Chap 13 Combinatorics PDF

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Chapter
Number and Algebra
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Combinatorics
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Combinatorics is also known as the gentle art of counting.
Questions such as In how many ways can 7 people line up at the canteen?,
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In how many ways can we arrange 10 people in a circle?, In how many
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ways can we divide a class of 28 into groups of 4?, belong to the branch of
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mathematics known as combinatorics.
Combinatorial problems were once regarded more as games and puzzles
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than as real mathematics, but since the advent of the computer, and the vast
applications of mathematics to many more areas of life, serious real-world
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problems involving combinatorial ideas have made the subject an important
area of study. For example, combinatorics is used to help design efficient ways
to transmit data on the internet.
26
ISBN 978-1-107-64845-6
5 The University of Melbourne / AMSI 2011
Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
C h a p t e r 1 3 C o m b i n a t o r ic s 83
Cambridge University Press
13A The multiplication
principle
A clothing store has 5 types of belts and 4 sizes available in each type. How many different
kinds of belts does the store have?
10A
Clearly there are 5 types in the first size, 5 in the second, and so on for the 4 sizes,
giving a total of 5 4 = 20 different kinds of belts.
Type
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
S1 (S1, T1) (S1, T2) (S1, T3) (S1, T4) (S1, T5)
Size S2 (S2, T1) (S2, T2) (S2, T3) (S2, T4) (S2, T5)
S3 (S3, T1) (S3, T2) (S3, T3) (S3, T4) (S3, T5)
S4 (S4, T1) (S4, T2) (S4, T3) (S4, T4) (S4, T5)
Example 1
Julie decides to have a meal and then go to the movies. There are 4 different
restaurants she could go to, and 3 different films she could see. In how many different
ways can she spend the evening?
Solution
There are 4 choices for the restaurant followed by 3 different films, hence there are
43=12 different ways she can spend the evening.
A tree diagram can be used to illustrate the solution to Example 1.

Film 1
Rest. 1 Film 2
Film 3
Film 1
Rest. 2 Film 2
Film 3
Film 1
Rest. 3 Film 2
Film 3
Film 1
Rest. 4 Film 2
Film 3
84 I C E - EM M a t h e m a t ic s y e a r 1 0 B o o k 2
ISBN 978-1-107-64845-6 The University of Melbourne / AMSI 2011 Cambridge University Press
These types of problems illustrate a basic principle, known as the multiplication principle.
Multiplication principle
Suppose that a choice is to be made in two stages. If there are a choices for the first
stage and bchoices for the second stage, then there are ab choices altogether.
Example 2
A man owns 3 suits, 4 shirts and 5 ties. How many different outfits is this?
Solution
An outfit is a choice of a suit, a shirt and a tie.

There are 3 ways to choose a suit.
There are 3 4 =12 ways of choosing a suit and a shirt.
There are 12 choices so far.
There are 5 ties, so there are 125=60 ways of choosing a suit, a shirt and a tie.
Hence, there are 60 different outfits.
Clearly the multiplication principle can be extended to three or more stages.
Example 3
A red die, a blue die and a black die are thrown.

In how many ways can the 3 dice land?
Solution
There are 6 ways the red die can land.

There are 6 ways the blue die can land. This gives 36 ways.
Each of these is followed by 6 ways for the black die to land, giving 366=216
ways the three dice can land.

6 ways 6 ways
6 ways 66 6=216

red die blue die black die
Example 4
Jenny is driving from town A to town D, passing through towns B and C on the way.
There are three roads from A to B, two roads from B to C and four roads from C to D.
How many different routes are there from A to D?
Solution
We can represent the information using a diagram.
B C
A D
The number of routes from A to D is 3 2 4 = 24.
Exercise 13A
Example 1 1 Amy is planning her evening. She can visit one of 3 friends and then go to see one of
5 bands play. In how many different ways can Amy spend the evening?
Example 4 2 There are 4 roads from town A to town B and 6 roads from town B to town C. How
many different routes can be taken from town A to town C?
Example 2 3 A car manufacturer offers a particular model of car with 5 different exterior colours,
4different interior colours and with or without air conditioning. How many different cars
does the manufacturer offer?
4 In a hamburger shop, the proprietor offers the following extras: tomato, cheese, lettuce,
pickle, beetroot and mayonnaise.
Customers can choose either to have or not have each particular extra on their
hamburger. How many different hamburgers can be made?
5 A coin is tossed several times and the outcome is recorded as H for heads and T for tails,
in order. How many different lists of H and T are possible if the coin is tossed:
a once? b twice?
c 3 times? d 4 times?
e 10 times? f n times?
6 a How many car number plates can be made using three letters followed by three digits?
b How many car number plates can be made using three letters from A, B, C, D and E,
followed by three digits, none of which is 0?
7 In a survey, each person is classified by gender (2 categories), age (4 categories), salary
(5 categories) and marital status (5 categories). How many different ways can a person
be classified?
8 How many positive integers are there that have exactly 4 digits, none of which is a 7?
Example 3 9 a How many twodigit positive integers may be written down without using the
digits 6, 7, 8, 9 or 0?
b How many threedigit positive integers may be written down without using the
digits 6, 7, 8, 9 or 0?
c How many positive integers less than 6000 may be written down without using the
digits 6, 7, 8, 9 or 0?
10 Morse code uses dots and dashes. Letters of the alphabet and other symbols are
represented by a string of (at most) five of these signals. How many different symbols
are possible in Morse code?
11 In Melbourne, telephone numbers have 8 digits. The first digit is either 8 or 9. How
many different telephone numbers are possible?
12 a H
ow many different threedigit positive integers can be formed using the digits
5, 6, 7 and 8 if each digit can be repeated?
b How many different threedigit positive integers can be formed using six non-zero
digits if each digit can be repeated?
c How many different threedigit positive integers can be formed using m non-zero
digits if each digit can be repeated?
d How many different ndigit positive integers can be formed using m non-zero digits
if each digit can be repeated?
13B Arranging objects
In this section, we are going to look at the situation where objects are placed in a row from
left to right and repetition is not allowed. That is, once an object is placed, it cannot be used
10A
again. In such problems, the number of choices to be made at each stage will be affected by
the choices at the earlier stages. We can extend the multiplication principle to deal with
such situations.
For example, Bill, Jane and Henry are asked to line up at the door of the classroom. In how
many ways can they do this?
Using the letters B, J and H, we can list all the possibilities.
B J H
B H J
J B H
J H B
H B J
H J B
Using a tree diagram:

J H
B
H J
B H
J
H B
B J
H
J B
There are 3 choices for the first place. Once that person is chosen, there are only 2 choices
for the second. Finally there is only 1 choice for the third.
So there are 321=6 possibilities.
Example 5
If there are 6 competitors in a race, in how many different ways can the first 3 places
be filled?
Solution
There are 6 possible choices for first place, 5 for second place and 4 for third place. By
the multiplication rule, there are 6 5 4 = 120 different ways in which the first three
places can be filled.
We can draw a box diagram to represent this:

6 choices 5 choices 4 choices 6 5 4 = 120

1st place 2nd place 3rd place
Example 6
In how many ways can the positions of President, Vice President, Treasurer and
Secretary be filled from a committee of 8 people, assuming that no person can hold
two positions?
Solution
There are 8 choices for the President, then 7 choices for the Vice President, then 6 for
the Treasurer and finally 5 for the Secretary. Hence, by the multiplication rule, there
are 8765=1680 different ways to fill the positions.
8 choices 7 choices 6 choices 5 choices
President Vice Treasurer Secretary

President
Factorials
In how many ways can 9 people line up at a ticket office?
We can draw a box diagram for this situation, with each box indicating the number of choices
for each position.
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
So the answer is 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 = 362880.

The standard notation for this product is 9!. This is read as nine factorial.
You can obtain the value of a factorial by using your calculator, although for smaller
factorials you should do it by hand. (Check 11! = 39916800 on your calculator.)
For example:
1! = 1
2! = 2 1 = 2
3! = 3 2 1 = 6
4! = 4 3 2 1 = 24
5! = 5 4 3 2 1 = 120
and so on.
It is important to note that n! = n(n 1)!. For this statement to be true when n = 1,
we define 0! = 1.
Factorials and counting arrangements

The number of ways to arrange n different objects in a row is given by
n(n 1)(n 2) ... 3 2 1 = n!
n n 1 n 2 ... 3 2 1

There are 20 competitors in a race. The first three places can be filled
in 20 19 18 ways.
20 19 18

Example 7
a How many ways are there to arrange 7 soldiers in a line?

b Suppose that there are 6 privates and 1 corporal. In how many ways can they be
arranged if the corporal is at the head of the line?
Solution
a There are 7! = 5040 ways to arrange the 7 soldiers in a line.

b If the corporal is at the head of the line, then there are 6! = 720 ways to arrange the
remaining soldiers.
Example 8
Simplify by cancellation and calculation.

12! 8!
a b
11! 3! 5!
Solution
12! 12 11! 8! 8 7 6 5!
a = b =
11! 11! 3! 5! 3! 5!
= 12 8 76
=
3 2 1
= 56
The previous examples can also be done using your calculator.
Exercise 13B
Example 5 1 In a raffle, there are 150 ticket holders. In how many different ways can the first, second
and third prizes be drawn?
Example 6 2 A swimming race has eight competitors. In how many different ways can the first three
places be filled?
3 In how many different ways can prizes for English, Mathematics, Science and History
be awarded in a class of 22 students if no student can win more than one prize?
Example 7 4 Using the letters M, A, T, H and S only once, how many different arrangements are
there using:
a 2 letters? b 3 letters? c 4 letters?
5 How many fourdigit numbers can be formed using the digits 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 if no
digit can be repeated?
6 How many fourdigit postcodes can be formed using the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9
if no digit can be repeated?
7 How many positive integers with 2 or 3 digits can be formed using the digits 3, 4, 5 and
6 if no digit can be repeated?
8 There are 40 dogs in a dog show. In how many ways can 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th places
be awarded?
Example 8 9 Simplify:
9!
a 4! b 6! c 7! d 6! 5! e
8!
12! 8! 10 !
f g h i 5! 2! j 6! 3!
10 ! 5! 3! 6! 4 !
10 Write as factorials:
a 6 b 24 c 120 d 720
11 Write as a quotient of factorials:
a 10 9
b 20 19 18
c 12 11 10 9 8
d 14 13 12 5
12 What is the smallest value of n for which:
a n! > 100?
b n! > 1000?
c n!>1000000?
Head of table
13 Four men and four women attend a dinner
party and sit at a rectangular table that has
4 seats on each side. The men decide to sit on
the lefthand side of the table and the women
sit on the righthand side.
a In how many ways can the men be seated?
b In how many ways can the women be seated?
c What is the total number of ways the 8 people can be seated?
13C Arrangements involving
restrictions
In many practical problems there may be certain restrictions placed on the possible
arrangements. One useful strategy for tackling these problems is to try to deal with the
10A
restrictions first.
Example 9
Three boys and 3 girls are to be seated from left to right in a row. In how many ways
can this be done:
a without restriction?
b if there is a boy at each end of the row?
c if boys and girls occupy alternate positions?
Solution
a Since there are no restrictions, we simply want to arrange 6 people in a row, and
this is done in 6! = 720 ways.
b Place the two boys first and then arrange the remaining 4 people.
There are 3 choices for the first place.
There are 2 choices for the last place.
There are 4! = 24 choices to arrange the remaining 4 people.
There are 324!=3224=144 ways to perform the arrangement.
3 choices 2 choices
Boy Boy
4! choices
c There are several ways to do this problem.

Arrange the three boys and the three girls in two rows.
There are 3! ways to arrange the boys and 3! ways to arrange the girls.
There are then two ways to alternate the boys and the girls in the row.
Boys Boys
Girls Girls
or
3! choices 3! choices
G B G B G B B G B G B G
3! choices 3! choices
Hence, the total number of arrangements is 2 3! 3! = 72.
(continued on next page)
Alternative solution to c
There are two ways to alternate the people in the row.
G B G B G B B G B G B G
It doesnt matter whether a boy or a girl goes first because there are equal numbers of
boys and girls. Therefore, there are:
six choices for the first position
three choices for the second position (The choice must be of the opposite gender.)
two choices for the third position
two choices for the fourth position
one choice for each of the fifth and sixth positions.
Hence, by the multiplication rule, there are 6 3 2 2 1 1 = 72 arrangements.
Example 10
How many fourdigit positive integers can be formed using the digits 6, 7, 8, 9 and 0
without repetition if:
a there is no restriction? b the number is greater than 8000?
c the number is odd? d the number is even?
Solution
a The number cannot begin with 0, so:

There are 4 choices for the first digit.
There are 4 choices for the second digit.
There are 3 choices for the third digit.
There are 2 choices for the fourth digit.
The number of such fourdigit numbers is 4 4 3 2 = 96.
b Since the number is greater than 8000, the first digit has to be 8 or 9. Then:
The number of such fourdigit numbers greater than 8000 is 2 4 3 2 = 48.
c If the number is odd, it must end in either 7 or 9, but again it cannot begin
with0,so:
The number of such fourdigit odd numbers is 2 3 3 2 = 36.
d There are a number of ways to do this problem.
The best solution is to realise that, of the 96 possible fourdigit numbers made
from these digits, each one will either be even or odd. We have already shown that
there are 36 odd ones, so the number of even ones is 96 36 = 60.
Alternative solution to d
If the number is even, it must end in 6, 8 or 0. The digit zero is a problem, since the
number cannot begin with a zero. This suggests that we look at two cases.
Case 1: The number ends in zero. In this case:
So in this case there are 4 3 2 = 24 even numbers.
Case 2: The number ends in 6 or 8. In this case:
There are 2 choices for the last digit.
So in this case there are 2 3 3 2 = 36 even numbers.
In total, there are 24 + 36 = 60 such even numbers.
Grouping objects together

Some problems require us to group together certain symbols or objects.
We are then counting arrangements with restrictions.
For example, for the letters of the word BAND with the restriction that the letters B and A are
grouped together, there are 12 arrangements.
BA N D AB N D
N BA D N AB D
N D BA N D AB
BA D N AB D N
D BA N D AB N
D N BA D N AB
Example 11
In how many ways can the letters of the word GROUPED be arranged if:
a there is no restriction?
b the letters P and D must be next to each other?
c the vowels must be next to each other?
d the letters P and D must not be next to each other?
e the vowels are together and the consonants are together?
Solution
a There are 7 different letters, so these can be arranged in 7! = 5040 different ways.
b Bracket the letters P and D together, so we are arranging the six objects:
G,R,O,U,E,(PD)
There are 6! ways to do this. However, in each such arrangement we could replace
PD with DP and obtain a new arrangement. Hence, the total number of such
arrangements is 6! 2 = 1440.
c Again, bracket the vowels together, so we are arranging the five objects:
G,R,P,D,(OUE)
There are 5! ways to do this. In each such arrangement, there are 3! ways to
arrange the letters OUE, and each such permutation will give a new arrangement.
Hence, the number of arrangements with the vowels together is 5!3!=720.
d The number of arrangements with P and D together plus the number of
arrangements with P and D apart is equal to the total number of arrangements with
no restriction. Hence, using parts a and b, the number of arrangements with P and
D apart is 50401440=3600.
e Bracket the vowels together and the bracket the consonants together:
(GRPD)(OUE)
There are 4! ways to permute the consonants and 3! ways to permute the vowels.
We could put the vowels first or the consonants first, so the total number of such
arrangements is 4! 3! 2 = 288.
Exercise 13C
Example 9 1 Using the digits 1, 2, 3 and 4 without repetition, how many fourdigit positive integers
can be formed if:
b the 4 is placed in the hundreds column?
c an even digit is placed in the hundreds column?
d the 3 is placed in the thousands column and the 2 is placed in the tens column?
e the 4 is not in the tens column?
f the number is even?
2 In how many ways can the letters C, O, U, N and T be arranged in a line without
repetition if:
b the C is placed in the third position?
c the vowels occupy the first two places?
d the T is placed in the last position?
e the C is placed in the first position and the O is placed in the last position?
f the T is not in the second position?
Example 11 3 A family consisting of two adults and three children, Anna, Bianca and Cory, sit in
5 seats in a row at a cinema. In how many ways can they occupy the 5 seats if:
b Bianca sits in the middle seat?
c the parents sit at each end?
d the parents sit next to each other?
e Anna and Cory sit next to each other?
f Anna and Cory do not sit next to each other?
4 Four boys and three girls are to be seated in a row. In how many ways can this be done:
b if Alan sits at the lefthand end?
c a girl sits at each end?
d there is a boy at one end and a girl at the other end?
e if there are two people sitting between Briony and Chloe?
Example 10 5 Using the digits 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8:
a how many fourdigit positive integers can be formed if no digit can be used more
than once?
b how many fourdigit numbers greater than 6000 can be formed if no digit can be
used more than once?
c how many even fourdigit numbers can be formed if no digit can be used more
than once?
6 Using the digits 1, 2, 3 and 4 without repetition, how many:
a threedigit numbers can be formed?
b fourdigit numbers can be formed?
c numbers greater than 300 can be formed?
d even threedigit numbers can be formed?
e odd fourdigit numbers can be formed?
7 a In how many ways can the letters of the word PENCILS be arranged in a row?
b How many of these arrangements:
i begin with P and end with S?
ii begin and end with a vowel?
iii have the L preceeding the N?
iv have three letters between C and I?
8 An athletics meeting consists of four sprint races and three hurdle races. In how many
ways can the program of events be arranged so as to start and finish with:
a a sprint race?
b a hurdle race?
9 a In how many ways can the letters of the word DETAIL be arranged in a row?
b How many of these arrangements:
i have a vowel occupying the first and last place?
ii have the vowels and consonants occupying alternate positions?
iii end in ED?
iv have the E preceeding the D?
10 In how many ways can the digits 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 be used without repetition to form a
sixdigit number:
a without further restriction?
b if the 2 and 3 are together?
c if the 2, 3 and 4 are together?
d if the 2, 3, 4 and 5 are together?
11 In how many ways can four boys and four girls be seated in a row:
b if Alan and Brenda must sit together?
c if Christos and Daniella and Elaine must sit together?
d if the boys must sit together?
e if the boys must sit together and the girls must sit together?
f if Frank must not sit next to Greta?
12 Adesh is placing 4 different Mathematics books, 3 different Science books and
2different English books on a bookcase shelf. In how many ways can this be done:
b if the Mathematics books are to be placed next to each other?
c if the Science books are to be placed next to each other?
d if books from the same subject are placed together?
13D The inclusionexclusion
principle
We have used the multiplication principle to count the number of arrangements of sets of
objects with and without repetition.
10A
This section concentrates on counting the elements in subsets of a finite set, E, so we shall
begin by revising some basic ideas from set theory. The Venn diagram was introduced in
Chapter 12 of ICE-EM Mathematics Year 9 Book 2. It is the standard way of representing a set.
Let A be a subset of the set E. Then the set Ac, called E
the complement of A, is the set of all elements in E that are
not in A. Clearly A Ac
|A| + |Ac| = |E|
where |A| denotes the number of elements in the set |A|, |Ac|
denotes the number of elements in the complement of A and
|E| denotes the number of elements in the universal set E.
Two subsets of E, A and B, split the Venn diagram up into E

four regions. The set of elements of E that belong to both A A B
and B is called the intersection of A and B, and is denoted AB
by A B.
E
The union of A and B is the set of elements of E that
belong to A or B (or both A and B). It is denoted by A B. A B
AB
The formula E
|A B| = |A| + |B| |A B| A B
is called the inclusionexclusion principle for two subsets of E.

It is clearly true for two subsets of any finite set E, since |A| + |B|
counts the elements of A B except that the elements of A B
are counted twice.
This important formula is used repeatedly throughout the rest of
this chapter.
Example 12
a How many numbers between 1 and 20 are a multiple of both 2 and 3?

b How many numbers between 1 and 20 are a multiple of either 2 or 3?
Solution
Let E = {1, 2, 3, , 20}, then |E| = 20.

a Let A be the numbers in E that are multiples of 2.
Then A = {2, 4, 6, , 20} and |A| = 10.
Let B be the numbers in E that are multiples of 3.
Then B = {3, 6, 9, , 18} and |B| = 6.
A B are the numbers in E that are multiples of both 2 and 3; that is, the
multiples of 6. A B = {6, 12, 18} so |A B| = 3.
b A B are the numbers in E that are multiples of either 2 or 3.
|A B| is not |A| + |B| since this counts the numbers in A B twice.
Indeed by the inclusion-exclusion problem |A B| = |A| + |B| |A B|
= 10 + 6 3
= 13
In summary:
The number of multiples of both 2 and 3 between 1 and 20 is 3.
The number of multiples of either 2 or 3 between 1 and 20 is 13.
Notes:
1 We can draw a Venn diagram presenting the information in E
Example 12 as shown at the right. A B
2
c 6
From this we can deduce, for example, |(A B) | = 7. That 8 4 3
is, there are 7 numbers between 1 and 20 that are neither a 9 12
14 10
multiple of 2 nor a multiple of 3. 16 18 15
20
1 19
5 7 11 13 17
2 If E is much larger, say |E| = 100, then listing all elements E

is impractical. We use another type of Venn diagram where A B
the number of elements in each region is recorded, not (7) (3) (3)
the actual elements. So, for Example 12, we have a diagram
as shown on the right. (7)
Now |A B| = 7 + 3 + 3 = 13 is easy to read off.
We shall mainly use this type of Venn diagram from now on.
3 If A B is empty, A B = and then |A B| = |A| + |B|. E
A and B are said to be disjoint subsets of E. A B
Example 13
In a group of 40 students, 30 study German (G) and 20 study French (F). Five
students study neither language. How many students study:
a French and German? b German only?
Solution
E
a |F G| = 40 5
F G
= 35
(5) (15) (15)
|F G| = |F| + |G| |F G|
(5)
35 = 20 + 30 |F G|
|F G| = 15
Hence, 15 students study both languages.
b Thirty students study German, so 30 15 = 15 students study German only.
Note: F G is the set of students who study French and German, and F G is the
set of students who study French or German. So intersection is closely related to
and and union is closely related to or.
Example 14
In a music class of 30 students, there are 19 students who play the piano and 18
who play the guitar. There are 2 students who are vocalists and do not play either
instrument. How many play both?
Solution
Let E be the set of students in the class.

Let P be the set of students who play piano.
Let G be the set of students who play guitar.
Then the information in the question becomes:
c
|E| = 30, |P| = 19, |G| = 18 and |(P G) | = 2
c
Now |E| = |P G| + |(P G) | so |P G| = 28
E
By the inclusionexclusion principle
P G
|P G| = |P| + |G| |P G|
(10) (9) (9)
28 = 19 + 18 |P G|
(2)
so |P G| = 19 + 18 28 = 9 and we can now complete
the diagram.
Check that all the information in the question agrees with the Venn diagram.
Hence, 9 students play both instruments.
Three subsets of a set

Suppose that A, B and C are three subsets of the set E. Then E
the standard Venn diagram is as shown to the right. A B
There are eight subsets of E determined by A, B and C. In the

diagram, A B C is the central region. A B, A C
and B C are shaded. A B C is all of E except the outer
region in the Venn diagram.
Consider the following example. C
E
A B
(8) (2) (0)
(3) |E| = 43
(5) (6)
(15)
(4)
C
If we are given eight independent pieces of information, then we can determine the ninth. For
example, if we know the number of elements in each of the eight regions we can calculate |E|.
A common situation is that we are told the size of E; the sizes of the three subsets A, B and
C; the sizes of the three intersections A B, A C and B C; and the size of intersection
A B C. Given these eight pieces of data we can fill in the whole Venn diagram by entering
values from the centre, as illustrated in the following example.
Example 15
A soft-drink manufacturer conducted a taste test on its three brands of cola. Seventy
families were involved in the test, and their preferences were as follows.
36 families liked Brand A.
26 families liked Brand B.
25 families liked Brand C.
8 families liked Brands A and B.
9 families liked Brands B and C.
8 families liked Brands A and C.
5 families liked all three brands.
a How many families liked Brand A only?
b How many families liked one brand only?
c How many families did not like any of the three brands?
Solution
Let E be the overall set of 70 families. E

Let A be the set of families that liked Brand A. A B
(25) (3) (14)
Let B be the set of families that liked Brand B.
Let C be the set of families that liked Brand C. (5)
(3) (4)
We shall enter values from the centre.
|A B C| = 5 (13) (3)
C
|A B| = 8 = 5 + 3
|B C| = 9 = 5 + 4 |E| = 70
|A C| = 8 = 5 + 3
|A| = 36 = 3 + 5 + 3 + 25
|B| = 26 = 3 + 5 + 4 + 14
|C| = 25 = 3 + 5 + 4 + 13
Hence, |A B C| = 25 + 13 + 14 + 3 + 4 + 3 + 5 = 67
a 25 families liked Brand A only.
b 25 + 13 + 14 = 52 families liked one brand only.
c Number of families who did not like any of the three brands = 70 67 = 3
As a check: Compare the Venn diagram with the information given in the question.
Example 16
a How many numbers between 1 and 1000 are divisible by 7, 11 or 13?

b How many numbers between 1 and 1000 are not divisible by 7, 11 or 13?
Solution
Let E = {1, 2, 3, , 1000}.

Let A be the set of numbers in E divisible by 7. |A| = 142 since 1000 = 7 142 + 6.
Let B be the set of numbers in E divisible by 11. |B| = 90 since 1000 = 11 90 + 10.
Let C be the set of numbers in E divisible by 13. |C| = 76 since 1000 = 13 76 + 12.
Next, A B is the set of numbers divisible by both 7 and 11
so |A B| = 12 since 1000 = 12 77 + 76.
Similarly, |A C| = 10 since 1000 = 91 10 + 90
and |B C| = 6 since 1000 = 143 6 + 142.
Finally, A B C = since 7 11 13 = 1001 > 1000.
We put this information in a Venn diagram. E
Start in the centre with the region A B
|A B C|, and work outwards. (120) (12)
(72)
(0) |E| = 1000
(10) (6)
(720)
(60)
a The number of numbers between 1 and C
1000 divisible by 7, 11 or 13
= |A B C| = 0 + 6 + 10 + 12 + 60 + 72 + 120 = 280
b The number of numbers between 1 and 1000 not divisible by 7, 11 or 13
= 1000 280 = 720
Inclusion-exclusion for three subsets

To find |A B C| we begin by adding |A|, |B|, and |C|. X
At this stage we have added all of the elements in the sets A B
A B, A C and B C twice. Hence we must subtract
|A B|, |A C| and |B C|. Finally, we must add
|A B C| since it is counted three times and subtracted
three times.
C
The inclusionexclusion principle
Suppose that A and B are subsets of the finite set E. Then
|A B| = |A| + |B| |A B|
Suppose that A, B and C are subsets of the finite set E. Then
|A B C| = |A| + |B| + |C| |A B| |A C| |B C| + |A B C|
Exercise 13D
Example 12 1 In a class of 24 students, 16 students play tennis and 14 students play basketball.
a Assuming that each student in the class plays at least one of the two sports:
i how many students play both tennis and basketball?
ii how many students play tennis but not basketball?
iii how many students play basketball but not tennis?
iv how many students play only one sport?
b What would the answers to i iv be if 3 students in the class played neither tennis
nor basketball?
Example 13 2 In a group of 50 people, it was discovered that 30 were male and 25 owned a car.
Assuming that each person was either male or owned a car, how many:
a males in the group owned a car?
b car owners in the group were female?
c males in the group did not own a car?
Example 14 3 When a group of 80 people were surveyed about their music tastes, it was discovered
that 46 people liked rock music and 52 people liked hip-hop. If 10 of the people
surveyed liked neither rock music nor hip-hop, how many people:
a liked both types of music? b liked only one type of music?
c liked rock music but not hip-hop?
4 During a lunchtime, 47 reference books and 65 novels were borrowed from the library. If
18 people borrowed both a reference book and a novel, and every other borrower borrowed
only one book, how many people borrowed books from the library during lunchtime?
5 How many numbers between 1 and 100 (inclusive) are:
a divisible by 7? b divisible by 5?
c divisible by both 7 and 5? d divisible by either 5 or 7?
e divisible by neither 5 nor 7?
6 How many numbers between 1 and 1000 (inclusive) are divisible by neither 2 nor 3?
7 How many numbers between 100 and 500 (inclusive) are divisible by either 4 or 5?
8 How many twodigit numbers can be formed:
a that do not contain the digit 9? b that contain the digit 9?
c that contain the digit 7? d that contain the digits 7 and 9?
e that contain either the digit 7 or the digit 9?
Example 16 9 How many numbers between 1 and 99 inclusive are:
a divisible by 2? b divisible by 3?
c divisible by 5? d divisible by 2 and 3?
e divisible by 2 and 5? f divisible by 3 and 5?
g divisible by 2 and 3 and 5? h divisible by 2 or 3 or 5?
i divisible by none of 2, 3 and 5?
10 How many numbers between 1 and 999 inclusive are divisible by:
a 2 or 3 or 7? b 3 or 7 or 11?
c 13 or 17 or 23? d 5 or 11 or 19?
11 How many numbers between 1 and 500 are not divisible by 3, 5 or 7?
Example 15 12 When a group of students, all of whom play sport, were asked about the sports they
played, the following responses were obtained. Ten students said they played basketball,
15 students said they played netball and 14 students said they played tennis. The number
of students playing both basketball and netball, both basketball and tennis, and both
netball and tennis was 4, 5 and 8 respectively. Three students said they played all
3 sports. How many students were interviewed?
13 Of 50 people asked about what they did on the weekend, 28 said they saw a film, 21 said
they visited friends and 17 said they went to a party. Nine saw a film and visited a friend,
6 visited a friend and went to a party, and 7 saw a film and went to a party. If 4 people
did all 3 activities, how many of the 50 people did not see a film, visit a friend or go to a
party over the weekend?
14 During lunchtime, a school canteen served 280 students. Eighty-four students bought
only sandwiches, 76 students bought only fruit and 42 students bought only chips. In
addition, 14 students bought sandwiches and fruit only, 21 students bought fruit and
chips only and 27 students bought sandwiches and chips only.
Each student served bought at least one of the items mentioned.
a Represent the information given on a Venn diagram with three circles. Place the
numbers carefully in the corresponding regions.
b How many students bought all three items?
c How many students bought:
i fruit? ii chips?
iii fruit and chips? iv sandwiches and fruit?
v chips but not fruit? vi sandwiches but not chips?
Review exercise
1 Imagine that motorbike number plates are constructed using only three letters from the
English alphabet. How many such plates are there:
a with no restriction? b beginning with a Q?
c beginning and ending with a Q? d ending with a vowel?
e with all letters different?
2 A company sells 23 styles of ladies shoes. There are 12 lengths, 3 widths and 6 colours
in each style. How many different types of shoes does the company sell?
3 How many whole numbers between 10000 and 100000 can be made from the digits
3, 4 and 5?
4 Simplify:
11! 18! n! n!
a b c d
9! 6! 12! ( n 1)! ( n 2)!
5 In how many ways can 10 people line up in a row from left to right?
6 From a class of 30, how many ways are there to choose the class captain and
vice-captain?
7 Five men and 6 women are to be seated in a line from left to right.
In how many ways can this be done:
a without restrictions?
b with all the men together?
c with the men and women alternating?
d if two particular men must be seated apart?
8 How many integers from 1 to 3300 inclusive are divisible by 3 or 5 or 11?
9 Use a Venn diagram to find how many integers from 1 to 150 are either squares or cubes
or fourth powers.
10 A survey of 200 people gave the following information: 94 owned a DVD player,
127 owned a microwave and 78 owned both. How many people owned:
a a DVD player or a microwave?
b a DVD player but not a microwave?
c neither a microwave nor a DVD player?
11 How many six-digit numbers are there not containing 0?
Challenge exercise
1 a Write down a formula for the number of ways to arrange r different objects in a row,
from a total of n different objects, and then express the formula using only factorials.
b Three numbers are chosen from the numbers 1, 2, ..., 10. The order is not important.
In how many ways can this be done?
c Write down a formula for the number of ways to choose r different numbers from
n different numbers if the order is not important. Express your formula in terms
of factorials.
d In a game of Lotto, 6 numbers are to be chosen from 40 numbers, and the order is not
important. In how many ways can this be done?
2 State the number of zeroes at the end of:
a 100! b 1000!
3 How many six-digit numbers with all non-zero digits (that is, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9):
a contain exactly three nines?
b contain fewer than three nines?
c contain exactly three nines, with no other digit repeated?
d have their last digit equal to twice their first digit?
4 Consider the 8 letters that form the word SATURDAY. How many threeletter words
(that is, any string of three letters) can be formed from these 8 letters?
5 The symbol (n) (pronounced phi of n) is the number of positive integers less than n
that have no common factor with n except 1. For example, the numbers less than 12 that
have no common factor with 12, except 1, are {1, 5, 7, 11}, so (12) = 4.
a Find (16).
b Find (p), if p is a prime number.
c Find (p2), if p is a prime number.
d Find (p3), if p is a prime number, and try to write down a formula for (pa), where
p is a prime and a is a positive whole number.
e Find (2a) in simplest form.
f If p and q are different primes, use the inclusionexclusion principle to show that:
(pq) = pq p q + 1
= (p 1)(q 1)
= (p) (q)
g If p, q and r are different primes, find (pqr) in simplest form.
is called Eulers phi function.
6 a In how many ways can twelve 1s and three 0s be arranged in a line?
A customer wishes to purchase a dozen bread rolls from a bakery, which offers four
different types of rolls. The customer wishes to know how many different ways there are
of buying the dozen rolls. To do this, she represents each roll as a 1 and places twelve
1s along a line.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
She then inserts three 0s as place markers to indicate how many of each type of roll she
buys. For instance:
1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1
means she buys 2 of the first type of roll, 3 of the second type of roll, 5 of the third type
of roll and 2 of the fourth type of roll.
b How many of each type of roll does the woman buy if she writes down:
i 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1? ii 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1?
iii 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1? iv 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1?
c In how many different ways can the woman buy a dozen rolls?
d If the bakery offered 5 varieties of rolls, in how many ways could the woman buy a
dozen rolls?
7 A company is going to purchase a fleet of 20 cars from a car manufacturer. In how many
ways can this be done if the manufacturer offers:
a two types of cars b three types of cars
c four types of cars d six types of cars?
8 A child has 10 identical blocks, each of which is to be painted with one of 4 colours.
In how many different ways can the 10 blocks be painted?

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Number and Algebra

A tree diagram can be used to illustrate the solution to Example 1.

An outfit is a choice of a suit, a shirt and a tie.

Clearly the multiplication principle can be extended to three or more stages.

A red die, a blue die and a black die are thrown.

There are 6 ways the red die can land.

red die blue die black die

We can represent the information using a diagram.

The number of routes from A to D is 3 2 4 = 24.

Using a tree diagram:

8 choices 7 choices 6 choices 5 choices

President Vice Treasurer Secretary

So the answer is 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 = 362880.

Factorials and counting arrangements

a How many ways are there to arrange 7 soldiers in a line?

a There are 7! = 5040 ways to arrange the 7 soldiers in a line.

Simplify by cancellation and calculation.

The previous examples can also be done using your calculator.

c There are several ways to do this problem.

There are two ways to alternate the people in the row.

a The number cannot begin with 0, so:

Grouping objects together

Two subsets of E, A and B, split the Venn diagram up into E

is called the inclusionexclusion principle for two subsets of E.

a How many numbers between 1 and 20 are a multiple of both 2 and 3?

Let E = {1, 2, 3, , 20}, then |E| = 20.

2 If E is much larger, say |E| = 100, then listing all elements E

A and B are said to be disjoint subsets of E. A B

Let E be the set of students in the class.

Three subsets of a set

There are eight subsets of E determined by A, B and C. In the

Let E be the overall set of 70 families. E

a How many numbers between 1 and 1000 are divisible by 7, 11 or 13?

Let E = {1, 2, 3, , 1000}.

Inclusion-exclusion for three subsets

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