Formal Fallacies:

1. Fallacy of the illicit major - This fallacy happens when the major term
(predicate of the major premise) is "particular" (or "not distributed") in the major
term, but is "universal" ("distributed") in the conclusion.

Example:

All Bicolanos are Filipinos. Therefore, Cebuanos are not Filipinos.

All Catholics are Christians. Catholics are not Protestants. Therefore, Protestants are
not Christians.

2. Fallacy of the illicit minor - when the minor term (the predicate in the minor
premise) is particular (or undistributed) in the minor premise but becomes universal
(or distributed) in the conclusion. The basis (minor term) being particular, cannot
sustain a universal conclusion, hence the fallacy.

Example:

All lawyers are bar passers. All lawyers are professionals. Therefore, all professionals
are bar passers.

All criminals deserve to be punished. All criminals deserver another chance.

Therefore, all of those deserving another chance, deserve to be punished.

3. Fallacy of the undistributed middle - occurs when the middle term (the term
that appears in both major and minor premise) remains particular (undistributed) in
both premises.

Example:

All criminals have tattoos. Jonlino has a tattoo. Therefore, Jonlino is a criminal.

All communists are atheists. Lusino is an atheist. Therefore, Lusino is a communist.

Informal Fallacies:

4. Ad Hominem - is an argument rejecting a person's views by attacking or

abusing his personality, character, motives, intentions, qualifications, etc., as
opposed to providing evidence why the views are incorrect.

Example:
What Lolino testified in court should not be believed. After all, he is a known
communist sympathizer.

5. Ad Hominem Tu Quoque - from Latin "you too," argues that a person's claim is
false because it is inconsistent with what that person's earlier statement or action.

Example:

Antonina teaches the message of love and peace. Yet she does not practice it. I
have seen her berate her students.

Evonne's pro-divorce stance should be rejected. After all, she was an anti-divorce
activist just a year ago.

6. Appeal to Authority (argumentum ad verecundiam) - happens in any of

the two instances:

a. when one appeals to authority in order to gain acceptance of a point at

issue.

b. when one appeals to the feelings of reverence or respect we have of those

in authority or those who are famous.

Example:

"I believe that the statement 'you cannot legislate morality' is true, because
President Eisenhower said it."

I use Maskinol astringent because Ms. V, my favorite movie star, uses it.

7. Appeal to belief (appeal to popularity) - is the argument that because many

people believe in a claim, that claim must be true. It is fallacious in that just
because many people hold a belief to be true, such believers are not an evidence
that the claim put forward is indeed true.

Example:

During Galileo's time, most believed the sun revolved around the earth. And just
because the majority believed in it, does not mean it is true.

8. Appeal to Emotion - deliberately generates feelings in people so that they will

act in a certain way. This becomes fallacious when a person bases his conclusions
on emotion rather than logic.

Example:

Our sofa with electronic massager will soothe your stress every time you watch TV.
Thus, "Sofa Cum Massage" is what you and busy family needs these days.
The Ponton people in the mountains of Patalangan are raiding our warehouses. They
are training children to become armies. How bad can you feel reading the news
each day. If you vote for me, I will make reading the news a pleasure. You will read
how I would eradicate these people.

9. Appeal to Fear (argumentum ad baculum) - argues that a belief is true, or at

least acted on, not because there is a "rational reason" to believe (evidence) it is
true, but because of external factors such as fear, harm or threat. Here, a
conclusion is formed on the basis of fear and not evidence.

Example:

If you do not pass on this letter to six of your friends, an unforeseen calamity will
befall upon you.

10. Appeal to flattery - argues that there are persons who arrive at conclusions, or
act in a certain way, when flattered. The argument is fallacious in that the basis of
one's conclusions is not "rational reason" or evidence but flattery.

Example:

You look younger today, and your face is smoother. By the way, did you receive our
letter of solicitation?

Your mind does not deserve to be in this small town, but in the Hague. How far are
you now in editing my thesis?

11. Appeal to Pity (argumentum ad misericordiam) - argues that some

persons conclude or make decisions solely on pity, and not on evidence. The
argument is fallacious in that the basis of one's decision is pity and not reason or
evidence.

Example:

Sir, I received a grade of 5. Is there something we can do? I am graduating and my

ailing mother is earning a living as a laundrywoman. My father has asthma and
cannot do his usual chores.

12. Appeal to Novelty - argues that a thing or idea is necessarily better simply
because it is new. One is novel, therefore good. The argument is fallacious in that
the basis of one's conclusion is the thing's newness, not its merit.

Example:

This book is the latest, therefore you must buy it. It is useful for your teaching as it
is the latest edition whereas the former edition was written three years ago.
13. Appeal to Popularity - argues that a claim or idea is true simply because more
people are inclined to accept such claim or idea. The argument is fallacious in that
the basis of one's conclusion or decision is not evidence but an external factor
which is widespread acceptance of a belief.

Example:

To my beloved Filipinos: I'm running. After all, I received a million signatures that
urged me to run for office. It is the will of the province.

14. Bandwagon (argumentum ad numerum) - argues that rejection (or a threat

of rejection) may influence one's decisions or conclusions. It is fallacious in that
solid or objective evidence takes a backseat over peer-pressure.

Example:

A: "If I can help it I go for fish and vegetables"

B: "Why that's food for oldies!"

"You better shape up, or else people will think you are undisciplined."

15. Burden of Proof (argumentum ad ignorantiam) - argues that something is

true because no one has proved it to be false, or arguing that something is false
because no one has proved it to be true. The argument is fallacious in that lack of
evidence on, say, side "A" is taken as proof or evidence that side "B" is true.

Example:

Heaven exists. After all, no one has proved it does not exist.

I'm innocent, not a robber or thief. No one has presented evidence that I stole or
robbed.