and gas leakages. Family biogas plants come in different size depending on the
availability of dung and the quantity of biogas required for cooking. The average size of the
family is 5-6 persons, and thus biogas plant of capacity 2-4 m3 is adequate. The biomass
requirement is estimated to be 1200 liters for a family.
Comparison between two designs:
Fixed dome Floating Drum

Digester and gas holder, masonry or concrete Digester, masonry, Gas holder, mild steel or
structure fiberglass
Requires high masonry skills Low masonry or fabricating skills
Low reliability due to high construction failure High reliability, gas holder prefabricated
Variable gas pressure Constant gas pressure
Digester could be inside the ground Requires space above ground for three tanks;
inlet, digester, outlet
Low Cost (2 m3 = Rs.5000) Low Cost (2 m3 = Rs.8000)
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Partition Wall
Figure 2: Floating Gasholder drum design (a conventional Indian design)
Figure 3: Spherical shaped fixed - dome plant
Uses of Biogas
Biogas can be directly used for cooking by supplying the gas though pipes to
households from the plant. Biogas has been effectively used as a fuel in industrial high
compression spark ignition engines. To generate electricity an induction generator can be used
and is the simplest to interface to the electrical grid. Induction generators derive their voltage,
phase, and frequency from the utility and cannot be used for stand-by power. If a power outage
L.Umanand 6/13 12/11/2007

occurs generator will cease to operate. Synchronous generator can also be used to connect to
the grid. However, they require expensive and sophisticated equipment to match the phase,
frequency and voltage of the utility grid. Biogas can also be used as fuel in a hot water heater if
hydrogen sulfide is removed from the gas supply.
5. Case Study of Community Biogas programmes in India
Biogas Electricity in Pure Village
In India, Biogas option is considered largely as a cooking fuel. The need for considering
decentralized electricity options and the potential of biogas is analyzed. A field-
demonstration programme was implemented in pure village in South India to use cattle
dung in a community biogas plant to generated electricity for services such as pumping
drinking water and home lighting.
Fig 4: Community Biogas Plant in Pura Village
Technology
The Indian floating-drum design shown in fig.1 with modified dimensions for cost reductions was
used. The Pure biogas plants have a capacity to digest up to 1.2 t cattle dung/day and produce
42.5-m3 biogas/day. Sand bed filters were installed to remove excess water and convert the
sludge to dung-like consistency for subsequent use as a fertilizer. The filtrate, which contains
the required anaerobic microorganisms, is mixed with the input dung. A 5 kW diesel engine is
connected to a 5kVA, 440 V three-phase generator of electricity generation.
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Lighting
Out of 87 house holds in the village 39 already had grid electricity, there are 103 fluorescent
tube lights of 20 W capacity connected biogas generated electricity. Forty-seven houses opted
for one tube light and 25 houses have two tube lights. Lighting is provided in the evening for 2.5
hours/day. Even homes connected to the grid had lighting connections from the biogas system.
Water supply
A submersible pump is connected to a tube well and water is pumped to storage tanks for
1 hour and 40 minutes/day. The majority of the households have opted for private taps at their
doorsteps.
Fig 5: Table showing the statistics on Pura village
6. Biomass Gasifies:
Biomass, or more particularly wood, can be converted to a high-energy

combustible gas for use in internal combustion engines for mechanical or electrical
applications. This process is known as gasification and the technology has been known
for decades, but its application to power generation is of recent origin. A biomass
gasified consists of a reactor where, under controlled temperature and air supply, solid
biomass is combusted to obtain a combustible gas called Producers gas (consisting of
H2 and CH4). This gas passes through a cooling and cleaning system before it is fed into
L.Umanand 8/13 12/11/2007

a compression ignition engine for generation of mechanical or electricity (by coupling

to a generator). An assessment of its potential concluded that India presents a unique
opportunity for large-scale commercial exploitation of biomass gasification technology
to meet a variety of energy needs, particularly in the agricultural and rural sectors. The
large potential of biomass gasification for water pumping and power generation for rural
electrification was recognized.
Biomass
Internal
Biomass Generator
Producers Combustion Mechanical
Gasifier gas output
driving a
generator
Electric
Power
Figure 6: Block diagram of a producers gas electricity system
Top cover
Cooler
Reactor Water
pump
Air nozzle Fine Filter Burner
Blower
air
Water seal
To engine
Figure 7: A 20 kW gasifier with cooling and cleaning system
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Feed Stocks for producer-gas systems:

A range of crop residues and woody biomass from trees could be used as feedstocks for
producer-gas systems. Currently, wood-based systems are available, and designs using other
low-density biomass are under development and should soon be available in India. Crop
residues with fuel potential are limited, since nearly all cereal and most pulse residues are used
as fodder or manure and thus are not available as fuel. It is important to note that currently crop
residues are used and have an opportunity cost. Rice husks are used in the cement industry, in
rice mills and in the manufacture of bricks. Coconut leaves are used as thatch and the husk as
fiber and sugarcane biogases is used in sugar mills. In Punjab, for rice-husk-based power
generation systems, the price of residues such as rice husk could increase once new uses and
demands are developed. Crop residues may continue to be used as fuel in domestic sector
assuming that cooking-energy requirements are going to be met from bio-energy options.
Constant supply of crop residues as feedstock cannot be assured over a long period on
continuous basis and the transportation of low-density residues is not feasible.
Woody biomass would be the dominant source of feedstock for gasification. The availability of
woody biomass and production potentials are discussed in the following section.
7. Case Studies of Producers gas electricity:
(a) Electrification of Hosahalli, a south Indian village
A small-capacity one-top wood gasified has been developed and implemented a field
demonstration program in the non-electrified South Indian village of Hosahalli. The village has a
population of 250 and was unelectrified. The farmers income is mainly from growing mulberry
crops, as the area is silk producing. A 20 kW one-top wood gasified was setup to meet the
demand for electricity. The plant is providing electricity to the people, who in turn have
improved the overall economy and living conditions of the villagers. The loads being served by
the power plant include domestic lights, streetlights, drinking water and irrigation tube wells, and
a flourmill. The villagers themselves are managing the power plant.
Services provided with Producer-gas electricity
The electricity produced was used for three services: lighting, pumping domestic water, and
flour milling.
Lighting
All the 42 houses were provided with a 40 W fluorescent tube and a 15 W incandescent bulb,
along with eight streetlights. Connected load is 2.68 kW. Hours of operation: 6 p.m. to 10 p.m.
Water Supply
A submersible pump of 3 hp capacity was connected to a deep tube well. Water is pumped to
storage tanks to provide 2-3 hours of water supply per day.
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Flour milling
A 7.5 hp flourmill was connected to the producer gas diesel-engine generator. The flourmill,
which operated for 2 hours/day, was operated for a few months in 1992; its operation was
suspended, as the rate of milling was lower than the desired rate by the village community due
to limitations of the 5-kVA system.
Fig 8: Biomass Gasifier Installed in Hosahalli, Karnataka.
(b) Electrification of Chhotomollakhali, a village in West Bengal
Chhottomollakhali Island in Sunderbans situated in the district of South 24 Parganas, is about

130 km. away from Kolkata. It has a population of about 28,000. The main occupation of the
people is fishing and agriculture. It is difficult to extend grid electricity to Chhottomollakhali
Island due to prohibitive cost involved in crossing of various rivers and creeks. In the absence
of electricity, the economic activities of the Island were suffering. The switching on of the 4x125
kW Biomass Gasifier based Power Plant on 29th June 2001 has changed the life the inhabitants
of this remote Island. The plant is catering to electricity needs of domestic, commercial and
industrial users drinking water, hospital, ice factory, etc. Four villages of Chhottomollakhali
Island will be benefited with electricity from the power plant.
Plant capacity: 4 x 125 kW
No. Of consumers: 800
Total Project Cost: Rs.1, 46, 70,390/-
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Hours of operation:5 PM to 11 PM
Tariff Structure: 4.00 / unit Domestic
4.50 / unit Commercial
5.00 / unit Industrial
Energy Plantation Area: 40 hectares
Fuel Consumption pattern under full:
Load condition
(a) Biomass: 70%
(b) Diesel : 30%
Generation cost (per unit) under full load condition: Rs.2.75
8. Biomass availability issues:
Before assessing the country's bioenergy production potential, it is important to:

i. Estimate the land availability for biomass production,
ii. Identify and evaluate the biomass production optionsyield/ha and financial viability,
iii. Estimate sustainable biomass production potential for energy,
iv. Estimate the energy potential of biomass production,
v. Assess the investment required and barriers to producing biomass sustainably for energy.
Different options for wood supply

1. Conservation potential of wood used in cooking.
2. Producing wood on community, government, or degraded forest land.
3. Producing wood on degraded private or farm land.
4. Sustainable harvest from existing forest.
5. Logging waste.
Consideration of options 2 and 3 involves a range of related issues, such as land availability,
land quality, competitive uses of land, and sustainability of wood production.
Some proportion of wood currently burnt, as cooking fuel would become available for the
producer-gas electricity option. Tree plantations, farm trees, homestead gardens, and degraded
lands are the various sources of fuel wood used for cooking. Among these sources, only wood
from tree plantations could be considered as easily available as feedstock for power generation.
Woody biomass would be the dominant source of feedstock for gasification. The availability of
woody biomass and production potentials are discussed in the following section.
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Estimates of degraded land availability in India (Mha):
SPWD; degraded (waste) Degraded forest, Total degraded land

land quoted in PC
Degraded non-forest, 130 Mha
Total degraded land
Chambers; land available for Cultivated lands, Strips and

tree planting boundaries, Uncultivated
Total Land for tree planting
degraded land, Degraded
forest land, Land for tree
planting
84 Mha
Kapoor; land available for tree Agricultural land, Forest land, Total land for tree planting
plantation Pasture land, Fallow, Urban
106 Mha
Ministry of Agriculture Forest land with < 10% tree Total degraded land
crown cover, Grazing land,
Tree groves, Culturable
waste, Old fallow, 66 Mha
References:
1. Biomass to Energy- The Science and Technology of IISc-energy systems

2. Biomass, Energy and Environment N.H. Ravindranath and D.O. Hall
3. Non-Conventional Energy Systems- G.D. Rai
4. www.eprints.iisc.ernet.in/archive/00002389/01/sustinable_biomass.pdf
5. www.science.org.au/nova/039/039box03.htm
6. www.undp.org/seed/energy/policy/ch_8.htm
7. www.undp.org/seed/energy/policy/ch_8.htm
8. www.mekarn.org/procbiod/huong.htm
9. www.mnes.nic.in/biogasifier_ach.htm
L.Umanand 13/13 12/11/2007

Wave energy
Wave energy is an irregular and oscillating low frequency energy source that can be
converted to a 50 Hertz frequency and can then be added to the electric utility grid.
Waves get their energy from the wind, which comes from solar energy. Waves gather,
store, and transmit this energy thousands of kilometers with very little loss. Though it
varies in intensity, it is available twenty four hours a day all round the year. Wave power
is renewable, pollution free and environment friendly. Its net potential is better than wind,
solar, small hydro or biomass power.
Wave energy technologies rely on the up-and-down motion of waves to generate
electricity. There are three basic methods for converting wave energy to electricity.
1. Float or buoy systems that use the rise and fall of ocean swells to drive
hydraulic pumps. The object can be mounted to a floating raft or to a device
fixed on the ocean bed. A series of anchored buoys rise and fall with the wave.
The movement is used to run an electrical generator to produce electricity which
is then transmitted ashore by underwater power cables.
2. Oscillating water column devices in which the in-and-out motion of waves at
the shore enters a column and force air to turn a turbine. The column fills with
water as the wave rises and empties as it descends. In the process, air inside the
column is compressed and heats up, creating energy. This energy is harnessed
and sent to shore by electrical cable.
3. Tapered channel rely on a shore mounted structure to channel and concentrate
the waves driving them into an elevated reservoir. Water flow out of this
reservoir is used to generate electricity using standard hydropower technologies.
The advantages of wave energy are as follows:
1. Because waves originate from storms far out to sea and can travel long distances
without significant energy loss, power produced from them is much steadier and
more predictable day to day and season to season.
2. Wave energy contains about 1000 times the kinetic energy of wind.
3. Unlike wind and solar energy, energy from ocean waves continues to be
produced round the clock.
4. Wave power production is much smoother and more consistent than wind or
solar resulting in higher overall capacity factors.
5. Wave energy varies as the square of wave height whereas wind power varies
with the cube of air speed. Water being 850 times as dense as air, this result in
much higher power production from waves averaged over time.
6. Because wave energy needs only 1/200 the land area of wind and requires no
access roads, infrastructure costs are less.
Wave energy can be considered as a concentrated form of solar energy. Winds are
generated by the differential heating of the earth. As they pass over open bodies of water
they transfer some of their energy to form waves. Three main processes appear to be
operating are:
Initially air flowing over the sea exerts a tangential stress on the water surface, resulting in
the formation and growth of waves.
Turbulent airflow close to the water surface creates rapidly varying shear stresses and
pressure fluctuations. Where these oscillations are in phase with existing waves, further wave
development occurs.
Finally, when waves have reached a certain size, the wind can actually exert a stronger force
on the upwind face of the wave causing additional wave growth. The process is maximized
when the speeds of the wind and waves are equal.
Energy is transferred from the wind to the waves at each of these steps. The amount of energy
transferred, and hence the size of the resulting waves, depends on the wind speed, the length of
time for which the wind blows and the distance over which it blows (the fetch). At each stage in
the process, power is concentrated so that solar power levels of about 100W/m2 eventually
transformed into waves with power levels of over 1,000 kW per meter of crest length. Oceans
cover three-quarters of the earths surface and represent a large natural energy resource, estimated
by the World Energy Council (1993) as ~ 2 TW. The IEA (1994) has indicated that wave energy
may eventually provide over 10% of the worlds electricity supply.
ESTIMATION OF POWER ASSOCIATED WITH WAVES

Z
Y
1m
Fig: A Wave of unit
Width and amplitude r
moving along x-direction
Ocean Surface
Let the ampitude of the wave at the surface of the wave be a.
Wave is traveling in the x-direction.

Wave amplitude is in Y direction.
r= aeky
Where r is amplitude of wave at distance y in the negative direction.
It means that the amplitude of oscillations of particles decreases as we move in to

the depth of the sea.
dz
dy
a
dx
dv=dx.dy.dz
dx*dy is the volume per unit width of the wave.
Ek = kinetic energy per unit length in X direction.
dEk*dx= K.E of particle of width dx
=(1/2)mv2
=(1/2).dx.dy..v2
=(1/2).dx.dy..(.r)2
dEk=(1/2).dy..(.r)2
=(1/2). .2.a2.e2y.dy
0-dEk = (1/2). .2.a2.0-e2y.dy

= *2*a2/(4*K)
K=2/
=2g/2
Ek=(1/4)..a2.g
Ep=(1/4). .a2.g
Total wave energy=(1/2)*..a2.g

E=(1/4)* .a2.g.
=(1/4). .a2.T2
Power associated with the wave per unit width, P/unit width =(1/8) a2g2T
Water waves can be considered to travel along the surface of the sea with an approximate
sinusoidal profile. They can be characterized in terms of the distance between successive crests (the
wavelength, ) and the time between successive crests (the period, T). In deep water these
parameters are related as follows:
=gT2 / 2
Where g is the acceleration due to gravity.

The velocity of the waves, C, is given by the following relationship:
C= /T
Hence, longer waves travel faster than shorter ones. This effect is seen in hurricane areas, where
long waves generally travel faster than the storm generating them and so the arrival of the
hurricane is often preceded by heavy surf on the coast.
The power (P) in such waves can also be described by use of these parameters and the wave height,
H:
P=g2TH2/ 32
Where is the density of seawater and P is expressed per unit crest length of the wave. Most of the
energy within a wave is contained near the surface and falls off sharply with depth. Therefore, most
wave energy devices are designed to float (or in the case of bottom standing devices to be in
shallow water) and so pierce the water surface in order to maximize the energy available for
capture.
However, in practice waves are far from ideal. In nature, waves are irregular and can
be described by statistical models. If the wave conditions are measured, over 20 minutes for
example, the mean wave height Hm and the significant wave height Hs can be calculated. The
significant wave height is defined as the average of the highest 33% of the waves. Under such
circumstances, the wave power can be stated to be:
P = 0.55 H2s Tz kW/m length of wave crest
Where Tz is the zero crossing period [Charlier, Justus 1993].
PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH UTILIZATION OF WAVE ENERGY:
The first problem is shortage of wave data, especially close to the shore. The required
information includes the record of wave height with time and directional properties of
the wave.
The second problem relates to effect of the wave forces on the structures of the devices.
A device, which absorbs or reflects wave energy must also absorb or reflect momentum
and must be subjected to mean horizontal force. This force must be balanced by an
opposing force provided by fixing the device to seabed or by arranging for opposing
forces to be exerted by the sea on other parts of the devices. Fixing the seabed by the
cables obviously introduces anchoring and mooring problems, whilst forces, which are
not balanced, provide a bending moment on the structure, which may be difficult to
accommodate.
The third problem concerns the power generation from slow irregular motion of waves to
the steady high-speed rotary motion normally required for electrical machines. The
transmission of this power to ashore may also be difficult if flexible cables are required.
The fourth problem leads to effects of devices on the environment. Changes in the wave
climate caused by wave energy converters could affect the local shoreline. Fish feeding
and spawning could be affected by these devices, which would also present some hazard
to fishing.
Wave Energy collecting devices:
SHORELINE DEVICES
Oscillating Water Column (OWC) Devices
Tapered Channel Devices (TAPCHAN)
The Pendulor Device
OFFSHORE DEVICES
Float-Based Devices
Moving body Devices
SHORELINE DEVICES
These devices are fixed to or embedded in the shoreline itself, which has the advantage of easier
maintenance and/or installation. In addition these would not require deep-water moorings or long
lengths of underwater electrical cable. However, they would experience a much less powerful
wave regime. This could be partially compensated by natural energy concentration. The
deployment of such schemes could be limited by requirements for shoreline geology, tidal range,
preservation of coastal scenery, etc.
Oscillating Water Column (OWC) Devices
One major class of shoreline device is the oscillating water column partly submerged concrete or
steel structure, which has an opening to the sea below the water line, thereby enclosing a column
of air above a column of water. As waves impinge on the device, they cause the water column to
rise and fall, which alternately compresses and depressurizes the air column. This air is allowed
to flow to and from the atmosphere through a turbine, which drives an electric generator. Both
conventional (i.e. unidirectional) and self- rectifying air turbines have been proposed. The axial-
flow Wells turbine, invented in the 1970s, is the best-known turbine for this kind of application
and has the advantage of not requiring rectifying air valves. A number of OWC devices have
been installed world wide, with several of them being built into a breakwater to lower overall
construction costs.
Tapered Channel Devices (TAPCHAN)

The TAPCHAN comprises a gradually narrowing channel with wall heights typically 3 to 5 m
above mean water level. Waves enter the wide end of the channel and, as they propagate down
the narrowing channel, the wave height is amplified until the wave crests spill over the walls to
the reservoir, which is raised above sea level. The water in the reservoir returns to the sea via a
conventional low head turbine, which generates a stable output due to the storage effects of the
reservoir. A demonstration device with rated output of 350 kW began operating in 1985 at
Toftesfallen, in Norway. The device functioned successfully until the early 1990s, when work on
modifying the device destroyed the tapered channel. The potential market for such a device is
limited within Europe, because the design requires a small tidal range.
The Pendulor Device
A 5 kW Pendulor test device has been operating in Hokkaido since 1983. It consists of a
rectangular box, which is open to the sea at one end. A pendulum flap is hinged over this
opening, so that the actions of the waves cause it to swing back and forth. This motion is then
used to power a hydraulic pump and generator.
OFFSHORE DEVICES:
This class of device exploits the more powerful wave regimes available in deep water (> 40 m
depth) before energy dissipation mechanisms have had a significant effect. In order to extract
energy from the waves, the devices need to be at or near the surface (i.e. floating) and so they
require flexible moorings and electrical transmission cables. There are many different types of
offshore device, some of which are:
Float-Based Devices
The simplest concepts extract energy from the vertical motion of a float as it rises and falls with
each wave. If the motion of the float is reacted against an anchor or other structure that resists
motion, then energy can be extracted. In the Danish Wave Power (DWP) device, this is achieved
by anchoring the float to a pump and generator mounted in a concrete box on the seabed (DWP,
1996; Nielsen et al, 1995). Following developmental work, a 1 kW test device was installed near
the harbor of Hanstholm, Denmark. This incorporated an air reservoir, which acted as an energy
storage system, thereby smoothing the device output. After some initial difficulties, this device
performed continuously for several months providing considerable amounts of information.
Another example of a device using a float is based on the Hose pump, which is a specially
reinforced elastomeric hose whose volume decreases as it is stretched. The interior of the Hose
pump is filled with seawater, which is pressurized as the float rises. By using a non-return valve,
the device can supply pressurized seawater to a line connecting several Hose pump modules
together. This line supplies seawater to a conventional Pelton turbine at pressures between 1 and
4 MPa). Laboratory testing of the Hose pumps was followed by the installation of a single, small-
scale module in Lake Lygnern. Later a larger system, comprising five modules connected in
parallel to a single turbine and generator, was installed in Lake Lygnern. Despite loss of early
systems in storms, a costing exercise was carried out on a 64 MW station comprising 360
modules for emplacement off the Norwegian coast (GES, 1984). The performance of the system
was good enough to encourage recent interest in commercial exploitation in using Hose pumps to
power navigation buoys.
The Pelamis. The Pelamis device is a semi-submerged, articulated structure composed of

cylindrical sections linked by hinged joints. The wave-induced motion of these joints is resisted
by hydraulic rams, which pump high-pressure oil through hydraulic motors via smoothing
accumulators. The hydraulic motors drive electrical generators to produce electricity. A novel
joint configuration is used to induce a tuneable, cross-coupled resonant response, which greatly
increases power capture in small seas and control of the restraint applied to the joints allows
tuning to the particular sea state.
The Archimedes Wave Swing. This consists of a cylindrical, air filled chamber (the Floater),
which can move vertically with respect to the cylindrical Basement, which is fixed to the
seabed. The air within the 10m 20m diameter Floater ensures buoyancy. However, a wave
passing over the top of the device alternatively pressurizes and depressurizes the air within the
Floater, changing this buoyancy. This causes the Floater to move up and down with respect to the
Basement and it is this relative motion that is used to produce energy. The design for a 2 MW
Pilot scheme is currently being finalized.
The status of these designs is slightly less advanced than that for OWCs. However, several
devices have been tested in the sea at near full size and so are ready for commercial
demonstration. All these devices will continue to benefit from ongoing R&D.
The McCabe Wave Pump. This device consists of three narrow (4 m wide) rectangular steel
pontoons, which are hinged together across their beam. These pontoons are aligned so that their
longitudinal direction heads into the incoming waves and they can move relative to each other in
the waves. The essential aspect of the scheme is the damper plate attached to the central pontoon
this increases the inertia of the central pontoon (by effectively adding mass), ensuring that it stays
relative still. Therefore, the fore and aft pontoons move in relation to the central pontoon by
pitching about the hinges. Energy is extracted from the rotation about the hinge points by linear
hydraulic rams mounted between the central and two outer pontoons near the hinges. Control of
the characteristics of the hydraulic system allows the device to be tuned to the prevailing sea state
and so optimize energy capture. This energy can be used in two ways:
To provide electricity by driving an hydraulic motor attached to a generator, with a rating
of ~ 400 kW
To produce potable water by supplying pressurized seawater to a reverse osmosis plant.
A 40 m long prototype of this device was deployed off the coast of Kilbaha, County
Clare, Ireland and a commercial demonstration scheme is currently being built.

There are some experimental data from small-scale tests, together with a short period of
observations on the prototype. These indicate that the MWP can have capture efficiencies >100%.
In order to evaluate the performance of the MWP in a range of sea states, its behavior has to be
evaluated theoretically. With different wave energy periods (Te) and the resulting capture
efficiency is shown in Figure. This shows a slight reduction in capture efficiency at short wave
periods, when compared to the capture efficiency in regular seas.
The above predictions apply only to the fore pontoon. However, the aft pontoon will also
capture wave energy. It is difficult to determine this theoretically but observations made
on the prototype suggest that the aft pontoon picks up ~60% of the energy captured by
the fore pontoon. The average capture efficiency was approximately 150%.
Characteristics of the MWP
Device Width 4 m
Sea Power Level 53 kW/m
Capture Efficiency 150 %
Hydraulic efficiency 98 %
Efficiency of hydraulic motor 95 %
Efficiency of generator 96 %
Availability 90 %
Average Output per Device 257 KW
Annual output of scheme 2.25 GWh
SHORELINE DEVICES:
Limpet (Land Installed Marine Powered Energy Transformer)
The Limpet a 500KW device is a shoreline-based oscillating water column (OWC), which has
been developed by Queens University of Belfast and Wavegen of Inverness. Wavegen installed a
Limpet on the Islay Island in 2000.
Limpet follows the designer gully concept, in which the device is constructed and fixed in place
close to the shoreline, being protected from the sea by a rock bund. When the device is
completely installed, the bund is removed, allowing the sea access to the device. The device
consists of three water columns placed side by side in a man-made recess, which forms a slipway
at an angle to the horizontal. In the current design for the island of Islay, the water column boxes
are made from a steel-concrete-steel sandwich called BISTEEL, giving a device width of ~21 m.
The device is anchored to the rock promontories on either side and to the base. Wave tank tests
have shown that the inclined slope increases the capture efficiency. There are two low solidity,
counter rotating Wells turbines each rated at 500 kW. The turbines are placed behind the OWC
chambers and the associated electrical equipment is located behind the turbines, where it is
protected from seawater splashes by a rock bund. Each set of turbines is protected by a sluice
gate, which can prevent the turbines being subjected to green water in stormy seas. The turbines
also have flywheels to smooth out energy supply, as well as blow out valves.
Technical Considerations
The capture efficiency of the system has been proven in model testing but it is likely to
be site-specific.
The turbines are situated close to the OWC end of the air vents (~ twice the turbine
diameter), which could result in non-streamlined airflow and consequential loss of
efficiency. However, Wavegen have studied this both theoretically and experimentally
and consider it to have only a very small effect.
The device has a design life of +30 years for the structure but that of the mechanical and
electrical plant will be somewhat less. The approach has been to use robust and reliable
components, so they should achieve the adequate reliability found when used in other,
similar situations.
Replication Potential The unit size will be ~ 1 MW allowing the system to integrate with nearly
all parts of the grid. Wavegen have produced a modular system, tailored for deployment on
islands and in remote locations. Therefore, the only limits on its replicability will be economic,
geographic and environmental.
Geographic: the scheme needs the right combination of shoreline topography and geography,
together with low tidal ranges and closeness to the grid.
Environmental: the original Islay scheme impinged on the shoreline and had some visual
impact. Wavegen have tried to address this in developing a low profile, composite roof,
modular system with a much-reduced visual impact. They have also considered
decommissioning of the device after service and have set aside monies to account for this.
Economic:
Capital Cost
This is site-specific and subject to change following ongoing developments. There was a large
degree of uncertainty in estimating these costs, because of the lack of detailed information,
leading to predictions in the range 850,000 to 1,160,000
Operational and Maintenance Costs
The annual operation and maintenance costs were estimated to be approximately
23,000. The system is being developed with a view to it being maintained in remote
locations by indigenous staff.
Electrical Output
The average wave power level at the Islay site is 20 kW/m. At this location, the device is
estimated to have an average electrical output of 206 kW, amounting to 1,800 MWh/year. Details
concerning certain aspects of the electrical output are commercially sensitive (e.g. capture
efficiency of this sloped OWC chamber). In addition, the energy output from this particular
scheme is enhanced by the shape of the cliff, which forms sloping harbor walls either side of the
OWC chamber, thereby increasing the effective capture width of the device.
POTENTIAL OF WAVE ENERGY IN INDIA:

India has a coastline of approximately 7500 km. The average wave potential along the Indian
coast is around 5-10 kW/m and peak monsoon average is around 20 kW/m. Even 10% utilization
would mean a resource of 3750 7500 MW. Hence it is an important alternative and renewable
resource, as it can potentially provide vast amounts of electricity without pollution and the risk of
fuel running out. Moreover protection of coastlines is a necessity for the life of millions of people
living nears the coast. To connect the use of this renewable energy with the protection of the
shore is an old dream of mankind. Hence efforts are made to construct a wave energy breakwater,
which also produces usable forms of energy from the wave power. A wave energy breakwater
becomes profitable when compared to wave energy plant because the costs are shared between
the breakwater wall and the power plant. An energy-absorbing breakwater is also a better
engineering design as compared to a rubble-wall breakwater, which takes all the beating from the
waves. Since India has a lot of potential for new fishing harbors and a large demand to construct
these harbors in the near future, the development of new cost-effective breakwater systems is
useful. At present the idea of such a wave energy breakwater is not accepted in Europe .The
European research into wave energy is focused on the development of a real wave power station.
The double use of the construction is not popular here. Only the Greek project is based on the
breakwater concept. From the point of view of the electricity producer the breakwater OWC has
the advantage that the installation costs are reduced by sharing them with the harbor authorities
(or similar) that want to shelter an area or a structure from the waves. From the point of view of
someone who wants to protect something against wave attack, the breakwater OWC has the
advantage that sharing them with an electricity producer reduces the installation costs. It is also
possible to use the breakwater structure as a pier for planned harbor activities. From the coastal
engineering point of view the system has two large advantages over "normal" breakwaters:
The wave height in front of the device is reduced, as the wave energy is absorbed and not
reflected.
The wave forces do not (only) act against the structure, they act to move the turbine, so
the loads are reduced.
The Indian wave energy programme
The Indian wave energy programme started in 1983 at the Institute of Technology, Madras and
has concentrated almost exclusively on the OWC concept. The initial research conducted by the
Wave Energy Group, IIT Chennai focused on the choice of the wave energy device (Raju,
Ravindran 1987, Raju, Ravindran 1989). Based on studies on three types of devices, namely,
double float system, single float vertical system, and the OWC principle, it was concluded that
the OWC showed the maximum promise for India. Consequently, development activities were
concentrated on this device alone. The research on wave energy in India as achieved a
commendable status within a decade. A caisson was constructed in December 1990 at Vizhinjam
and two generations of power modules have been tested as of today. Efforts are on to make the
technology cost-effective.
A 150 kW prototype OWC With harbor walls was built onto the breakwater of the Vizhinjam
Fisheries Harbor, near Trivandrum in India. Following the successful testing of this, it is
proposed to build a commercial scheme of 10 caissons, each 21 m wide, at Thangassery, on the
west coast of India. Each caisson will have two power modules, both with a 55 kW rating, leading
to an overall rating of 1.1 MW.
BREAKWATER OWC:
The energy in the waves is converted by the OWC caisson into pneumatic energy. The power
take-off mechanism is the Wells turbine connected to a generator. The generator delivers the
electrical power to the grid. A part of the electrical power is also dissipated in the resistances
externally connected to the rotor of the generator.
The OWC wave energy device is a resonating device, which can be tuned to any predominant
frequency of the wave by altering the dimensions of the device. Theoretical analysis was done for
a two-dimensional model with the assumption of potential flow conditions. For comparing the
theoretical predictions, models were tested under two-dimensional wave conditions. These
different models having rectangular and curved back walls, streamlined entry, etc. were tested in
a 30 cm narrow wave flume, 90 cm wide wave flume, 2 m and 4 m flumes. Experimental
optimization was also done with the inclusion of parallel guide walls for the waves to enter the
device.
Design and installation of caisson:

The caisson is predominantly subjected to wave forces. The wave forces were estimated by
treating the caisson as a vertical wall obstruction for the waves. The highest probably non-
breaking wave force was 1200 tones. The highest probable breaking wave was estimated to be 7
m. The force intensity has a peak of 100 tones / m2. The OWC with the harbor was built as a
cellular concrete caisson. The design is of the gravity foundation type. The concrete structure
weighs 3000 tones and is further ballasted in its hollow chambers using about 3000 tones of
sand. This concrete ballasted caisson is seated on a prepared rubble bed. The top of the CWC
chamber is a double cubic curved shell in concrete 10 x 7.75 m at the bottom, reducing to 2.0 m
circle at the top and 3.0 m high to support the power module. Figure shows the cross-section of
the wave energy device and breakwater.
For conversion of pneumatic energy from the OWC to mechanical energy, the use of air turbines
is required. Two turbine models with 263 mm diameter rotor were fabricated with blades of 100
mm and 65 mm chords. They were tested in a turbine casing with facilities for measurements of
air velocity and pressure across the radius as well as starting torque and speed. The tests were
done with steady unidirectional airflow.
The prototype turbine design specifications were as follows:
Type Constant chord, wells

Profile NACA 0021
Chord 380 mm
No. of rotor blades 8
Hub/tip ratio 0.6
The turbine was coupled directly to a 110 kW squirrel cage induction generator with a rated
speed of 1000 rotations per minute (rpm) and slip of eight per cent. The generator was connected
to the shore transformer through a 600 m long cable, which runs along the breakwater up to its tip
and along the bridge to the power module. The plant was first commissioned in October 1991.
On evaluation of the plant operation data several areas for improvement were noted. The power
module designed for a peak power of 150 kW had large no load losses and windage losses
amounting to almost 15 kW. When the instantaneous wave power was low the turbine could not
meet even the no-load losses. Hence, the system would motor, drawing power from the grid.
This resulted in poor long-term efficiency of the wave power plant. Also, the squirrel cage
induction generator had a limited variation in speed up to eight per cent of synchronous speed.
Based on the experience gained from the performance monitoring of the first module, several
improvement were incorporated in the new module given below:
A tapered chord design was chosen for the turbine blades, as opposed to the earlier
constant chord design.
Since the wave power is very high during monsoon and relatively low during off-
monsoon months, two horizontal axis thrust opposing turbine rotors were coupled to an
electrical generator on a common shaft, each having peak installed capacity of 55 kW.
The rationale behind this was that one module would be run during non-monsoon times
and both during the peak season.
The electrical generator was a slip-ring induction machine in lieu of the earlier squirrel
cage machine.
One such power module was designed and installed at Vizhinjam in April 1996.
Improvements were also effected in the choice of instrumentation and the data acquisition
system.
EFFICENCY OF THE SYSTEM:
The theoretical maximum conversion efficiency of the caisson (wave to pneumatic) at any given
period (frequency) of the incoming wave is determined purely by its geometry, the direction of
the wave, and an optimum value of the `damping on the caisson. In this case the turbine and the
generator determine the damping. This value of the optimum damping is frequency dependent.
Thus, the conversion efficiency of the caisson under operating conditions is governed by the load
characteristics. The maximum average capacity of the caisson is estimated to be in excess of 240
kW under optimum load conditions. This estimate is based on the average monsoon input wave
condition of 20 kW/m, 10 m caisson opening, and an average capture factor of 1.2 over the
frequency range of interest. Almost two hundred runs were made under varying wave climates
with various combinations of external resistances and butterfly valve positions in order to
characterize their influence on plant performance.
The efficiencies of the various subcomponents of the power plant as a function of incident
wave power as measured during its operation from April 1996 to July 1996 are shown in Figure.
The trends shown represent average values of several runs. A drop in efficiency for increasing
incident energy is plainly evident. It is noted here that the nine-month average value of the
incident wave power is 10 kW/m and peak monsoon average is 20 kW/m. From the analysis of
184 data sets, for a single module of 55 kW (peak) capacity, the mean caisson efficiency is 0.5
with standard deviation 0.2, the mean mechanical efficiency is 0.25 with standard deviation
0.09, and the mean electrical efficiency is 0.5 with standard deviation 0.08. The mean overall
efficiency is 0.06 with standard deviation 0.02.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS:
Wave energy converters (WECs) have effects on the adjacent coastline even though they are out
at sea.
Wave Distortion:
WECs have the effect of significantly lengthening the wavelength and reducing the height of the
waves, which pass through them. In fact, calculations taken in force seven storm conditions
showed wave heights reduced from 5.9m to 4.6m while the wavelength increased from 8.4s to
9.0s. This results in coastlines being less affected by the erosion, typical of short, steep waves,
and more affected by the building up of debris caused by long, shallow waves. This side effect
is seen as beneficial in some areas, for example North and South Uist and Benbecula in the Outer
Hebrides. This is because the increased amount of sediment on the beaches reduces the impact of
storm waves on the shore, and the communities near the shore. However this effect may not be
seen as beneficial to other coastlines, and so must be considered carefully.
The eyesore factor:
Although WECs are typically large and can be unsightly, it is unlikely that they will be visible
from the shore, as they are usually far enough out at sea to be invisible to the naked eye. The only
eyesores created would be the reception terminal (but if managed correctly could be made to be
aesthetically pleasing through landscaping) and the overhead power lines which would be
required to transport the power. In the case of Scotland these cables would have to be routed
through areas of considerable scenic beauty.
Effects on the Ecology of the area
As well as affecting the waves, WECs can alter ocean surface currents. This will have no effect
on benthic dwelling fish, but the many species of fish in the surface waters (e.g. salmon) which
depend on currents to navigate between spawning and feeding grounds, could experience
difficulties completing their life cycles which could not only affect the ecosystem but the fishing
industry as well. This could be minimized by ensuring that WECs are positioned in places in
which the sea life in the ocean surface is well researched and understood, and that WEC numbers
or size do not adversely contribute to the distortion of surface currents.
Not all effects are negative however. Another, and perhaps positive result of the calming down of
the waves caused by converters is that the reduced wave impact may encourage increased
diversity and density of shoreline wildlife and could allow the establishment of some species of
mollusc. This may lead to another branch of the fishing industry being available to the locals.
Effects on shipping and navigation
The risk of collision with WECs is the primary hazard to shipping due to their design making
them difficult to detect by both eye and by radar. For this reason warning lights and clearly
marked channels to ensure the safe navigation around converters are essential.
To a great extent all shipping would have to be excluded from the immediate vicinity of the
devices. This will have varying levels of interference depending on the location of a WEC. These
effects on shipping will have consequences for the fishing industry as boats may by excluded
from prime fishing grounds. And the oil industry may have problems with the transportation of
oil from rigs.
REFERENCES:
A BRIEF REVIEW OF WAVE ENERGY

T W THORPE
OFFSHORE ALTERNATIVE ENERGY GENERATION
ROB BIOLETTI AND IAN POTTER
http://www.niot.ernet.in/ocean-energy.html
A BREAKWATER TO HARNESS WAVE ENERGY - THE ASIAN APPROACH TO

CONNECT COASTAL PROTECTION WITH ENERGY PRODUCTION
Dr.-Ing. Kai-Uwe Graw
WAVE ENERGY A DESIGN CHALLENGE
RONALD SHAW
CEDT Topic
Dr. L.Umanand 20/20 12/11/2007

CEDT Topic
Life Cycle Costing

Engineering economy is the application of economic factors and criteria to evaluate
alternatives, considering the time value of money. The engineering economy study
involves computing a specific economic measure of worth for estimated cash flows over
a specific period of time.
The terms interest, interest period and interest rate are useful in calculating equivalent
sums of money for an interest period. Interest is the manifestation of the time value of
money. It is the difference between an ending amount of money and the beginning
amount over an interest period. For more than one interest period, the terms simple
interest and compound interest become important.
1.1. Simple Interest:
Simple interest is calculated using the principal only, ignoring any interest accrued in
preceding interest periods. The total simple interest over several periods is computed as:
Simple Interest = (Principal) x (Number of Periods) x (Interest Rate)
Here the interest rate is expressed in decimal form. The total sum accrued at the end of n
interest periods is given by:
S = P(1 + n i ) ... (1)
S = Sum accrued at the end of interest periods (also called Future Worth)
P = Principal (also called Present Worth)
n = Number of interest periods (normally one year is taken as one interest period)
i = Interest rate (normally annual interest rate)
1.2. Compound Interest:
For compound interest, the interest accrued for each interest period is calculated on the
principal plus the total amount of interest accumulated in all previous periods.
Compound interest reflects the effect of the time value of money on the interest also.
The interest for one period is calculated as:
Compound Interest = (Principal + All accrued Interest) x (Interest Rate)
The total sum accrued after a number of interest periods can be calculated from the
S n = P(1 + i ) (2)
n
Sn = Sum accrued at the end of n interest periods

P = Principal
i = Interest rate expressed in decimal form (annual interest rate)
n = Number of interest periods (number of years)
We can see from the above two expressions that the sum accrued at the end of first year
would be same for both simple interest and compound interest calculations. However,
Dr. L.Umanand 1/20 12/11/2007

CEDT Topic
for interest periods greater than one year, the sum accrued for compound interest would
be larger.
What happens if the interest is compounded more than once in a year?
We need to modify equation (2) and is given by:
nm
i
S n = P 1 + ...... (3)
m
m = Number of periods the interest is compounded in one year
i = Annual interest rate in decimal form
n = Number of years
We can extend equation (3) to calculate the sum accrued if the interest is compounded
continuously. Here m tends to . Taking the limits such that m goes to infinity, we get
the following expression:
S = P e in ...... (4)
For all practical purposes, equation (2) is used for interest calculations and repeated here
for convenience:
S n = P(1 + i )
n
Here,
Sn = Future Worth of money
P = Present Worth of the money
(1+i)n = Future Worth Factor.
Given the present worth, annual interest rate and number of years, we can calculate the
future worth. There may be situations when the future worth of money is given and we
need to find the present worth of the money. The above equation can be re-arranged to
calculate the present worth, given by:
Sn
P= ...(5)
(1 + i )n
Here,
1
= Present Worth Factor.
(1 + i )n
To carry out calculations, it is convenient to draw what is called as cash flow diagram.
The following figure gives one such cash flow diagram:
0 year nth year
Present Future
Worth, P Worth, Sn
Dr. L.Umanand 2/20 12/11/2007

CEDT Topic
The cash flow diagram helps in analyzing the problem better.

Equations (2) and (5) are used in problems concerning single payment. In todays world
we deal with problems that involve annual/monthly equal payments such as home
mortgage payments, vehicle loans or loans for consumer electronic goods. The
following relationships hold good for problems involving such uniform series:
(1 + i )n 1
P = A .(6)
n
i (1 + i )
P = Present worth
A = Uniform Annual amount (installments)
(
1 + i) n 1
S n = A
)
....(7)
i
Sn = Future worth
From these equations, we can calculate present worth or future worth given uniform
annual amounts. We can also calculate the uniform annual amounts given either present
worth or the future worth. A typical example would be person borrowing money from a
financial institute for buying a vehicle. Knowing the interest rate and number of
installments, the person can calculate the uniform equal amounts he or she has to pay
depending on the amount borrowed. A typical cash flow diagram would look as follows:
The up-arrow indicates the amount coming in such as borrowing and the down arrow
indicates the amount going out such re-payments towards the borrowing.
1.3. Inflation:
In all the above equations, we had assumed that there is no inflation. Inflation is an
increase in the amount of money necessary to obtain the same amount of product before
the inflated price was present. Inflation occurs due to downward change in the value of
the currency. If C is the cash in hand today for buying a product, f is the inflation rate,
then the amount we need to pay for the same product after n years would be C(1 + f)n,
assuming uniform inflation over the years. The present worth of such money with
interest component added is given by:
Pf = C
(1 + f )n ...(8)
(1 + i )n
Dr. L.Umanand 3/20 12/11/2007

CEDT Topic
Pf = Present worth with inflation taken into account.

If i = f, no change in worth, year after year.
If i > f, save and do not buy the product now.
If i < f, buy the product now and do not save.
An important relationship between the present worth and the uniform annual amount
taking inflation into account is given by the following equation:
1+ f 1+ f
n
P = A 1 ....
i f 1 + i
(9)
for i f . If i = f, then we get the following relationship:
P = A n ..(10)
1.4. Life Cycle Cost:
Life cycle costing or LCC is an important factor for comparing the alternatives and
deciding on a particular process for completing a project. The different components
taken into account for calculating LCC are:
LCC = Capital + Replacement cost + Maintenance cost + Energy cost Salvage
Here, Capital is the present worth. Replacement cost that may occur at a later years need
to converted to present worth. Maintenance cost is annual maintenance cost and needs
to be converted to present worth and so is the energy cost. Salvage is the money that is
obtained while disposing the machinery at the end of life cycle period. Even this amount
has to be converted to present worth for calculating LCC. Once we have the LCC value,
we can easily find the Annual Life Cycle Costing using the following equation:
LCC
ALCC = ..(11)
1+ f ) 1+ f
n
1
i f 1 + i
These equations would be clearer once we do some problems.
1.5. Example:
A community has 500 people. The source of water to the community is from the bore-
wells and the supply of water from the bore-wells is by hand-pumps. Six hand-pumps
are installed to meet the water requirement of the community. Per-capita water
consumption of the community is 40 liters/day. Bore-well depth is 20 meters. The cost
of each hand-pump is Rs.5,000.00. Cost of digging of each bore-well is at the rate of
Rs.250.00 per meter. Life of the hand-pump is 10 years. Annual maintenance cost per
pump is Rs.1250.00. If the rate of interest is 10%, what is the unit water cost for the life
cycle period of 20 years?
Solution:
Dr. L.Umanand 4/20 12/11/2007

CEDT Topic
Step 1: Calculate capital cost (K):

For digging 6 bore-wells = (Rs.250.00 x 20) x 6 .. = Rs.30,000.00
Cost of 6 hand-pumps = Rs.5,000.00 x 6 . = Rs.30,000.00
Total capital cost = Rs.60,000.00
Step 2: Calculate replacement cost (R):
Cost for replacing 6 hand-pumps after 10 years . = Rs.30,000.00
Step 3: Calculate annual maintenance cost (M):
Annual maintenance cost for 6 hand-pumps = Rs.1250.00 x 6 = Rs.7,500.00
Now let us draw the cash-flow diagram for the above data:
From figure, K is the capital at 0th year. Let us call it P1 = Rs.30000.00

R is the replacement cost for hand-pumps occurring in 10th year. We need to find the
Present worth of this replacement cost. Let P2 be the present worth. Hence, the value of
R 30000
P2 = = = Rs.11566.30
(1 + i ) n
(1 + 0.1)10
M is the annual maintenance cost for 6 hand-pumps occurring at the end of each year.
The present worth of the uniform series needs to be found. Let P3 be the present worth.
1 1 1 1
Hence, the value of P3 = M 1 = 7500 1 =
i (1 + i )n 0.1 (1 + 0.1)20
Rs.63851.73.
Step 4: Find the total present worth or LCC
Now the total present worth showed by dotted line in the cash flow diagram is the sum
of all the present worth. That is: P = P1 + P2 + P3.
Hence, Life Cycle Cost or LCC = Rs.60000.00 + Rs.11566.30 + Rs.63851.73 =
Rs.135418.03.
Step 5: Find annual life cycle cost or ALCC.
From LCC value, we can calculate Annual Life Cycle Cost or ALCC by using the
Dr. L.Umanand 5/20 12/11/2007

CEDT Topic
LCC 135418.03
ALCC = = = Rs.15906.15
1 1 1 1
n 20
1 1
i 1 + i 0.1 1 + 0.1
Step 6: Find unit water cost.

Annual water requirement = 500 people x 40 liters/day x 365 days = 7300000 liters.
ALCC 15906.15
Cost of water = = = Rs.0.00218/liter.
AnnualWater Re quirement 7300000
1.6. Example:
A PV array of 500 watts has been installed to pump water from a bore-well of 2 meters
deep using a submergible motor and pump system to an over-head tank. The length of
pipe required to pump the water is 30 meters. Following are the costs involved for the
sub-systems and their life spans:
PV Array : $8/peak watt; Life span 15 years
Motor and pump: $2/watt; Life span 7.5 years
Pipe cost: $8/meter; Life span 5 years
Cost of digging the bore-well: $20/meter
Maintenance cost: $80/year
Miscellaneous cost: $3.5/watt
If the interest rate is 10%, calculate the Life Cycle Cost of the water for a period of 15
years and also water cost per year (ALCC).
Solution:
Step 1: Calculate the Capital cost (K)
Cost of PV array = $8/watt x 500 watts = $4000
Cost of motor and pump = $2/watt x 500 watts = $1000
Cost of pipe = $8/meter x 30 meters = $240
Cost of digging the bore-well = $20/meter x 2 meters = $40
Miscellaneous cost = $3.5/watt x 500 watts = $1750
Total capital cost = $4000 + $1000 + $240 + $40 + $1750 = $7030
Step 2: Calculate Replacement cost (R)
Replacement cost of motor and pump after 7.5 years = $1000
Replacement cost of pipe at the end of 5th year and at the end of 10th year = $240 each
Step 3: Calculate maintenance cost (M)
The annual maintenance cost is given as $80.
Let us draw the cash-flow diagram for the above data.
Dr. L.Umanand 6/20 12/11/2007

CEDT Topic
Yr 0 Yr 5 Yr 7.5 Yr 10 Yr 15
M=$80
R1=$240 R3=$240
R2=$1000
K=$7030
P=LCC=?
From the figure, K is the capital cost at year 0. Let us call it P1 = $7030.
R1 is the replacement cost of pipe in year 5. Let us call the present worth of R1 as P2.
R1 240
This can be calculated as follows: P2 = = = $149.02
(1 + i ) (1 + 0.1)5
n
R2 is the replacement cost of motor and pump in year 7.5. Let us call the present worth
R2 1000
of R2 as P3. Hence, P3 = = = $489.28
(1 + i ) (1 + 0.1)7.5
n
R3 is the replacement cost of pipe in year 10. Let us call the present worth of R3 as P4.
R3 240
Hence, P4 = = = $92.53
(1 + i ) (1 + 0.1)10
n
M is the annual maintenance cost starting at the end of year 1 till the end of year 15. Let
1 1
us call the present worth of this uniform series is P5. Hence P5 = M 1 =
i (1 + i )n
1 1
80 1 15
= $608.49
0.1 (1 + 0.1)
Step 4: Calculate LCC
The total present worth = LCC = P = P1 + P2 + P3 + P4 + P5
LCC = $7030 + $149.02 + $489.28 + $92.53 + $608.49 = $8369.32
Step 5: Calculate ALCC. This gives water cost per year.
LCC 8369.32
ALCC = = = $1100.35
1 1 1 1
n 15
1 1
i 1 + i 0.1 1 + 0.1
Hence the water cost per year is $1100.35.
1.7. Example:
A micro-hydel plant of 1kW power capacity has been installed. Following are the cost
involved in installation of the whole system:
Dr. L.Umanand 7/20 12/11/2007

CEDT Topic
Installation cost of the plant = Rs.16000

Cost of mains transmission = Rs.16000
Cost of distribution transformer = Rs.2500
Cost of 11 kV line per Kilometer = Rs.4000
Life span of the plant is 25 years. If the rate of interest is 12%, find the unit cost per
Kilometer.
Solution:
Step 1: Calculate the capital cost (K)
The problem involves only the initial cost incurred at year 0. There is no replacement
cost or maintenance cost involved. Hence, we can calculate the total capital cost just by
adding the given quantities. Let K be the capital cost. It is calculated as follows:
K = Rs.16000 + Rs.16000 + Rs.2500 + Rs.4000 x d
Here d is the distance to which 11 kV line runs.
Step 2: Calculate LCC
Since no other costs except capital cost is involved, LCC can be directly calculated.
Therefore K= LCC = Rs.(34500 + 4000d)
Step 3: Calculate ALCC
Annual cost (ALCC) can be calculated from the above data.
LCC 34500 + 4000d 34500 + 4000 d
ALCC = = =
1 1 1 1 7.84314
n 25
1 1
i 1 + i 0.12 1 + 0.12
ALCC = 4398.75 + 510d

Step 4: Calculate energy generated per year
Energy generated per year = 24 hours x 365 days x 1 kW = 8760 kWHr
Transmission efficiency = 30%
Hence, energy available = 8760 x 0.3 = 2628 kWHr
Step 5: Calculate cost per unit (1 unit = 1 kWHr)
ALCC 4398.75 + 510d
Cost per unit = = = 1.674 + 0.1941d
EnergyAvailable 2628
We can see that cost per unit depends on the value of d, the distance to which 11 kV line
runs. As example, let us calculate cost per unit for d = 5 KM and d = 100 KM
Cost per unit for d = 5 KM : 1.674 + 0.1941 x 5 = Rs.2.64
Cost per unit for d = 100 KM : 1.674 + 0.1941 x 100 = Rs.21.08.
We can see how adverse effect the distance has on the cost per unit. Hence, care must be
taken that we do not run such 11 kV lines for long distances.
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CEDT Topic
Comparison of Alternative Energy Systems using Life Cycle Cost Analysis
Electricity is a major secondary energy carrier and is predominantly produced from

fossil fuels. Challenging concerns of the fossil fuel based power generation are
depletion of fossil fuels and global warming caused by greenhouse gases (GHG) from
the combustion of fossil fuels. To achieve the goal of environmental sustainability in
the power sector, a major action would be to reduce the high reliance on fossil fuels by
resorting to the use of clean/renewable sources and efficient generation/use of
electricity. Because of the existence of number of alternative energy systems, there is a
need of comparing their economic aspects in producing electricity. In order to consider
the long-term implications of power generation, a life cycle concept is adopted, which is
a cradle-to-grave approach to analyse an energy system in its entire life cycle. Life
cycle assessment (LCA) is an effective tool to pinpoint the environmental implications.
Life cycle cost analysis (LCCA) provides effective evaluation to pinpoint cost effective
alternatives. LCA and LCCA should be combined to identify cost effective power
generation alternative scheme. In this paper, for a given energy requirement, a sample
comparison was done between solar PV, solar thermal, microhydel, wind, wave and
biomass system using the life cycle costing (LCCA) approach.
SOLAR PV
To calculate the life cycle cost per KWh the basic components of a PV system are
considered as follows.
1. PV panels
2. Batteries
3. Inverters
4. Charge controllers
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We will ignore adding in the cost of the charge controller, since this is only a few
hundred dollars (whereas the whole system cost will be in the thousands of dollars).
The user specified variables will be:
1. Peak power required to power appliances

2. Total energy produced/consumed per day
3. Hours of sunshine (average)
Cost of inverter as function of peak power required:
The amount of peak power the system can deliver will be determined by the size of the
system inverter , the inverter being the device which converts the dc battery power to
ac.
Ppeak, usage = Ppeak, inverter
As determined by surveying current market prices for inverters, the costs of an inverter
are about Rs.50 per watt, or (multiplying by 1000):
Costinverter = Rs. 50000/kilowatt
Thus, the cost of the inverter, as a function of the peak power used, is
therefore:
Costinverter (Ppeak, usage) = Ppeak, usage x Costinverter
Costinverter = Ppeak, usage x Rs. 50000/kilowatt
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Cost of solar panels as a function of energy usage:
The peak power produced by the solar panels is determined by the type and number of
solar panels one uses:
Ppeak panels = number of panels x power per panel
But peak usage is not necessarily equal to peak panel power.
This is because the power generated by the solar panels is stored up over time by
batteries, so more peak power (but not energy!) can be delivered by the inverter than is
produced by the panels.
Eproduced = Eused
Also, we need to know how long the sun shines each day on average. Let this be
denoted by Tsun,
Tsun = Hours of Sunshine on average.
Using the formula for power and energy (Power = Energy / Time), we have
Ppeak panels = Eused / Tsun.
As determined from a survey of current market prices
Costpanels = Rs. 4 Lakhs/Kilowatt.
Costpanels = (Eused / Tsun ) x Rs. 4 Lakhs/kilo-watt
Cost of batteries as a function of energy usage:
The amount of energy stored (by batteries) determines how much energy can be used
after dark, or on a rainy day.
The lifetimes of deep cycle batteries are fairly short (3 - 10 years), and depend on how
well they are maintained (for example, one needs to avoid overcharging, and
overdrawing.
We will assume, in order not to discharge the battery more than 50%, that the batteries
will be able to store twice the amount of energy we use:
Estored = 2 x Eused
Presently, the cost of batteries is about Rs. 5000 per kilowatt-hour of storage:
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Costbatteries = Rs. 5000/kilowatt-hour
The cost of batteries, therefore, as a function of energy used, is
Costbatteries = 2 x Eused x $100/kilowatt-hour
Calculation of life cycle cost per KWh:
Todays solar panels are estimated to last atleast 25 years. We will therefore use 25
years as our life time.
1. PV panel Rs. 4 Lakhs/KW 25 Years
2. Inverter Rs. 50000/KW 25 Years
3. Battery Rs. 10000/KWh 5 Years
Let us say i=10%
Capital Cost = 4Lakhs+ 50000+ 10000=Rs. 460000
10000 10000 10000 10000

Replacement Cost = (1 + i ) 5 + (1 + i )10 + (1 + i )15 + (1 + i ) 20
=Rs. 13945/KWh
Maitenance Cost:As we are considering only from generating point of view

maintenance cost is negligible part.
Energy Cost: It does not require any external energy (because the system uses sun
energy) to produce the electrical energy.
CASE STUDY:
For a large home let us say
20
Life Cycle Cost = 5 50000 + 400000 + 20 10000 + 13945 20
6
=Rs. 2062233.333
Total KWh used = 25 Years 365 Days Eused
= 9125 Eused
Therefore Cost per KWh = Life Cycle Cost / (9125 Eused)
=Rs. 11.3 per KWh
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As we are now familiar with the life cycle cost calculation of a typical system with all
major components specified. We will proceed in a outline fashion for other systems as
follows.
3. SOLAR THERMAL PLANT
The major components of this system to be considered in calculating life

cycle cost are:
1. Heat energy Collectors

2. Boiler
3. Steam turbine
4. electric generator
The costs of the above mentioned components are listed in the following table.
Item Cost in Rs/KW Life period
Heat energy 25000 20years

collectors
Boiler+steam 13900 10years
turbine
Electric 5500 10years
generator
Accessories, 1000 5years
tools
Now let us say interest rate i=10%
Then the life cycle cost per KW is calculated as follows:
Capital Cost = Cost of (heat energy collectors+boiler+steam turbine+ electric

generator+accessories)
= 25000+13900+5500+1000
=Rs.45400
13900 5500 1000 1000 1000

Replacement Cost = + + + +
(1 + .1) 10 (1 + .1) 10 (1 + .1) 5 (1 + .1) 10 (1 + .1) 15
= Rs.8725.4
Maintenance cost = 1% 0f total capital cost per year
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== Rs. 3865.15
Therefore,
Life cycle cost per KW = 45400+8725.4+3865.15
=Rs.57990.55
4. MICRO HYDEL PLANT
These plants are used for power requirements less than 100KW.
The costs of all major components are specified in the table, the costs of civil works and
permits are not included.
1. Approximate Micro Hydel system Costs (Battery based):
Component 100W (flow rate 4lps and lifetime

head at 5m.
Penstock Rs 32500 10years
Turbine-generator Rs 125000
Controller Rs 20000
Batteries Rs 26000 5years
Inverter Rs 60000
Power house Rs 10000
Miscellaneous Rs 10000
Maintenance Rs 2000per year
Estimates provided by Energy Alternatives Ltd.
Now let us say ,

Interest rate i=10%
Life period =20years
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Then,
Capital Cost(C) = Cost of (Penstock + Turbine-Gen + Controller + Batteries + Inverter
+ (Power house+ Miscellaneous)
= Rs.283500
Replacement Cost(R):
Penstock=
+
26000 26000 26000

Battery = (1 + .1) 5 + (1 + .1)10 + (1 + .1)15 = 32392
Therefore total replacement cost = Rs.44922
20000 1
Maintenance Cost (M) = 0 .1
{1
(1 + .1) 20
} = 17027
Life Cycle Cost (LCC) = C+R+M

= Rs.332919.
2. Approximate Micro Hydel system Costs (AC-Direct system):
Component 3.5 KW (flow rate at 14lps Life time

and head at 50m)
Penstock Rs.80000 15years
Turbine-Gen Rs.165000
Controller Rs.95000
Power house Rs.50000
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Miscellaneous Rs.82500
Installations Rs.100000
Maintenance Rs.1000 per year
Estimates provided by Thomson and Howe Energy Systems Inc.
Now for a life period of 30 years, at an interest rate of 10%,
Capital Cost (C):
= Cost of (Penstock + Turbine-Gen + Powerhouse + Mis. + Installations)

= Rs.572500
Replacement Cost(R):
80000
=
(1 + .1)15
= Rs.19151
Maintenance Cost (M):
= Rs.9426
Therefore,
Life Cycle Cost = C+R+M

= Rs.601077
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CEDT Topic
5. BIOMASS PLANT
The major components of Biogas plant are listed as follows.
1. Gassifier
2. Piping
3. Sand filter
4. Diesel engine
5. Electric Generator
The costs of different components of Biogas plant are specified in the following table.
Item Cost in Rs.for 5KW plant Life period
Biogas plant 127700 20years
Piping 8300 10years
Sand filter 4150 10years
7hp diesel engine 37700 15years
5KVA generator 78150 15years
Accessories, Tools 20750 10years
Engine room 16550 20years
Then the life cycle cost is calculated as follows:
Capital Cost =127700+8300+4150+37700+78150+20750+16550
=Rs.293300
8300 4150 37700 78150 20750

Replacement Cost = (1 + .1)10 + (1 + .1)10 + (1 + .1)15 + (1 + .1)15 + (1 + .1)10
= Rs40533.6
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== Rs. 24970.28
Therefore,
Life cycle cost =293300+40533.6+24970.58 = Rs.358803.8
6. WIND ENERGY SYSTEM
The major components of a wind energy system are:
1. Wind mill
2. Gear box
3. Controller
4. Wind turbine
5. Electric generator
The costs of the above mentioned components are listed in the following table.
Item Cost in Rs per KW Life period
Wind mill 25000 20years
Gearbox 2500 10years
Controller 2000 10years
Wind turbine 10500 15years
Electric generator 5500 15years
Accessories 1000 5years
Then the life cycle cost per KW is calculated as follows:
Capital Cost = 25000+2500+2000+10500+5500+1000
=Rs. 46500
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Replacement Cost =
2500 2000 10500 5500 1000 1000 1000
+ + + + + +
(1 + .1) 10
(1 + .1) 10
(1 + .1) 15
(1 + .1) 15
(1 + .1) 5
(1 + .1) 10
(1 + .1)15
= Rs.6811
== Rs. 3958.8
Therefore,
Life cycle cost per KW = 46500+6811+3958.8 =Rs57269.8
Remarks:
Different renewable sources are considered for Life Cycle Cost analysis. It was found
that every source has its own advantage and disadvantage, depending upon their
location of installation and in terms of various costs like capital, maintenance etc.The
microhydel plant was found to be having less installation cost when compared to other
plants. The capital cost required for Wind and Wave energy system found to be more.
The biomass plant is suitable for many locations but the potential damaging impacts to
the environment have to be considered.
REFERENCES
1. Biomass energy, and Environment, N.H.Ravindhranath and D.O.Hall
2. Renewable Energy Sources-John Twidell & Werir; F.N.Spon
3. Power Plant Technology-E.L.Wakil: Mc Graw-Hill
4. http://www.canren.gc.ca/contactus/index.cfm
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Dr. L.Umanand 20/20 12/11/2007

CEDT Topic
Hybrid Systems
1. Introduction
As convention fossil fuel energy sources diminish and the worlds
environmental concern about acid deposition and global warming increases,
renewable energy sources (solar, wind, tidal, biomass and geothermal etc)
are attracting more attention as alternative energy sources. These are all
pollution free and one can say eco friendly. These are available at free of
cost. In India, there is severe power shortage and associated power quality
problems, the quality of the grid supply in some places is characterized by
large voltage and frequency fluctuations, scheduled and un scheduled power
cuts and load restrictions. Load shedding in many cities in India due to
power shortage and faults is a major problem for which there is no
immediate remedy in the near future since the gap between the power
demand and supply is increasing every year. This led to rapid usage of
stand-by petrol or diesel generator sets and conventional battery inverter
sets in both urban and rural areas. Shopkeepers, house owners and offices
commonly use 1-5 kW fuel generators in India when utility exercises load
shedding.
In India wind and solar energy sources are available all over the year
at free of cost whereas tidal and wave are costal area. Geothermal is
available at specific location. To meet the demand and for the sake of
continuity of power supply, storing of energy is necessary.
The term hybrid power system is used to describe any power system
combine two or more energy conversion devices, or two or more fuels for the
same device, that when integrated, overcome limitations inherent in either.
Usually one of the energy sources is a conventional one (which necessarily

does not depend on renewable energy resource) powered by a diesel engine,
while the other(s) would be renewable viz. solar photovoltaic, wind or hydro.
The design and structure of a hybrid energy system obviously take

into account the types of renewable energy sources available locally, and the
consumption the system supports. For example, the hybrid energy system
presented here is a small-scale system and the consumption of power takes
place during nights, so the wind energy component will make a more
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CEDT Topic
significant contribution in the hybrid system than solar energy. Although

the energy produced by wind during night can be used directly without
storage, a battery is needed to store solar and wind energy produced during
the day.
In addition to the technical considerations, cost benefit is a factor that

has to be incorporated into the process of optimizing a hybrid energy
system. In general, the use of wind energy is cheaper than that of solar
energy. In areas where there is a limited wind source, a wind system has to
be over-dimensioned in order to produce the required power, and this results
in higher plant costs.
It has been demonstrated that hybrid energy systems (renewable

coupled with conventional energy source) can significantly reduce the total
life cycle cost of a stand alone power supplies in many off-grid situations,
while at the same time providing a reliable supply of electricity using a
combination of energy sources. Numerous hybrid systems have been
installed across the world, and expanding renewable energy industry has
now developed reliable and cost competitive systems using a variety of
technologies. Research in the development of hybrid systems focused on the
performance analysis of demonstration systems and development of efficient
power converters, such as bi-directional inverters, battery management
units (storage facilities), and optimization of different sources of energy
Sources, etc.
2.Renewable Sources In India

India has a large potential for renewable energy (RE), an estimated
aggregate of more than 100,000 MW. In addition, the scope for generating
power and thermal applications using solar energy (since most parts of the
country receive sunlight almost throughout the year) is huge. However, only
a fraction of the aggregate potential in renewable, and particularly solar
energy, has been utilized so far.
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3.Hybrid System
3.0 LOAD DISCRIPTION: here for the purpose of analysis a house of

middle class family is taken as the load. This is around 2kW.All the
hybrid system which are going to discuss is for a house or for the
around 10 no of house (for big system).
3.1 Calculation For Power Output From Different Source:
3.1.0 power out put from PV array: For design of a PV system, we

should know how much solar energy is received at the concern place. It is
effected by sun position, could covering atmospheric affect ,and the angle at
which the collector is placed , called tilt angle . Normally this angle is
equal to the latitude of the concern place. The related equation for
estimation of the radiation is listed below [1]: -
1. Isolation i = Io { cos cos cos + sin sin } kW/m2

Dr. L.Umanand 3/18 12/11/2007
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2. Io = Isc [1 + 0.033 cos (360N/365)] where Isc solar constant. =1.37 kW/m2
ss
3. Ho = sr i dt sr = hour angle when sun rising

ss = hour angle when sun setting
= (24/) Isc [1+ 0.033 cos (360N/365)] {cos cos cos + sin sin } kWh/m2/day
4. HoA = energy falling on the concern place considering atmospheric effect

= KT Ho kWh/m2/day where KT dearness index
5. KT = A1 + A2 sin (t) + A3 sin (2t) + A4sin (3t) + A5 cos (t) + A6 cos (2t) + A7 cos (3t)
t = (2/365) (N-80) N= 1 for Jan 1st
6. Ai = ai1 + ai2 x + ai3 x2 + ai4 w + ai5 w2

Where x = ( - 35)
= Latitude in deg
w = total perceptible water vapor in atoms gm/cm2
7. Ht = energy falling on the tilt surface at the concern place
= RD HoA kWh/m2/day
8. RD = tilted factor
for the sizing the PV panel is given by[1]
Wpeak = {1/ hpeak } [ (Wh((load) * No of no sun days / (b * no of

discharging . Days)) + Whload(day) + Whload(night)/ b)]
Where: b = battery efficiency

hpeak = no of hours for which peak insolation falls on the PV cell
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3.1.1 Power Output From Wind Source:

The speed of wind is a random process; therefore it should be described in
terms of statistical methods. The wind speed data were recorded near the
ground surface. To upgrade wind speed data to a particular hub height, the
following equation is commonly used [2]
v = vi (H/Hi)
Where: v-wind speed at projected height, H

vi-wind speed at reference height, Hi
- Power-law exponent (- 1/7 for open land).
Let
m = Mass (in kg) of the air in the hypothetical cylinder which radius is
equal to the vane length
v = the velocity of air in m/s.
So kinetic energy
E = m u2 / 2
Power output Pw = (v2/2) dm/dt
= (v2/2) dQ/dt
= (v3/2) A
Where:
Q = Au = volume of air
= 1.2 ( kg/m3 ) (at mean sea level)
Pw = 0.6 A u3
pa = Pw /A = 0.6u3 = power density (in W/m2) [1]
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Pw is the electrical power output of the turbine.

The available wind generator power output is a function of wind velocity v
PR(v3-vci3)/(vR3-vco3) for vR v vci
Pw = PR for vco v vR
0 otherwise
3.1.2 Calculation Of The Capacity Of The Battery Bank:

The energy generated by Hybrid system involving let say three source
of energy like wind turbine and PV array for hour t,
EG(t) can be expressed as follows:
EG(t) = E1(t) + E2(t) + E3(t)
Where: Ei(t) - energy generated ith source
Since it is assumed that the battery charge efficiency is set equal to

the round-trip efficiency and the discharge efficiency is set equal to 1, we
considered two eases in expressing current energy stored in the batteries for
hour t.
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If the supplied energy from all energy sources exceeds that of the load
demand at a time instant, the batteries will be charged with the round-trip
efficiency:
EB(t) = EB(t-1) + {EG(t) - EL(t) /charging controller }.Battery
Where:
charging controller - efficiency of charging controller,
Battery - round-trip efficiency of the batteries,
EB(t) - energy stored in batteries in hour t,
EB(t-1) - energy stored in batteries in previous hour,
EL(t) - load demand in hour t.
When the load demand is greater than the available energy

generated, the batteries will be discharged by the amount that is needed to
cover the deficit. It can be expressed as follows:
EB(t) = EB(t-1) - { EL(t) /charging controller- EG(t) }
The energy stored in batteries at any hour t is subject to the following

constraint:
EBmax EB(t) EBmin
That means that batteries should not be over discharged or

overcharged at any time. That protects batteries from being damaged.[2]
4. Feature Of Hybrid System

Hybrid systems can address limitations in terms of fuel flexibility,
efficiency, reliability, emissions and / or economics.
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Incorporating heat, power, and highly efficient devices (fuel cells,

advanced materials, cooling systems, etc.) can increase overall efficiency and
conserve energy for a hybrid system when compared with individual
technologies.
Achieving higher reliability can be accomplished with redundant

technologies and/or energy storage. Some hybrid systems typically include
both, which can simultaneously improve the quality and availability of
power.
Hybrid systems can be designed to maximize the use of renewable,

resulting in a system with lower emissions than traditional fossil-fueled
technologies.
Hybrid systems can be designed to achieve desired attributes at the

lowest acceptable cost, which is the key to market acceptance.
5. Wind/PV Hybrid System
A typical hybrid energy system consists of solar and wind energy

sources. The principle of an open loop hybrid system of this type is shown in
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Figure above. The power produced by the wind generators is an AC voltage

but have variable amplitude and frequency that can then be transformed
into DC to charge the battery. The controller protects the battery from
overcharging or deep discharging. As high voltages can be used to reduce
system losses, an inverter is normally in traduced to transform the low DC
voltage to an AC voltage of 230V of frequency 50 Hz.
The system, whose block diagram is shown in Fig, above, consists of 12

photovoltaic (PV) panels, which can provide a total power of 900 W, and a
wind generator that can produce a maximum power of 2200 W. The hybrid
PV-wind generator system has been designed to supply continuous power of
1.5 kW and should has the following capabilities:
Maximizes the electric power produced by the PV panels or by the

wind generator by detecting and tracking the point of maximum power.
Stores the electric energy in lead-acid batteries for a stable repeater

operation.
Controls the charge and discharge processes of the batteries.
Protects wind generator from over speeding by connecting a dummy

load to its output.
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Initiates the operation of a diesel generator or connects the system

to the electric grid (if available), when the renewable energy sources fail to
produce sufficient electric energy.
Provides continuous and uninterruptible electric power (220 V, 50

Hz) to a 1.5-kW house load.[10]
Local solar radiation information: high, low and average values of daily
solar radiation calculated over one year
6. PV/Hydro Hybrid System
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The block diagram of hybrid system, which combines PV with hydro

system, is shown above. In this system there is a small reservoir to store the
water. This type of hybrid system sometimes depends upon the geographical
condition where the water at some height is available. System capacity is
depends upon at the water quantity and solar radiation.
The power supplied by falling water is the rate at which it delivers

energy, and this depends on the flow rate and water head. The local water
flow and head are limited at this project site, and a relatively simple hydro
energy component is used in the project. Hydropower available is may be of
run off river type hence produces variable amplitude and frequency voltage.
It can be use to charge the battery after converting it into DC.
7. Biomass-PV-Diesel Hybrid System
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Biomass Steam
combustio turbine
boiler GEN
n chamber
Hybrid L
Hot water O
controller
for heating A
application D
DC/DC DC/AC
Conv. Conv.
controller
MPPT
Diesel IC
engine GEN
Block diagram of biomass-PV-Diesel Hybrid System
7.1 Biomass Energy:
Biomass is matter usually thought of as garbage. Some of it is just

stuff lying around -- dead trees, tree branches, yard clippings, leftover crops,
wood chips and bark and sawdust from lumber mills. It can even include
used tires and livestock manure [5].
The waste wood, tree branches and other scraps are gathered
together in big trucks. The trucks bring the waste from factories and from
farms to a biomass power plant. Here the biomass is dumped into huge
hoppers. This is then fed into a furnace where it is burned. The heat is used
to boil water in the boiler, and the energy in the steam is used to turn
turbines and generators. [5].
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Other application of Biomass is that it can also be tapped right at the

landfill with burning waster products. When garbage decomposes, it gives
off methane gas. Pipelines are put into the landfills and the methane gas
can be collected. It is then used in power plants to make electricity. or use it
for street lighting. This type of biomass is called landfill gas[5].
A similar thing can be done at animal feed lots. In places where lots of
animals are raised, the animals - like cattle, cows and even chickens -
produce manure. When manure decomposes, it also gives off methane gas
similar to garbage. This gas can be burned right at the farm to make energy
to run the farm. [5]
7.2 Diesel Energy:
In hybrid system diesel energy is only work as a back up source.

When the demand on its peak, so that the available sources are insufficient
for that then the diesel back is required.
7.3 Hybrid Controller:
This is a controller, which maintain the energy balance during the

load variation. It assigns the priority among the energy sources (means
allow one source, which has highest priority, to feed the load if that source is
capable and energy coming from other sources will be stored, otherwise
allow multiple source to feed the load). It also maintains the synchronizing
the voltage signal coming from the different sources. Suppose the
instantaneous magnitude of voltage signal coming from PV sources is differ
from that of coming from other source say biomass. Hence it causes the local
circulating power flow. It can be avoid only by proper synchronizing of
signal.
8. PV/Solar thermal/grid-connected hybrid

System:
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MPPT
Charging DC/DC DC/AC

controller
Hybrid
controller
LOAD
Battery
rectifier
Grid supply
(1- ph for
domestic
application) Bathroom
Tank with heat

insulation
Chamber to
be hot
Water
supply
Block diagram of PV-grid connected-solar thermal Hybrid system
H t t
C ld t
8.1 About Solar Thermal application:
Solar heat is one of the cheapest and most practical forms of

renewable energy. Here are few of the most common applications:
8.1.1 Solar Hot Water Heaters:
The suns light is an excellent source of hot water for home or

commercial use, such as swimming pools, car washes and Laundromats. [9]
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8.1.2 Cooking:
Simple solar ovens and cookers are used around the world in both
commercial kitchens and in peoples homes. Solar cookers can be made with
everyday materials such as cardboard and tinfoil. [9]
8.1.3 Home Heating:
Many homes are designed to take advantage of the sun to provide at

least part of the heat required over the course of a year. [9]
8.2 PV-Solar Thermal-Grid Hybrid System Description:
In the above hybrid system PV-electric power grid is used as the

energy source, for the heating application like hot water for bathing or to
heat a room or chamber, solar water heater is used. The hybrid controller is
work for synchronizing of the different sources as discussed in sec 7.3 This
system are suitable for the places where the solar radiation is available but
other sources like wind, wave etc not have good potential and other fusil
sources are not economic for generation hence this kind of hybrid system
which involving power grid as back-up energy source is good choice.
9. Hybrid System Characteristics
Although hybrid energy systems are open, they can have the characteristics
of a closed system if a subsystem with the function of monitoring is
introduced as a feedback between output (consumer) and input (controller).
As inputs of particular hybrid system cannot be changed. However, the load
may be changed. With a backup system as another energy source (for
example a diesel generator), the system can be designed as a partial closed-
loop feedback system.
There are various possibly to make combination of different energy

sources. Selection of energy source for hybrid system is mainly depends
Dr. L.Umanand 15/18 12/11/2007

CEDT Topic
upon availability at the place where it going to stabilized. In general in

India solar energy is available almost all the places and infrastructure for
power generation is rugged hence need low maintenance so it is smart to
choose to have PV one of the energy sources in hybrid system. Wave and
tidal energy available only at sea shore and need large capital investment
and more maintenance, therefore not compatible for household hybrid
system. But can be use in large power hybrid system. Corrosion because of
seawater is a major drawback. Wind energy source is also a good choice but
more preferable for open land hybrid system. And status of wind throughout
the year is also important. India has monsoon climate hence has enough
potential of wind energy. Biomass energy is good option but it needs regular
feeding to continuously operate. Biomass with grid hybrid system is broadly
used in sugar mill in India. In residential applications, biomass can be used
for space heating or for cooking. Businesses and industry use biomass for
several purposes including space heating, hot water heating, and electricity
generation. Many industrial facilities, such as lumber mills, naturally
produce organic waste. There are still many researches are going on over
geothermal energy in India some of the research organization like IREDA
working over it. For the system to be more reliable and have low cost, power
grid should be involve in the hybrid system
All energy sources have an impact on the environment. Concerns
about the greenhouse effect and global warming, air pollution, and energy
security have led to increasing interest and more development in renewable
energy sources such as solar, wind, geothermal, wave power and hydrogen.
Dr. L.Umanand 16/18 12/11/2007

CEDT Topic
References
1. Bogdan S. Borowy,Ziyad M.Salameh,Methodology For Optimally Sizing The

Combination Of A Battery Bank And PV Array In A Wind/ PV Hybrid
System,IEEE transaction on Energy Conversion, Vol. 11, No. 2, June 1996
2. J J Ding, J S Buckeridge, Design Considerations For A Sustainable Hybrid

Energy System IPENZ Transactions, 2000, Vol. 27, No. 1/EMCh
3. Report On Utilization Of Hybrid Energy Services In Island And Rural

Communities: Indian And European Scenario prepared by Tata Energy
Research Institute (TERI) India.
4. http://www.energyquest.ca.gov/story/
5. http://www.eere.energy.gov/biomass.
6. http://solstice.crest.org/renewables/re-kiosk/biomass/applications/index.shtml
7. http://www.re-energy.ca/t_biomassenergy.shtml
8. http://www.re-energy.ca/t_solarheat.shtml
9. E. Koutroulis, K. Kalaitzakis, N. C. Voulgaris, J. Kaliakatsos, S. Sideris A

Hybrid Pv-Wind Generator System Using A Maximum Power Point Tracking
Technique
10. Chemmangot V.Nayar,Mochamad Ashari,and W.W. Keerthipala,A Grid-

Interactive Photovoltaic Uninterruptible Power Supply System Using Battery
Storage And A Back Up Diesel Generator IEEE transaction on Energy
Conversion, Vol. 15, No. 3, sep 2000
11. R.Chedid, Saifur Rahman,A Dicision Support Technique For The Design Of
Hybrid Solar-Wind Power Systems IEEE transaction on Energy Conversion,
Vol. 13, No. 1, March 1997
Dr. L.Umanand 17/18 12/11/2007

CEDT Topic
12. francois Giraud, Zyiad M. Salameh, Steady-State Performance Of A Grid

Connected Rooftop Hybrid Wind Photovoltaic Power System With Battery
Storage IEEE transaction on Energy Conversion, Vol. 16, No. 1, Mar 2001
Dr. L.Umanand 18/18 12/11/2007

Introduction To Non Conventional Energy Systems

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Introduction To Non Conventional Energy Systems

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Introduction to Non-

Conventional Energy Systems

2 Natural Gas 9350 ~800 7480000 7480

3 Methanol 6200 791 4904200 4904

5 Kerosene 12300 870 10701000 10701

6 Coal 8200 1250-1550 10250000 10250

1. Traditional Energy Systems

Considering the example of energy required for ploughing a field:

Eplough KWh Ecapital KWh Energy efficiency

Traditional farming 6000 60 90%

Modern farming 6000 60000 10%

Sustainable power of individual animals in good

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draft horse 120 3.6 432 0.864 535 1.1 587

ox 120 2.4 288 0.576 535 0.7 391

mule 60 3.6 216 0.432 267 1.1 293

donkey 30 3.6 108 0.216 134 1.1 147

man 18 2.5 45 0.090 80 0.8 61

Moving a body of unit mass with an acceleration 2m/s2 on a 1100x10-6 Whr/kg/m

Moving a body of unit mass with uniform velocity on a horizontal 544x10-6

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plane with coefficient of friction =0.2 Whr/kg/m

Lifting a body of unit mass by unit height 2722x10-6

Energy required to move a body up an inclined plane inclined at an 2863x10-6

Energy required for physical activities of human being (M=68kg)

Running at a speed of 10 km/hr for a time of 1hr 812.7x10-3 Whr

Cycling at a speed of 16 km/hr for a time of 1hr 510.8x10-3 Whr

Swimming at a speed of 2.4 km/hr for a time of 1hr 557.33x10-3 Whr

Electrochemical capacitor 5-15 Whr/kg

Spring 0.1-0.3 Whr/kg

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0.2m 0.4m 0.7m 4m

Time of the year.

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where is the reflection factor which ranges between 0.2 to 0.7.

Following flow chart gives an idea for developing the algorithm:

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Flat Plate Solar

Water In Water Out

Modeling of Heat transfer system:

To understand modeling concept, let us consider a spherical space as shown in the

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Thermal Insulator Thermal Conductor

Rv1 Rc1 Rv2

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Thermal Resistance of the convection path is given by

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Hence, we can write

where h is the thermal coefficient in W/C m2

k = h x [(W/C m2) m]; [W/C m]

Hence, we can write

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Still air 0.026

b) x = 220 mm = 220 x 10-3 m ; k = 0.6 ; A = 1 m2

A typical example of heat transfer by conduction is the case of heat dissipation in

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The maximum operating temperature of a semiconductor junction is about 200 C.

Following figure shows how a semiconductor device is mounted on to a heat sink.