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TIMELINE: a short history of biology
1590 Hans and Zacharias Jansen made the first compound microscope by placing two convex lenses
MICROSCOPE BEGINNINGS
in a tube.
1663 Robert Hooke introduced the term cell while observing cork under a light microscope. He also
worked at improving a number of scientific devices, including the microscope, telescope and
barometer.
1668 Francesco Redi conducted an experiment to challenge the theory of spontaneous generation.
1758 John and Peter Dollard (father and son), spectacle makers, produced the first achromatic
(colour-free) lenses, making microscopes superior to hand lenses.
1796 Edward Jenner used cowpox in the first successful vaccine against the disease smallpox.
1801 Robert Brown a botanist and naturalist, first described the cell nucleus while observing plant cells
in an orchid. He also noticed the random movement of pollen grains (Brownian motion).
the cell theory
1838 Matthias Schleiden, a botanist, stated that parts of plants are made of cells (not visible to the
unaided eye).
1839 Theodor Schwann, a zoologist, stated that parts of animals are made of cells; agreed with
Schleiden and they published the cell theory in a book, stating that the cell is the basis of the
structure of all living things.
T H E S C I E NT I F I C R EVOL U TION
1855 Rudolph Virchow introduced the idea that cells reproduce by dividing, stating that all living cells
can only arise from other living cells, further challenging the theory of spontaneous generation.
18561858 Gregor Mendel began a series of controlled experiments with garden peas, to carry out
a statistical study of heredity.
evolution
1858 Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace presented a paper A Theory of Evolution by Natural
Selection.
1861 Louis Pasteur published his experiments showing that fermentation was caused by something
in the air, finally disproving spontaneous generation.
germ theory of disease
1862 Louis Pasteurs experiments with bacteria showed that infectious diseases are caused by
micro-organisms, leading to the germ theory of disease.
1863 Louis Pasteur introduced pasteurisation, a practical application of what he had learnt through
his fermentation experiments.
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1867 Joseph Lister made the connection between Pasteurs work on infection and introduced antiseptic
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surgery (published paper).
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1880 Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran first identified cause of malaria: a microscopic organism.
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1881 Pasteur developed a vaccine against anthrax.
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1882 Walther Flemming discovered nuclear materialtermed chromatin material.
1885 Pasteur used a vaccine against rabies on humans for the first time, saving the life of a young boy
who had been bitten by a dog.
1897 Ronald Ross demonstrated that female Anopheles mosquitoes were the vectors (carriers) of
malaria, by showing that these mosquitoes carried malarial oocysts in their gut tissue.
1900 Significance of Mendel s experiments in terms of heredity is noticed after three other scientists
get similar results.
C L A S S ICA L S CIEN CE
genetics
1902 Walter Sutton and Theodore Boveri independently proposed and demonstrated a connection
between chromosomes and inheritance. Sutton studied meiosis in grasshoppers. Boveri studied
chromosome behaviour and inheritance in sea urchins.
1911 Thomas Hunt Morgan studied sex-linked inheritance (Nobel Prize in 1933 for lifes work).
1928 Alexander Fleming noticed that the mould Penicillium killed bacteria in a petri dish.
microscope advances, microbes
1935 Howard Florey began to search for a useful medicine to kill germs.
and antibiotics
1938 Fritz Zernike invented the phase contrast microscope which can be used to observe living,
unstained cells.
1941 George Beadle and Edward Tatum published the results of their experiments with bread mould,
in which they proposed the one-gene-one-enzyme (protein) hypothesis.
1945 Frank McFarlane Burnet isolated influenza A virus (in Australia) and developed a vaccine.
1945 Howard Florey and Alexander Fleming received the Nobel Prize for Physiology and Medicine for
their work on penicillin.
1950 Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins made a crystal of DNA to study its structure.
CO NT E M PO R A RY S CI E N CE
1953 James Watson and Francis Crick put together a model of DNA.
1960 Frank McFarlane Burnet and Peter Medawar received the Nobel Prize for Physiology and Medicine
for their work in immunology and organ transplants.
1962 Vernon Ingram did further work on genes and proteins leading to the change to the one-gene-one-
polypeptide hypothesis.
1962 Watson, Crick and Wilkins received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry for their discovery of DNA.
(Rosalind Franklin died in 1958; her work was acknowledged, but Nobel prize nominations cannot
be awarded posthumously.)
1972 Niles Eldridge and Stephen Jay Gould put forward the theory of evolution by punctuated equilibrium.
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1980 WHO declared the disease smallpox eradicated worldwide.
To present
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Genetic and reproductive revolution: in-vitro fertilisation, genetic engineering, cloning and advanced
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biotechnology.
E C H
Note: Dates in many timelines show slight inconsistencies when compared. This is due to inconsistent record-keeping long ago.
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It is the sequence of events that is more important in reflecting the historical developments in science, than the absolute dates.
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CELLS AND THE CELL THEORY
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Areas are different emphases in the no longer supports it.
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Preliminary and HSC biology curriculum Theories are tested by examining
designed to increase students
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whether their consequences
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C H A
understanding of biology as an ever- (predictions) are supported by
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developing science. See page ix.) observation and experiment.
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CELLS AND THE CELL THEORY
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Holland, and Galileo Galilei in Italy all
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made noted contributions to improving
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the design of microscopes.
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Robert Hookes compound
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microscope was progressive for its
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The low quality lenses in use still first presented his work to the Royal
distorted images and separated colours, Society of London they asked Robert
giving a rainbow fringe to the objects Hooke, a member of the society, to
being viewed and so many scientists confirm these findings, which he did.
were sceptical about the artificial Evidence of Van Leeuwenhoeks findings
images created. are documented in letters to the Royal
Society, spanning 50 years. These letters
Anton Van Leeuwenhoek have been translated from Dutch into
Anton Van Leeuwenhoek was a English and Latin. Van Leeuwenhoek is
Dutch lens maker whose grinding credited with discovering bacteria, and
technique was far superior to that of from his descriptions, may have even
his contemporaries and so he was seen nuclei.
able to produce lenses of much higher Figure 1.5 Robert Brown
quality. As a result of his work between
1674 and 1683 with crystal, quartz and
even diamond lenses, he developed a
simple microscope that used a single,
powerful lens that could magnify up
to 300, perhaps more. The single lens
used did not have the usual aberrations
associated with lenses at that time.
Unfortunately, Van Leeuwenhoek did
not record his technique and so similar
lenses could not be produced after his
death. Starting off in the cloth trade,
Van Leeuwenhoek used very many
microscopes to study both fabrics
and a great variety of living tissue.
He discovered many single-celled living
things, but because there was no cell
theory at the time Van Leeuwenhoek
had no framework in which to
Figure 1.4
accurately name or describe his
Van Leeuwenhoeks
simple microscope findings. When Van Leeuwenhoek
Robert Brown
single lens sandwiched Robert Brown, a Scottish botanist, is
between 2 brass plates known for his discovery of the cell
rivetted together
nucleus (plural nuclei). Although he
specimen first described nuclei seen in the outer
holder layer of cells in orchid plant tissue, he
focus discovered that nuclei were present in
adjustment a wide variety of plant tissues that he
studied. He had no idea at that time
of the importance of the nucleus or
its function in cells. (Robert Brown
is famous in science for his diverse
discoveries, including being the
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moves
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specimen first person to observe and describe
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across the field of
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Brownian motion. He also travelled on
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view (up and down)
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a ship with Captain Mathew Flinders
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front back
C
to Australia in 1801 and he identified
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many genera of Australian plants.)
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1. The cell is the unit of structure of all Brown. It was the regular placement
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living things. of nuclei in plant and animal tissue
2. The cell exists as a distinct entity
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which suggested to Schleiden and
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and as a building block in the Schwann that all living tissue has
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construction of organisms. a similar, compartmentalised basis.
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This compartmental nature of tissue led the work of previous scientists, that
them directly to the idea that cells are leads to a new theory in science.
the basic unit of living things. Without The cellular basis of life was a major
the work of Hooke (who, more than breakthrough in biological thinking
150 years before, had recorded the and led not only to further studies of
compartmentalised nature of cork and cells, but also to a cell-based theory of
named these compartments cells) disease. You will notice in the timeline
and Brown (who had discovered the summary (see pages 645) that both
nucleus six years before Schwanns the discovery of cells and progress in
book was published), Schleiden and the study of disease coincided with
Schwann could not have built their advances in microscopy (the history
cell theory. It is noticeable that it is of the discovery of disease forms
often the collaborative work between part of the HSC course).
scientists, as well as their building on
Figure 1.6 (a) (b)
Photomicrographs:
(a) plant and (b) animal
cells seen under a light
microscope showing
the compartmental
nature of cells
Response of scientific
Time frame Contribution (discovery community (acceptance
and/or person or proposal) Evidence to support finding or rejection and grounds)
Past: time of Aristotle Spontaneous generation: belief People relied on observation Theory accepted, but was
(380 BC) until that creatures could originate with the naked eye and drew being challenged. (Cells not
the Renaissance from inanimate (non-living) inferences from what they saw yet discovered.)
(14th to 16th century) material. (e.g. rotting meat left exposed
developed maggotsfly larvae).
1663 Introduced the term cell. Observed units seen in thin Not well received at first
Robert Hooke slices of cork using a compound believed distorted images and
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microscope (published in colour separation may have
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Hookes book Micrographia). given artificial images. Later
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accepted.
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CELLS AND THE CELL THEORY
Response of scientific
Time frame Contribution (discovery community (acceptance
and/or person or proposal) Evidence to support finding or rejection and grounds)
1801 Discovered the nucleus in cells. Microscopic studies of plants Discovery of nucleus noted,
Robert Brown (orchids) and later many other but were not aware of its
plant tissues revealed that importance.
each cell had a nucleus.
1838 Proposed the cell theory: Microscopic examination of Two of three statements
Schleiden and Schwann 1. All living things are made plant tissue (Schleiden), and accepted by scientific
of cells. animal tissue (Schwann), community and still hold
2. Cells are the basic unit revealed a common cellular true today.
of organisms. basis for all living tissue.
Findings published in Schwanns
book, Microscopic investigations
on the accordance in the
structure and growth of plants
and animals.
1855 Proposed cell theory: Studies of living tissue using a (1879) Walther Fleming
Rudolf Virchow 3. All cells come from microscope showed that cells confirmed Virchows
pre-existing cells. only arise if other cells are observations and named
This disproved the theory present to give rise to them. process mitosis.
of spontaneous generation.
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school microscopes. Over the next workings of a compound microscope
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100 years improvement to the quality (see classroom activity on next page).
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objective lens
specimen
stage
condenser lens
light source
base/foot
CLASSROOM ACTIVITY
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wavelength of light. The wavelength The next big breakthrough in
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of visible light (0.5 m) limits the our knowledge of cells was as
resolving power of microscopes
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a result of the invention (1933)
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so that objects closer together than and advancement of the electron
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0.45 m are no longer seen as microscope. With this technology
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images are produced using a beam than by glass lenses, and the image is
of electronselectrons that are produced on a screen where it shows
made to behave like light (waves). up as fluorescence, or it may be
In 1928, Ernst Ruska and his projected onto a photographic plate.
supervisor Max Kroll built the first The invention of the scanning
electron microscope, but it only electron microscope followed in
had a magnification of 17. Ruska 1955. The electron beam causes the
continued working on the device specimen to emit its own electrons,
and by 1933 he had built the first producing a three-dimensional
transmission electron microscope image (but it has a low resolution).
that could magnify up to 12 000. The picture on the front cover of this
Ruskas team continued working textbook was produced by a modern
on the electron microscope during day, scanning electron microscope.
the second world war, achieving a
magnification of one million times. Advantages
The basic principle of the The main advantage of the transmission
transmission electron microscope electron microscope is the high
is similar to that of the compound magnification and resolution which
light microscope, except that show an enormous amount of detail.
the energy source transmitted The electron microscope reveals
through the specimen is a beam of structures at not only the cellular level,
electrons instead of a beam of light. but also the sub-cellular level. Many
Modifications to the design have had parts of cells (organelles) were seen
to be made because electrons do not for the first time after the invention
normally travel in a manner similar of the electron microscope. Other
to light, but bounce off anything that parts previously seen with the light
they hit, such as air. The electrons microscope can be seen in far greater
must therefore pass through the detail, providing increased knowledge
specimen in a vacuum, making it of their internal structure. This has led Figure 1.8 The
possible to view only non-living, to an understanding of their functions electron microscope
preserved tissue. The electrons are in cells.
focused by electron magnets, rather
source of
electr ons
specimen
electromagnetic
lenses
eye
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on
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photographic
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plate or
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screen
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form, otherwise what we view under most strongly stained chromatin
the microscope may be an artefact
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material. And in 1888 Wilhelm
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(aberration or artificial image). Waldeyer-Hertz named the shortened
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To meet these criteria, a four-step threads of chromatin, chromosomes
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(chromo = coloured; soma = body).
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process is used to prepare slides
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STUDENT ACTIVITY
Use a table to compare (show the differences and similarities between) the light microscope and
the transmission electron microscope. Headings that may be useful as points of comparison are
suggested below:
Energy source
Focus
Specimen preparation
Magnification SR TR
Resolution
Can live specimens be viewed?
Imagecolour or black and white?
Advantages and disadvantages
Table for comparison
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5. All cells have the same basic of light. They can be used to study
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chemical composition. structure at the atomic level and,
6. All energy flow (resulting from
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like most electron microscopes, they
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chemical reactions) of life occurs control the direction of movement of
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within cells. the electrons with magnets.
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out-of-focus
light rays dichromatic
mirror laser excitation
source
in-focus
light rays
objective excitation
light
rays
light source pinhole
aperture
focal planes
specimen
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thinking skills from students, so a suggested the history of the cell theory and the history
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method of tackling this task is given below. of the invention and improvement of the
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1. Collect relevant information about two things: microscope.
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the advances in technology (such as 3. Answering the dot point: a scaffold has
C H
microscopes and techniques for preparing been provided on page 80 to assist you with
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specimens for viewing) this step.
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Advances in
technology
1590 1683
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Discoveries that
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led to the proposal
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of the cell theory
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Robert Hook introduces
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the term cell
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THEN NOW
SR TR PRIOR to: the proposal of the cell theory: outline four ways in which
CURRENT: technology (outline
PAST: at the time of the proposal of the cell microscopes and specimen preparation have
theory improved)
THEN NOW
Explain how the advance in technology allowed the progressive accumulation of knowledge and
understanding of the cell theory.
(Show the relationship between the improvement of the microscope and the increased knowledge
and understanding about the cell theory.)
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CELLS AND THE CELL THEORY
Level of
organisation Examples Diagrams:
organelle
molecule
(DNA)
Atoms Carbon (C), hydrogen (H),
oxygen (O), nitrogen (N)
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* terms are explained in the following text
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gullet
cytoplasm eye spot
cytoplasm pseudopodium
chloroplast
cilla
nucleus
nucleus
nucleus
cell wall
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CYTOPLASM
PROTOPLASM
H A PT
C
CELL
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NUCLEUS MEMBRANE
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CELL WALL
NUCLEUS
VACUOLE
(c)
cell
membrane
nucleus cytoplasm
protoplasm
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Most organisms have one nucleus
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per cell. Plant cells
The cell membrane (alternate
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Plant cells have some additional
C H A
names are the plasma membrane, structures which can be viewed under
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cytoplasmic membrane or a light microscope. These structures are
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exclusive to plant cells and therefore acids dissolved in water. It may also
not usually found in animal cells. contain dissolved pigments that
Chloroplasts are organelles that are give cells their colour, for example
green in colour, due to the presence the reds, pinks and purples seen in
of a pigment called chlorophyll. some flower petals. Besides having
Chloroplasts are responsible for a storage function, vacuoles play
photosynthesisthe manufacturing a very important role in providing
of sugar in plants, using the energy support to plant cells. By filling
of sunlight. Chloroplasts are not up with water, the vacuole pushes
present in all plant cells, they are outwards with the cytoplasm,
only found in the green tissue of exerting a pressure on the cell wall,
plants that can photosynthesise. keeping it firm. As a result of the
Under the light microscope, they outward pressure of the cell contents
appear as green, disc-shaped and the resisting pressure of the
structures, smaller than the nucleus. cell wall, the cell becomes firm or
An electron microscope is needed to turgid. (Small, temporary vesicles
see the detailed interior. may sometimes be found in animal
Vacuoles in plant cells are large, cells, but these do not play a role in
permanent, fluid-filled sacs in the cell support, so permanent vacuoles
cytoplasm of mature cells. Each that give turgidity are considered to
vacuole consists of a watery solution be a feature excusive to plant cells.)
called cell sap, surrounded by Figure 1.13 is a comparative
single membrane, the tonoplast. diagram of a plant and an animal
Cell sap contains substances such cell. To compare two things, both the
as mineral salts, sugars and amino similarities and differences must be
Figure 1.13
Comparative diagram structures found in plant structures found in plant
and animal cells cells only
of typical plant and
animal cells as
seen under a light
microscope
tonoplast vacuole
cell sap
nucleus
chloroplasts
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cell
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membrane
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C H A
P L E
animal cell plant cell
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CELLS AND THE CELL THEORY
Cell wall All structures in previous column as well as: All structures in previous two columns as
Cell membrane Golgi body well as:
Nucleus and nuclear membrane mitochondria endoplasmic reticulum
Chloroplast nucleolus ribosomes
Vacuole: tonoplast and cell sap (special staining required for all) lysosomes
Cytoplasm centrosome
cytoskeleton (special staining needed
for this)
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onion skin
microscopic slide
R O N
A PT E
H
drop of water
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cover slip
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CELLS AND THE CELL THEORY
(a) (b)
Figure 1.15
Photomicrographs
taken under a
compound light
microscope:
(a) blood cells;
(b) agapanthus
surface view of
epidermal cells
and stomates
Further investigations for students who finish for the unstained onion and complete
early: the wet mount as described. Draw and
(a) blood cells label this surface view of epidermal cells
(b) surface view of leaf of epidermal cells of agapanthus. Breathing pores called
showing guard cells and stomates an stomates should be visible amongst the
agapanthus leaf: scour the surface of the epidermal cells
leaf into 1 cm2 sections with a scalpel blade (c) pond water: place a drop of pond water on a
and then place transparent sticky tape microscope slide. Cover with a coverslip and
over the leaf surface to lift the uppermost view under low power to find cells and then
layer (epidermis). Place these cells under high power to draw (see Fig. 1.11).
attached to the sticky tape in a drop of Record your magnification.
water on a microscope slide, as described
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cytoplasm
microfilament
microtubule
mitochondrion
Golgi body
plasma membrane
CELL OR PLASMA
MEMBRANE
SMALL TEMPORARY
VACUOLES
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
NUCLEOLUS RIBOSOMES
NUCLEAR SAP
DOUBLE NUCLEAR
MEMBRANE
CHROMATIN MATERIAL
NUCLEUS
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NUCLEAR PORE BASIC CYTOPLASM
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FAT DROPLET
C H A
P L E
MITOCHONDRION
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CELLS AND THE CELL THEORY
chloroplast
smooth
endoplasmic microtubule
reticulum
cytoplasm chloroplast
microofilament
plasma membrane
central vacuole
cell wall
plasmodesma
adjoining cell
air space
cell membrane
cell wall
cytoplasm
oil droplets
nuclear pore
nuclear membrane
nuclear sap
nucleus
nucleolus
endoplasmic reticulum
ribosome
chromatin network
Golgi body
vacuolar membrane
or tonoplast
vacuole with cell sap
starch granule
pit with
plasmodesmata
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chloroplast
R O N
E
mitochondrion
H A PT
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amount of nucleic acidsome DNA,
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information centre but mostly RNA. The nucleolus is
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The nucleus stores the information responsible for the manufacture
H A P
needed to control all cell activities. of organelles called ribosomes,
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essential machinery of the cell.
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It is therefore essential for the
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nuclear pore
nucleolus
double nuclear
membrane rough endoplasmic
reticulum
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membrane repair and manufacture. ER may be convex or flat in shape.
may also transport substances from one
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Golgi bodies process, package and
R
PT E
cell to another in plant cells, passing sort cell products. They are involved
C H A
through channels in the cell wall called in adding proteins and carbohydrates
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cell pits. to cell products and they also provide
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a membrane around the cell products they vary in both shape and size.
to package them. The membranes Mitochondria are smaller than the
provided by Golgi bodies vary and nucleus and chloroplasts, but larger
serve as a packaging label. Features than ribosomes.
of the membrane are used to sort The number of mitochondria in
these products, determining where they a cell depends on how much
will end upthey may be transported energy the cell needs to carry
within the cell to wherever they are out its functions. Less active cells
Figure 1.18 required or they may be secreted out of contain few mitochondria, whereas
Golgi body and
vesicles
the cell. very active cells have hundreds or
even thousands of mitochondria
vesicles (e.g. active liver cells contain 1000
to 2000 mitochondria).
forming face Just as machines in a factory need
electrical energy in order to work,
so cells need energy, in the form of
a chemical called ATP (adenosine
triphosphate), to work. Mitochondria
combine oxygen with sugars during
the process of chemical respiration
to release energy in a form (ATP)
that the cell can use.
Each mitochondrion is surrounded
by a double membrane: the outer
Lysosomesdigestion and membrane gives the mitochondria
destruction its shape and allows the passage
of small substances into and out of
One example of the products of Golgi mitochondria. The inner membrane
bodies are lysosomes. These are little is folded into fine, finger-like ridges
fluid-filled sacs, most commonly seen or cristaethis increases the surface
in animal cells. They are surrounded area for the attachment of groups
by a single membrane and the vesicle of enzymes that are responsible
is filled with digestive enzymes, for for making energy for the cell.
intracellular digestion. Lysosomes The groups of enzymes appear as
commonly break down worn out cell knob-like particles on the inside of
organelles, so that the materials can the cristae.
be recycled and used to make new The central space in a mitochondrion
organelles. The membrane is essential is filled with fluid and is termed the
to prevent the enzyme from digesting matrix. It contains mitochondrial
the normal cell contents. DNA and enzymes that give
mitochondria the unusual feature of
Mitochondriacellular being able to replicate (make copies
respiration: production and of) themselves. The mitochondria
storage of energy (ATP) divide by pinching off and then
Mitochondria are the powerhouses growing, something that usually
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of a cell, producing energy by the occurs in very active cells or cells
process of chemical respiration.
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that are about to divide. This ability
R
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Mitochondria (singular =
P
of mitochondria to reproduce
C H A
mitochondrion) are usually themselves is extremely useful
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rod-shaped, but may be round, in evolutionary studies.
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cristae
particles on
outer membrane
lumen or cavity
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are found. Each stack or group of
O N
thylakoids is termed a granum GRANUM
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A STACK OF LAMELLAE
T
(plural: grana) and the green
A P
IS A GRANUM
H
STARCH GRAIN
C
pigment, chlorophyll, is found
E
IN STROMA
L
on these membranes.
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Figure 1.21
Summary of structures
found in plant and
animal cells
cell wall
cytoplasm lysosomes
large, permanent
vacuole cytoskeleton
nucleus
mitochondria
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Golgi body
ribosomes
Both
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nucleolus
nuclear
membrane
2 Mm
ENZYME COMPLEXES
MATRIX
OUTER MEMBRANE
MM
INNER MEMBRANE
continued . . .
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Student worksheet
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ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC
RETICULUM
RIBOSOMES
VESICLE
SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
MM
flattened membranes
ribosomes
rough endoplasmic reticulum
smooth endoplasmic reticulum
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endocytosis
membrane
cis recycling
face secretory
vesicle
trans
face
Golgi body
plasma
membrane
NM
cytoplasm
cell wall cell membrane
cell wall
plasmodesma
plasma membrane cytoplasm
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REVISION QUESTIONS
Boundary
Organelles
Cell shape
Vacuoles
7. State whether the each of the following photographs was viewed under a light or an electron
microscope and whether it shows plant or animal cells. Justify your answers.
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Chidrawi_M2_Ch01.indd 98 6/7/07 4:04:54 PM
CELLS AND THE CELL THEORY
8. Using the method described for comparative diagrams on page 84, draw a comparative
diagram of:
(a) light and electron microscopes
(b) chloroplast and mitochondria.
9. Identify the two types of nucleic acid found in cells.
10. Analyse the micrograph below and assess whether it shows plant or animal cells.
Justify your choice.
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Answers to
revision questions
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