Karl Cassel

BIOL 243
Individual Project
November 20, 2015
A Seemingly Unstoppable Invasion: Humans Dispersal of Zebra Mussels
Invasive species are a constant threat to ecosystems and can quickly take over areas
and habitats, leaving the other species that share that ecosystem to adapt and respond to the
rapid changes in environment (Nicholls, Hopkins 637). In this particular study, the focus is on
the invasive specie, Dreissena polymorpha, or zebra mussels which have invaded the Great
Lakes of North America and are changing the ecosystems of the various lakes (Vanderploeg et
al. 1210). This literature review will analyze the various aspects of the invasive zebra mussel
specie, looking at its journey to the Great Lake aided by humans, its dominance in the
ecosystem, the various it effects it plays within that ecosystem, as well as an ecological plan or
idea to approach the situation. Lastly, a Biblical interpretation of human's role as stewards of
Gods creation and caretakers of the earth will be given.
The ecosystem of the Great Lakes is made up of the five lakes as well as all the rivers
and connecting bodies of water surrounding each (Vanderploeg et al. 1210). The introduction of
zebra mussels to the Great Lakes has been thriving since the early 20th century, continuing its
invasion through the human influence (Vanderploeg et al. 1210, Ricciardi 2517). This first
introduction of the invasive zebra mussel is the cause of jump dispersal, which is a branch of
dispersal that is human driven, and therefore directly related to human interaction with the
various ecosystems (Krohne 164). Jump dispersal then leads to a different mechanism of
dispersal called diffusion which naturally driven, using currents and natural vectors to spread a
species (Krohne 164). The main cause is through the shipping industry, which has continued to
rise as production and demand have continually grown, increasing the number of nonnative
species in the Great Lakes ecosystem to about one new specie every eight months (Ricciardi
2517). This increase in nonnative species is contributing to the invasional meltdown model
which explains that the more foreign species that enter an ecosystem, the more susceptible that
ecosystem becomes to continued invasions from other species (Ricciardi 2513).
When a cargo ship begins its journey from a foreign freshwater ecosystem, it takes in
that water to its ballast, including native species that live that water (Ricciardi 2517). From there,
these species are safely transported across the ocean, avoiding the ocean water which would
be toxic to many of the organisms within, to the new freshwater ecosystem, in this case the
Great Lakes (Ricciardi 2518). Upon arrival to the Great Lakes, ships would empty their ballasts
and therefore release all the nonnative species into the new freshwater ecosystem (Ricciardi
2518). Yearly, about 800 million liters of ballast water is dumped into the Great Lakes,
approximately 3 million liters per ocean freighter (Ricciardi, MacIsaac 62). This process of
displacement of species into new environments has continued over the years, increasing
contamination of ecosystems with species that quickly take over and alter the local conditions
(Vanderploeg 1225). It was discovered that since 1970, 77% of invasions have resulted from
transoceanic shipping, making humans the initial vector of transmission and dispersal of the
invasive zebra mussel specie (Ricciardi 2517).
Zebra mussels quickly attached to and populated hard substrates of shallow water and
less rapidly invaded softer sediments, colonizing on grains of sand as well as each other
(Vanderploeg 1223). This is a form of overgrowth interspecific competition as the zebra mussel
grows over and deprives other sessile species of nutrients and space (Krohne 231-232). A
specific example of this is the process by which zebra mussels threaten and even prohibit the
bivalve family, Unionidae, to feed and function when they attach to the shells of the Unionidae
(Stewart, Haynes 490). This could also fall into the category of exploitation competition because
of the fight for a similar resource that each species needs to filter to survive (Krohne 231).
One significant and specific effect of the invasion of zebra mussels is the dramatic
decrease in phytoplankton population in the Great Lakes (Nicholls, Hopkins 639). Passive
transport is one of the main factors responsible for the spread of zebra mussel larvae through
water currents within and between the different lakes (Nicholls, Hopkins 645). As zebra mussel
populations increased, phytoplankton began to suffer because of the similar feeding strategies
of the two species (Nicholls, Hopkins 645). Both species filter feed on microorganisms including
chain-forming-diatoms and zooplankton by inflowing siphon streaming which is why
phytoplankton were so heavily impacted as zebra mussel populations grew rapidly (Nicholls,
Hopkins 646). The similarities in feeding styles can be seen as a form competition because of
the limited resource, one species will suffer based on a lack of nutrients (Krohne 238-239).
Similarly, the niches of both the phytoplankton and zebra mussel will experience a form of
character displacement in which each species's niche will shift in order to better survive in the
presence of the other, or one species will dominate and overtake the other (Krohne 239).
Another effect of the invasion of the zebra mussel is increased water clarity based on the
removal of floating particles removed by the filter feeding habits of this species (Stewart,
Haynes 489). As zebra mussels in the benthic layer of the lakes consume the microorganisms
they filter feed on, they produce organic waste and increase nutrients at the bottom (Stewart,
Haynes 489). This fact paired with the increased clarity in the euphotic, or most-surface level,
zone allows for light to penetrate the deeper depths of the lakes, and when met with the rich
nutrients of the benthic layer, produce benthic macrophytes and other types of algae as well
(Stewart, Haynes 489). This increase in activity at near the benthic layer of the lakes increased
macroinvertebrate populations, creating more competition for nutrients and food sources
(Stewart, Haynes 489).
To confront this problem of human displacement of invasive species, the United States
created regulations that forced freight ships to empty their ballasts prior to entering the Great
Lakes and their surrounding waterways as well as then fill their ballasts with the highly saline
sea water to cleanse their tanks of all forms of invasive species (Ricciardi, MacIsaac 63). This
solution helped in reducing the vast amounts of foreign ballast water being dumped into the
Great Lakes, however, it was not fully successful as ship ballasts were never fully emptied,
leaving a portion of the invasive species population still intact. Another contribution to the
unsuccessful halt of human transmission of invasive species is the resistant stages that certain
organisms would go through, allowing them to survive the the salt or brackish water taken into
the tanks until they reached the fresh water of the Great Lakes (Ricciardi, MacIsaac 63).
If the spread of zebra mussels between water systems is not taken control of, the
consequences will only worsen. Already zebra mussels cause immense damage such as
clogging freshwater intake and outtake pipes, ruining beaches and boats with vast covering of
surfaces, and accumulation of mercury and lead deposits which contribute to avian botulism
(Pejchar, Mooney 500). Now that ballast water removal regulations are set in place and being
monitored, it is believed that another large threat to the spread of zebra mussels throughout the
midwest of the United States is by the overland transport of personal boats (Bossenbroek, Kraft,
Nekola 1779). This is another form of jump dispersal in which the introduction of invasive
species is done so by humans as the vectors (Krohne 164). A proposed form of maintenance
and prevention of the spread of zebra mussels to other water systems by humans as vectors
could look like an extensive inspection of all boats that leave a body of water in an area of risk,
as well as an inspection of the watercraft before it re-enters a body of water that could be at risk
(Bossenbroek, Kraft, Nekola 1786). This could include wiping down and drying off the boat,
checking for any signs of invasive species attached to the parts of the boat submerged in the
water, as well as draining any parts of personal or recreational boats of any water they may
hold. With these steps in place and the regulations held by freight ships, there should be a
noticeable decrease in the amount of invasive species being moved by human vectors through
jump dispersal (Bossenbroek, Kraft, Nekola 1786-1787).
The maintenance of the earth and stewardship of creation is also a call from God that we
as Christians are chosen and responsible for; being mindful and looking to care for
environments and ecosystems so that they can remain intact and flourish in the midst of human
interaction. In the beginning of Genesis God says, Let us make man in our image, after our
likeness. And let them have dominion over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the heavens
and over the livestock and over all the earth and over every creeping thing that creeps on the
earth (Holy Bible, Gen. 1:26). This is a gift from God that humans should have authority over
the all that roams the earth, however, it is also a challenge and a means of responsibility that
the Lord has given his people. Just because humans rule over creation does not mean they can
exploit it. In the case of invasive species, it is our job as Christians to respect and uphold
creation which can look like taking extra steps to prevent the spread of these species. Christians
should want creation to remain pristine so that it can be used to direct and center others on
Christ.
In conclusion, the jump dispersal of zebra mussels is an ecological problem that needs
to be addressed in order to protect and maintain freshwater ecosystems (Bossenbroek, Kraft,
Nekola 1778). The invasive species of zebra mussels provides many problems for different
species within the affected water systems as well as human interactions with the affected
waterways (Pejchar, Mooney 500). This small, and seemingly harmless invasive specie has the
power to alter entire ecosystems including massive lakes such as the Great Lakes of the
midwestern United States (Stewart, Haynes 479). The proposed inspection system has potential
to limit and prevent the spread of invasive species such as zebra mussels between inland
bodies of water, however, it must take the cooperation and diligence of all those involved in
order for the operation to be successful (Bossenbroek, Kraft, Nekola 1786). This diligence and
cooperation is, in a sense, part of the responsibility Christians have described in Genesis in
maintaining Gods creation through care and cultivation of the resources provided (Holy Bible).
 References:

Bossenbroek, Jonathan M., Clifford E. Kraft, and Jeffrey C. Nekola. Prediction of Long-Distance

Dispersal Using Gravity Models: Zebra Mussel Invasion of Inland Lakes. Ecological

Applications 11.6 (2001): 17781788. JSTOR. Web.

The Holy Bible, New International Version. Grand Rapids: Zondervan House, 1984. Print.

Krohne, David T. Ecology: Evolution, Application, Integration. 1 edition. Oxford; New York: Oxford

University Press, 2015. Print.

Nicholls, Kenneth H., and Gordon J. Hopkins. Recent Changes in Lake Erie (North Shore)

Phytoplankton: Cumulative Impacts of Phosphorus Loading Reductions and the Zebra Mussel

Introduction. Journal of Great Lakes Research 19.4 (1993): 637647. ScienceDirect. Web.

Pejchar, Liba, and Harold A. Mooney. Invasive Species, Ecosystem Services and Human Well-

Being. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 24.9 (2009): 497504. ScienceDirect. Web.

Ricciardi, Anthony. Facilitative Interactions among Aquatic Invaders: Is an Invasional Meltdown

Occurring in the Great Lakes? Canadian Journal of Fisheries & Aquatic Sciences 58.12 (2001):

2513. Print.

Ricciardi, Anthony, and Hugh J. MacIsaac. Recent Mass Invasion of the North American Great

Lakes by PontoCaspian Species. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 15.2 (2000): 6265.

ScienceDirect. Web.

Stewart, Timothy W., and James M. Haynes. Benthic Macroinvertebrate Communities of

Southwestern Lake Ontario Following Invasion of Dreissena. Journal of Great Lakes Research

20.2 (1994): 479493. ScienceDirect. Web.

Vanderploeg, Henry A. et al. Dispersal and Emerging Ecological Impacts of Ponto-Caspian Species

in the Laurentian Great Lakes. Canadian Journal of Fisheries & Aquatic Sciences 59.7 (2002):

1209. Print.