GEOLOGY OF

THE PENGKALAN HULU-BETONG

TRANSECT AREA ALONG
THE MALAYSIA-THAILAND BORDER

By

The Malaysia-Thailand
Working Group

A joint project carried out by

Minerals and Geoscience Department Malaysia

and
Department of Mineral Resources, Thailand

The Malaysia-Thailand Border Joint Geological Survey Committee

(MT-JGSC)
2009
 LIBRARY CLASSIFICATION:
Science
Geoscience
Geology
Mapping Geology

Published by and obtainable from:

MINERALS AND GEOSCIENCE DEPARTMENT MALAYSIA
(Jabatan Mineral dan Geosains Malaysia)
20th Floor, Tabung Haji Building
Tun Razak Road
50658 Kuala Lumpur
Malaysia

Also obtainable from:

TECHNICAL SERVICES DIVISION

(Bahagian Perkhidmatan Teknikal)
Minerals and Geoscience Department Malaysia
(Jabatan Mineral dan Geosains Malaysia)
Scrivenor Road off Sultan Azlan Shah Road
31400 Ipoh
Perak
Malaysia

Price: RM60.00

Printed by:

PERCETAKAN ZAINON KASSIM SDN. BHD.

No. 1 & 3, Tingkat Kilang
Kawasan Perindustrian Ringan Jelapang
30100 Ipoh, Perak Darul Ridzuan

2010
 iii

PREFACE

This report together with the accompanying geological map on the scale 1:250,000 is
the result of close cooperation between the Minerals and Geoscience Department
Malaysia, and the Department of Mineral Resources Thailand in resolving problems
related to cross border geological correlation between Malaysia and Thailand. The
Transect area covers about 1,350 square kilometres along the common Malaysia-Thailand
border. Fieldwork was carried out separately (November 2002 May 2003) in the
Pengkalan Hulu and Betong areas. A joint field check in Malaysia (25th to 28th April
2003) and Thailand (29th April to 1st May 2003) was carried out by the geoscientists from
both Malaysia and Thailand.

Problems on the discontinuity of time rock unit boundaries between the various rock
units found on both sides of the common border areas have been satisfactorily resolved.
Potential mineral deposits occur along the border areas but the present security situation,
as well as environmental issues does not encourage the exploitation of these mineral
deposits. Future increase in the price of minerals coupled with advances in mining
technology may facilitate joint exploitation of these mineral deposits.

Dato Yunus Abdul Razak Adisak Thongkaimook

Director General Director General
Minerals and Geoscience Department Department of Mineral Resources
Malaysia. Thailand.

September 2009 September 2009

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The Malaysia-Thailand Working Group would like to thank the Minerals and
Geoscience Department, Malaysia (JMG) and the Department of Mineral Resources,
Thailand (DMR) for their support and funding of this project. Thanks are also due to the
Malaysia and Thailand military, provincial and border police officials for their help,
especially in security matters.
The Malaysian Working Group would like to thanks to Dr. Mohd Shafeea bin Leman,
Professor, Geology Programme, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, who has helped us to
identify the trilobite and brachiopod samples collected on the Malaysian side of the
Transect area.
The Thai Working Group would like to extend their thanks to Dr. Thanis Wongwanich
the former Director of the Bureau of Geological Survey Division, Department of Mineral
Resources, Thailand, for his encouragements during the study.
Last but not least, thanks are also due to all JMG and DMR officers and staffs for their
support and assistance during the fieldwork and preparation of this report.
 v

Geology of the Pengkalan Hulu-Betong Transect area

along the Malaysia-Thailand border
by

The Malaysia-Thailand Working Group

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Detailed systematic geological mapping in the Pengkalan Hulu-Betong Transect area

on the scales 1:100,000 and 1:250,000 (using the 1:50,000 base maps) was carried out by
the Malaysian Working Group (Appendix 1) during parts of November 2002, January,
February, March and May 2003. On the Thai side, detailed geological mapping on similar
scales was carried out independently by the Thailand Working Group (Appendix 2)
during February 2003 and re-checked during April 2003. Joint field checks at selected
localities along the Transect area by geoscientists from both Malaysia and Thailand were
conducted on the Malaysian side (25th to 28th April 2003) and on the Thai side (29th April
to 1st May 2003). Problems in discontinuity among time rock unit boundaries between the
Palaeozoic rocks to Quaternary deposits, and the extension of granitic rocks (including
the mineral association), have been satisfactorily resolved.
The oldest rock unit, the Silurian-Devonian succession of the Kroh formation/Betong
Formation (SDkr/bt) consists mainly of very thin- to thin-bedded carbonaceous shale (often
siliceous), mudstone, siltstone, sandstone with subordinate chert and argillaceous
limestone lenses in the middle to upper part of the rock sequence. These rocks are
commonly metamorphosed to hornfels, calc-silicate hornfels, metasandstone and marble.
The succession is well exposed along the road-cuts in the middle and southwestern parts
of the Transect area. The thickness of the Silurian-Devonian rocks from representative
section exeeds 100 m. Fossil assemblages such as Spirograptus, Tentaculites elegans,
Tentaculites sp. and Styliolina were found in the shale strata indicate that the age of the
rock sequence is Silurian-Devonian.
The undifferentiated Carboniferous clastic rocks of the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation
(Ckp/yh) are largely exposed in the northwestern, middle and southeastern parts of the
Transect area. Some roof pendants of this rock unit are confined to the middle part of the
Rimba Telui/Si Nakhon granite (Trgrrt/sn) belt. The rock sequence of the Kubang
Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh) with total thickness of more than 800 m is characterized by
the presence of very thin- to medium-bedded sandstone, siltstone, shale and chert at the
lower part; and thick- to very thick-bedded sandstone, argillite, and minor ribbon chert
and limestone lenses at the upper part of the formation. In the central-eastern part of the
Transect area, the succession can be lithologically subdivided into two facies i.e. the
argillaceous and arenaceous facies. The former is well exposed and forms a low relief in
the middle part of the area, near the Chantharat granite (Thailand). It is usually affected
by local deformations and low grade metamorphism that had taken place in the shear and
contact zones, and progrades to thin- to medium-banded phyllite, phyllitic schist, mica
schist and quartz schist with minor quartzite and calc-silicate. The thickness of this facies
is inconclusive due to strong folding of the strata. The arenaceous facies is well exposed
along several road-cuts on high relief terrains. It is characterized by the presence of
medium- to very thick-bedded sandstone, quartzite and minor argillite with inconclusive
vi

thickness. The age of the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh) is considered to be

Carboniferous as indicated by the presence of radiolarian and conodont Phatonothus in
the siliceous rocks.
The Permian Ratburi Group is well distributed in the northern part of the Transect
area. Some patches of the unit are locally distributed as small hills to the west of Betong
town, located in the middle part of the Transect area. The succession can be lithologically
subdivided into two formations; the lower clastic, Sri Paen formation (Psp) and the upper
carbonate, Tham Krachaeng (Ptk) formation. The Sri Paen formation (Psp), 500 m thick,
comprises predominantly very thin- to thin-bedded argillaceous limestone, shale, siltstone
and chert with minor sandstone in the upper part. Some successions are locally deformed
and metamorphosed to phyllitic shale, schist and calc-silicate rocks. The Tham
Krachaeng formation (Ptk), is mostly recrystallized, consisting of thick to massive
recrystallized limestone to marble with chert nodules. Thickness of this rock unit is
inconclusive. The occurrence of fossil assemblages, i.e. bivalves and brachiopods in
siltstone strata, radiolarian assemblage in siliceous bed, and fusulinids and brachiopod
fragments in limestone layers, indicates that the age of the Ratburi Group in the Transect
area is Permian.
The term Gerik formation (Pgk) formerly designated as Grik tuff (Jones, 1970 &
Burton, 1986) is introduced by the Malaysian Working Group in this report. It is fairly
well-developed around Gerik town (Malaysia), situated in the southern part of the
Transect area. The formation consists of rhyolitic to rhyodacitic tuffs and occasionally
metamorphosed. These tuffaceous rocks also contain variable amounts of clastic
sediments of limestone and lenses of calcareous shale. Interbeds of tuff, limestone and
calcareous shale are also present. The Gerik formation (Pgk) is overlying both the Kubang
Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh) and the Kroh formation (SDkr). The age of the Gerik
formation (Pgk) is expected to be Permian as indicated by the presence of Anisopyge sp.
and Phillipsia sp. (trilobite) found in calcareous shale interbedded with tuff and sandstone
at Kampung Batu 2, Gerik. Chonetid (brachipod) is also observed within this rock unit.
The Berapit formation (Kbr) is a new rock formation introduced by the Malaysian
Working Group to explain the very well cemented conglomerate unit deposited in a
continental fluvial channel area, unconformably overlying the Kroh formation/Betong
Formation (SDkr/bt). Outcrops of this rock unit are well exposed at Km 2.2 along the
Malaysian side of the Malaysia-Thailand border security road. The earlier workers
considered this rock unit as the lowermost part of the Nenering beds (Qnn). The presence
of few Caronatispora telata and Spheripollertes scabratus (pollen) indicates that the age
of this formation is Mid Cretaceous (Aptian-Albian).
The unconsolidated sediments were deposited in non-marine environments and can be
subdivided into two formations in ascending order: the Nenering beds/Ai Yoe Boe Chang
Gravel beds (Qnn/ay) and Recent fluvial deposit (Qa). The Pleistocene gravel beds of the
Nenering beds/Ai Yoe Boe Chang sediments are more than 25 m thick, and are well
exposed as small hills around Betong District. It is composed of gravel, sand, silt, and
laterite with abundant iron concretions. The size of various pebbles in gravel beds
decreases westwards, towards Betong town. The Holocene fluvial deposit is well
deposited as channel filled in the Khlong Ka Pae and Pattani rivers. It is mainly composed
of sand, silt and clay.
The Palaeozoic succession in the Transect area was intruded by the Triassic granite
which can be divided into six units: Rimba Telui/Si Nakhon granite (Trgrrt/sn), Bintang
granite (Trgrbt), Chantharat granite (Trgrch), Damar granite (Trgrdm), Batu Puteh/Pa Ret Tu
 vii

granite (Trgrbp/pr) and Kawi granite (Trgrkw). The names of the granites introduced in this
report do not imply that they are of different ages or types. They are used just to
differentiate the different sub-zones and salient of the granite texture that forms the Main
Range Granite Belt. The Rimba Telui/Si Nakhon granite (Trgrrt/sn) located in the western
part of the Transect area near the Malaysia-Thailand border consists of medium- to
coarse-grained, porphyritic biotite granite including pegmatite and minor phases of aplite
or leucocratic granite, barite and base metal sulfide minerals. The Batu Puteh/Pa Ret Tu
granite (Trgrbp/pr) occupies central part of the Transect area. The granite consist of
medium- to coarse-grained, equigranular biotite granite, aplite and pegmatite are highly
weathered. Tin mineralization is commonly associated with Batu Puteh/Pa Ret Tu granite
(Trgrbp/pr). The Chantharat granite (Trgrch), exposed in the eastern part of the Transect area,
consists of medium- to coarse-grained, porphyritic biotite granite including aplite,
pegmatite and minor phases of chlorite and tourmaline-biotite granite. The Bintang
granite (Trgrbt), exposed in southwestern corner of the Transect area is typically medium-
to coarse-grained, grey, porphyritic and invariably mottled with black biotite. The Damar
granite (Trgrdm), exposed southwest of the Pengkalan Hulu town is characterized by fine-
to medium-grained, grey, equigranular granite, commonly containing both muscovite and
biotite. The Kawi granite (Trgrkw) is exposed as small isolated bodies within the Rimba
Telui/Si Nakhon granite (Trgrrt/sn) in the Ulu Muda area, Malaysia at the western part of
the Transect area. It is characterized by fine- to medium-grained, light grey, leucocratic,
equigranular, biotite-muscovite granite. The main mineral constituents are quartz, alkali
feldspar, plagioclase, biotite and muscovite.
N-S and NE-SW trending quartz dykes and some igneous stocks usually intruded into
the country rocks, especially the Carboniferous rocks at the southern and central parts of
the Transect area. Contact metamorphism and the associated late stage mineralizations
may be observed in the country rocks.
Structurally, strata of the Palaeozoic succession are generally folded into isoclinal fold
which have been tilted showing repeated sequence especially near the igneous pluton.
Normal and strike-slip faults are conspicuous with three main directions i.e. N-S, NW-SE
and NE-SW especially in the western part of the Bang Lang Dam site, Thailand.
Historically, marine sedimentation took place continuously throughout the Silurian-
Devonian and Permian Periods, nevertheless, large breaks can be observed due to
uplifting of the depositional basins during the Mesozoic Era by Triassic granite intrusion.
Some mineral resources had been discovered and exploited since the last century and
majority of them is related to granite intrusions and subsequent hydrothermal activities.
The Tham Ta Lu and La Bu base metal sulphide and carbonate mineralization are the
most well known mineral resources produced from the Bannang Sta area, Thailand for
many years. Other minerals are tin, rock aggregates, barite, limestone, and dimension
stone. Volcanic rocks with high flux content occur in the Gerik area, Malaysia. Detailed
study on its potential as a source for feldspar is recommended.
 ix

CONTENTS
Page
PREFACE ...................................................................................................................... iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ..................................................................................................iv
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .................................................................................................v
CONTENTS .......................................................................................................................ix
LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................x
1. INTRODUCTION ...........................................................................................................1
2. PREVIOUS WORKS AND GEOLOGIC SETTING......................................................4
2.1 Previous Works..........................................................................................................4
2.2 Geologic Setting.........................................................................................................6
2.2.1 Geologic setting of the Malaysian side...............................................................6
2.2.2 Geologic setting of the Thai side ......................................................................10
3. LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY .............................................................................................16
3.1 Sedimentary and Metamorphic Rocks .....................................................................16
3.1.1 The Kroh formation/Betong Formation (SDkr/bt) ..............................................16
3.1.2 The Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh) ......................................................22
3.1.3 The Ratburi Group (P) ......................................................................................31
3.1.4 The Gerik formation (Pgk).................................................................................39
3.1.5 The Berapit formation (Kbr) ..............................................................................43
3.2 Quaternary Geology.................................................................................................44
3.2.1 Nenering beds/Ai Yoe Boe Chang Gravel beds (Qnn/ay) ...................................44
3.2.2 Recent fluvial deposit (Qa)................................................................................51
3.3 Igneous Rocks..........................................................................................................52
3.3.1 Rimba Telui/Si Nakhon granite (Trgrrt/sn)..........................................................53
3.3.2 Bintang granite (Trgrbt) ......................................................................................55
3.3.3 Chantharat granite (Trgrch).................................................................................56
3.3.4 Damar granite (Trgrdm) ......................................................................................57
3.3.5 Batu Puteh/Pa Ret Tu granite (Trgrbp/pr) ............................................................58
3.3.6 Kawi granite (Trgrkw).........................................................................................59
4. STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY AND TECTONICS ........................................................60
5. ECONOMIC GEOLOGY..............................................................................................62
5.1 Introduction..............................................................................................................62
5.2 Metallic Minerals .....................................................................................................63
5.2.1 Tin .....................................................................................................................63
5.2.2 Tungsten............................................................................................................68
5.2.3 Heavy minerals .................................................................................................68
5.2.4 Gold...................................................................................................................68
5.3 Non-Metallic Minerals and Hot Springs..................................................................69
5.3.1 Barite.................................................................................................................69
5.3.2 Rock aggregates ................................................................................................70
5.3.3 Sand and gravels ...............................................................................................70
5.3.4 Volcanic rocks with high flux content ..............................................................72
5.3.5 Hot springs ........................................................................................................72
6. DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS .......................................................................73
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY.........................................................................................76
APPENDICES ...................................................................................................................80
x

LIST OF FIGURES
Page

Figure 1: Location map of the Transect area. ............................................................................. 2

Figure 2: Photographs showing topography of the Transect area............................................... 3
Figure 3: Schematic stratigraphic column of the Betong-Pengkalan Hulu Transect area,
Malaysia (not to scale). ............................................................................................... 1
Figure 4: Simplified geological correlation of the Transect area on the Malaysian side............ v
Figure 5: General succession of the Betong-Pengkalan Hulu Transect area on the Thai side.. 13
Figure 6: Simplified geological correlation of the Transect area on the Thai side. .................. 14
Figure 7: Simplified geological correlation of the rock units in the Pengkalan Hulu-Betong
Transect area.............................................................................................................. 15
Figure 8: Argillaceous facies of the Kroh formation/Betong Formation (SDkr/bt). ................... 19
Figure 9: Fossils in the argillaceous facies of the Kroh formation/Betong Formation (SDkr/bt) on
the Malaysian side of the Transect area. ................................................................... 19
Figure 10: Fossils in the argillaceous facies of the Kroh formation/Betong Formation (SDkr/bt) at
Km 4, Malaysia-Thailand border road, Thailand. ..................................................... 20
Figure 11: Arenaceous facies of the Kroh formation/Betong Formation (SDkr/bt). ..................... 20
Figure 12: Outcrops of the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh) on the Malaysian side......... 24
Figure 13: Photographs showing the successions of the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh) in
the southern part of the area (Thai side).................................................................... 26
Figure 14: Stratigraphic sequence of the Yaha Formation (Cyh) in the Transect area (Thailand).
................................................................................................................................... 27
Figure 15: Photographs showing the arenaceous facies of the Kubang Pasu Formation/Yaha
Formation (Ckp/yh) in Malaysia. ................................................................................. 28
Figure 16: Photographs showing the arenaceous facies of the Kubang Pasu Formation/Yaha
Formation (Ckp/yh) in Thailand. .................................................................................. 29
Figure 17: Photographs showing argillaceous facies with thin- to medium-banded phyllite,
phyllitic schist, mica schist and quartz schist of the Yaha Formation (Cyh2), Thailand.
................................................................................................................................... 30
Figure 18: Stratigraphic sequence of the Sri Paen formation (Psp) in the Transect area. ............ 33
Figure 19: Photographs of the siliceous chert at the lower part of the Sri Paen formation (Psp) at
Amphoe Than To, Map Sheet (5221 III), grid reference 4677847, Thailand. .......... 34
Figure 20: Photographs of the upper portion of the lower part of the Sri Paen formation (Psp) at
Amphoe Than To, Map Sheet (5221 III), Thailand................................................... 35
Figure 21: Well preserved brachiopods and bivalves in the rocks of the Sri Paen formation (Psp)
at Ban Na Kaset, Thailand......................................................................................... 35
Figure 22: Middle portion of the upper part of the Sri Paen formation (Psp) at Ban Na Kaset,
Thailand..................................................................................................................... 36
Figure 23: The slightly developed S1 cleavages in the N-S direction, and generally dipping
eastwards at Ban Than To, Map Sheet (5221 III), Thailand. .................................... 36
Figure 24: Photographs of limestone at Ku Nung Chanong village, in the western part of the
Betong town, Thailand. ............................................................................................. 37
Figure 25: Limestone of the Tham Krachaeng formation (Pkc) at Tham Krachaeng, Ban Than
To, Map Sheet (5221 III), Thailand........................................................................... 38
Figure 26: Fusulinid-bearing limestone of the Tham Krachaeng formation (Pkc) at the Ku Nung
Chanong, Amphoe Betong Map Sheet (5220 IV). .................................................... 38
Figure 27: Stratigraphic sequence of the Gerik Formation (Pgk) exposed at Kampung Batu 2,
Gerik.......................................................................................................................... 40
Figure 28: Photographs of fossils found in the Gerik formation (Pgk), Malaysia. ...................... 41
Figure 29: Photograph outcrops of the Gerik formation (Pgk). ................................................... 42
Figure 30: Photographs of tuffs of the Gerik formation (Pgk), Malaysia. ................................... 42
Figure 31: Photographs of exposures of the Berapit formation (Kbr) at Km 2.2 along the
Malaysia-Thailand border security road (Malaysia). ................................................ 44
 xi

Figure 32: Exposures of the Nenering beds/Ai Yoe Boe Chang Gravel beds (Qnn/ay) on the
Malaysian side. ..........................................................................................................46
Figure 33: Exposures of the Nenering beds/Ai Yoe Boe Chang Gravel beds (Qnn/ay) at Ban Ai
Boe Chang, Thailand. ................................................................................................47
Figure 34: The Nenering beds/Ai Yoe Boe Chang Gravel beds (Qnn/ay) exposed at Ko Mo 7
Village, north of Betong, Thailand. ...........................................................................48
Figure 35: Outcrop of Basal Gravel Beds facies on the Malaysian and Thai sides........................49
Figure 36: Exposures of Gravelly Sand Layers facies on the Malaysian and Thai sides. ...........49
Figure 37: Effects of neo-tectonic on the Nenering beds/Ai Yoe Boe Chang Gravel beds (Qnn/ay)
on the Malaysian and Thai sides................................................................................50
Figure 38: Recent fluvial deposits on the Malaysian and Thai sides. .........................................52
Figure 39: The Rimba Telui/Si Nakhon granite (Trgrrt/sn) ............................................................54
Figure 40: A typical Bintang granite (Trgrbt) at Pong Hydroelectric Dam, Sungai Pong, Kelian
Intan area, Malaysia. ..................................................................................................56
Figure 41: The Chantharat granite (Trgrch) at Ban Chulaporn 10, Chantharat area, Thailand. ....57
Figure 42: The Damar granite (Trgrdm) at Kampung Belukar Semang, Malaysia........................58
Figure 43: Leucocratic, fine-to medium-grained, equigranular to inequigranular texture, in
nature and tourmaline-biotite granite, of Pa Ret Tu granite (Trgrbp/pr). Location: Ai
Yoe Weng village, Thailand. .....................................................................................59
Figure 44: Metallic and non-metallic mineral occurences in the Transect area. .........................62
Figure 45: The Rahman Hydraulic Tin Berhad, Kelian Intan, Malaysia.....................................64
Figure 46: Tham Thalu mine, Thailand.......................................................................................65
Figure 47: Environmental improvement work by secure landfill at Na Sua mine, Thailand. .....66
Figure 48: Open-cut at Pin Yoh mine, Bannang Sta District, Thailand. .....................................67
Figure 49: Occurrence of barite in the Malaysia and Thailand border areas...............................69
Figure 50: Limestone quarry at Bukit Jagor, Gerik, Malaysia. ...................................................71
Figure 51: Quarries in Yala Province, Thailand..........................................................................71
Figure 52: Sand mining in Sungai Pong, Kelian Intan area, Malaysia........................................71
Figure 53: Hot springs in Malaysia. ............................................................................................72
Figure 54: Hot springs in Thailand..............................................................................................73
 1

1. INTRODUCTION
The Malaysia-Thailand Border Joint Geological Survey Committee (MT-JGSC) has
selected the Pengkalan Hulu-Betong Transect area for the joint geological study during
the Fourth MT-JGSC Meeting held in Narathiwat, Thailand on 20th September 2002. The
southern and western parts of the Transect area are situated in north Perak and east
Kedah, Malaysia. The northern and eastern portions of the Transect area cover the Yala
and Betong areas, Thailand. The Transect area is bounded by latitude 5o 25 24 N to
6o 18 0 N and longitude 100o 57 24 E to 101o 15 0 E, covering a total area of
3,411 square kilometres (1,711 square kilometres on the Malaysian side and 1,700 square
kilometres on the Thai side). The Malaysian side of the Transect area is covered by
1:50,000 scale topographic map Sheets 3566 (Gerik), 3567 (Pengkalan Hulu),
3568 (Bukit Mudin Besar) and part of the Sheets 3666 (Tasek Temengor) and
3667 (Belum). On the Thai side, it is geographically covered by four topographic map
sheets scale 1:50,000 of Amphoe Yaha (5221 IV), Amphoe Than To (5221 III), Amphoe
Betong (5220 IV) and Ban Ai Yoe Boe Chang (5220 III) Quadrangles. Figure 1 shows the
location of the Transect area.

Seventy percent of the Transect area on the Malaysian side is geomorphologically

mountainous terrains covered by thick tropical forest: the Ulu Muda Forest Reserve (to
the north), Bintang Hijau Forest Reserve (to the south), Padang Chong Forest Reserve (in
the central part) and Lepang Nenering Forest Reserve (to the east). Another 30% of the
Transect area is covered by relatively undulating terrains cultivated with rubber trees
(Hevea brasiliensis) and oil palm trees (Elais Gueniensis), especially around the
Pengkalan Hulu and Gerik towns. The highest peak on the Malaysian side of the Transect
area is Gunung Kenderong which is 1,223 m above mean sea level (Figure 2A).
Eighty to eighty five percents of the western and eastern sides of the Transect area on
the Thai side are of mountainous terrains covered by thick forest especially in the west,
near the Malaysia-Thailand border (Figure 2B). Rubber trees, oil palm trees and forested
terrains cover the southeastern part of the Transect area. Another 15% 20% of the
central part of the area is covered by relatively undulating terrains and isolated hills
planted with rubber and oil palm trees. The highest elevation on the Thai side is Khao Ku
Bang Ba Dak (1,134 m above mean sea level). The low lying residental area in the
southwestern part of the Transect area is underlain by Quaternary deposits.
The climate of the Transect area is Tropical Rainforest type (Koppen`s: Af climate).
The mean annual rainfall for 30 years (from 1951 to 1980) was 2,618.8 mm. The hottest
month was May (28.4 C in average) and the coldest month was in December (25.9 C in
average).
On the Malaysian side, geological mapping programmes on the scale 1:63,360 within
the Transect area and its vicinity had been carried out by many workers since 1960s until
mid 1990s. The geology of the area was later remapped on the scale 1:50,000 by the
Malaysian Technical Working Group comprising geoscientists of Minerals and
Geoscience Department Malaysia, as part of the work programme of the Malaysia-
Thailand Border Joint Geological Survey project. Fieldworks have been conducted during
the period of 1st to 8th November 2002, 14th to 30th January, 17th to 28th February, 17th to
21st March 2003 and 22nd to 31st May 2003. General succession of the rock units in the
Transect area is summarised in Figure 3 and the simplified geological correlation as
compared to the geology of the Northern Peninsular Malaysia is summarised in Figure 4.
2

1010'E 10115'E

95 E 100 E 105 E

TT H
H A
A II LL A
A N
N D
D

615'N
615'N

20 N

20 N
M
M A
A LL A
A Y
Y S
S II A
A
Amphoe
Than To

THAILAND

15 N

15 N
Bangkok

10 N

10 N
60'N
60'N

TRANSECT AREA

5 N
5 N

MALAYSIA

Kuala Lumpur

95 E 100 E 105 E

Amphoe
Betong
545'N
545'N

Pengkalan TT H
H A
A II LL A
A N
N D
D
Hulu
Tasek 0 150 300 600 900 1,200 1,500

Kelian Intan Kilometres

M
M A
A LL A
A Y
Y S
S II A
A
Legend

Town
530'N
530'N

Roads
Bersia
International Boundary
Streams
Gerik

1010'E 10115'E

Figure 1: Location map of the Transect area.

 3

On the Thai side, detailed systematic geological mapping in the Transect area was
carried out during February 2003 and re-checked during March 2003 by geoscientists of
the Bureau of Geological Survey, and Bureau of Mineral Resources of the Department of
Mineral Resources, Thailand. Joint field checks were later carried out along the Transect
area on the Malaysian side (25th to 28th April 2003) and on the Thai side (29th April to
1st May 2003) by the geoscientists of both countries.
Discussions, exchanges of ideas and information on the geology and mineral resources
of the Transect area were also conducted by the Malaysia-Thailand Working Group.
Agreements on geological mapping units on both sides of the Transect area were resolved
based on the lithological, paleontological and structural similarities that enabled the
Working Group to delineate the mutually agreeable geological boundaries. A preliminary
geological report and map on the scale 1:100,000 covering the Transect area was prepared
and discussed during the First Interim Meeting (24 27 April 2003). Maps and reports of
the Transect area were jointly prepared and finalised by the Malaysia-Thailand Working
Group.
The main objectives of this study are to get a better understanding on the local
geology, to solve problems on the geological boundaries of the rock units and to study
their correlation within the survey area by using stratigraphic succession, lithologic
similarities, and fossils assemblages discovered during the survey or reported by the
earlier workers. The occurrences of mineral deposits on both sides of the Transect are
also taken into consideration.

A B
Figure 2: Photographs showing topography of the Transect area
A - Gunung Kenerong (higher) and Gunung Kerunai (lower) on the Malaysian side
of the Transect area. Photograph facing to SE from Gerik-Pengkalan Hulu road.
B - Topography of the Transect area on the Thai side.
4

2. PREVIOUS WORKS AND GEOLOGIC SETTING

2.1 Previous Works

Systematic geological mapping on the scale of 1:63,360 covering the Transect area on
the Malaysian side had been intially carried out by the geologists of formerly Geological
Survey Department between 1957 to 1963, i.e. C.R. Jones and C.K. Burton in the Gerik
and Baling areas, respectively. Their works were later published as District Memoir 11
(Jones, 1970) and District Memoir 12 (Burton, 1970). Burton (1965 & 1970) informally
introduced the term Baling formation to designate a widespread sequence of graptolites
and Tentaculites bearing black shale, sub-mature arenites, calcareous shales, siltstone,
calcareous sandstone and limestone exposed in the Baling area, Kedah. The geographic
name of this formation has been taken after the name of the Baling town, east of Kedah
State. Burton (1965) assigned the age of the Baling formation as Early Silurian based on
graptolites found in this area. The term Baling formation was also adopted by Jones
(1968a) for pre-granite sedimentary rocks in the Gerik area. Later, Burton (1967 & 1972)
indicated the possibility of raising the status of Baling formation to Baling group.
In the Baling area, Burton (1970) recognised four principal lithofacies in the Baling
formation (now known as Baling group): argillaceous facies (mainly carbonaceous and
siliceous shales), with subordinate arenaceous, calc-silicate facies and minor calcareous
facies. Similar stratigraphic nomenclature was followed by Jones (1970) for the rock units
in the Gerik area, but with inclusion of a prominent pyroclastic facies (rhyolitic to
rhyodacitic tuffs) into the Baling formation. Jones (1973a) estimated the thickness of the
Baling group rock sequence is at least 2,700 m. Burton (1986) reviewed the Baling
formation and raised its stratigraphic rank to the Baling group. He divided the Baling
group into three units:
i) Kroh formation: composed of predominantly black argillites with minor
calcareous rocks.
ii) Grik tuff: composed of a thick sequence of pyroclastic rocks of rhyolitic to
rhyodacitic composition.
iii) Papulut quartzite: composed of arenites and limestone, and calc-silicate rocks.
Systematic geological mapping activity in the north Perak and north Kedah areas was
stopped for sometimes due to security reasons. However, systematic geological mapping
programme on the scale of 1:63,360 was later resumed in early nineties when problems
on security were settled. Mohd Badzran et al. mapped the Kerunai area (Sheet 19) during
the year 1991-1993, and Mohd Asbi et al. mapped part of the Gerik area (Sheet 31)
during the year 1994-1996. They adopted the stratigraphic rank of Baling formation as
proposed by Burton (1970) and Jones (1970). Abdullah Sulaiman and Mat Niza Abdul
Rahman mapped the Gubir area (Sheet 9 and parts of Sheets 2, 3 & 10) and the Baling
area (parts of Sheet 18) in 1995-1999 but they adopted the stratigraphical rank Baling
group as proposed by Burton (1986).
Mohd Badzran et al. (1993) noted the occurrence of two younger rock units in the
Kerunai area and assigned the two rock units as Kobeh sandstone (Triassic?) and
Nenering beds (late TertiaryPleistocene?). The term Kobeh sandstone was referred to the
sequence of areno-argillaceous rocks, assumed overlying uncomformably the Kroh
formation (SDkr). Exposures of this rock unit can be observed along the security road of
Malaysia-Thailand border in the Nenering area. The Nenering beds was introduced for
the semi-consolidated continental deposits, which is correlatable with the late Tertiary
Pleistocene Lawin beds.
 5

Basir Jasin (1995) reported the occurrence of Early Carboniferous radiolarian in the
chert of the Kubang Pasu Formation. Basir Jasin and Zaiton Harun (2001) confirmed the
earlier finding and they also reported the occurrences of Albailella indensis-rota
Assemblage Zone in the chert representing the lower part of the Kubang Pasu Formation
at Bukit Binjal, Kedah. This confirms that the age of the Kubang Pasu Formation is late
Tournaisian (Early Carboniferous).
The Transect area on the Thai side was first mapped by the then Geological Survey
Division, Department of Mineral Resources Thailand (Muenlek et al., 1979) on scale
1:250,000 at Sheet NB 47-85 (Changwat Narathiwat and Takbai District; reprinted in
1985) and Sheet NB 47-12 (Betong District; reprinted in 1985). Muenlek et al. (1979)
introduced the Silurian-Devonian rocks as the Ban To and Betong Formations. The
former consists of recrystallized limestones to marble, quartzite, phyllite, phyllitic schist
and mica-schist, and the latter comprises shales with Tentaculites elegans, cherts,
siliceous shales, meta-tuff, carbonaceous shales, argillite, mudstones, sandstones and
bedded recrystallized limestones.
Hutchison and Taylor (1978) proposed three geographical granite belts in Malaysian
peninsula based on lithology and petrochemistry of the granite. The Eastern belt
granitoids are composed mostly of I-type, magnetite series granitoids. The Main Range
granitoids in the central belt are composed mainly of S-type, ilmenite series granitoids
with minor intrusion of I-type, magnetite series granitoids. The western belt granitoids
consist of both I-type, magnetite series granitoids and S-type, ilmenite series granitoids.
Muenlek et al. (1982) published a regional geological map, Narathiwat sheet scale
1:250,000. The individual granite pluton was preliminarily studied petrographically, and
subsequently three granite phases were classified as gneissic granite, coarse-grained
porphyritic biotite granite and tourmaline-muscovite granite.
Cobbing et al. (1986) studied petrography, geochemistry, and Rb/Sr age determination
of the granites of the South East Asian tin belt. They suggested that the granites in the
east coast of Thai-Malay peninsula are mainly Triassic in age. The granite within the
Transect area can be classified as a Triassic Main Range Granite or Triassic Central Belt
Granite.
Nakapadungrat et al. (1988) introduced the Carboniferous rock sequences cropping out
in Sabayoi Quadrangle, Thailand as the Yaha Formation, which can be correlated with the
Kubang Pasu Formation on the Malaysian side.
Sashida et al. (1998) reported the occurrence of Early Carboniferous radiolarians in
chert lenses intercalated with sandstone and siltstone-dominated sequence at Ban Wang
Yai, 12 km east of Na Thawi District and Ban Kabang of Kabang District, Yala Province.
These radiolarians are Eutactinia varispina, E. vulgaris, Astroentactinia multispinosa,
Spongentactinia sp., and Triaenospaera sp. indicative of an Early Carboniferous age of
Tournaisian stage (Sashida et al., 2000).
Charusiri, B & Charusiri, P. (1990) studied the geology and Sn-minineralization at Pin
Yo mine in the Tham Talu mineralization zone. They concluded that the Sn- and Ba-
mineralization could be classified as a metasomatic exoskarn in contact zone of Triassic
granite and Permian limestone.
Tonnayopas (1994) studied the geology and stratigraphy of the Bang Lang Dam area
situated in the northeastern part of the Transect area. He suggested that sequence of
mainly sandstone, shale, argillite and schist in the Bang Lang Dam site area could be
identified to the Kanchanaburi Formation introduced by Javanaphet (1969); with igneous
intrusion in the west of the dam site. Tonnayopas (1994) separated the Kanchanaburi
6

Formation into Bang Lang Formation; consisting mainly of clastic sedimentary rocks
unconformably underlain by the metamorphic rocks of the Hala Formation with an
angular contact.
Utha-aroon et al. (2000) reviewed the mineral resources near the Malaysia-Thailand
border. They suggested that the mineralizations were related to granite intrusions and
subsequent hydrothermal activities.

2.2 Geologic Setting

2.2.1 Geologic setting of the Malaysian side

The Kroh formation (SDkr), representing Early Palaeozoic marine sediments, is the
oldest known rock unit on the Malaysian side of the Transect area. It consists of black,
very thin- to thin-bedded, carbonaceous shale and mudstone, often siliceous; and chert
with subordinate lenses of arenaceous and calcareous rocks. These rocks are commonly
metamorphosed to hornfels, calc-silicate hornfels, metasandstone and marble. The
argillaceous strata in the upper part of the Kroh formation (SDkr) are relatively rich in
faunal assemblages of graptolites, coniconchids, Tentaculites, styliolinids, trilobite and
shelly fossils as compared to the middle and lower parts. Fossil assemblages that occur
within the whole rocks succession indicate that the age of the Kroh formation (SDkr)
ranges from Early Silurian to Devonian.
Upper Palaeozoic rock is represented by the Kubang Pasu Formation (Carboniferous)
and Gerik formation (Middle Permian). The Kubang Pasu Formation (Ckp) comprises
essentially thick interbeds of arenaceous, subordinate argillaceous and minor siliceous
rocks. The arenaceous rock is composed of thick-bedded sandstones i.e., greywacke-
subgreywacke, with minor graded and cross-bedded quartz arenite. The argillaceous rock
consists of shale, mudstone and a variety of a very fine-grained, poorly sorted, argillo-
arenaceous deposits varying from muddy silstone through wacke. The siliceous rock
consists of thin-bedded chert and siliceous shale. In places, the chert contains rounded
structure made up of microcrystalline quartz and chalcedony that resemble trace of
radiolarian fossils. However, the processed samples of cherts yielded very poor recovery
and did not show the occurrence of any diagnostic radiolaria. Some mudstone nodules are
also observed within the chert (more commonly as siliceous mudstone/shale).
The Kubang Pasu Formation (Ckp) in the Transect area is lithologically similar to the
succession exposed in the Kuala Nerang area of northern Kedah. However, fossils have
not yet been found in the study area except some undeterminable plant remains. Based on
lithological correlation with the fossiliferous succession exposed in the Kuala Nerang
area, a Carboniferous age is assigned to this rock unit. Good outcrops of this formation
can also be observed along the border security road in FELDA Nenering area, Pengkalan
Hulu, Perak. The Kubang Pasu Formation (Ckp) also comprises essentially well-bedded
sandstone interbedded with subordinate shale and minor siltstone.
The Gerik formation (Pgk) overlies conformably the Kubang Pasu Formation (Ckp). The
geographic name of this rock unit was taken after the Gerik town; north Perak, in the
southern part of the Transect area where the rock sequence is well exposed. The formation
consists of pyroclastic rocks, mainly tuffs of rhyolitic to rhyodacitic composition with
both limestone and calcareous shale lenses that occur sporadically. This rock unit is well
exposed on the road-cuts in the vicinity of Gerik town, and at an abandoned quarry at
Bukit Jagor, in the southern part of the Transect area. The tuffs of Gerik formation (Pgk)
are occasionally metamorphosed. The age of the Gerik formation (Pgk) is not older than
 7

Permian as indicated by the presence of Anisopyge sp., Phillipsia sp. (trilobite) and
chonetid (brachipod) within the calcareous shale at Kampong Batu 2, Gerik (Mohd.
Shafeea Leman, Pers. Comm).
The Berapit formation (Kbr) overlies unconformably the steeper dipping and tightly
folded Kroh formation (SDkr).
The Nenering beds (Qnn) is well exposed along Kampung Ayer Panas-Kampung
Lalang road and along the Malaysian border route, covering an area of about 12 square
kilometres. It is made up essentially of gravelly, sandy and clayey layers. Generally, the
outcrop shows a broad syncline with its axis trending approximately NNW-SSE and
plunging NNW. The Nenering beds (Qnn) overlies unconformably the Berapit formation
(Kbr). Numerous sand filled gullies and channels can be seen through out this unit. Based
on grain size analysis of the Nenering beds (Qnn), Mohd Pauzi Abdullah (1992) indicated
that this sediment may be deposited in fluviatile environments (following the Moiola and
Waiser classification).
Young alluvial deposits of appreciable extent and thickness are present along the
valley of the Sungai Perak, Sungai Rui, Sungai Pengkalan Hulu and their larger
tributaries. The Recent deposits have been accumulated through fluviatile accretion in the
floodplains of the rivers. The best examples occur in the meandering lower reaches of
Sungai Rui, along the big loop of Sungai Perak opposite Kampung Kuala Rui, and south
of Pengkalan Hulu town. A simplified stratigraphic column of the Transect area on the
Malaysian side is shown in Figure 3. Simplified geological correlation of the Transect
area as compared to the geology of the Northern Peninsular Malaysia is summarised in
Figure 4.
The igneous rocks in the Transect area are represented by the granitic rocks of the
Main Range Granite Belt. The granites can be conveniently divided into three units
namely Rimba Telui granite (Trgrrt), Bintang granite (Trgrbt) and Damar granite (Trgrdm).
The Rimba Telui granite (Trgrrt) occurs as major proportion of the rock unit in the
Transect area, covering an area of approximately 560 square kilometres. It forms a large
batholith underlying the Kubang Pasu Formation (Ckp) in the western part of the Transect
area. The Bintang granite (Trgrbt) is exposed in the southwestern corner of the Transect
area. It is in contact with the Kubang Pasu Formation (Ckp), Gerik formation (Pgk) and
Kroh formation (SDkr). The Damar granite (Trgrdm) forms a rectangular block of
approximately 20 square kilometres in southwestern part of the Transect area. It intruded
into the Kroh formation (SDkr) and has introduced contact metamorphism along its
margin.
The Rimba Telui granite (Trgrrt) and Bintang granite (Trgrbt) are typically grey,
medium- to coarse-grained, porphyritic and invariably mottled with black biotite whereas
the Damar granite (Trgrdm) is characterized by grey, fine- to medium-grained, equigranular
granite, commonly containing both muscovite and biotite.
 8

PERIOD/EPOCH FORMATION/UNIT STRATIGRAPHIC COLUMN DESCRIPTION

Surficial deposits - unconsolidated gravel, sand, silt and clay of fluviatile and colluvial
HOLOCENE Alluvium (Qa) origin.

PLEISTOCENE Nenering beds (Qnn) Semi-consolidated deposits consist of gravelly, sandy and silty beds, chanelling is
common.

QUATERNERY
TERTIARY Unconformity
Conglomerate, grey to reddish, very poorly sorted, subangular to rounded clast of up to
CRETACEOUS Berapit formation (Kbr)
40cm in diameter.
JURASSIC
Unconformity
TRIASSIC

Mainly tuffs of rhyolitic and rhyodacitic composition, occasionally metamorphosed;

PERMIAN Gerik formation (Pgk) limestone and calcareous shale lenses occur sporadically; interbeds of tuff, limestone
and calcareous shale also occur.

Well-bedded areno-argillaceous rocks with subordinate ribbon chert. The rocks had been
invariably metamorphosed especially the one closer to the granite body.
CARBONIFEROUS Kubang Pasu (Ckp)
Ribbon chert

b d Argillaceous facies: Mainly shale and phyllite; commonly carbonaceous, with subordinate
DEVONIAN chert.
c
c Calc-silicate facies: Grey calc-silicate hornfels.
d b Calcareous facies: Grey to dark grey impure limestone.
Kroh formation (SDkr) a Arenaceous facies: Mainly metasandstone, occur sporadically within the argillaceous
SILURIAN facies.
a
(It is difficult to establish the order of the rock succession owing to folding, faulting, and the lenticular shape of the
rock units as well as a repetitious character of its components)

Figure 3: Schematic stratigraphic column of the Betong-Pengkalan Hulu Transect area, Malaysia (not to scale).
 Central North Peninsular Malaysia
West Kedah - Perlis Central North
Era Period / Region Northeast Perak-
Perlis Kedah East Kedah-Central North Perak
Northwest Kelantan

QUATERNARY Nenering beds

CZC Batu Arang
TERTIARY
beds
CRETACEOUS Saiong beds Berapit formation
Panau beds
JURASSIC
Kodiang
TRIASSIC limestone Semanggol Formation Telong formation

MESOZOIC
Chuping Cherty unit Gerik formation
PERMIAN Taku schist
limestone
Mangga
formation
Singa Singa
CARBONIFEROUS Kubang Pasu Formation
Formation Formation

Kampung Sena formation

DEVONIAN
Tiang schist
Setul
SILURIAN Kroh formation
Formation Mahang Fomation

P A L A E O Z O I C
ORDOVICIAN
? ? ? ?
Machinchang
Jerai Formation ??? ? ? ? ?
Formation
LATE CAMBRIAN

Figure 4: Simplified geological correlation of the Transect area on the Malaysian side
9
10

The regional structures are aligned in the N-S direction with local variations to NW-SE
and NE-SW. Apart from some local anticlines and synclines indicated on the geological
map, minor structures such as small scale tight folding and parallel folding are also
common. There is evidence indicating that the Lower Palaeozoic rocks have undergone
more than one series of deformation that had led to the development of rather complex
structures. The strata of the Kroh formation (SDkr) are tightly folded and are characterized
by steeply dipping limbs whereas strata of the Kubang Pasu Formation show broadly
folded strata. In general, the force that associated with the formation of fold in the study
area is from the E-W direction.
Faulting is widespread and present in all rock units. Normal faults are very common
but strike-slip and reverse faults also exist. All major faults within the Transect area are
N-S and NE-SW trending i.e. the Lebey fault.

2.2.2 Geologic setting of the Thai side

The oldest rocks, the Silurian-Devonian Betong Formation (SDbt), consist mainly of
very thin- to thin-bedded shale, siltstone, lithic sandstone with subordinate chert and
argillaceous limestone lenses in the middle to upper part. Thickness of the succession is
approximately 100 m. The succession is distributed in N-S trending low relief terrain
from Betong District to Piyamit III village in the southern part of the Thai side, and is
well exposed along the road-cuts from the Malaysia-Thailand border to Betong District.
Local metamorphism by Si Nakhon granite (Trgrsn) and Chantharat granite (Trgrch) to the
west resulted in the rocks being metamorphosed to hornfels or slate. Many fossil
assemblages, i.e. Ten taculites elegans, Tentaculites sp. and graptolite that occur in the
shale strata and some radiolarian assemblage discovered in the chert beds have been
determined; indicating the age of the rock sequence as Silurian-Devonian.
The Carboniferous clastic rocks of the Yaha Formation (Cyh1-2) conformably overlying
the Silurian-Devonian Betong Formation (SDbt), are largely exposed in the northwestern
and southeastern parts of the Transect area. Some of them occur as roof pendants in the
middle part of the area between two granitic belts. It is characterized by the presence of
very thin- to medium-bedded sandstone, siltstone, shale and minor chert in the lower part
and thick-bedded sandstone, argillite, and minor ribbon chert and limestone lenses in the
upper part. Total thickness of the Yaha Formation (Cyh1-2) exceeds 800 m. Fresh outcrops
are well exposed along the road-cuts near the Malaysia-Thailand border. In the central
part, the succession can be lithologically subdivided into two facies, the argillaceous
facies (Cyh1) and the arenaceous facies (Cyh2).
The argillaceous facies (Cyh1) is well exposed in areas of low relief in the middle-
eastern part of the Transect area, near the eastern granite pluton. It is usually affected by
the local deformation and low-grade metamorphism, which had taken place in the shear
and contact zones. The parent rocks were metamorphosed to thin- to medium-banded
phyllite, phyllitic schist, mica schist and quartz schist with minor quartzite and calc-
silicate schist. The thickness of this unit is inconclusive due to the strong folding of their
strata.
The arenaceous facies of the Yaha Formation (Cyh2) is well exposed in high relief
terrains. It is characterized by the presence of medium-bedded to thick-bedded sandstone,
quartzite and minor argillite with inconclusive thickness. Based on the presence of
radiolarians and conodonts in the siliceous rocks, the formation is considered to be
Carboniferous in age.
 11

The Permian Ratburi Group (Prb), underlain by the Carboniferous rocks, is well
distributed in the northeastern part of the Transect area. Some patches of the unit are
locally distributed in small hills in the western part of the Betong town. The succession
can be lithologically subdivided into two formations: the lower clastic, Sri Paen formation
(Psp) and the upper carbonate, Tham Krachaeng formation (Ptk).
The Sri Paen formation (Psp) is 500 m thick comprising predominantly thin- to
medium-bedded argillaceous limestone, shale, siltstone and chert with minor sandstone in
the upper to middle part. Some successions are locally deformed and metamorphosed to
phyllitic shale, schist and calc-silicate.
The Tham Krachaeng formation (Ptk) is mostly recrystallized and consists of thick-
bedded to massive recrystallized limestone to marble with chert nodule patches. The
thickness of the formation is inconclusive.
Based on the occurrences of fossil assemblages, i.e. bivalves and brachiopods in
siltstone strata, radiolarian assemblage in siliceous beds and brachiopod fragments, and
fusulinids in limestone layers, the age of the Tham Krachaeng formation (Ptk) is assigned
as Middle Permian and the Sri Paen formation (Psp) rock is Early Permian.
Unconsolidated sediments were deposited in non-marine environments and can be
subdivided into two formations in ascending order: the Ai Yoi Boe Chang gravel beds
(Qtay) and Recent fluvial deposit (Qa). The Pleistocene gravel beds of Ai Yoe Boe Chang
sediments are well exposed as small hills around Betong District. The other localities are
situated southeastwardly in the low land area near the border. They are composed of
gravel, sand, silt, and laterite with abundant iron concretions. The size of the pebbles in
the gravel beds is decreasing westwards, towards the Betong town. The thickness of this
rock unit is interpreted to be more than 20 m. The Holocene fluvial deposit is well
deposited as channel fills in the river i.e. Khlong Ka Pae and Pattani rivers. It is mainly
made up of sand, silt and clay.
Triassic granitic rocks intruded the Palaeozoic succession in the Transect area. The Si
Nakhon granite (Trgrsn) is located near the Malaysia-Thailand border. It is characterised
by medium- to coarse-grained, porphyritic biotite granite with inequigranular
(heterogranular) to good megacrystic texture and K-feldspar megacrysts in various shapes
and sizes. It also includes pegmatite, minor phases of aplite or leucocratic granite, barite
and base metal sulphide minerals. Pa Ret Tu granite (Trgrpr) is exposed in the central part
on the Thai side of the Transect area. It is mainly composed of fine- to medium-grained
(with local two-phase variants texture), equigranular to sparsely porphyritic, tourmaline-
biotite-muscovite granite. Biotite is the most abundant mafic mineral. Tin mineralization
is commonly associated with this granitoid. In the eastern part near the Hala Forest
Reserve, Chantharat granite (Trgrch) is mainly composed of medium- to coarse-grained,
porphyritic biotite granite including aplite, pegmatite and minor phases of chlorite and
tourmaline biotite granite.
N-S and NE-SW trending quartz dykes usually intruded the country rocks, especially
the Carboniferous rocks in the southern and the middle parts of the area. Contact
metamorphism and associated late stage mineralizations were observed in the country
rocks.
Structurally, strata of the Palaeozoic succession are strongly inclined close folds
(isoclinal folds), deformed into repeated sequence, especially near the igneous pluton.
The normal and strike-slip faults are conspicuous with three main N-S, NW-SE and NE-
SW strike directions especially in the western part of the Bang Lang Dam site.
12

Historically, marine sedimentation took place continuously throughout the Silurian-

Devonian and Permian Periods. Nevertheless, the large breaks can be observed due to the
uplifting of the depositional basins during the Mesozoic Era by Triassic granite
intrusions.
Some mineral resources had been discovered and exploited since the last century, and
most of them are related to granite intrusions and subsequent hydrothermal activities. The
Tham Ta Lu and La Bu base metal sulphide and carbonate mineralization are the most
well known mineral resources produced from the Bannang Sta area for many years. Other
minerals are tin, aggregates, barite, limestone, and dimension stone. Most of which were
produced for many years.
General succession of the rock units on the Thai side of the Transect area is
summarised in Figure 5 and the simplified geological correlation as compared to the
geology of the southern Thailand is summarised in Figure 6. Simplified geological
correlation of the rock units in the Pengkalan Hulu-Betong Transect area is summarised
in Figure 7.
 13

Figure 5: General succession of the Betong-Pengkalan Hulu Transect area

on the Thai side.
14

ERA PERIOD/REGION Southern Thailand Pengkalan Hulu-Betong Transect

Fluvial deposits
Quaternary
CENOZOIC

Ai Yoe Boe Chang Gravel beds

Tertiary Krabi Group

Phun Phin Fm.

Cretaceous
MESOZOIC

Sam Chom Fm.

Trang Group
Jurassic Lam Thap Fm.
Khlong Min Fm.
Triassic Sai Bon Fm. / Chaiburi Fm.
Upper Um Luk Fm.

Phanom Wang Fm.

Ratburi Group Phap Pha Fm. Tham Krachaeng formation

Middle
Permian

Khao Muang Khrut Fm.

Thung Nang Ling Fm.

Khao Chao Fm.
Khao Phra Fm. / Ko Yao Noi Fm.
Kaeng Krachan (Phuket)
Lower Ko He Fm. Sri Paen formation
Group
Spillway Fm.
Laem Mai Phai Fm.
Carboniferous

Upper Pru Chaba Fm.

PALEOZOIC

Yaha Formation

Lower Yaha Fm./Khuan Klang Fm.

Thong Pha Phum Group

Pa Samed Betong Formation

Devonian
Kuan Tung

Silurian Wang Tong

Pa Kae
Rung Nok
Lae Tong
Ordovician Thung Song Group Pa Nan
La Nga
Tolo Dang
Malaka

Cambrian Tarutao Group

Figure 6: Simplified geological correlation of the Transect area on the Thai side.
 15

Pengkalan Hulu - Betong Transect area

Era Period
Malaysia Thailand

Fluvial deposits (Qa) Fluvial deposits (Qa)

CENOZOIC

Quaternary
Nenering beds (Qnn) Ai Yoe Boe Chang Gravel beds (Qay)

Tertiary

Cretaeous Berapit formation (Kbr)

MESOZOIC

Jurassic

Triassic

Late
Permian

Tham Krachaeng formation (Pkc)

Middle Gerik formation (Pgk)

Early Sri Paen formation (Psp)

Carboniferous
P A L A E O Z O I C

Late
Kubang Pasu Formation (Ckp) Yaha Formation (Cyh)

Early

Devonian
Kroh formation (SDkr) Betong Formation (SDbt)
Silurian

Ordovician
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
Cambrian

Figure 7: Simplified geological correlation of the rock units in the Pengkalan Hulu-Betong Transect area
16

3. LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY

3.1 Sedimentary and Metamorphic Rocks

3.1.1 The Kroh formation/Betong Formation (SDkr/bt)

In the southern part of the Transect area (Malaysia), the term Kroh formation (SDkr)
was first introduced by Burton (1972) to replace the term Baling formation that was
raised up to the group rank. The latter term was informally introduced by Burton (1970)
to designate widespread sequences of graptolite- and Tentaculites-bearing black shale,
sub-mature arenite, calcareous shale and limestone. The geographic name of the Kroh
formation was taken after Kroh town (often rendered as Keroh and now known as
Pengkalan Hulu) in north Perak, where the rock units are well exposed. The Kroh
formation (SDkr) is characterised by the Early Middle Silurian and Lower Devonian
graptolites, and the Early Middle Devonian Tentaculites. Burton (1986) believed this
formation had been initiated in the Ordovician but he gave no evidence on the occurrence
of the Ordovician strata or the Ordovician fossils in any part of the sequence of the Kroh
formation (SDkr).
In the middle part of the Transect area (Thailand), the term Betong Formation (SDbt)
was proposed by Muenlek et al. (1979) to describe a sequence of fossiliferous
sedimentary rocks of Silurian-Devonian age in the Yala-Betong area. It is named after the
Betong District, where good outcrops are well exposed on road-cuts. The Kroh
formation/Betong Formation (SDkr/bt) is the oldest lithostratigraphic unit in the Transect
area.

Distribution
In Malaysia, the Kroh formation/Betong Formation (SDkr/bt) is extensively exposed in
the Pengkalan Hulu, Kelian Intan and Kerunai areas in north Perak. Mohd Badzran et al.
(1993) mentioned that the rock succession extends eastwards into the Bersia area. The
formation terminates at its southern limit where the Main Range meets the Bintang
granite (Trgrbt) batholiths. It extends along the Sungai Ketil valley right to the source of
Sungai Sok, near Kampung Gubir, in the west central part of the Transect area.
In Thailand, the Kroh formation/Betong Formation (SDkr/bt) is well distributed in a N-S
trending low relief terrain, extending from Betong District to Bo Nam Ron-Piyamit III
village, in the lowermost to middle part of the Thai side. It is in contact with the Rimba
Telui/Si Nakhon granite (Trgrrt/sn) to the west. Some localities i.e. Ban Km 19 and in the
west of Ban Ang Mo Lao are restricted to the roof pendant outcrops in the granites. Good
exposures can be observed along the road-cuts from the Malaysia-Thailand border to
Betong District.

Lithology
Generally the Kroh formation/Betong Formation (SDkr/bt) on the Malaysian side of the
Transect is composed of black shale, sub-mature arenite, calcareous shale and limestone.
In many areas the rocks experienced low-grade metamorphism especially near the contact
with granite. The rocks are divisible into four facies: the argillaceous facies, calc-silicate
facies, calcareous facies and minor arenaceous facies. Black carbonaceous argillite,
occasionally grades into siliceous shale, is the dominant rock type, and chert is fairly
common. However, it is difficult to establish the order of the rock succession owing to the
 17

strong isoclinal folding, faulting, and the lenticular shape of the rock units as well as the
repetitious character of its components.

The argillaceous facies

This rock unit is the most dominant component of the Kroh formation/Betong
Formation (SDkr/bt), which covers the major part the Pengkalan Hulu-Baling area
(Malaysia). It is composed of dark grey to black shale and mudstone, which often locally
metamorphosed to slate, phyllite, pelitic hornfels, metamudstone (often siliceous), and
quartz-mica schist. Chert is also present within this rock unit (Figure 8). Lenticular bodies
of impure limestone with considerable amounts of carbonaceous content occur within the
predominant argillaceous rocks at several localities i.e. at Sungai Kuak, Kampung Lalang
and Kampung Pahit Dalam in Pengkalan Hulu (Figure 8), and Kampung Pong, Kelian
Intan area. When fresh, the argillaceous rocks are commonly dark grey to black in colour,
and this may be due to their high content of finely disseminated carbonaceous matter and
iron sulphide. The argillaceous strata had commonly been metamorphosed to spotted
quartz-biotite hornfels especially within the contact metamorphic aureole of the granite.
Spirograptus sp. (graptolite) was found in the lower part of the rock sequence,
suggesting Silurian age (Figure 9). The upper part of the sequence is more fossiliferous,
i.e. fossiliferous mudstone/shale outcrops were observed especially in the Kampung Pahit
area, Pengkalan Hulu (05o 35 17 N, 101o 03 33 E). Brachiopods, trilobite and bryozoa
were found at this locality. Tentaculites sp. was also found along the security road near
the Malaysia-Thailand border (05o 44 05 N, 101o 02 16 E). Assemblage of Stylonia
and Tentaculites is also reported along a stretch of the security road (05o 44 18 N,
101o 02 49 E). In Thailand, the occurrence of Tentaculites is reported at Km 4 along the
boundary road (Figure 10).

The arenaceous facies

This unit is composed of predominantly metasandstone with subordinate metargillite
beds. It occurs as small isolated lenticular bodies or discontinuous beds in the
predominantly argillaceous facies of the Kroh formation/Betong Formation (SDkr/bt).
A good exposure of this rock unit can be observed at Km 8, along the road from
Pengkalan Hulu to Baling town, Malaysia (05o 42 18 N, 100o 58 00 E) and at Ban
Piyamit III village, Thailand (Figure 11). To date, fossil has not yet been found within
this facies.

The calc-silicate facies

This rock unit comprises calc-silicate hornfels and small amount of impure limestone.
It is derived from the metamorphism of calcareous argillites and often associated with
granite intrusion. It is dark grey in colour due to carbonaceous content, very hard, fine-
grained, sometimes banded with bands of light grey siliceous materials. Jones (1968a)
reported that the calc-silicate hornfels are composed of diopside, wollastonite, zoisite,
clinozoisite, chondrodite and garnet.
This rock unit mainly occurs in the Belukar Semang area to the southwest of Kelian
Intan, in the western part of the Transect area (Malaysia). It is bounded by Damar granite
(Trgrdm) to the west and by the marble of the calcareous facies to the east. Calc-silicate
rocks covering an area of about 2 square kilometres occur as roof pendants underlain by
the Rimba Telui granite (Trgrrt) in the upstream of the Sungai Bahoi, Ulu Muda area.
18

Microscopic study of a calc-silicate rocks sample collected from Sungai Bahoi

(05o 25 24 N, 101o 01 14 E) shows that the calc-silicate is epidote-diopside-
vesuvianite hornfels.

The calcareous facies

This unit is composed of lenticular bodies of limestone (often metamorphosed to
marble) and other calcareous rocks. The limestone is light to dark grey in colour, thick
bedded to massive, carrying a large quantity of non-carbonate impurities. It is frequently
platy and bedded owing to the post-depositional segregation of argillaceous impurities
from the carbonate. Coarse-grained crystalline marble occurs in the vicinity of the granite
margin especially in the Belukar Semang area where it is in contact with the calc-silicate
member. The calcareous facies generally shows a very restricted vertical-lateral
distribution in which the development of features of karst topography was insufficient.
However, minor karst topography can be seen in the Tanah Hitam, Belukar Semang and
Kampung Pong areas.
On the Thai side, the Silurian-Devonian Kroh formation/Betong Formation (SDkr/bt)
consists mainly of very thin- to thin-bedded shale, siltstone, lithic sandstone with
subordinate chert and argillaceous limestone lenses. Local metamorphism by Si Nakhon
(Trgrsn) granite resulted in the rocks becoming slate or phyllite. The lower part of the
formation displays good outcrops along the road-cut from the Malaysia-Thailand border
to Betong District and from Km 4 village to Bo Nam Ron village. The rocks consist of
interbedded layers of very thin- to thin-bedded, laminated, grey to dark grey mudstone
and silicified shale to very fine-grained sandstone.
The middle part is well exposed on the road-cuts along the border to Betong District
i.e. in Ku Nung Chanong and Ka Pae villages. Other localities are situated at the rock
aggregate quarry in Bo Nam Ron village, Km 4 to Km 8, and Km 19 villages along the
Yala-Betong road. The rocks consist of very thin- to thin-bedded, laminated, grey to dark
grey mudstone interbedded with silicified shale to very fine-grained sandstone and thin-
bedded, laminated, friable, porous, and light pink shale with Tentaculites sp., trilobite,
and graptolite. The lenses of thin- to medium-bedded, argillaceous limestone and dark
grey shale (stylolite) are intercalated in the upper part of the sequence from 4 20 m in
thickness.
The upper part is represented by good outcrops in the road-cuts of the Suan Som-Ai
Yoe Boe Chang villages, near the border and the eastern part of Betong District. Other
localities are also exposed at the road-cuts in Ban Piyamit III village. The succession
consists of interbedded layers of very thin- to thin-bedded, laminated, dark grey to black
mudstone, silicified shale, very fine-grained sandstone and thin-bedded to ribbon, brown
to grey chert with rare radiolarians and locally, limestone lenses. The thin-bedded,
laminated, friable, porous, light pink shale with Tentaculites is partly intercalated in the
upper part of the sequence from 2 5 m in thickness.
The rock displays moderately developed S1 cleavage in the N-S direction with general
dip towards east, and kink bands are generally recognized. The total thickness of the
Silurian-Devonian rocks from the representative section exceeds 100 m.
 19

A B
Figure 8: Argillaceous facies of the Kroh formation/Betong Formation (SDkr/bt).
A - Kroh formation at Kampung Pahit Dalam, Pengkalan Hulu, Malaysia
B - Betong Formation near Betong, Thailand

A B
Figure 9: Fossils in the argillaceous facies of the Kroh formation/Betong Formation
(SDkr/bt) on the Malaysian side of the Transect area.
A- Spirograptus in the argillaceous facies at Sungai Rui, near Kampung Pahit,
Malaysia.
B- Brachiopod and Fenestella, at border security road, Malaysia.
20

A B

C D
Figure 10: Fossils in the argillaceous facies of the Kroh formation/Betong Formation
(SDkr/bt) at Km 4, Malaysia-Thailand border road, Thailand.
A- Outcrop of the Tentaculites fossil locality.
B D- Tentaculites collected from various localities.

A B
Figure 11: Arenaceous facies of the Kroh formation/Betong Formation (SDkr/bt).
A- Exposure at Km 8 to Baling town from Pengkalan Hulu, Malaysia.
B- Outcrop exposed at Ban Piyamit III village, Betong, Thailand.
 21

Fossils and age

According to the earlier workers, the Kroh formation/Betong Formation (SDkr/bt) on
the Malaysian side is fossiliferous and contains many index fossils. The Malaysian
Working Group tried to revisit the fossil localities mentioned in the previous publications,
but the localities which either have been overgrown with vegetation or the rocks are very
highly weathered, and the fossils are no longer observable. Thus, this report will be
incorporating the fossils data and findings published by earlier workers together with
fossils collected from current work. Jones (1968b) reported the presence of the
Ordovician trilobites belonging to the Trinodus and Solenoharpes (?) genera in the Sungai
Rui valley. Kobayashi and Hamada (1971) mentioned that Kobayashi had primarily
suggested an Ordovician age for Trinodus- like cephalon collected by Burton and his
assistants from silty mudstone near Kroh, Perak. It was, however, accompanied by
proetoids (trilobite) resembling Upper DevonianLower Carboniferous cyrtosymbolids.
Burton (1986) suggested those fossil assemblages indicate the Ordovician age (without
quoting the work of Kobayashi & Hamada, 1971). Hamada (1970) and Hamada et al.
(1975) reported that the Kroh fauna in Perak contains various types of brachiopods and
trilobites as well as Tentaculites and graptolites that indicate a Devonian age. Plectodonta
pacifica, Plectodonta burtonae and Perakia undulata (Hamada, 1969) are the common
brachiopods found in Kroh (Pengkalan Hulu). Tentaculites, Nowakia sp. and
Styliolina sp. are abundant. However, according to Boucek (in Jones et al., 1966) the
Tentaculites were close to Lower Devonian Nowakia acuaria. Common Devonian
trilobites in the Kroh area are Pseudotrinodus aenigma (Kobayashi & Hamada, 1971),
Blanodalmanites nubelania (Kobayashi & Hamada, 1972), Bailielloides inexpectans,
(Kobayashi & Hamada, 1972) and Harpes (s.l) kylindrorhachis (Kobayashi & Hamada,
1972). However, Burton (1986) mentioned the trilobites were apparently Ordovician age
based on Kobayashis preliminary identification of Trinodus (trilobite) resulting in
interpreting the age of Kroh formation down to Ordovician.
Jones (1973b) reported that the graptolites found in the valley of Sungai Rui appeared
to be Middle-Upper Llandovery (Lower Silurian) forms. The Tentaculites from one
locality at 0.8 km southeast of Kampung Pahit, Pengkalan Hulu (Kroh) have been
identified as Styliolina sp. plus a form close to Nowakia acuaria indicating Early Emsian
age (upper Lower Devonian). The occurrence of brachiopods indicating Early Devonian
age was also reported.
Burton (1986) reported that no Middle Upper Silurian fossils had been found in the
Kroh formation/Betong Formation (SDkr/bt); therefore he assumed that there was a
depositional hiatus in the Kroh area during the Upper Silurian. However, Burton might
overlook the fact that Kobayashi & Hamada (1972) and Hamada et al. (1975) have
studied in detail the older and Middle Palaeozoic formations and the fossils of Thailand
and Malaysia, including the Pengkalan Hulu (Kroh) area, Upper Perak. They have
identified that the fossils range in age from Emsian Eifelian or Emsian Couvinian
(stage of Devonian) in the Kroh area. Therefore, there was continuous deposition of
sediments during the Upper Silurian. Mohd Badzran et al. (1993) also found some
graptolites: Monograptus sp. and Spirograptus sp. in the argillite near Kampung Pahit
that indicates Early Silurian age (Figure 8).
During the current mapping project, the Malaysian Working Group found a number of
Tentaculites, graptolites, brachiopod, and trilobite. Evidently the Kroh formation/Betong
Formation (SDkr/bt) contains both Lower Silurian and Lower Devonian strata but there is
no clear indication on the presence of Ordovician fossils. From the above evidences, it
22

may be concluded that the age of the Kroh formation/Betong Formation (SDkr/bt) is
ranging from Early Silurian to Devonian.
In Thailand, many fossil assemblages, i.e. Tentaculites elegans and Tentaculites sp.
occur in light pink shale strata and limestone lenses. Conodonts assemblage found in
chert beds indicate the age of rock sequence is Devonian. However, the discovery of
graptolite in light pink shale suggests the age of the succession is possibly Silurian-
Devonian. Therefore, the succession of the Kroh formation/Betong Formation (SDkr/bt)
can be dated as Silurian-Devonian age.

Depositional environment
The widely spread argillaceous facies with considerable amount of carbonaceous
content suggests that the deposition of this rock unit occurred in the euxinic marine
environment. Fine-grained materials indicate long distance transportation and the
deposition took place in a quite and undisturbed environment. The absence of benthos
fossils and bioturbation indicates that the deposition occurred in deep marine
environment. The calcareous facies and arenaceous facies with subordinate conglomerate
might be deposited in the continental shelf, the relatively shallower part of the
depositional basin.

3.1.2 The Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh)

In Malaysia, The Kubang Pasu Formation (Ckp) is conformably underlain by the Kroh
formation (SDkr) and it is conformably overlain by the Gerik formation (Pgk). The term
Kubang Pasu Formation was introduced by Jones (1981) for a sequence of thick
sandstone and thin shale in the Kedah and Perlis areas in northwest peninsular Malaysia.
The stratigraphic name was taken after the Kubang Pasu District, Kedah where he first
discovered the good outcrops of this rock unit. The same lithological unit is observed to
extend eastwards into the Transect area.
In Thailand, the Yaha Formation (Cyh) is conformably underlain by the Betong
Formation. The term Yaha Formation was introduced by Nakapadungrat et al. (1988) to
describe a sequence of thick Carboniferous clastic sequence in the Sadao-Yala area. It is
named after Yaha District, where geological information was first studied and good
outcrops were available.

Distribution
In Malaysia, the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh) is well exposed in the northeast
Kedah State, and in UpperPerak State in the central part of the Transect area. The rock
exposures in northeast Kedah can only be observed along the streams i.e. Sungai Teliang
which located in the remote and forested area (Figure 12). The only access to that area is
by boat via Muda Lake, a man-made lake for the paddy field irrigation in Kedah State,
then preceed to continue the traverse by foot. In UpperPerak, good outcrops can be easily
observed along the border security road parallel to the Malaysia-Thailand border on the
Malaysian side known as FELDA Nenering area, Pengkalan Hulu, Perak. The Kubang
Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh) underlies most of the Kerunai Malay Reserve area,
extending from the Bukit Kobeh (Khao Ko Be) area along the Malaysia-Thailand border
in the north to the Padang Sembai-Kubang Gondang area in the south. It is also well
exposed along the East-West Highway up to Banding Island, northeast Perak where this
rock unit is locally metamorphosed to metasandstone, phyllite and schist. Minor
 23

metaconglomerate occurs in the upper reaches of the Sungai Weng valley, at the central
western part of the Transect area on the Malaysian side.
In Thailand, the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh) is well distributed in the north-
western, eastern and south-eastern parts of the Transect area, including roof pendants
lying on the Si Nakhon and Chantharat granites in the central part of the Transect area. In
the middle part of the Transect area, the formation can be subdivided into two facies: the
argillaceous facies (Cyh1) of the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh) or the lower part,
and the arenaceous facies (Cyh2) of the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh) or the upper
part of the complete sequence.

Lithology
In Malaysia, the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh) comprises essentially thick
interbeds of sandstones, argillites and minor siliceous rock. The thickness of individual
bed ranges from 20 cm to 1 m, forming a complete rock sequence of 300 m to 350 m
thick. This rock sequence consists of (from bottom to top) thick-bedded sandstones,
greywacke-subgreywacke intercalated with thick- to very thick-bedded grey argillite
followed by thick-bedded to massive, well-sorted, graded and cross bedded quartz arenite
overlain by thin beds of chert or siliceous shale. Medium-grained subgreywacke
(generally grey to white in colour) is the most common arenaceous rock with lesser
quartzite (quartz arenite), feldspathic sandstone (arkose) and grit. The siliceous rock
consists of thin bedded chert and siliceous shale. The chert (ribbon chert) exposures are
limited within the vicinity of Sungai Teliang valley, in the north-western part of the
Transect area and in some parts of the Malaysia-Thailand border security road. It contains
minute and rounded structures made up of microcrystalline quartz and chalcedony that
might represent trace of replaced radiolarian fossils. Primary sedimentary structures such
as graded bedding, cross lamination, fucoidal marking and slump structures are common
(Figure 12).
The arenaceous facies of the Kubang Pasu Formation is made up of moderate- to thick-
bedded sandstone, quartzite and minor argillite. In the Gunung Kenderong and Kerunai
areas (in the central south of the Transect area), the sandstone succession is
metamorphosed and composed predominantly of medium-grained, pale-coloured
protoquartzite containing 5% 15% mica with minor tourmaline, feldspar and
carbonaceous material. Orthoquartzite and subgreywacke are also present. The grains are
poorly sorted and more often grades into pebbly metasandstone and metaconglomerate or
into metasiltstone. The rock unit is commonly thick-bedded to massive, with occasionally
observed large-scale cross bedding. Thin interbeds of phyllitic shale occasionally occur
within the metasandstone. In the Belum area (in the southeast of the Transect area), the
sandstone comprises protoquartzite, orthoquartzite, metagreywacke and some
conglomerates.

The argillite consists of shale, mudstone and a variety of poorly sorted argillo-
arenaceous sequence varying from muddy silstone through wacke and subgreywacke, of
dark grey to predominantly light grey, buff and pink to brick red. Shale is generally grey
to dark grey in colour. The shale beds are commonly 0.3 m to 0.6 m thick, ocassionaly
laminated with lamination parallel to the bedding plane. Siltstone occurs commonly as
interbeds and intercalations (generally less than a few centimetres thick) within the shale
sequences.
24

A B

C D
Figure 12: Outcrops of the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh) on the Malaysian side.
A- Thick-bedded sandstone at hulu Sungai Teliang, Kedah.
B- Sandstone interbedded with shale at Km 17 of the border security road on the
Malaysian side.
C- Close-up view of the sandstone interbedded with shale at Km 17 of the border
security road on the Malaysian side.
D- Slump structures in the formation.

An outcrop of about 5 m thick massive brecciated chert underlying the sequence of

sandstone and shale was observed at Km 18.7 along the Malaysian side of the border
security road (05o 40 32 N, 101o 06 46 E), in the middle part of the Transect area. The
pebble- to cobble-sized chert fragments are cemented by sand and mud. The breccia
might be formed by the combination of slumping and tectonic activity. Based on their
size and angularity, the breccia has been formed close to its source. There might be a
slope failure during the early stage of the formation of the depositional basin from which
the brecciated materials were formed. The chert phenoclasts are grey to brownish in
colour, fine-grained and occasionally finely laminated. Microscopically, the chert is
impure and composed of predominantly microcrystalline quartz as well as some
micaceous and carbonaceous materials. Patches of recrystalline quartz which may
represent the replacement of radiolarian tests also occur. Parallel aligned micaceous
materials forming irregular fine laminae.
On the Thai side (at the border area), a complete sequence of the Kubang Pasu/Yaha
Formation (Ckp/yh) is characterized by the presence of sandstone, siltstone, shale and
ribbon chert with subordinate limestone lenses (Figure 13). It can be stratigraphically
separated into two parts (Ckp/yh1 and Ckp/yh2).
 25

The lower part of the formation is well exposed along the road-cut from the Malaysia-
Thailand border to Sa Ho village, and from Cha Ro Su Su village to Wang Suda
Mountain. The thickness of this part is 300 400 m with obvious thickening and
coarsening upward cycles (Figure 14) as follows:
i) The lower portion consists predominantly of thin- to moderate-bedded, grey to
greenish grey mudstone and siltstone (80%) intercalated with fine- to medium-
grained, laminated, poorly sorted, pale greenish grey to yellowish brown, lithic
and arkosic sandstone (20%) exhibiting diagnostic features of wavy and lenticular
beds. Mudstone in the succession is usually made up of two types. The first is
grey colour, clean, smoothly, and laminated whilst the second is greenish grey,
having dirty texture with feldspar spots and plant remains. The middle portion is
represented by the evenly bedded, dark grey to greenish grey shale, mudstone and
siltstone (30%) interbedded with thin- to very thick-bedded (20 200 cm thick,
6080 m in general), fine- to medium-grained, arkosic, lithic and quartzitic
sandstone (70%). Some thick-bedded sandstones (up to 4 m) show well-sorted and
well cemented textures.
ii) The upper portion, 30 m thick, consists of thin- to very thin-bedded (3 7 cm),
sharp, parallel, well-bedded, light brown to light grey and white, siltstone,
mudstone and siliceous rocks with some light grey to dark grey chert beds with
radiolaria and conodonts.
The upper part of the formation shows good outcrops at several road-cut localities
which consist mainly of thick-bedded sandstone, argillite, with minor ribbon chert and
limestone lenses. The complete sequence of this part is shown in the road-cut outcrops
from Sa Ho-Cha Ro Su Su villages and Cha Ro Su Su-Wang Suda Mountain. The
sequence, approximately 400 500 m thick, shows obviously coarsening and thickening
upward sequence as follows:
i) The lower portion is composed predominantly of thin- to moderate-bedded, grey
to greenish grey mudstone and siltstone (40%) intercalated with thin- to thick-
bedded (20 60 cm in general), light greenish grey to yellowish brown, fine- to
medium-grained, laminated, lithic, arkosic and quartzitic sandstone (60%)
exhibiting diagnostic features of wavy and lenticular beds.
ii) The middle part consists of pale brown, well sorted, fine- to medium-grained,
massive to very thick quartzitic, arkosic and lithic sandstones intercalated with
very thin-bedded, greenish grey dirty mudstone with plant remains and grey,
clean, smooth mudstone. Individual sandstone bed is 4 8 m thick with the total
thickness of 80 100 m. The thick-bedded sandstones contain small clasts (0.5
1 mm) of quartz.
iii) The upper portion is predominantly composed of thin- to moderate-bedded, grey
to greenish grey mudstone and siltstone (30%) intercalated with moderate- to
thick-bedded (60 200 cm in general) pale greenish-grey to yellowish brown,
fine- to medium-grained, laminated, lithic, arkosic and quartzitic sandstone (70%)
exhibiting diagnostic features of wavy and lenticular beds.
iv) The uppermost part, 40 m thick, is composed of interbeds of very thin- to thin-
bedded, dark grey to grey, laminated silicified shale and dark grey ribbon chert
with radiolaria and conodonts.
The rocks display slightly developed S1 cleavage in the N-S direction, generally
dipping eastwardly, especially in the southern, eastern and the northern parts of the
26

Transect area. In the central part of the Transect area, the rock shows generally dipping
both eastward and westward, with N-S and NE-SW trending directions and well
developed S1 cleavage. The total thickness of the Carboniferous rocks from the
representative section is exceeded 800 m.
The Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh) on the Thai side is distinguishable into two
facies: arenaceous facies (Cyh1) and argillaceous facies (Cyh2).

A B

C D
Figure 13: Photographs showing the successions of the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation
(Ckp/yh) in the southern part of the area (Thai side).
A- Thick bedded sandstone.
B- Chert beds.
C D- Sandstones in the lowermost unit (Ckp/yh1)
 27

Figure 14: Stratigraphic sequence of the Yaha Formation (Cyh) in the Transect area (Thai side).

a) Arenaceous facies (Cyh1) of the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh)

Distribution
The Arenaceous facies (Cyh1) of the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh) are exposed
as roof pendants on granite in the mountainous area near Pattani River and the La Hat-Ai
Yoe Kem mountain range, in the central eastern part of the Transect area. The other
locality is located in high relief terrains in the eastern part of Piyamit village to the south
of Ban To village.
28

Lithology
The facies is characterized by the presence of medium- to thick-bedded sandstone,
quartzite and minor argillite with indeterminable thickness (Figures 15 and 16).
In the La Hat-Ai Yae Kem mountain range, the facies consists of thick- to very thick-
bedded, light brown to light grey, recrystallized sandstone to quartzite (80%) intercalated
with thin- to moderate-bedded (10 60 cm in general), light greenish grey to blueish grey
phyllite, phylitic schist and schist (20%). The N-S quartz dykes are common. Strong S1
cleavages are developed in NE-SW and N-S directions, generally dipping north and west.
Kink bands and gash fractures are commonly found in the succession.
In the La Ong Rung-Ta Pa Yao-Bang Lang Dam range, the facies comprises thick- to
very thick-bedded, light greenish grey to grey, fine- to medium-grained, lithic and
quartzitic sandstone (90%) intercalated with very thin-bedded argillite. The upper portion
is composed predominantly of thin- to medium-bedded, grey to greenish grey mudstone
and siltstone (40%) intercalated with thin- to thick-bedded (20 60 cm in general) light
greenish grey to yellowish brown, fine- to medium-grained, laminated, lithic, arkosic and
quartzitic sandstone (60%) exhibiting diagnostic features of wavy and lenticular beds.
The strong S1 cleavages are developed in the N-S direction and generally dip westward.
Kink bands, quartz dykes and gash fractures are also commonly found.
The Arenaceous facies (Cyh1) of the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh) in the Sutan
Tanun area is strongly deformed by the N-S trending fault. These rocks generally show
kink bands and strongly developed cleavages. The rocks consist of thick- to very thick-
bedded, light brown and greenish grey, laminated, quartzite, quartz schist, and minor
phyllite.

A B
Figure 15: Photographs showing the arenaceous facies of the Kubang Pasu Formation/Yaha
Formation (Ckp/yh) in Malaysia.
A- Thick bedded sandstone at Batu 10, East-West highway Gerik to Jeli.
B- Quartz-arenite at Ayer Ganda, abandoned quarry, Gerik.
 29

A B
Figure 16: Photographs showing the arenaceous facies of the Kubang Pasu Formation/Yaha
Formation (Ckp/yh) in Thailand.
A- Medium- to thick-bedded sandstone at Ban Phayao near Bang Lang Dam.
B- Quartzite at La Ong Rung Waterfall.

b) Argillaceous facies (Cyh2) of the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh)

Distribution
On the Thai side, the argillaceous facies of the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh)
is well exposed in the low relief terrain, near the eastern granite pluton in the middle part
of the Transect area. The sequence is exposed continuously at the NW-SE to NE-SW (as
a curvilinear) narrow belt in the Chantharat area. The succession is also exposed along the
road-cuts from Km 29 to Km 41 villages on the Yala-Betong road and extends to the
south of Bang Lang Dam.

Lithology
The argillaceous rocks in the lower part of the (Cyh2) of the Kubang Pasu/Yaha
Formation (Ckp/yh) are affected by local deformation and low-grade metamorphism (or
superimposed) in the shear and contact zones. The rocks are metamorphosed to thin- to
medium-banded phyllite, phyllitic schist, mica schist and quartz schist with minor
quartzite and calc-silicate (Figure 17). The thickness of this unit is unknown due to strong
folding.
In the Chantharat area (Thailand), the rocks are strongly folded and sheared, consisting
of thin-banded, dark grey to blueish grey quartz schist alternating with very thin-banded,
greenish grey phyllitic schist, and thin-banded, bluelish grey phyllite. Mica patches on
surfaces of these rocks are well developed and various directions of S1-S2 cleavages and
kink bands are very common. Some secondary pyrite and quartz gash fractures are found
in the rock sequence.
In the Sutan Tanun terrain, the succession consists of thin layers of blueish grey
phyllite and greenish grey schist. The rocks display strong S1 cleavage developed in the
N-S direction, generally dipping west. Kink bands and gash fractures are generally
recognized. Some medium banded quartzite and calc-silicate marble lenses are
occasionally found.
At Km 29 to Km 42 villages along the Betong-Yala road, the succession was affected
by a NE-SW shear zone and is pervasively metamorphosed by the granitic rocks. It is
30

characterized by the presence of chevron and recumbent folds, thin- to medium-banded,

yellowish brown to blueish grey, quartz phyllite, quartz schist and some quartzite. The
strong S1 cleavages are developed in NE-SW and NW-SE directions, and generally
dipping northward. Kink bands and gash fractures are also commonly found in the
succession.
The Argillaceous facies (Cyh2) of the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh) succession
in Padeng village, immediately south of Bang Lang Dam, Thailand is strongly affected by
a NE-SW fault zone and the intrusion of the granite pluton in the east of the Transect
area. It is characterized by the alternation of very thin-banded, dark grey to greenish grey,
phyllite to mica schist and the thin- to medium-banded, greenish grey to blueish grey,
quartz schist with strongly developed S1 and S2 cleavages.

A B

C D
Figure 17: Photographs showing argillaceous facies with thin- to medium-banded phyllite,
phyllitic schist, mica schist and quartz schist of the Yaha Formation (Cyh2),
Thailand.
A- Kink band structure.
B- Oriented quartz schist.
C- Fault in quartz schist.
D- Phyllitic schist.

Age and correlation

The Kubang Pasu Formation (Ckp) on the Malaysian side of the Transect area is
lithologically similar to the succession exposed in the Kuala Nerang area, north Kedah.
However, the former is poor in fossils as compared to the latter. Up to now, no index
fossils have been found from the Kubang Pasu Formation (Ckp) on the Malaysian side of
the Transect area. It is most probably due to the nature of the outcrops exposed only on
 31

the banks of small rivers and streams. However, only indeterminable plant fragments and
traces of radiolarian tests were found along the security road to Bukit Kobeh,
UpperPerak.
The age of this unit is determined solely by a lithostratigraphic correlation with the
fossiliferous succession exposed in the Kuala Nerang area where Carboniferous age had
been assigned to this rock unit. In the Kuala Nerang and Sintok areas, fossil assemblages
of Bivalve Posidonomya sp., trilobites, ammonites, brachiopods, crinoids, gastropods and
plant remains had been found at Bukit Tunjang, Sintok, Kedah, to the west outside of the
Transect area. Further to the west of Sintok, Basir Jasin and Zaiton Harun (2001) reported
the occurrence of Albailella indensis-rota Assemblage Zone (radiolaria) in chert
representing the lower part of Kubang Pasu Formation at Bukit Binjal, Kedah. This
confirms that the age of the Kubang Pasu Formation (Ckp) is Late Tournaisian (Early
Carboniferous).

In Thailand, many microfossil assemblages i.e. radiolarians and conodonts were found
in chert and siliceous beds, in Yala Province. Sashida et al. (2000) reported the
occurrence of Eutactinia varispina, E. vulgaris, Astroentactinia multispinosa,
Spongentactinia sp. and Triaenospaera sp. The Early Carboniferous radiolarians
discovered from the chert lenses intercalated with sandstone and siltstone-dominated
sequence at Ban Wang Yai, 12 km east of Na Thawi District and Ban Kabang of Kabang
District, Yala Province; are indicative of the Early Carboniferous age of Tournaisian
stage. Based on fossils reported found in the adjacent areas to the Transect, it is
concluded that the age of the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh) is Carboniferous.

Depositional environment
The greywacky sandstone intercalated with thick- to very thick-bedded grey shale
beds, followed by thick-bedded to massive, well-sorted quartzitic sandstone with graded
bedding and cross lamination may represent a near shore environment of deposition,
probably in either intertidal or upper subtidal zones. The occurrence of plant fossil
fragments within the shale and fine-grained sandstone indicates that the environment of
deposition may be a shallow marine environment. The poorly sorted metaconglomerate is
interpreted as reworked conglomerate previously deposited in the shelf environment and
then redeposited in the deeper environment together with the arenaceous and argillaceous
materials. The presence of chert and siliceous shale may be due to the increasing supply
of silica derived from the siliceous rocks of the Kroh formation/Betong Formation
(SDkr/bt).

3.1.3 The Ratburi Group (P)

Javanaphet (1969) and Bunopas (1981) described the Permian clastic and carbonate
sequences in the western and southern parts of Thailand and introduced the term Ratburi
Group. It is named after Ratburi Province where they were first studied and good rock
outcrops were available.
In this Transect area, the Ratburi Group (P) is conformably underlain by the clastic
sequence of the Yaha Formation (Cyh). The group can be lithologically subdivided into
two formations: the Sri Paen (Psp) and Tham Krachaeng (Pkc) formations.
32

a) The Sri Paen formation (Psp)

Distribution
The Sri Paen formation (Psp) is only exposed in Thailand. It is well distributed along a
narrow NNE-SSW direction, high relief terrain in the central and northern parts of the
area, and bounded by porphyritic biotite granite to the west and Carboniferous rocks to
the east and south (see geology map). In the central part, the sequence is continuously
exposed along the Betong-Yala road-cut outcrops from Ta Phayao-Ban To-Khok Chang
village and extends northwardly to the eastern part of Than To District. The other
succession is also exposed along road-cuts from Bo Hin-Ba Ta village and Cho Si Po
Dam site along the high relief terrain in the northern part i.e. Kala Po-Bu Su village. The
good reference sections of the unit are exposed along road-cut outcrops from the Ta
Phayao-Ban To village, Than To-Sri Paen village and Na Kaset village located in the
central part of the area.

Lithology
The succession of the Sri Paen formation (Psp) predominantly consists of thin- to
medium-bedded, argillaceous limestone, shale, siltstone, and chert with minor sandstone
in the upper to middle part. The rocks in some successions are locally deformed and
metamorphosed to be phyllitic shale, schist and calc-silicate.
The lower part of the formation is shown by the good road-cut outcrops along the road
from Ta Payao to Ban To village, and from Kala Po to Si Paen village. The rocks, 250
280 m thick, display obvious thickening upward sequence (Figure 18) as follows:
i) The lower portion is represented by the evenly thin- to very thin-bedded,
brownish grey to brown shale, mudstone and siltstone (80%) intercalated with
the stringers of very fine-grained sandstone and chert strata (Figure 19). Some
fragments of bivalves are revealed in shale strata. The sequence gradually
thickens upwardly interbedded with thin- to medium-bedded, grey to dark grey
phyllitic shale, laminated, dark grey argillaceous limestone, and sandy limestone
with the stringering of sandstone.
ii) The upper portion (Figure 20) consists of moderate- to thick-bedded, pale brown,
well sorted, medium- to coarse-grained, calcareous quartzitic and lithic
sandstones interbedded with thin- to thick-bedded, grey to dark grey and
yellowish brown shale and siltstone with greenish grey to dark grey argillaceous
and sandy limestone lenses (30 60 cm in general). The limestone lenses and
siltstone show the thickening upward sequence and contain some brachiopod
fragments.
 33

Figure 18: Stratigraphic sequence of the Sri Paen formation (Psp) in the Transect area.

The upper part of the formation is well exposed in the vicinity of Ban Na Kaset. The
other localities are found along road-cut outcrops from Khok Chang to Ban To village.
The fining upward sequence is approximately 150 200 m thick:
i) The lower portion consists predominantly of fining upward cycles of thick-
bedded, greenish grey to dark grey shale, mudstone to siltstone (80%) intercalated
with thin- to moderate-bedded pale greenish grey to yellowish brown, fine- to
medium-grained, laminated, lithic, arkosic and quartzitic sandstones (20%) in the
bottom part. At Ban Na Kaset succession in the eastern part of Bang Lang National
Park, the rocks contain abundant brachiopods and a few bivalves (Figure 21).
ii) The middle portion, 40 m thick, is composed of sharp, parallel, well-
bedded, very thin- to thin-bedded, grey to dark grey colour, laminated silicified shale,
sandstone, and grey to milky grey ribbon chert with radiolarian assemblage (Figure
22). The sequence is overlain by thick-bedded siltstone to shale with argillaceous
limestone lenses.
iii) The upper portion is composed predominantly of thin- to thick-
bedded, grey to greenish grey shale and siltstone (50%) intercalated with thick-
bedded reddish brown to light grey, fine- to medium-grained, arkosic sandstone in
the middle part of the sequence.
34

The rocks display slightly developed S1 cleavage in the N-S direction, generally
dipping eastward, especially in the western and northern parts of the area. The succession
in the central part of the area generally shows both eastward and westward dipping, and
well developed N-S and NE-SW trending S1 cleavages (Figure 23). The total thickness of
the lower clastic Permian rocks in the section is exceeded 500 m.

Age and correlation

Based on many fossil assemblages i.e. bivalve and brachiopod in dark grey shale,
yellowish brown siltstone and dark grey argillaceous limestone lenses, and some
radiolarian assemblages in chert beds; the age of rock sequence is assigned as
Carboniferous to Permian. However, the stratigraphic sequence is conformably underlian
by the thick-bedded sandstone of the Carboniferous Yaha Formation. It is, therefore,
suggested that the Sri Paen formation (Psp) could be assigned as Early Permian age.

Figure 19: Photographs of the siliceous chert at the lower part of the Sri Paen formation
(Psp) at Amphoe Than To, Map Sheet (5221 III), grid reference 4677847,
Thailand.
 35

A B

C D
Figure 20: Photographs of the upper portion of the lower part of the Sri Paen formation (Psp) at
Amphoe Than To, Map Sheet (5221 III), Thailand.
A- Kink band and its direction of movement.
B- Folding in limestone.
C- Lmestone lenses within the argillaceous rock.
D- Outcrop of shale intercalated with sandstone, SE of Ban Than To.

Figure 21: Well preserved brachiopods and bivalves in the rocks of the Sri Paen formation (Psp)
at Ban Na Kaset, Thailand.
36

A B
Figure 22: Middle portion of the upper part of the Sri Paen formation (Psp) at Ban Na
Kaset, Thailand.
A- Silicified shale and very thin-bedded chert with radiolarians.
B- Folded sandstone beds.

Figure 23: The slightly developed S1 cleavages in the N-S direction, and generally
dipping eastwards at Ban Than To, Map Sheet (5221 III), Thailand.

b) The Tham Krachaeng formation (Pkc)

Distribution
The Tham Krachaeng formation (Pkc) is exposed only on the Thai side of the Transect
area. It is well distributed along the western flank of narrow NNE-SSW of the Sri Paen
formation. It forms a NE trending belt of karst topographic terrains in the central portion
of the northern part of the Transect area, bounded by the granitic rocks in the west (see
Geological Map). The rocks are well exposed as natural outcrops in Rong Mo Hin-Than
To-Ka Sod-Ku Nang Pa Yong mountain range, and extend to the northern part of
Bannang Sta District. The other localities of the sequences are shown as roof pendants on
the granite i.e. Tham Thalu-Pin Yor-Ta Ket mountainous area. In the southern part,
isolated patches of the Tham Krachaeng are locally distributed at isolated monadnock
hills of Ku Nung Chanong village, in the western part of the Betong town (Figure 24).
 37

Lithology
The Tham Krachaeng formation (Pkc), unknown in thickness, is mostly recrystallized,
consisting mainly of folded, thick- to very thick-bedded, light to dark grey, recrystallized
limestone to marble (Figure 25) with black chert nodule patches (5 15 cm long): Very
thin- bedded, dark grey shale strata are intercalated in limestone strata. Secondary
dolomitic limestones resulted from faulting are found as patches on the cliff surfaces of
limestone hills. In the west, folded, greenish grey calc-silicate or skarn rocks with some
mineralizations from hydrothermal activities are very common.

Age and correlation

Fusulinid assemblages (Figure 26) have been discovered for the first time during the
field check at Ku Nung Chanong, Amphoe Betong. They are very well preserved in dark
grey, recrytallized limestone strata at the Ku Nung Chanong area, the southern part of the
Transect area. It is suggested that the succession of the upper carbonate Ratburi Group
(P2) can be probably dated as Early Permian age (Ingavat, Pers. Comm, 2003). However,
fossil is not yet observed in the succession at the northern part of the Transect area due to
strong recrystallization. Stratigraphically, the sequence in the northern part is
conformably underlain by the Sri Paen formation. It is, therefore, suggested that the Tham
Krachaeng formation (Pkc) be dated as Permian.

A B

Figure 24: Photographs of limestone at Ku Nung Chanong village, in the western part of the
Betong town, Thailand.
A- Panoramic view
B- Limestone outcrop
38

A B

Figure 25: Limestone of the Tham Krachaeng formation (Pkc) at Tham Krachaeng, Ban Than
To, Map Sheet (5221 III), Thailand.
A- A limestone cave.
B- Tranverse sections of crinoid stems on the surface of the limestone.

A B

C D
Figure 26: Fusulinid-bearing limestone of the Tham Krachaeng formation (Pkc) at the Ku
Nung Chanong, Amphoe Betong Map Sheet (5220 IV).
A- Close-up view of the fusulinid bearing limestone.
B D- Close-up view of the fusulinids on the surface of the limestone.
 39

3.1.4 The Gerik formation (Pgk)

The term Gerik formation (Pgk) is informally proposed by the Malaysian Working
Group to replace the term Grik tuff introduced by Burton (1970, 1972 & 1986) for the
pyroclastic rocks consisting mainly tuffs of rhyolitic to rhyodacitic composition.
Limestone and calcareous shale lenses occur sporadically. The name of this formation is
taken after the Gerik town situated in the extreme south of the Transect area. New record
on the occurrence of interbedded tuff, limestone and fossiliferous calcareous shale
recently discovered on a road-cut of the new highway (under construction) at Kampung
Batu 2, Gerik has given a new evidence indicating a Permian age, and a higher
stratigraphic position for the Gerik formation (Pgk) as compared to the earlier
interpretation that placed this unit underlying the Silurian-Devonian Kroh
formation/Betong Formation (SDkr/bt). Thus the Gerik formation (Pgk) is also taken out
from the Baling group and it is now put on to a much higher stratigraphical position. The
tuffs of the Gerik formation (Pgk) are occasionally metamorphosed.

Distribution
The Gerik formation (Pgk) is only exposed in the extreme south-eastern part of the
Transect area on the Malaysian side and it is fairly well exposed in the vicinity of the
Gerik town and Lawin area. This rock unit also crops out in the Kerunai and the Belum
areas. In the Belum area, the rock exposures can be observed along the East-West
Highway that connects the Perak and Kelantan States. Smaller bodies of the Gerik
formation (Pgk) are also noticed in the Kerunai area.
Type locality of the original Grik tuff as suggested by Burton (1986) is now weathered
but still observable along the Sungai Kenderong that crosses the south bound main road,
just outside the Gerik town. A better outcrop has recently been observed along the road-
cut of a new highway under construction at Kampung Batu 2, Gerik, Perak. Lithologic
log of the Gerik Formation exposed at Kampung Batu 2, Gerik is shown in Figure 27.
Anisopyge and Phillipsia (trilobite) as well as Chonetid (brachiopod) were found within
the calcareous shale interbedded with tuff (Figure 28).

Lithology
The Gerik formation (Pgk) consists mainly of tuffs, rhyolitic to rhyodacitic
composition. Interbeds of tuffs, limestone and calcareous shale also occur
(Figure 29 & 30). Huge limestone lenses within the tuff were observed at an abandoned
quarry, Bukit Jagor, Gerik (05o 25 32 N, 101o 09 01 E) and near Temengor Dam
(05o 24 15 N, 101o 17 21 E). In thin sections, the tuffs show grey to green, speckled
bedded rocks composed of grains and fragments of quartz, potassic feldspar and
plagioclase of up to 5 mm in diameter that are set in a fine or cryptocrystalline matrix of
quartz, mica, chlorite and siliceous matters and iron oxides. The matrix might have been
originated from the volcanic dust. These tuffaceous rocks also contain variable amounts
of clastic sediments of limestone and lenses of calcareous shale. Foliation is normally
seen in the groundmass of the tuffs as a result of regional metamorphism. The most
altered rocks show schistose texture. Burton (1986) reported that no lava flows were
recognised. However a weak flow structure shown by the alignment of prismatic K-
feldspar phenocrysts was recently observed at a road-cut of the highway under
construction near Kuala Rui Police station, Gerik during recent field trip (Figure 30A).
The flow direction is towards 330o.
40

West No exposure
metre
210

200
Highly to completely weathered argillaceous limestone,
relict of foliated texture still intact

190

180
Highly weathered, fine-grained foliated tuff
Highly weathered, foliated argillaceous limestone
170

160 Highly weathered, fine grained foliated tuff

150

140

130

120

Dark grey, well foliated with kink bands, argillaceous limestone

110
Trilobites and brachiopods fossils

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

Foliated lithic tuff with dark grey argillaceous rock fragments

30

20

10

0
East No exposure

Figure 27: Stratigraphic sequence of the Gerik Formation (Pgk) exposed at Kampung Batu 2, Gerik
 41

Small amounts of interbedded sedimentary rocks are also included in the tuff and
possible slumping of included shale and greywacke are also recorded. Tuffaceous rocks
containing lenticular bodies of dark grey impure limestone as observed in the Gerik area
is also considered as part of the Gerik formation (Pgk). Minor crystal tuff only exposed
around the Kuala Rui area in the southeastern part of the Transect area was also observed.
It is greenish in colour, medium- to coarse-grained with euhedral quartz and pinkish to
white prismatic K-feldspar phenocrysts. The hand specimen of this rock may be
mistakenly identified as altered granite under the naked eye, but in the thin section
(microscopic study), it does not show any granite characteristics. In general, the crystal
tuff is composed of grains and crystal fragments of quartz, K-feldspar, perthitic feldspar,
and plagioclase feldspar, up to 5 mm in size, set in a fine-grained or cryptocrystalline
matrix of quartz, mica, and chlorite.

Age and correlation

Jones (1970) suggested that the age of Grik tuff (now Gerik formation) might be Late
Ordovician. Burton (1986) interpreted the age of the Grik tuff as Middle Ordovician.
However, Middle Ordovician to Early Silurian age was thought to be more probable for
this pyroclastic rock. During recent field check, fossils of Anisopyge and Phillipsia
(trilobite) and Chonetid (brachipod) were found in the calcareous shale interbedded with
tuff and dark grey impure limestone at Kampung Batu 2, Gerik (050 27 36 N,
1010 08 00 E). The presence of Anisopyge sp. and Phillipsia sp. (trilobite) strongly
indicates Middle Permian age of the clastic sediments (Mohd Shafeea Leman, Pers.
Comm.). Thus, this finding suggests the age of the Gerik formation (Pgk) is not older than
Carboniferous, which disqualifies the interpretation on the age of the Grik tuff as Middle
Ordovician-Early Silurian by Jones (1970) and Burton (1986). Furthermore, their
interpretations were solely based on lithological correlation (without any fossil evidence).
Fragments of brachiopod spines were also observed in the thin section of the limestone
from the abandoned Bukit Jagor quarry (050 25 31 N, 1010 09 02 E).

II

1 mm I 1 cm
A B
Figure 28: Photographs of fossils found in the Gerik formation (Pgk), Malaysia.
A- Trilobite belongs to Anisopyge sp. (I) and Phillipsia sp. (II) along
the road-cut at Kampung Batu 2, Gerik.
B- Brachiopod found near the border road.
42

II

A B
Figure 29: Photograph outcrops of the Gerik formation (Pgk).
A- Limestone lenses of the Gerik formation (I) within the tuff (II)
exposed at Bukit Jagor, Gerik.
B- Outcrop of metatuff at Kampung Baharu Jagor quarry, Gerik.

A B

C D
Figure 30: Photographs of tuffs of the Gerik formation (Pgk), Malaysia.
A- Weak flow structure in the crystal tuff at road-cut near Kuala Rui Police Station,
Gerik.
B - Lithic tuff of the Gerik formation near Kuala Rui Police Station, Gerik.
C- Outcrop of tuff of the Gerik formation at Kampung Batu 2, Gerik.
D- Calcareous shale interbedded with tuff of the Gerik formation at Kampung Batu 2,
Gerik.
 43

Depositional environment
Based on the well-bedded characteristic of the tuff, together with the presence of
chilled magma, epiclastic materials as well as the fact that the tuff is interbedded with
argillaceous and calcareous materials at some places, this formation is interpreted as
mainly of pyroclastic origin. The volcanism might occur subaerially but the deposition of
the erupted materials was in marine environment (Jones, 1970). The occurrence of fossil
algae within the calcareous rocks in the tuff as reported by Sia (1989) might also indicate
that the deposition was probably occurred in the shallow marine environment.

3.1.5 The Berapit formation (Kbr)

The Berapit formation (Kbr) is a new formation name introduced by the Malaysian
Working Group to explain the very well cemented conglomerate unit that unconformably
overlies the Kroh formation/Betong Formation (SDkr/bt). The outcrop of this rock unit is
well exposed at Km 2.2 along the Malaysia-Thailand border security road, in the middle
part of the Transect area on the Malaysian side. It was previously considered as the
lowermost part of the Nenering beds (Mohd Badzran et al., 1993; Qalam Azad et al.,
1995 & 1998; Che Aziz et al., 1995 and Uyop Said & Che Aziz, 1997).

Distribution
The Berapit formation (Kbr) is only exposed on the Malaysian side of the Transect
area. It forms a small rock unit covering an area of less than 1 square kilometre that
occurs on the hillock of Bukit Berapit (Berapit Hill) forming a small precipice at Km 2.2
along the Malaysia-Thailand border security road on the Malaysian side, in the middle of
the Transect area. Field evidences combined with the aerial photograph interpretation
show that this rock unit is restricted to the Malaysian territory only.

Lithology
The Berapit formation (Kbr) comprises massive, poorly sorted, matrix supported
conglomerate. The clasts are subangular to rounded, ranging from 1 10 cm in diameter,
made up of sandstone, shale and minor limestone; cemented by reddish sandy matrix. It
shows a fining upwards sequence and the clasts show an imbrication of about N-S
direction with plunging towards north.

Stratigraphy
The Berapit formation (Kbr) at Km 2.2 border road on the Malaysia side is estimated at
about 120 m thick unconformably overlies the Kroh formation/Betong Formation (SDkr/bt)
as shown in Figure 31. The sediments indicate that they were transported not far from the
source and may be deposited in a channel of a continental area. The sharp contact is
characterised by Tentaculites bearing calcareous shale of the Kroh formation/Betong
Formation (SDkr/bt).

Age and correlation

There is no strong evidence on the age of the Berapit formation (Kbr). Based on a few
pollens samples collected in the unmappable lower unit of the Nenering beds (along the
44

FELDA Lepang Nenering road), Uyop Said and Che Aziz Ali (1997) suggested that the
age of the Lower Unit of Nenering beds which is now considered as Berapit formation
(Kbr) is of late Early Cretaceous based on the presence of few Caronatispora telata and
Spheripollertes scabratus (pollen) that characterize the Aptian Albian age. Thus it may
be concluded that the age of the Berapit formation (Kbr) is at least Cretaceous.

Depositional environment
Based on poorly sorted, subangular to subrounded clasts which were well cemented by
reddish argillaceous and arenaceous materials, the conglomerate unit may be deposited in
a channel of a continental area not far from the source.

II

A B
Figure 31: Photographs of exposures of the Berapit formation (Kbr) at Km 2.2 along the
Malaysia-Thailand border security road (Malaysia).
A- The Berapit formation (Kbr) (II) overlying unconformably the Silurian-
Devonian Kroh formation (SDkr) (I).
B- Close-up view of the conglomerate of the Berapit formation (Kbr).

3.2 Quaternary Geology

The unconsolidated sediments were deposited in non-marine environments and can be

subdivided into two units in ascending order as follows: the Nenering beds/Ai Yoe Boe
Chang Gravel beds (Qnn/ay) and Recent fluvial deposit (Qa). These sediments are
evidently unconformably overlying the Kroh formation/Betong Formation (SDkr/bt). In
Malaysia, these sediments are distributed in a small area at the Lepang Nenering village,
whereas on the Thai side, young sediments are locally exposed at the border and to the
east of the Betong area.

3.2.1 Nenering beds/Ai Yoe Boe Chang Gravel beds (Qnn/ay)

On the Malaysian side, the Nenering beds had been studied by many workers i.e. Teh
& Sia (1991), Mohd Badzran et al. (1993), Qalam Azad et al. (1995 & 1998), Che Aziz et
al. 1995 and Uyup Said & Che Aziz (1997). In this report, the Lower Unit of the
Nenering beds are taken out from the original sequence of Nenering beds which were
originally subdivided into the Lower, Middle, and Upper units by the previous workers.
The Lower Unit is now assigned as the Berapit formation (Kbr) as mentioned in earlier
chapter. Only the original Middle and Upper units are maintained in the current
 45

nomenclature of the Nenering beds (Qnn) and they are assigned as the Basal Gravel Beds
and Gravelly Sand Layers facies, respectively.
On the Thai side, the term Ai Yoe Boe Chang Gravel beds is proposed, to describe the
young sediments in small hills around the Betong township. It is named after Ai Yoe Boe
Chang village where good outcrops are exposed.

Distribution
In Malaysia, the Nenering beds/Ai Yoe Boe Chang Gravel beds (Qnn/ay) are well
exposed along the Kampung Ayer Panas-Kampung Lalang road and along the border
security road. The outcrops extend from Sungai Kuak, 3.5 km south of Kampung Ayer
Panas (7.5 km from Pengkalan Hulu town) to FELDA Nenering in the south, covering an
area of about 12 square kilometres. On the Thai side, these sediments, more than 20 m
thick, are well exposed at small hills around Betong District. Good exposures of this unit
are found along the road-cuts from the checkpoint at the Malaysia-Thailand border to Ai
Yoe Boe Chang-Suan Som village. Other outcrops can be observed along the road-cuts
from the border check point to Betong town and then to Ya Rom village, and also from
Ko Mo 7 to Chantharat villages.

Lithology
On the Malaysian side, the Nenering beds/Ai Yoe Boe Chang Gravel beds (Qnn/ay)
is made up essentially of semi-consolidated sediments i.e. sandy, muddy and
gravelly layers. The beds are characterised by gentle dips, and exhibits prominently
alternating bands of sandy, muddy, and gravelly layers (Figure 32). These gravelly
beds unconformably overlies the Silurian-Devonian Kroh formation/Betong
Formation (SDkr/bt).
A closer observation on the beds shows cross-bedding structures occur in the sandy
beds, and graded bedding in the gravel beds. These sediments also show significant
differences in clast sizes, from granule (2 mm x 2 mm) to pebble (20 mm x 20 mm), but
in some places they reach to boulder size. The clasts are made up essentially of vein
quartz, quartzite, sandstone, chert, conglomerate and subordinate amount of shale,
limestone, and granite with clast-supported as well as matrix-supported textures. Gravel
beds with larger clasts occur in the western part of the Nenering beds/Ai Yoe Boe Chang
Gravel beds (Qnn/ay). They appear to gradually decrease in size and abundant in a narrow
band overlying the sandy and muddy beds towards the east. Beyond that, the deposits are
essentially sandy and muddy up to its eastern extent, and coal-bearing beds were not
observed.
46

A B

Nenering beds/Ai Yoe Boe

Chang Gravel beds
Nenering beds/Ai Yoe Boe
Chang Gravel beds

Kroh formation/Betong
Kroh formation/ Formation
Betong Formation

C D
Figure 32: Exposures of the Nenering beds/Ai Yoe Boe Chang Gravel beds (Qnn/ay) on the
Malaysian side.
A- Close-up view of Basal Gravel beds of the Nenering beds/Ai Yoe Boe
Chang Gravel beds (Qnn/ay) at Km 3.8 border security road.
B- Upper part of gravelly sand beds of the Nenering beds/Ai Yoe Boe Chang
Gravel beds (Qnn/ay) adjacent to the Malaysia-Thailand border at Km 3.8
border security road.
C- Gravelly sand beds of the Nenering beds are unconformably underlain by
the calcareous facies of the Kroh formation near Sungai Kuak Bridge
along the Lepang Nenering-Kampung Ayer Panas trunk road.
D- Close-up view of the gravelly sand beds of the Nenering beds underlying
unconformably the calcareous facies of the Kroh near Sungai Kuak
Bridge along the Lepang Nenering-Kampung Ayer Panas trunk road.

On the Thai side, the gravel beds are composed of gravel, sand, silt, and lateritic layers
with abundant iron concretions. The size of pebbles in gravel beds decreases gradually
towards Betong town. Gravel beds located near the Malaysia-Thailand border and at Ai
Yoe Boe Chang village are unconformably underlain by the Silurian-Devonian Kroh
formation/Betong Formation (SDkr/bt). These sediments are mainly composed of at least
two to three layers (3 5 m thick) of gravels interbedded with sand layers (Figure 33).
The clasts of the gravels are made up of subrounded to rounded sandstone, quartzite,
shale, vein quartz, and chert with clast and matrix-supported textures. The size of clasts
ranges from 1 10 cm in diameter. A northwardly decrease in clast size of the gravel
beds was observed.
 47

A B
Figure 33: Exposures of the Nenering beds/Ai Yoe Boe Chang Gravel beds (Qnn/ay) at
Ban Ai Boe Chang, Thailand.
A- Side view of the gravel bed along the security road.
B- Close-up view of the gravel bed along the security road.

The gravel beds in the northern edge of the Betong basin are spectacularly exposed as
road-cut outcrops in Ko Mo 7 village at more than 25 m thick (Figure 34). The
succession, unconformably overlying the Carboniferous Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation
(Ckp/yh2), is mainly composed of three to four layers of gravel beds (1 5 m in thickness)
interbedded with coarse-grained sand beds (2 3 m in thickness). The clast of each
individual gravel beds varied in size from gravel to boulder (average 5 10 cm in
diameter). The clasts are subrounded to rounded shape. Large boulders of limestone,
sandstone, quartzite, reddish brown sandstone and conglomerate also occur.
In the northwestern edge of the Betong basin, the gravel beds, as thick as 30 m, are
well exposed at a quarry 2 3 km north of the Betong town, near the Betong-Yala road.
The succession, unconformably overlying the Silurian-Devonian Kroh formation/Betong
Formation (SDkr/bt), is mainly composed of thick-bedded (3 5 m thick) gravel beds
interbedded with medium- to thick-bedded, and medium- to coarse-grained sand beds.
The clasts of individual gravel bed consist of various sizes (2 10 cm in diameter,
averagely 3 5 cm) of quartzitic and arkosic sandstone, chert, phyllite and schist. A
southward paleocurrent is recognised by a southwardly decrease in clast size of the gravel
beds.
In the eastern edge of the Betong basin, i.e. Ya Rom, Ro Mong and Ba Yo Ta Pae
villages, the gravel beds are exposed at a quarry and along road-cuts. The succession is
mainly composed of medium- to thick-bedded (1 2 m thick) gravel beds interbedded
with thick-bedded medium- to coarse-grained sand layers. Clasts of the gravel beds are
made up of gravel to pebble sizes (0.5 2 cm in diameter) of quartzitic sandstone and
chert. A westwardly decrease in clast size of the gravel beds can also be observed.
48

A B
Figure 34: The Nenering beds/Ai Yoe Boe Chang Gravel beds (Qnn/ay) exposed at Ko Mo 7
Village, north of Betong, Thailand.
A- The gravel beds exposure.
B- Close-up view of the boulders within the gravel beds (from A).

The gravel bed succession near Betong townBa Ta Tu Nga village, 20 50 m thick,
are mainly composed of thick- to very thick-bedded, coarse-grained sand interbedded
with thin- to thick-bedded silt to very fine-grained sand layers. The gravel beds occur as
lenses in sands, consisting of pebbles of quartz, chert, and quartzite. It is noted that the
finest grains of sediments in the succession can be observed at this place.

Stratigraphy
Based on the differences in modal sedimentary composition and features, the Nenering
beds/Ai Yoe Boe Chang Gravel beds (Qnn/ay) on both Malaysian and Thai sides can be
stratigraphically subdivided into two distinguishable sediment facies: the Basal Gravel
Beds facies and the Gravelly Sand Layers facies.

Basal Gravel Beds facies

The Basal Gravel Beds facies differs greatly from the Gravelly Sand Layers facies by
their sedimentary features. In Malaysia, this facies can be observed at Km 3.8 to Km 4.6
along the border road. On the Thai side, this facies is well-exposed along the road-cuts
from the checkpoint at the Malaysia-Thailand border to Ai Yoe Boe Chang-Suan Som
villages. It comprises mainly semi-consolidated boulders, gravels and pebbles in sandy to
clayey matrix (Figure 35). It displays a rather well-bedded feature and the thickness
varies from 0.5 m to tenths of metres. The thick beds are more common and are usually
associated with relatively thinner beds. The framework building clasts are mainly made
up of quartzite, sandstone, conglomerates, vein quartz, minor chert and rare clasts of
argillaceous rocks. The clasts size varies from gravel to boulder size (30 cm in diameter).
The total (maximum) thickness of Basal Gravel Beds facies is approximately 30 m and
depositional structures are very prominent within this facies.
 49

A B
Figure 35: Outcrop of Basal Gravel Beds facies on the Malaysian and Thai sides.
A- Basal Gravel Beds facies at Km 3.8, Border security road, Malaysia.
B- Basal Gravel Beds facies at Ban Ai Yoe Boe Chang-Suan Som road, Thailand.

Gravelly Sand Layers facies

The Gavelly Sand Layers facies occurs more extensively and is more widespread in
the Transect area i.e. from Km 4.6 to Km 11.3 along the border road (Malaysia) where it
shows an interfingering relationship with the Basal Gravel Beds facies. This facies can
also be observed along Km 6 to Km 9.6 Kampung Lalang-Kampung Ayer Panas road on
the Malaysian side and in the vicinity of Betong town on the Thai side (Figure 36).

A B
Figure 36: Exposures of Gravelly Sand Layers facies on the Malaysian and Thai sides.
A- Thick bed of of Gravelly Sand Layers facies at Km 3.8 border security
road, Malaysia.
B- Gravelly Sand Layers facies at Ban Ai Yoe Boe Chang, Betong, Thailand.

Building up of series of beds in upwards sequence is prominent, where the formation

of stratified unit were contributed by a number of feeder channel at the bottom of each
beds are very common. It is observed that the channel system is originated from a braided
stream. Generally, the channels are striking NNW-SSE on the Malaysian side and SSW-
NNE on the Thai side.
In Malaysia, outcrops exposed along the border route show a more gentle dip beds to
almost horizontal as compared to the outcrop along the Kampung Lalang-Ayer Panas
road. This is probably due to the displacement occurred along the two fault planes, which
Sungai Kuak cuts through.
50

Age and correlation

There is no good evidence on the age of the Nenering beds/Ai Yoe Boe Chang Gravel
beds (Qnn/ay) on the Malaysian side has been discovered so far. In this report, the
assignment of the age of these sediments is merely based on its similarities in lithology,
degree of consolidation and structure with other equivalent rock sequences. Except for the
absence of the lignite seams, the Nenering beds/Ai Yoe Boe Chang Gravel beds (Qnn/ay)
show a close resemblance with other Tertiary sediments that occur in Peninsular Malaysia
i.e. the Lawin beds, Enggor beds, and Tanjung Rambutan beds (in Perak), Bukit Arang
beds (Perlis) and Batu Arang beds (Selangor). Lignite seams are also absent in the Lawin
beds. On the other hand, deposition of the gravel beds of an alluvial fan environment in
southern part of Thailand is recorded mostly in the Pleistocene Epoch. Therefore,
Pleistocene age is may be suitable for the Nenering beds/Ai Yoe Boe Chang Gravel beds
(Qnn/ay); particularly when considering its regional correlation with the stratigraphic
sequence and tectonic history of the Betong basin, Thailand.

Depositional environment
Structurally, the Nenering beds/Ai Yoe Boe Chang Gravel beds (Qnn/ay) generally
shows a gently dipping strata on both Malaysian and Thai sides. On the Malaysian side,
the strata in the western flank strike 020 and dip 22 SE, while the strata in the eastern
side strike 005 and dip 12 W. Teh & Sia (1991) interpreted that the sedimentary basin
(within the area they investigated) was a broad syncline with its axis trending
approximately NNW-SSE and plunging SSE. From paleocurrent data observed during the
recent studies, the general trend of sediment sources came from the NNW provenance of
the region. However, on the Thai side, it is interpreted that the basin plunged to NNW due
to neo-tectonic activities. The current attitudes of the beds are due to subsequent faulting
as shown on the Thai side, and broad folding as indicated by the tilted strata of these
young sediments on the Malaysian side (Figure 37).

A B
Figure 37: Effects of neo-tectonic on the Nenering beds/Ai Yoe Boe Chang Gravel beds
(Qnn/ay) on the Malaysian and Thai sides.
A- Tilted strata of the Nenering beds/Ai Yoe Boe Chang Gravel beds (Qnn/ay),
along the border security road, Malaysia.
B- Fault due to neo-tectonic activities observed in the Nenering beds/Ai Yoe
Boe Chang Gravel beds (Qnn/ay), along Ai Yoe Boe Chang-Ban Suan Som
road, Thailand.
 51

The rock sequence of the Nenering beds/Ai Yoe Boe Chang Gravel beds (Qnn/ay)
clearly shows that it is made up of continental sediments deposited by alluvium system in
a N-S fault-bounded basin. Numerous sand-filled gullies and channels represent the
braided stream pattern of an alluvial fan deposit that flowed from west to the east. The
lateral facies clearly shows that stream flows were the main sediments transportation
agents during the sedimentation process. Based on grain size analysis of the Nenering
beds/Ai Yoe Boe Chang Gravel beds (Qnn/ay), Mohd Pauzi Abdullah (1992) indicated that
this sediment may be deposited in fluvial environments (following the Moiola and Waiser
classification).

3.2.2 Recent fluvial deposit (Qa)

Generally, on the Malaysian side of the Transect area, it was very difficult to map the
recent fluvial deposit due to intensive tropical weathering and extensive vegetation cover.
As such, boundaries of the superficial deposit had been drawn largely with the help of the
aerial photographs and topographic map. The recent fluvial deposit (Qa) had been
depicted on the map only where their existence are widespread. On the Thai side, this
investigation has revealed that the fluvial sediments were deposited in floodplain area and
is Holocene in age.

Distribution
On the Malaysian side, the recent fluvial deposit consists mainly of sand, silt and clay,
generally confined to the present stream channel, and usually as thin layers (a few metres
thick) covering the bedrocks. Young fluvial deposits of appreciable extent and thickness
are present along the valleys of Sungai Perak, Sungai Rui (Figure 38), Sungai Keroh and
their smaller tributaries. The material, Holocene age, has accumulated through fluviatile
accretion in the floodplains of the rivers. The best examples occur in the lower reaches of
the Sungai Rui, along the big loop of Sungai Perak opposite Kampung Kuala Rui and
south of Pengkalan Hulu town.
On the Thai side, the recent fluvial deposit is locally exposed between undulating
landforms in Betong District along Khlong Betong and the eastern part of Ban Ai Yoe
Weng (Figure 38). The fluvial deposit is also distributed throughout flat areas of Ban
Nang Ku Wae. It is considered that a floodplain was deposited during the Holocene time
and is underlain by the lateritic and residual sediments. The floodplain sediments are
characterized by light grey to yellowish brown silty clay, and sandy clay and show
moderately to abundant brownish yellow to red mottles. Small amount of iron concretions
generally occurs in this unit.

Lithology
In this Transect area, the recent fluvial deposits consist mainly of sand, silt, silty clay
and sandy clay, and characteristically show light grey to yellowish brown, moderate to
abundant mottles, yellowish brown to red and small to moderate amount of iron
concretions. The thickness varies from 2 to 5 m.
52

Age and correlation

Based on other known recent fluvial deposits occurrences, similarities in lithology and
sedimentary genesis of this region, the Holocene age is assigned to these young
sediments.

A B
Figure 38: Recent fluvial deposits on the Malaysian and Thai sides.
A- Sand mining of Recent fluvial deposits in Sungai Rui river valley,
Kampung Pahit Luar, Pengkalan Hulu, Malaysia.
B- Geomorphology of the floodplain deposits along the Khlong Betong,
Thailand.

3.3 Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks are widely distributed in the Pengkalan Hulu-Betong Transect area
comprising both volcanic and plutonic rocks (see Geology map of the Transect area). The
volcanic rocks occur as pyroclastics interbedded with clastic sediments, and known as
Gerik formation (Pgk) on the Malaysian side (see 3.1.4) but the pyroclastic rocks are
absent (or not exposed) on the Thai side. The plutonic rocks occur as batholiths and small
stocks on both sides of the Transect area.
On the Malaysian side, approximately 700 square kilometres or 40% of the Transect
area is underlain by granite. The granites intruded the Palaeozoic country rocks of the
Kroh formation (SDkr) and the Kubang Pasu Formation (Ckp).
On the Thai side, igneous rocks cover approximately 45% of the Transect area. In
some places, the granite bodies are covered by semi-consolidated to unconsolidated
sediments of Quaternary age.
Granitic rocks exposed in the Transect area represent part of the Main Range Granite
Belt (Hutchison, 1977). The vast majority of this granitic rock is characterized by
unfoliated to weakly foliated, medium- to coarse-grained, sparsely megacrystic to good
megacrystic, biotite granite. The granite can be divided into six units: Rimba Telui/Si
Nakhon granite (Trgrrt/sn), Bintang granite (Trgrbt), Chantharat granite (Trgrch), Damar
granite (Trgrdm), Batu Puteh/Pa Ret Tu granite (Trgrbp/pr) and Kawi granite (Trgrkw). The
granite names introduced in this report do not imply that they are of different ages or
types. They are used just to differentiate the different salient sub-zones of the granite that
forms the Main Range Granite Belt.
 53

3.3.1 Rimba Telui/Si Nakhon granite (Trgrrt/sn)

Distribution
In Malaysia, the name Rimba Telui granite (Trgrrt) was first introduced by Teoh (1992)
to describe the granite body exposed in the Sungai Tiang area, west of the Transect area.
The name was later adopted by Mat Niza & Abdullah (in manuscript) for the granite that
exposed in the Ulu Muda area. The Rimba Telui/Si Nakhon granite (Trgrrt/sn) occurs as a
major proportion of the granite in the Transect area, covering most of the northern part of
the Transect area (approximately 560 square kilometres). The granite body forms hilly
and forested terrains, occasionally reach heights of over 1,000 metres above mean sea
level. The main peaks are Gunung Bubus, Malaysia or Khao Bubut, Thailand (1,121 m),
Bukit Mudim Besar, Malaysia or Khao Nam Kao, Thailand (1,080 m), and Bukit Gajah
Hutan, Malaysia (1,067 m).
On the Thai side, the Rimba Telui/Si Nakhon granite (Trgrrt/sn) is represented by N-S
trending batholith, which extends westward across the border to the Malaysian side,
covering approximately 25% of the Transect area. The granite outcrops are well exposed
along the road-cuts from Ban Nam Pu Ron to Ban Piyamit 1 to Ban Km 7, along the road-
cuts from Ban Sa Kai to Ban Si Nakhon to Ban Din Samoe at the border, and along the
road-cuts from Ban Khok Chang to Ban Km 27.
Petrography
On the Malaysian side, the Rimba Telui/Si Nakhon granite (Trgrrt/sn) is typically grey,
medium- to coarse-grained, porphyritic, and invariably mottled with black biotite (Figure
39A). The coarse-grained varieties are generally porphyritic containing white subhedral
to euhedral phenocrysts of feldspar, but the finer-grained varieties are generally
equigranular. The feldspar phenocrysts vary up to 5 cm in length, consisting of orthoclase
and perthite. Weakly foliated K-feldspar megacrysts are locally observed. Texturally, this
granite is very similar to the Bintang granite (Trgrbt) and Main Range granite.
Petrographically, the rock consists of predominantly quartz, alkali feldspar, plagioclase
and biotite. Quartz is generally anhedral, usually showing only a slight degree of
undulose extinction. Microcline and orthoclase are the common constituents of the alkali
feldspar. Perthite and microcline-perthite are also present. Microcline is generally
subhedral to anhedral and displays fine, sharp, grid-iron twinning. Alkali feldspar
phenocrysts commonly contain inclusions of quartz and biotite as well as laths of
plagioclase. Plagioclase crystals, albite to oligoclase in composition (An0-An30), are
generally subhedral to anhedral, and display typical albite and combined Carlsbad-albite
twinning. The dominant mica is pleochroic brown biotite, generally ranging from 10% or
less. Muscovite is rare. Apatite, sphene, zircon, allanite, magnetite and tourmaline are
present as accessories.
The Rimba Telui/Si Nakhon granite (Trgrrt/sn) is typically granitic in composition.
However, alkali granite and granodiorite also occur locally. The late-phase minor
intrusives consist of mainly microgranite dykes, aplite dykes, tourmaline vein, and quartz
vein.
Xenoliths of sedimentary rock origin are scattered in the granite and they can be seen
throughout the exposures of Rimba Telui/Si Nakhon granite (Trgrrt/sn). The xenoliths are
most commonly observed close to the granite contacts generally exhibiting various
degrees of metamorphism and granitization. The shape of the xenoliths varies from
54

rectangular, oval and rounded with the size up to 30 cm in diameter. Most of the xenoliths
are dark-coloured, heavily feldspathized with a high ferromagnesian content. However,
some of quartzose sedimentary material origin has been metamorphosed to light-
coloured, feldspathized, quartz hornfels. Cognate also present randomly throughout the
granite in the forms of oval, rounded, elongate segregation and clot.
On the Thai side, the Rimba Telui/Si Nakhon granite (Trgrrt/sn) is medium- to coarse-
grained, light grey in colour with good primary granitic texture (Figure 39B). K-feldspar
can be observed as large megacrysts of light grey to chalky white colour with elongate to
tabular, euhedral to subhedral habits. Their population varies from sparsely megacrysts to
locally concentrated megacrysts. Weakly foliated K-feldspar megacrysts are locally
observed. Biotite groundmass is observed as euhedral book crystals and subhedral to
anhedral flaky crystals with single to clusters habits. Plagioclase is present in the
groundmass as chalky white colour, euhedral to subhedral crystals with tabular to equant
habits. K-feldspar groundmass forms subhedral to euhedral crystals with tabular habit.
Quartz can be observed as anhedral to subhedral crystals, single and clusters with
subrounded to subangular habits. Cognate and accidental xenoliths also present in these
rocks. Dykes and veins are locally found along the intrusive contact aureoles.
Small granite bodies, which intruded the Carboniferous and Permian sedimentary
country rocks, are also found at Ban Tham Talu abandoned tin mine. The presence of tin
deposits, which are largely distributed in the Rimba Telui/Si Nakhon granite (Trgrrt/sn)
batholith, suggests that tin mineralization may have somewhat been closely associated
with the late stage intrusion of this granitoid.

A B
Figure 39: The Rimba Telui/Si Nakhon granite (Trgrrt/sn)
A- Grey, medium- to coarse-grained, porphyritic and invariably mottled
with black biotite at Sungai Sok, Malaysia.
B- Medium- to coarse-grained, porphyritic, unfoliated to weakly foliated,
biotite granite of Si Nakhon granite, with cognate inclusion (right)
exposed at Ban Piyamit 1, Ai Yoe Weng area, Thailand.
 55

3.3.2 Bintang granite (Trgrbt)

Distribution
The Bintang granite (Trgrbt) is only exposed on the Malaysian side in the southwestern
part of the Transect area. This pluton continues southward into the Kuala Kangsar and
Taiping areas. The Bintang pluton is in contact with the Kroh formation (SDkr), Kubang
Pasu Formation (Ckp) and Gerik formation (Pgk).

Petrography
The Bintang granite (Trgrbt) is essentially biotite granite which shows surficial variation
from potash alkali granite to granodiorite. However, there is no detailed study carried out
on this pluton to delineate the boundaries of these different varieties. The Bintang granite
(Trgrbt) is typically grey, medium- to coarse-grained, porphyritic with biotite as its
essential mafic constituent (Figure 40). It contains a variety of accessory minerals such as
apatite, sphene, zircon, allanite, magnetite and tourmaline.
The phenocrysts composed of feldspar, which are euhedral, commonly twinned,
measuring in length from 2 to 7 cm, with average length of about 4 cm; set in
xenomorphic to hypidiomorphic granular groundmass of quartz, feldspar and mica. The
average density of the phenocryst is calculated as 15 20% by volume. Some parts of the
granite exhibit flow banding in which densely porphyritic bands are interlaminated with
bands and tongues of less porphyritic or non-porphyritic material. The feldspar
phenocryst can frequently be seen in varying stages of alteration to kaolin and sericite.
Anhedral and rarely subhedral grains of potassic feldspar and oligoclase are closely
intergrown with quartz to form the groundmass of the granite. Potassic feldspar
(including both microcline and orthoclase) normally predominates over the plagioclase.
In some places the feldspar is pinkish in colour, possibly due to the presence of iron.
Quartz is clear, anhedral grains closely intergrown with the feldspar of the
groundmass. Occasionally, quartz occurs in graphic intergrowth with potassic feldspar
and also in minor myrmekitic developments.
The biotite content of the granite over the area generally varies from 5 30%, but
10 15% is quite characteristic for the uncontaminated granite. The biotite flakes
measuring about 1.5 mm in width are evenly distributed in the granite as distinct flakes
and loose clusters scattered within quartz-feldspar matrix.
Numerous xenoliths are found scattered over the granite outcrops, occurring as dark
grey to black spots or patches. The xenoliths consist of sedimentary and pyroclastic rocks
that exhibit varying degree of metamorphism and granitization (Jones, 1970). Their
shapes range from circular spots to patches, having elliptical, oval, elongated or
sometimes irregular forms with sizes varies from 2 cm to several metres across. The
elongated forms are usually parallel to the alignment of feldspar phenocrysts. The average
grain-size of these xenoliths is distinctly finer than that of the surrounding granite. The
mineral composition of these xenoliths consists predominantly of biotite and microcline
with subordinate quantities of plagioclase and quartz. Sphene, apatite and opaque iron
oxide are the common accessory minerals. Hornblende is prominent in some of the
xenoliths; it may be as abundant as biotite but it may occur only as accessory minerals or
absent elsewhere. The distribution of these xenoliths is rather haphazard. In some areas
they are very abundant, others are hardly noticeable. Most of these xenoliths are probably
granitized xenoliths that have crystallized together with the surrounding granite whereas
some of them could have originated as segregated bodies from the magma in the course
56

of crytallization. Instead of xenoliths, autolith also present randomly throughout the

granite in the forms of oval, rounded, elongate segregation and clots.

A B
Figure 40: A typical Bintang granite (Trgrbt) at Pong Hydroelectric Dam, Sungai Pong, Kelian
Intan area, Malaysia.
A- Porphyritic biotite granite
B- Porphyritic biotite granite with xenolith

3.3.3 Chantharat granite (Trgrch)

Distribution
The Chantharat granite (Trgrch) covers approximately 20% of the Transect area and is
only exposed on the Thai side. It can be observed on the road-cuts along the local road
from Ban Chantharat to Ban Ai Yoe Quin, and Ban Chantharat to Ban Chulaporn 10,
along the eastern flank of the Transect area. Dykes and veins are locally found along the
intrusive margins.

Petrography
The vast majority of the Chantharat granite (Trgrch) is characterized by its medium- to
coarse-grained, sparsely megacrystic to good megacrystic, unfoliated to weakly foliated,
biotite granite (Figure 41). The local alignment of the K-feldspar megacrysts is in the
NNE-SSW direction, subparallel to the strike of the major structural features of the
Transect area. K-feldspar can be seen as large megacrysts of light grey to chalky white
colour with elongate to tabular, euhedral to subhedral habits. Population concentration of
the K-feldspar megacrysts varies from sparsely megacrysts to locally concentrated
megacrysts. Weakly foliated K-feldspar megacrysts are locally observed.
Biotite groundmass is observed as euhedral book crystals and subhedral to anhedral
flakes crystals with single to clusters habits. Plagioclase presents in groundmass as chalky
white colour, euhedral to subhedral, tabular to equant crystals. K-feldspar groundmass
forms subhedral to euhedral crystals with tabular habit. Quartz can be observed as
anhedral to subhedral crystals, single and clusters with subrounded to subangular habits.
Cognate and accidental xenoliths also present in these rocks.
 57

A B
Figure 41: The Chantharat granite (Trgrch) at Ban Chulaporn 10, Chantharat area, Thailand.
A- Medium- to coarse-grained, porphyritic, unfoliated to weakly foliated, biotite granite.
B- Cognate inclusion in the granite.

3.3.4 Damar granite (Trgrdm)

Distribution
The Damar granite (Trgrdm) is only exposed on the Malaysian side of the Transect area.
It was introduced by Burton (1970) and named after Bukit Damar, located southwest of
Pengkalan Hulu town, Perak. The granite body forms a rectangular block of
approximately 20 square kilometres, lying between the Bintang granite (Trgrbt) to the
south and the Rimba Telui/Si Nakhon granite (Trgrrt/sn) to the north. The Damar granite
(Trgrdm) intruded the Kroh formation (SDkr) resulting in contact metamorphism along its
margin.

Petrography
The Damar granite (Trgrdm) is characterized by grey to light grey, fine- to medium-
grained, equigranular granite, commonly containing both muscovite and biotite
(Figure 42). Medium-grained varieties are the most common but other variations in
texture between fine-grained and coarse-grained varieties are also present. The coarser-
grained varieties usually contain phenocrysts of alkali feldspar.
The main mineral constituents are quartz, alkali feldspar, plagioclase, commonly
containing both biotite and muscovite, either of which may predominate. Its accessory
minerals include tourmaline, magnetite, zircon and apatite. Anhedral and rarely subhedral
grains of potassic feldspar and plagioclase are closely intergrown with quartz, forming the
groundmass of the granite. Potassic feldspar normally predominates over the plagioclase.
The potassic feldspar includes both microcline and orthoclase but microcline is more
dominant. Quartz is clear anhedral grains closely intergrown with the feldspar of the
groundmass. Occasionally, quartz occurs in graphic intergrowth with potassic feldspar
and also in minor myrmekitic developments. The biotite and muscovite content of the
granite over the area varies generally in the range of 5 10%.
Late-phase minor intrusives are slightly more numerous than in the Rimba Telui/Si
Nakhon granite (Trgrrt/sn). They include microgranite dykes, aplite dykes, pegmatite dykes,
quartz-tourmaline veins, and quartz veins.
58

A B
Figure 42: The Damar granite (Trgrdm) at Kampung Belukar Semang, Malaysia.
A- Grey to light grey, fine- to medium-grained, equigranular granite.
B- Photomicrograph of muscovite and biotite crystals which is common in
Damar granite.
Xenoliths made up of host rocks are scarce in the Damar granite (Trgrdm). The size of
the xenoliths is commonly a few centimetres across. Their shapes range from circular
spots to patches having elliptical, oval, or sometimes irregular forms. The Damar granite
(Trgrdm) is associated with economical deposits of tin ore. These occur in the Sungai Pong
basin to the west of the Transect area (Burton, 1970). The Damar granite (Trgrdm) is
classified as S-type granite, similar to the Bintang granite (Trgrbt) and Rimba Telui/Si
Nakhon granite (Trgrrt/sn).

3.3.5 Batu Puteh/Pa Ret Tu granite (Trgrbp/pr)

Distribution
On the Malaysian side, the Batu Puteh/Pa Ret Tu granite (Trgrbp/pr) occurs as small
isolated bodies within the Rimba Telui/Si Nakhon granite (Trgrrt/sn). It can be observed in
the Ulu Muda area, Kedah.
On the Thai side, the exposure of Batu Puteh/Pa Ret Tu granite (Trgrbp/pr) is restricted
between the middle part of the Rimba Telui/Si Nakhon granite (Trgrrt/sn) and Chantharat
granite (Trgrch). This granite is well exposed at Ai Yoe Weng village (Figure 43).

Petrography
The Batu Puteh/Pa Ret Tu granite (Trgrbp/pr) on the Malaysian side is characterized by
grey to light grey, fine- to medium-grained, equigranular to inequigranular biotite-
muscovite granite. The main mineral constituents are quartz, alkali feldspar, plagioclase,
biotite and muscovite. Tourmaline also occurs in significant amount. Accessory minerals
comprise apatite, zircon, rutile, epidote and opaque minerals. Alkali feldspar comprises
predominantly orthoclase and some microcline.
On the Thai side, Batu Puteh/Pa Ret Tu granite (Trgrbp/pr) is characterized by its
leucocratic, fine- to medium-grained, equigranular to inequigranular texture, tourmaline-
biotite granite. This granite shows a mixture of characteristics and relics belonging to the
Rimba Telui/Si Nakhon granite (Trgrrt/sn) and Chantharat granite (Trgrch), which suggests
that the Batu Puteh/Pa Ret Tu granite (Trgrbp/pr) granite pluton was formed as late stage
 59

intrusion of the granitoids mentioned obove. A circular feature can also be recognised
from lithological mapping and from satellite imageries.

Figure 43: Leucocratic, fine-to medium-grained, equigranular to inequigranular

texture, in nature and tourmaline-biotite granite, of Pa Ret Tu granite
(Trgrbp/pr). Location: Ai Yoe Weng village, Thailand.

3.3.6 Kawi granite (Trgrkw)

Distribution
The Kawi granite (Trgrkw) is only exposed on the Malaysian side. It occurs as small
isolated bodies in the Rimba Telui/Si Nakhon granite (Trgrrt/sn). It can be observed in the
Ulu Muda area.

Petrography
The Kawi granite (Trgrkw) is characterized by fine- to medium-grained, light grey,
leucocratic, equigranular biotite granite. The main mineral constituents are quartz, alkali
feldspar, plagioclase and biotite. Accessory minerals comprise apatite, zircon, sericite and
opaque minerals.

Age and correlation

On the Malaysian side, the nearest sample of the Rimba Telui/Si Nakhon granite
(Trgrrt/sn) to the Transect area is at Sungai Sok (6o 02 15 N, 100o 48 30 E). Bignell
(1972) concluded that this porphyritic biotite granite gives an age of 190 + 10 Ma (K/Ar),
which is late Triassic. Snelling (1965) was the first worker who had done an age dating of
the Bintang granite (Trgrbt) based on a specimen collected from Waterfall Road Quarry
(4o 51 45 N, 100o 45 45 E) in the Taiping area, 80 km further south to of the Transect
area. The age obtained from the whole rock and potash feldspar is a Late Triassic age,
200+8 Ma. Later, Darbyshire (1988) reported that modal age calculations for a sample
from Maxwells Hill gave 207 to 214 Ma (assuming initial ratios of 0.7200.710
respectively), which confirms a Late Triassic age. Thus it can be concluded that both the
Rimba Telui/Si Nakhon granite (Trgrrt/sn) and Bintang granite (Trgrbt) was emplaced
probably during the Triassic period.
There is no direct evidence currently available regarding the absolute age of the Damar
granite (Trgrdm). It is only known that the Damar granite (Trgrdm) intruded the Early
Silurian-Devonian Kroh formation (SDkr). Geologically, the Damar granite (Trgrdm) has
60

many common characteristics to share with other parts of the Bintang granite (Trgrbt).
Although the exact age of the Damar granite (Trgrdm) is still remain uncertain, it is inferred
to fall within the Triassic period. It is believed that the Batu Puteh/Pa Ret Tu granite
(Trgrbp/pr) and Kawi granite (Trgrkw) had been formed by the magmatic differentiation of
the Rimba Telui/Si Nakhon granite (Trgrrt/sn). Therefore, the emplacement of the Batu
Puteh/Pa Ret Tu granite (Trgrbp/pr) and the Kawi granite (Trgrkw) probably took place
during the Triassic period or younger.
On the Thai side, the granites exposed in the Transect area can be correlated with the
Songkhla and Satun granites. Cobbing et al. (1992) reported the age of emplacement for
the Songkhla and Satun granites, which are classified in the Main Range granitoids, as
Triassic period, based on radiometric age determination by Rb/Sr isochron technique.
Therefore, the emplacement of granitoids in the Transect area may have been happening
in the Triassic.

4. STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY AND TECTONICS

4.1 Introduction

The structural geology of the Transect area corresponds to the regional tectonic pattern
of the Peninsular Malaysia and Southern Thailand. However, detailed mapping carried
out within the Transect area revealed that, in places, the local structures appear to have a
slight variance as compared to the regional pattern. Peninsular Malaysia and southern
Thailand were formed as a result of collisions between the Sibumasu (Shan Thai) to the
west and Eastmal-Indosinia (Indochina) blocks to the east. This collision was
accompanied by a major tectonic event during Late Triassic, resulting in the deformation
of rocks in the region. The continent-continent collision had caused uplifting and faulting
along the N-S direction. On the other hand, the formation of N-S trending fault zones had
caused a widespread deposition of post-collision sediments in an approximately N-S
longitudinal basin. However, the major structure of the Palaeozoic strata in this area may
have been destroyed by the influence of younger Cretaceous granite intrusions and multi-
direction fractures were generated as a result. Finally, younger NE-SW and NW-SE
fractures, which can be prominently observed in both igneous and sedimentary host rocks,
may have been resulted from the movement of the major fault in the Transect area.

4.2 Folding
The Lower Paleozoic rocks in the Transect area are generally folded into series of
broad fold structures which are characterized by steeply dipping limbs. A pattern of close-
set minor folding can be seen superimposing the primary structures, especially in the less
competent horizon. The NE-SW and N-S trending fold axes are sub-parallel to the long
axis of the Peninsular Malaysia. On the Malaysian side, the synclinal and anticlinal axes
can be recognised in the valleys of Ayer Bungur and Sungai Kuak, respectively. Other
minor folds are present with small magnitude.
 61

The Silurian-Devonian rock sequences of both countries (northern parts of the

Peninsular Malaysia and southern Thailand) display tight to isoclinal folds plunging
towards NE. The Carboniferous rocks on the Malaysian side are broadly folded and
plunging generally toward SE; whereas on the Thai side, the fold axes are represented by
the N-S and NE-SW trending broad folds commonly dipping eastward. The Pliocene to
Pleistocene rocks in both Malaysia and Thailand show broad synclines plunging generally
towards NW.

4.3 Faulting
Faulting is widespread throughout the Transect area. Owing to the thick soil cover and
deep tropical weathering, traces of fault zones are seldom exposed for observation. Aerial
photographs interpretation and field evidences show that there are two prominent fault
directions in the study area i.e. NW and NE set. The major faults are Lebey/Wang Suda
fault (N-S), Kenderong fault (NW-SE), Pong fault (NE-SW), Tebus/Than To fault (NE-
SW), Baho/Muang fault (NW-SE), Bang Lang fault (NE-SW) and Muda/Chantharat fault
(NW-SE).

4.4 Shearing
Regional shearing is one of the prominent features in the Lower Palaeozoic rock in the
Transect area. The main regional shearing appears to be parallel to the bedding and may
have preceded the deformation associated with the actual granite emplacement and
faulting. Shear directions recorded in this area are NE-SW, NW-SE and N-S. It may have
been affected during the mid-Palaeozoic period of diastrophism, or may represent a very
early phase of the Mesozoic orogeny.
62

5. ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

5.1 Introduction

The study area is known for its economic deposits, some of which have been exploited
since the early nineteenth century. During the current project, many abandoned mining
areas, quarries and areas of mineral potential were investigated and economically
assessed. Metallic and non-metallic mineral occurrences in the Transect area were
delineated (Figure 44).

1010'E 10115'E

95 E 100 E 105 E

TT H
H A
A II LL A
A N
N D
D
Sn
615'N
615'N

Sn Sn

20 N
20 N
M
M A
A LL A
A Y
Y S
S II A
A Sn

Amphoe
Than To

THAILAND

15 N
15 N

Bangkok

10 N
10 N
60'N
60'N

TRANSECT AREA

5 N
5 N

MALAYSIA

Kuala Lumpur

95 E 100 E 105 E

Amphoe
Betong
545'N
545'N

Ba

0 150 300 600 900 1,200 1,500

Pengkalan TT H
H A
A II LL A
A N
N D
D
Hulu
Kilometres
Tasek
Legend
Kelian Intan
Ba
Sn
Barite occurence
M
M A
A LL A
A Y
Y S
S II A
A Hot spring
Ba
Sn
Tin mine
Quarry
530'N
530'N

Bersia Town
Roads
Gerik International Boundary
1010'E 10115'E Streams

Figure 44: Metallic and non-metallic mineral occurences in the Transect area.
 63

5.2 Metallic Minerals

The occurrence of tin, tungsten, gold and other heavy minerals are common in the
Transect area. On the Malaysian side, the occurrences of rare-earth minerals, tungsten and
titanium minerals (wolframite and scheelite) have been recorded by Burton (1970) but
their quantities are too small for economical exploitation. On the Thai side, all tin mines
have ceased their operation due to low price. It may be re-exploited if both the price and
Environmental Impact Assessment permits.

5.2.1 Tin
Tin is an important mineral in the Transect area and it is located within the Western
Tin Belt province as delineated by Scrivenor (1928).
On the Malaysian side, tin mineralization is concentrated in the Kelian Intan area,
where mining activity in this area started in 1850. Burton (1970) reported that there were
tin mining activities in the early 1900s in Sungai Pong of the Kelian Intan area. The only
tin mine which is still operating until now is the Rahman Hydraulic Tin Berhad, which
started its mining activity in the Kelian Intan area earlier than 1903. The tin ore was
recovered from alluvium and colluvial material as well as primary tin deposits.
Ismail Iman et al. (1989) reported that there were 11 companies operating tin mines in
the Kelian Intan area. There were four open cast mines working on the primary tin deposit
and seven alluvial tin mines. Up to now, only the Rahman Hydraulic Tin Berhad mine is
still working for primary tin deposits in and around the Gunung Paku area (Figure 45).
This tin mine is considered as the worlds largest open cast primary tin mine currently
operating. It survived the world tin crisis in 1985 and the world economic slump in 1997
because of the large production volume of tin ore, average monthly production of more
than 100 tonnes and supplemented by cheap electricity power supply (hydroelectric)
owned and maintained by the company. Other tin mines on the Malaysian side had
stopped their operation.
Tin fields in the Kelian Intan area are generally underlain by Silurian-Devonian rocks
of the Kroh formation (SDkr), which consists dominantly of shale, slate with subordinate
marble, metasandstone and minor chert. Geological structures within the Transect area
shows three major sets of extension joint trending i.e. E-W, ENE-WSW and WNW-ESE
directions. However, their relationship with tin mineralization is still not yet studied in
detail. In general, tin mineralization and the occurence of other minerals within the
Transect area are genetically related to hydrothermal origin, either directly or indirectly
due to intrusions of the nearby granite bodies. The occurrence of tin ores is associated
with a stockwork of quartzo-feldspathic veins in the argillaceous and calcareous
metasedimentary rocks of the Silurian-Devonian Kroh formation (SDkr).
At Gunung Paku (Rahman Hydraulic Tin Berhad area), the mineralized veins are
generally trend E-W. The veins vary in width from a few millimeters up to 15 cm or
more. Most of these veins exhibit a pinch and swell structures. They have a considerable
horizontal extent but their vertical extent is still unknown. The composition of cassiterite
lodes (tin ore) varies from mineralogically simple quartz-cassiterite and quartz-
tourmaline-cassiterite veins to more complex quartz-cassiterite-polymetallic sulphide
lodes in light grey to light brown metaargillite. The veins are believed to constitute a
hydrothermal stockwork type of deposit. In the Kota Bunyih area, the bedrock of the mine
is also made up of carbonaceous metaargillite with rare metasandstone, marble, hornfels
64

and chert of the Kroh formation (SDkr); traversed by numerous mineralized quartz-
cassiterite-polymetallic sulphide veins.

A B
Figure 45: The Rahman Hydraulic Tin Berhad, Kelian Intan, Malaysia.
A- Entrance to the mines.
B- Working for primary tin deposits at Gunung Paku.

On the Thai side, tin mines were widely exploited in the Yala Province. Most of the tin
mines are located in four districts i.e. Bannang Sta, Yaha, Than To and Betong Districts.
However, all the tin mines have ceased their operation due to the low tin price. Currently
six deposits are known:
i. Tham Thalu-Puluan-Balae Deposit
ii. Dida-Labu Deposit
iii. Pin Yor Deposit
iv. Than To Deposit
v. Ai Yoe Weng Deposit
vi. Bor Nam Ron-Betong Deposit

i. Tham Thalu-Puluan-Balae Deposit

This deposit is situated at Ban Tham Thalu, Bannang Sta District of Yala Province,
between Lat. 6o 16 00 N 6o 16 30 N and Long. 101o 08 30 E 101o 10 30 E. It is
located on the topographic map scale 1: 50,000 of map Sheet 5221 IV (Amphoe Yaha).
The deposit occurs at the contact aureole zone of Jurassic-Triassic biotite granite with
Carboniferous rocks to the north, and Permian limestone to the east. In this area, five
mines had been in operation for several years namely, Tham Thalu, Mai, Bulan, Bayor
and Na Sua mines.
Tham Thalu mine was the biggest tin mine in this area (Figure 46). The Yala Mines Co.
Ltd. started its operation before the World War II and subsequently it was taken over by
many operators until it stopped operating. This mine situated in the contact aureole zone
of Jurassic-Triassic porphyritic biotite granite and the Permian limestone. The limestone
in the contact zone was metamorphosed to skarn. Generally, this area is covered by
gossan, and high grade cassiterite deposits are usually found on higher ground.
Associated minerals, such as cerussite (lead carbonate), pyrite, magnetite, goethite,
 65

arsenopyrite and grossularite are common. The product obtained from this mine is
composed of tin 25% and lead 37%, and the final product was usually refined as mixture
of tin and lead.
After the mining activities stopped, the surrounding area was found to have been
polluted by toxic materials derived from the tailings, such as lead and arsenic. Due to this
impact, the Department of Mineral Resources Thailand was engaged by the government
for rehabilitation work to mitigate the impact of toxic materials to the environment since
1999, by using the secure landfill method and reforestation (Figures 46 & 47).

A B
Figure 46: Tham Thalu mine, Thailand
A- Abandoned open-cut of the mines.
B- B- Rehabilitated area by reforestation.

Mai mine is located to the west of Tham Thalu mine. Normally, cassiterite and sulphide
minerals occur in the contact zone between granite and shale. Cassiterite was transported
and accumulated as a placer deposit 50 m to the east of a Permian limestone cliff.
Bulan mine is situated at Ban Buluan, 1.5 km to the northwest of Tham Thalu mine. It is
in the contact zone between granite and limestone. Normally, cassiterite occurs in skarn
and sulphide mineral veins.
Bayor mine situated in the north of Mai mine and 1 km to the west of Bulan mine. It is
also in the contact zone, and quartz veins. Cassiterite commonly occurs in quartz veins
and placer deposits.
Na Sua mine is located in the valley of Ban Balae, 1 km to the northwest of Bulan mine.
The mine, started operation in 1970, was initially mined for copper (bornite, chalcanthite
and chalcopyrite). Unfortunately, the intended copper ore were disqualified due to high
percentage of cassiterite (>4%) in copper. Consequently, only tin was produced.
The earlier open-cut of Na Sua mine is situated in the contact zone of porphyritic
biotite granite and dark grey limestone. Due to metasomatism, the limestone were
metamorphosed to marble and skarn, and yielded sulphide minerals, such as chalcopyrite,
bornite, chalcanthite, sphalerite, galena and cerussite. In addition, pyrite, arsenopyrite,
hematite, scheelite and cassiterite also occurred (Sutthakorn, 1970). The later open-cut of
the mine, sulphide minerals such as pyrrhotite, galena, sphalerite, occur 40 m in width,
cut into the fault in skarn.
Generally, cassiterite is associated with pyrrhotite. To the north, pyrite veins are
observed cutting the quartzite with NW-SE strike direction and dipping 750 NW. Based
66

on drilling results conducted in 1972, the mineral deposits overlie granite and marble at
about 35 40 m depth. The regional reserve of lead, zinc, tin and copper was estimated at
400,000 tonnes.
Daily production of tin produced from sulphide mineral veins was about 30
40 tonnes and the final product is composed of 70% Sn.
After the mining operation ceased, the environmental impacts situation here were
critical. The secure landfill and replantation methods were applied by the Department of
Primary Industries and Mines to rehabilitate the environmental impact (Figure 47).

Figure 47: Environmental improvement work by secure landfill at Na Sua mine, Thailand.

ii. Dida-Labu Deposit

Dida-Labu deposit is located to the northwest of Tham Thalu deposits. It consists of
two mines, namely; Labu and Dida mines.
Labu mine situated at Ban Patae, Bannang Sta District, Yala Province. The deposit is
located in the contact zone of Jurassic-Triassic biotite granite and sedimentary rocks. This
deposit is mainly underlain by blackish quartzite and limestone boulders. Pyrite is oftenly
disseminated within the quartzite, especially in the fractures. Cassiterite and other
minerals such as galena, chalcopyrite, pyrite and arsenopyrite commonly occurred in
quartz veins which generally cut the rock formation in the E-W direction. It was reported
that data gathered from drilling conducted by the Strait Consolidated Tin mines company
limited in 1940 1941, indicated that granite was observed at the depth of about 300 m,
and grade of cassiterite in the quartz veins was about 1.2%. Due to the potential of the
deposit, drift mining had been conducted for several years.
Dida mine group consists of three mines namely: Dida mine 1, 2 and 3; located to the
east of Labu mine, and it is also situated in the contact zone of granite and sedimentary
rocks. Cassiterite commonly occurred in greenish skarn and in quartz veins that cut into
quartzite. However, tin ore from these mines contained high percentage of iron. The
average monthly tin production was 0.9 1.2 tonnes.

iii. Pin Yoh Deposit

Pin Yoh tin deposit is a primary skarn deposit, situated at Tambol Tham Thalu,
Bannang Sta District of Yala Province, 3 km from the Malaysia-Thailand border, at
6o 13 30 N, 101o 09 00 E (Figure 48). It is located in the contact zone of granite and
limestone. This mine was initially operated by Chinese miners until 1930 and then by the
 67

British American Tin Mines Company Limited until World War II. After the War, this
mine was controlled by the Thai Tin and Rubber Company under the Royal Thai
Government until 1949. Total production of tin since the beginning of operation was
500,000 tonnes. During that period, efficiency of ore dressing was quite low, i.e. only
18% 36% of tin could be separated. However in 1940 minerals separation was
improved by chemical process, called Cavaet Method. A total 400,000 tonnes of
tailings with >1% of tin contents were left around the mine.
Cassiterite in this mine normally occurred in quartz stringers-veins stockworks, in
quartzite and shale of the Kanchanaburi Formation. In the mineralized veins, 1% 2% of
cassiterite is commonly associated with garnet and Fe minerals. The mineral assemblage
in the contact zone is composed of galena, pyrite, chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite, and
magnetite.

Figure 48: Open-cut at Pin Yoh mine, Bannang Sta District, Thailand.

iv. Than To Deposit

This deposit is situated at Ban Than To, Than To District, 6o 02 42 N, 101o 12 42 E
on the topographic map Sheet 5221 III of scale 1:50,000. This deposit is in the contact
zone of granite and sedimentary rocks. The former mining area has now been completely
flooded by water below the Bang Lang Dam.

v. Ai Yoe Weng Deposit

This deposit is located in Betong District at Lat. 5o 55 00 N 5o 55 20 N and Long.
101o 07 30 E 101o 10 30 E, on topographic map Sheet 5220 IV (Amphoe Betong). It
is within the contact zone of granite and sedimentary rocks of the Kanchanaburi
Formation which includes hornfel, quartzite, phyllitic quartzite, slate and phyllite.
Generally, pyrite disseminates throughout these rocks, especially, in the fractures. Quartz
veins cut the rocks in the E-W direction. Mineral assemblage of the veins is composed of
pyrite, arsenopyrite and cassiterite. Cassiterite was also commonly found in the Ai Yoe
Weng stream and Ai Yoe Kem stream. This deposit consists of two mines; Prachuab and
Ai Yoe Weng mines.
Prachuab mine is situated at Km 98 on the way from Yala to Betong town (28 km north
of Betong). The overburden is generally composed of gravels of biotite granite,
tourmaline-biotite granite, and quartz. The bedrock is phyllitic quartzite. Gravel pump
mining had been carried out to exploit the tin placer deposit.
68

Ai Yoe Weng mine is located at the Ai Yoe Weng stream, Km 99 on the way from
Yala to Betong (27 km northward of Betong downtown). The bedrock is biotite granite
and covered by phyllitic quartzite in some parts. Generally, cassiterite and scheelite occur
in quartz veins and accumulated in the placers. Three to five tonnes of cassiterite had
been produced monthly by gravel pump mining operation.

vi. Bor Nam Ron-Betong Deposit

This deposit is located at Ban Bor Nam Ron, Betong District, on topographic map
Sheet 5220 IV (Amphoe Betong) at Lat. 5o 50 25 N 5o 54 45 N, Long.
101o 04 00 E 101o 08 25 E. It is within the contact zone of granite and sedimentary
rocks of the Kanchanaburi Formation. Cassiterite normally occurs in quartz veins and
accumulated in the alluvium.

5.2.2 Tungsten
The occurrence of scheelite (calcium tungstate) is widespread in stream sediments (in
trace amount). Wolframite (iron-manganese tungstate) has been recorded on the
Malaysian side at the Temengor area by Jones (1969). On the Thai side, scheelite has also
been found and it was produced as a by product at the Ai Yoe Weng tin mine.

5.2.3 Heavy minerals

On the Malaysian side, Burton (1970) reported that monazite occurred as an accessory
mineral in stream sediments and in some cases it occurs together with considerable
amounts of xenotime. In a fairly large-scale alluvial tin-mining operation, these minerals
could possibly be profitably recovered as by-product.
Thorite and allanite had also been identified. The titanium ore, ilmenite (iron titanate)
is a common accessory mineral in granite and is one of the most abundant mineral found
in the heavy mineral concentrates. Dumps of heavy minerals (amang) discarded during tin
mining operations constitute the main local source of ilmenite.
On the Thai side, heavy minerals such as monazite, xenotime, zircon, rutile, ilmenite
and magnetite occur widespread throughout the area, especially near the granite in the
Transect area.

5.2.4 Gold
On the Malaysian side, Scrivenor (1915) reported that alluvial gold had been mined at
Berusong in the Temengor valley. He believed that the gold probably came from the basic
Pahang Volcanic Series and perhaps from the quartz porphyry in which numerous small
quartz veins were seen. The basic Pahang Volcanic Series rocks are now thought to be
highly altered basic intrusives and the quartz porphyry is now known to be an acid
pyroclastic rock (volcanic rocks of the Gerik formation) rather than an intrusive. The
primary gold mineralization may be of similar mode of occurrence to the tin
mineralization, which is genetically related to the surrounding granite bodies. So far,
there is no record on occurrence of gold on the Thai side.
 69

5.3 Non-Metallic Minerals and Hot Springs

Non-metallic mineral and other resources can be developed and exploited in the
Transect area and these include barytes, sand and gravel, dimension stones, rock
aggregates, feldspar and hot spring.

5.3.1 Barite
On the Malaysian side, the occurrence barite float in the form of boulders was initially
reported by Oh (1974) in the vicinity of Sungai Pong. Later Ismail et al. (1989) reported
that a few barite boulders were found along the lower reaches of Sungai Pong. They occur
as subrounded, white translucent gravel sized float material along the valley floor. During
the current study, barite floats were noted in Sungai Pong, and a few primary barite veins
that associated with quartz were observed along the timber track cut parallel to Sungai
Pong at Kampung Pong, Pengkalan Hulu (5o 33 11 N, 100o 59 53 E to 5o 32 54 N,
100o 59 31 E). Analysis carried out by the Minerals and Geoscience Department
Malaysia indicated that the chemical composition of the barite float is as follows:
BaSO4 (95.65%), Fe2O3 (0.03%) and other components (0.27%). The primary barite veins
cut the argillaceous rock of the Kroh formation (SDkr) in the NW-SE direction, not far
from the limestone and granite bodies. The largest veins were observed at 5o 32 46 N,
100o 59 24 E. Each of the veins is 20 cm wide, trending 40o with dip angle 55o towards
SE. Coarsely laminated and rose forms of barite crystal can be observed. The BaSO4
content varies from 0.04% to 94.67%. Further detail study is recommended in order to
trace the extension and to determine the grade of the barite (Figure 49).
On the Thai side, the barite deposit was first found during the last fieldwork carried out
in the Transect area. The deposit is located along the road-cut at km 5 from Betong town
to the Malaysia-Thailand border. Its veins generally occur in shale bed, limestone lenses
and chert, and trending N-S. It is mainly found in coarsely laminated form and some of
barites in rose form can be observed (Figure 49). Two samples were analysed and
indicated its composition is as follows: BaSO4 (95%), SiO2 (2%), Al2O3 (0.7%),
Fe2O3 (0.3%), MgO (0.03%), CaO (0.25%) and SrSO4 (1.72%). Therefore, it is
recommended that further detailed exploration should be conducted at this locality and
adjacent area, in order to evaluate the barite potential.

A B
Figure 49: Occurrence of barite in the Malaysia and Thailand border areas.
A- Quartz vein associated with minor amount of barite exposed near
Kampung Pong, Pengkalan Hulu, Malaysia.
B- Barite crystal found at Ban Ka Pae Hulu, Betong District, Thailand
70

5.3.2 Rock aggregates

These resources are widespread in the Transect area. The reserves are sufficient
enough to be quarried for construction materials and also to supply the raw material for
various industrial products i.e. dimension stone, Precipitated Calcium Carbonate (PCC),
Grinded Calcium Carbonate (GCC), filler and etc. However detailed study on the quality,
their economic potential and environmental impact is needed.
On the Malaysian side, the granite supplies are available mainly from the Bintang
granite (Trgrbt) in the west and from Rimba Telui granite (Trgrrt) in the north of Gerik
town. Abundant supplies of metasandstone and quartzite are available from the
arenaceoues facies of the Keroh formation (SDkr) and the Kubang Pasu Formation (Ckp).
Crystalline limestones are available from the calcareous member of the Silurian-Devonian
Keroh formation (SDkr) and in the Gerik formation (Pgk). There are two abandoned
quarries, which supplied rocks aggregate for the Temengor and Bersia Dam construction
project. The quarries are metatuff quarry at Bersia and quartzite quarry at Jalan Ayer
Ganda, south of Gerik. Currently there is only one quarry still operating due to the low
demand from the construction projects in the study area. There is only one limestone
quarry still operating at Bukit Jagor, near Gerik town which supply rock aggregates to the
surrounding areas. However, the quarry operation is temporal and entirely dependent on
local demand i.e. the quarry normally closed temporarily when there is no order received
(Figure 50).
On the Thai side, most of limestone products have been exploited in Yala Province.
Almost all of them are produced for construction materials and a few for dimension stone
(Figure 51). Based on the year 2001 record, approximately 698,000 tonnes of limestone
were produced from eight quarries.

5.3.3 Sand and gravels

Sand and gravel can be used as basic material in construction industry. Sand is also
used as fine aggregates in dry concrete products as well as in cement bricks and filtering
materials. However, the deposits are rare in the Transect area and confined to the upper
stream of the main rivers.
On the Malaysian side, the deposits are only available in substantial quantity in the
main river valleys such as along the valleys of Sungai Rui and Sungai Pong (Figure 52).
Alternative supplies of sand and gravels may be exploited from thick sequence of semi-
consolidated sand, grit and gravel of the Nenering beds (Qnn). Tailing from the tin mines
such as gravel and sand also can be used for contruction material. Siti Faridah et al.
(2002) mentioned that there are five river sand producers in the Gerik area and three mine
tailing sand producers at the Kelian Intan area.
On the Thai side, there are at least two localities of sand and gravel deposits. They are
confined along the Pattani river i.e., at Ban Kor Mor 32 and at Ban Bor Nam Ron Betong
District. At Ban Bor Nam Ron, the sand and gravels are exploited from tailing of tin
mines. Generally, most of sand and gravel have been produced for construction material.
 71

Figure 50: Limestone quarry at Bukit Jagor, Gerik, Malaysia.

A B
Figure 51: Quarries in Yala Province, Thailand.
A- Limestone aggregates quarry, Betong District.
B- Abandoned marble quarry in the Tham Thalu mining area.

A B
Figure 52: Sand mining in Sungai Pong, Kelian Intan area, Malaysia
A- The sand dredging pump
B- The sand stockpile
72

5.3.4 Volcanic rocks with high flux content

Large amounts of feldspar are available in the tuff of the Gerik formation in Malaysia
and they may be potential sources for feldspar extraction. Feldspar mineral is an
important raw material for industrial product such as in glass making industries, ceramic
etc. Results from XRD (Appendix 3) and geochemistry (Appendix 4) analyses for a
number of volcanic rocks samples collected during the survey indicated high flux content
but a follow-up detailed survey is recommended to obtain more accurate volume estimate
and its economic potential.
On the Thai side, there is so far no record of feldspar deposits.

5.3.5 Hot springs

Hot spring discharging water rich in dissolved minerals are known at many localities
in and around the Transect area. The water is related to the final cooling phase of
magmatic activity.
On the Malaysian side, hot springs are located at, Pengkalan Hulu and along the Lebey
fault (after Sungai Lebey). The hot springs cut through the metasedimentary rocks of the
Kroh formation (SDkr) close to the granite bodies. The water temperature at Kampung
Ayer Panas hot spring is up to 91 oC. The other three are located outside of the study area:
i. in the valley of Sungai Kenering emerged from the Bintang granite (Trgrbt) at
Kampung Ayer Panas,
ii. at 4 km South of Gerik from bedded tuff and
iii. at Kampung Ulu Legong, Baling from granite (49 oC).
The hot springs at Kampung Ayer Panas, Pengkalan Hulu and at Kampung Ulu
Legong, Baling have already been developed for tourist attraction (Figure 53).

A B
Figure 53: Hot springs in Malaysia.
A- Hot spring at Ulu Legong, Baling District, Kedah.
B- Hot spring at Kampung.Ayer Panas, Pengkalan Hulu, Perak.

On the Thai side, there are two hot spring sites have been identified (Figure 54). The
first site is one of the famous tourist attractions for Betong District which is located at
 73

Ban Bor Nam Ron, 9 km north of Betong town. The hot spring occurs along the N -S
trending fault located on the contact between the Betong Formation (SDbt) and Pa Ret Tu
granite (Trgrpr). The water temperature is up to 60 o 70 oC. The second site is at Ban Na
Kor, 38 km northeast of Betong town. It is originated from the NW-SE trending fault
located on the contact between the Yaha Formation (Cyh) and Chantharat granite (Trgrch).
The water temperature is approximately 40 o 50 oC. It is now being developed into a
tourist attraction.
Due to its rich content in dissolved minerals and high temperature, the hot spring water
is believed to have some therapeutic value. The high temperature hot spring might be
developed for thermal power. However, its development is subjected to further detailed
studies.

A B
Figure 54: Hot springs in Thailand.
A- Hot spring at Ban Bor Nam Ron, Betong District.
B- Hot spring at Ban Na Kor, Betong District.

6. DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

Discussion
i. The sandstone unit formerly considered as part of the upper Cambrian-Ordovisian
Papulut quartzite (Burton, 1972) that exposed in the Gunung Kenderong and
Kerunai areas, Malaysia is now considered as part of arenaceous facies of the
Carboniferous Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh). It is because the rock unit is
now found startigraphically overlying the Silurian-Devonian Kroh formation (SDkr),
the oldest rock unit within the Transect area.
ii. Thick sequence of arenaceous rocks formerly known as the arenaceous facies of the
Kroh formation (SDkr) that occur in the eastern part of the Transect area on the
Malaysian side has been recognised to actually present the locally metamorphosed
unit of the Kubang Pasu Formation (Ckp). This has solved the question of having a
thick sequence of sandstone in a well known deep water environment of the Kroh
formation (SDkr).
iii. The Kati formation, which was formerly believed to cover the central north part of
the Betong-Pengkalan Hulu Transect area on Malaysian side, has been proven to be
74

the eastern extension of the rock sequence of the Kubang Pasu Formation (Ckp)
which exposed in northeast Kedah State. This idea is supported by the occurrence
of Lower Carboniferous radiolaria in the chert along the security road-cuts.
iv. The Grik tuff, which was previously considered for a long time as Ordovician in
age, is now assigned as not older than Carboniferous. Middle Permian age is
favoured by the finding of Anisopyge sp. and Phillipsia sp. (trilobite) as well as
Chonetid (brachipod) within the calcareous shale interbedded with tuff at Kampung
Batu 2, Gerik. The name Grik tuff is now being proposed by the Malaysian
Working Group to be changed to the Gerik formation (Pgk).
v. The Nenering beds, which was previously interpreted to consist of three sequences
i.e the Lower, Middle and Upper units is now being proposed to retain the original
division of the Middle and Upper units (now designated into Lower and Upper
unit). The earlier Lower unit is now being interpreted to be much older age than the
earlier thought, i.e Late Cretaceous which is now designated as the Berapit
formation (Kbr).

Conclusions
i. Problems on the discontinuity among rock unit boundaries between the Paleozoic
rocks to Quaternary deposits, and the extension of granitic rocks on both the
Malaysian and Thai sides have been satisfactorily resolved.
ii. The marine sedimentation took place continuously throughout the Paleozoic Era.
Large breaks during Mesozoic Era can be observed and the Cretaceous continental
sediments were deposited sporadically.
iii. The oldest rocks in the Transect area is the Silurian-Devonian Kroh
formation/Betong Formation (SDkr/bt), consisting mainly of shale, siltstone,
sandstone with subordinate chert and argillaceous limestone lenses. Many fossil
assemblages, i.e. Tentaculites elegans, Tentaculites sp., graptolite, brachiopods,
trilobite, conodont and radiolarian, indicate a Silurian-Devonian age. The
conformably overlying unit, the Kubang Pasu/Yaha Formation (Ckp/yh), is
characterized by the presence of sandstone, siltstone, shale, chert, limestone lenses,
phyllite, phyllitic schist with minor quartzite, and calc-silicate. Based on the
presence of the radiolarian and conodont, the formation is considered to be
Carboniferous age.
iv. There are two different Permian strata in the Transect area. The Middle Permian
Gerik formation, composing predominantly of pyroclastic rocks intercalated with
subordinate limestone and calcareous shale with Anisopyge sp. and Phillipsia sp.
(trilobite) as well as Chonetid (brachiopod) is exposed only in the southern part of
the Transect area (Malaysian side). The Ratburi Group, which exposed only in the
northern part of the Transect area (Thai side) is lithologically subdivided into two
formations, the Sri Paen (Psp) and the Tham Krachaeng (Ptk) formations. The Early
Permian Sri Paen formation is predominantly composed of argillaceous limestone,
shale, siltstone and chert with minor sandstone in the upper part. The Middle
Permian Tham Krachaeng formation consists mainly of recrystallized limestone and
marble with chert nodules and lenses. The occurrence of the fossil assemblages, i.e.
bivalves, brachiopods, radiolarian and fusulinids indicates a Permian age.
v. The Cretaceous Berapit formation (Kbr) is well exposed at Km 2.2 along the
Malaysia-Thailand border security road on the Malaysian side. It is composed of
 75

well-cemented, poorly sorted matrix supported conglomerate that unconformably

overlies the Kroh formation/Betong Formation (SDkr/bt).
vi. The unconsolidated sediments can be subdivided into two units: the Pleistocene
Nenering/Ai Yoe Boe Chang beds (Qnn/ay) and Recent fluvial deposit (Qa). The
former unit, more than 30 m thick, is characterized by gravel, sand, silt, and laterite
with abundant iron concretions. Imbrications and various sizes of clasts indicate
that the palaeocurrent ran toward northeast on the Malaysian side and southeast on
the Thai side. The Recent fluvial deposit is confined to valleys of the main rivers
and composed mainly of sand, silt and clay.
vii. Triassic granitic rocks: Rimba Telui/Si Nakhon (Trgrrt/sn), Chantharat (Trgrch), Damar
(Trgrdm), Batu Putih/Pa Ret Tu (Trgrbp/pr) and Kawi (Trgrkw) granites intruded the
Palaeozoic succession in the western, central and eastern parts of the Transect area.
The granites are composed mainly of porphyritic biotite granite including pegmatite
and minor phase of tourmaline granite, leucocratic granite or aplite with associated
tin deposit, barite, and base metal sulfide minerals.
viii. N-S and NE-SW trending quartz dykes usually intruded the country rocks,
especially in Carboniferous rocks exposed in the lower and middle parts of the
Transect area. Contact metamorphism and associated late stage mineralizations can
be observed in the country rocks.
ix. The Silurian-Devonian sequences display tight to isoclinal folds plunging towards
NE. The Carboniferous rocks in southern part of the area are broadly folded
plunging generally toward SE, whereas in the northern part, the fold axes are
represented by the N-S and NE-SW trending broad folds with generally eastward
dipping. The Pleistocene strata show broad synclines plunging generally towards
NW.
x. There are several strike-slip and normal faults trending N-S, NW-SE and NE-SW.
xi. Barite has been recently discovered in the Transect area near Kampung Pong,
Pengkalan Hulu (Malaysian side) and Ban Ka Pae Hulu, Betong District (Thai
side). Further detailed study on these deposits is suggested in the future.
xii. Large amounts of feldspar are available in the tuff of the Gerik formation in
Malaysia and they may be potential sources for feldspar extraction. Further detailed
study on these deposits is suggested in the future.
xiii. Other mineral deposits such as tin, tungsten, heavy minerals, rock aggregates, sand
and gravel are also recognised.
xiv. Hot springs occur along N-S trending faults and have been developed as tourist
attractions in both countries.
76

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80

APPENDICES

Appendix 1: List of the Malaysian Working Group Member ........................................81

Appendix 2: List of the Thai Working Group Member..................................................82
Appendix 3: XRD analysis results for tuff samples .......................................................83
Appendix 4: Geochemical result of volcanic rocks with high flux content from Gerik,
Perak, Malaysia. .........................................................................................84
 81

Appendix 1: List of the Malaysian Working Group Member

(Minerals and Geoscience Department, Malaysia)
1. Mr. Ibrahim bin Amnan-Leader of the Malaysian Working Group
2. Mr. Ong Wee Seck
3. Mr. Lai Kok Hoong
4. Mr. Mohd Pauzi bin Abdullah
5. Mr. Mustafar bin Hamzah
6. Mr. Askury bin Abd. Kadir
7. Mr. Noor Bakri bin Endut
8. Mr. Mohd Badzran bin Mat Taib
9. Mr. Mohamad Hussein bin Jamaluddin
10. Mr. Mat Niza bin Abdul Rahman
11. Mr. Shari bin Ismail
12. Mr. Ahmad Zamani bin Samat
13. Mr. Qalam Azad bin Rosle
82

Appendix 2: List of the Thai Working Group Member

(Department of Minerals Resources, Thailand)
1. Dr. Assanee Meesook-Leader of the Thai Working Group
2. Mr. Lertsin Raksaskulwong
3. Dr. Pol Chaodumrong
4. Mr. Somboon Khositanont
5. Mr. Thawatchai Thepsuwan
6. Mr. Nimit Sornklang
7. Mr. Naramase Teerarungsigul
8. Mr. Suvapak Imsamut
9. Ms. Wilai Wechasri
10. Mr. Surachet Poonpan
11. Mr. Wirote Saengsrichan
12. Mr. Kitti Khaowiset
13. Mr. Surasak Meetuwong
 83

Appendix 3: XRD analysis results for tuff samples

Major mineral Minor mineral Trace

Nos. Location Sample
constituents constituents amount
Gerik Secondary
School
1 o TST.3/F3/11 Feldspar, quartz Illite Kaolinite
5 25.500'N,
o
101 08.250'E
Abandoned quarry
Bersia
2 o TST.3/F3/16 Feldspar, quartz Illite Kaolinite
5 26.031'N,
o
101 13.200'E
Sungai Rui Police
Station
3 o ST19/R2 Feldspar, quartz Illite Kaolinite
5 27.784'N,
o
101 10.124'E
Sungai Rui Police
Station
4 o ST19/R1 Feldspar, quartz Kaolinite Illite
5 27.784'N,
o
101 10.124'E
Abandoned quarry
Papulut
5 o ST32/R1 Feldspar, quartz - Kaolinite
5 18.373'N,
o
101 03.411'E
 84

Appendix 4: Geochemical result of volcanic rocks with high flux content from Gerik, Perak, Malaysia.

Elements SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MgO CaO Na2O K2O TiO2 P2O5 MnO LOI
Location
Samples % % % % % % % % % % %

Taman EIK, Sungai Rui TST3/F3/9

o o 75 14.3 0.25 0.47 0.09 0.08 8.19 0.07 0.14 <0.01 1.48
5 26.747'N, 101 09.275'E (crystal tuff)

TST3/F3/11
Gerik Secondary School
o o (lithic 56.1 20.1 3.65 2.37 2.24 1.09 11 0.64 0.65 <0.01 2.31
5 25.500'N, 101 08.250'E
metatuff)

TST3/F3/16
Abandoned quarry Bersia
o o (lithic 68.3 15 3.49 1.49 0.39 1.97 7.03 0.48 0.16 <0.01 1.75
5 26.031'N, 101 13.200'E
metatuff)

Sungai Rui Police Station ST21/R1

o o 72.1 15.6 1.68 0.53 0.01 0.97 7.13 0.22 0.14 <0.01 1.43
5 27.784'N, 101 10.124'E (crystal tufff)

Sungai Rui Police Station ST21/R2

o o 71.9 16.3 0.95 0.53 0.09 0.95 7.21 0.25 0.14 <0.01 4.65
5 27.784'N, 101 10.124'E (crystal tufff)

Abandoned quarry Papulut ST32/R1

o o 70.4 15.7 1.31 4.52 0.1 1.53 9.38 0.08 0.14 <0.01 0.95
5 18.373'N, 101 03.411'E (crystal tufff)