Chapter 1 Transport

Important:

Transport nutrients/oxygen/waste products

Exchange of substances ( by diffusion ) occurs rapidly if :

1) Surface area of organism in contact with environment is large

a. Organisms that are small in size have a large total surface area to
volume (TSA/V) ratio.
b. Large organisms have a small TSA/V ratio. Hence, the rate of
diffusion is higher in small size organisms than the large ones.

2) Volume of org is small

3) Total surface area/volume ratio is large
4) Distance between source of substances and body cells is near
5) High [ ] gradient is maintained

1.2 The concept of circulatory system

The circulatory system in humans and animals

consists of blood, blood vessels and heart. Blood is the connective tissue
in liquid form.
The human blood is made up of 55% plasma and 45% blood cells.

Three major components of the circulatory system:

(a) Blood a type of connective tissue made up of liquid plasma, suspended

blood cells and platelets

(b) Heart a muscular pump that circulates blood throughout the body

(c) Blood vessels branched vessels consisting of arteries, capillaries and veins.

Blood and Haemolymph

1. Blood is the medium of transport in humans and animals

2. Haemolymph is the blood-like nutritive fluid fills the entire body cavity
(haemocoel) of arthropods such as insects, and surrounds all cells

3. The functions of blood:

(a) transports oxygen from lungs to the cells throughout the body, and carbon
dioxide from the cells to the lungs

(b) transports nutrients, hormone and waste products

(c) helps to regulate the pH of body fluid, the body temperature and the water
content of cells

(d) blood clots to protect the body against excessive blood loss following in
injury

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(e) protects the body against diseases

4. The functions of haemolymph:

(a) transports water, inorganic salts and organic compounds throughout the
haemocoel

~ unlike blood, haemolymph does not transport respiratory gases.

Leucocyte (white blood cells)

Colourless, have nucleus (do not contain haemoglobin)

Functions ; fight infections
Irregular in shape
Can be divided into 2 groups

1. Granulocytes (granular cytoplasm)

2. Agranular

(a) Granular leucocytes

- include neutrophils, easinophils, basophils

- neutrophils: are phagocytes, which engulf and digest bacteria and dead
cells

- easinophils: release enzymes that combat inflammation in allergic

reaction, and kill parasitic worms

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- basophils: involve in combating inflammatory and allergic reactions

(b) Agranular leucocytes:

- include lymphocytes and monocytes

- lymphocytes: produce immune response against foreign substances.

Lymphocytes are produced by the lymph glands or lymph nodes

- monocytes: are phagocytes which engulf and digest bacteria and dead
cells

Erythrocyte (red blood cells)

Biconcave disc-shaped : to increase TSA/V ratio to facilitate the gas

diffusion
Produced in bone marrow
No nulceus
Lifespan = 120 days
Destroyed in spleen and liver
Contains haemoglobin; oxygen carrying protein pigment ( gives red blood
cells the red colour)

Haemoglobin contain heam group which contain iron atom

Iron atom provides binding site for oxygen
Each haemoglobin has 4 haem groups

Platelets

- Platelets are cells fragments from bone marrow

- They have no nucleus

- They are involved in the process of blood clotting.

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The human heart

The heart is made of strong cardiac muscle which is myogenic, contract

spontaneously without nervous stimulation.

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 The SA node generate electrical impulse and spread rapidly over the walls
of both atria,making the walls contracts simultaneously . Contractions of
the atria help to pump blood into ventricles.
The impulses reach the atrioventricular (AV) node. The AV node is located
at the floor of the right atrium.
From the AV node, specialized muscle fibres called bundle of His fibres,
bundle branches and Purkinje fibres conduct the signals to the apex of the
heart and throughout the wall of the ventricles, causing the ventricals to
contracts and push blood out to the lungs and body.

Contractions of the skeletal muscles around veins

Blood is sent through

circulatory system with
the help of contraction of
skeletal muscle around
veins.
When skeletal muscle
contract,the veins
constrict and blood is
pushed along through the
veins.The veins have one
way valves that allow
blood to flow in one
direction towards the

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Blood pressure is the pressure exerted by the blood on

the walls of the blood vessels.

Normal blood pressure is 120/80 mmHg.

120 mmHg = systolic pressure
80 mmHg = diastolic pressure
Blood pressure is regulated by baroreceptors (pressure receptors) in aorta
and carotid arteries.

a) Blood pressure increases during strenuous exercise

Baroreceptor in the wall of the aorta and carotid arteries are stimulated.
Rate of nerve impulse increase,
the impulse is sent at a faster rate
to Cardiovascular centre in the medulla oblongata.
Nerve impulses (parasympathetic nerve) are sent to effectors
Causing relaxation (vasodilation) of smooth muscle in the blood vessel
wall
resistance of the blood flow in blood vessels reduces,
weaker cardiac muscle contraction and
decrease of heartbeat rate
thus caused the blood pressure decreases and regulate to normal blood
pressure.

b) Blood pressure decreases when in a state of shock

Baroreceptor in the wall of the aorta and carotid arteries are less
stimulated.
Rate of nerve impulse decrease,
the impulse is sent at a slower rate
to Cardiovascular centre in the medulla oblongata.
Nerve impulses (sympathetic nerve) are sent to effectors
Causing contraction (vasoconstriction) of smooth muscle in the blood
vessel wall
resistance of the blood flow in blood vessels increase,
stronger cardiac muscle contraction and
increase of heartbeat rate
thus causing the blood pressure decrease and regulate the blood pressure
to the normal blood pressure.

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Open circulatory systems in insects

One or more hearts pump the haemolymph through the vessels and into
the haemocoel (contain soft internal soft organs and filled with
haemolymph)
Chemical exchange between haemolymph and body cells take place.
Haemolymph flows from hearts into haemocoel when hearts contract.
When hearts relax,haemolymoh drawn back through ostia into heart.

Fish (Single Circulation- blood passes through the once in each circuit)

The heart has two chambers;

atrium and ventricle.
Blood entering the heart goes to
the atrium then the ventricle
The ventricle then pumps blood
to the gills
As the blood leaves the gills, the
capillaries carry oxygen-rich
blood to the capillary beds
throughout the body, then it
returns to the heart.
When blood flows through a
capillary bed, blood pressure
decreases, which limits blood
flow in the body. When the
animals swims, the contraction
and relaxation of its muscles help
increases blood pressure.

Double incomplete close circulatory system(amphibian)

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 3 chambers
2 atria and 1 ventricle
Deoxygenated blood from body into right
atrium while oxygenated blood from lungs
to left atrium.
After that , to one ventricle.
Oxygenated blood remain in left portion
while deoxygenated blood remain in right
portion of ventricle.
Ventricle then pump blood through
pulmocutaneous circulation and the
systemic circulation.
pulmocutaneous circulation delivers
deoxygenated blood to lung and skin.
Oxygenated to systemic circulation.
systemic circulation carry Oxygenated
Double complete close circulatory system(human)
blood to tissue and return deoxy blood to
right atrium through vein.
4 chambers
two atria and two completely ventricles.
In the pulmonary circulation, the
deoxygenated blood is pumped from the
right ventricle through the pulmonary
arteries to the lungs where it passes
through the blood capillaries. Carbon
dioxide is released and the oxygen is
taken in from the air. Then, the
oxygenated blood is carried back to the
heart through pulmonary vein to the left
atrium
In the systemic circulation, The
oxygenated blood is pumped to the body

1.3 The Mechanism of Blood Clotting

Importance of blood-clotting

To prevent blood loss

To prevent the entry of microorganisms and foreign
particles into the body
To maintain blood pressure
To maintain the circulation of blood in a closed
circulatory system

Blood clotting

1. In the case when the damage of the vessel is small

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- When a blood vessel is damaged, the connective tissue in the vessel wall
is exposed to blood. Platelets stick rapidly to form platelet plug (an aggregation
of sticky platelets) to stop blood loss completely if the damage to the vessel is
small.

2. In the case when the damage of the vessel is severe

- The clumped platelets, the damaged cells and clotting factors in the
plasma will form activators, thromboplastins.

- Thromboplastins, together with the help of calcium and vitamin K, convert

prothrombin (an inactive plasma protein) to thrombin (an active plasma protein).

- Thrombin catalyses the conversion of the soluble protein fibrinogen

present in the blood plasma into the insoluble protein fibrin.

- Fibrin is a fibrous protein which forms a mesh over the wound trapping red
blood cells and sealing the wound.

- The resulting clot hardens on exposure to air to form a scab.

Blood-clotting related problems

Haemophilia

Prolonged bleeding will cause blood loss

Thrombosis

Formation of blood clot inside the unbroken blood vessels

Such clot named as thrombus
Sometimes,a thrombus may be dislodged and moves in the bloodstream.
A blood clot moving is called an embolus.
Venous thrombosis blood clots in the veins
Arterial thrombosis blood clots in the arteries
Arteriosclerosis arteries becomes narrow due to the
deposits of cholesterol and fats, then the artery is hardened by calcium
deposits.

1.4 The Lymphatic System

It does not contain

The plasma
proteins:
albumin,
globulin and
fibrinogen
The
erythrocytes
Platelets
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~ because they are
too large to pass
 90 % of the interstitial fluid diffuses back into the blood capillaries
10 % of the interstitial fluid diffuse into the lymph capillaries of the
lymphatic system. It is known as lymph.

Main functions of lymphatic system:

to collect and return interstitial fluid, including plasma protein to the

blood,

and thus help maintain fluid balance

to defend the body against disease by producing lymphocytes

to absorb lipids from the intestine and transport them to the blood

Lymphatic system consist of :

1. Lymphatic capillaries

Fine, blind end lymphatic vessels

2. Lymph vessels

Carries lymph

3. Lymph nodes

Found along lymph vessels

Produce lymphocytes provide antibody
Phagocytes are present ingest bacteria, dead leucocytes, foreign
particles

From the lymphatic vessels, lymph eventually passes into one of two
main channels:

The thoracic duct - receives lymph from the left head, neck and chest, the
left upper limb and the entire body below the ribs.

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 The right lymphatic duct - receives lymph from the right arm, shoulder
area, and the right side of the head and neck.

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Relationship between lymphatic system and circulatory system

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1.5 The Role of Circulatory System in Body Defence Mechanism
Body defence mechanism are need to
1. Prevent the entry of pathogen
2. React with pathogen that enters the body
Three lines of defence system:
1. First line of defence skin and mucous membrane
2. Second line of defence - phagocytes
3. Third line of defence lymphocytes

The First Line of Defence

1. The first line of defence consists of physical and chemical barriers that
prevent pathogens from entering the body.

2. Barriers to entry are

(a) Skin

-The skin is a passive barrier to infectious agents such as bacteria and viruses.

-The outer layer of the skin is tough and provides a physical barrier that is
impermeable to bacteria and viruses.

-The continual shedding of dead skin cells makes it difficult of bacteria to grow on
the skin

- The skin also acts as chemical barrier as it secretes sebum. Sebum forms a
protective film over the skin.

- In addiction, sweat excreted by the skin contains lysozyme, an enzyme capable

of breaking down the cell walls of certain bacteria.

(b) Mucous membranes

- Mucus membranes lining the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive

tracts secrete mucus that contain lysozyme which traps and destroy bacteria.

- Example: the mucous membrane of the nose has mucus-coated hairs that trap
and filter microorganisms, dust and pollutants from inhaled air.

(c) Tears and saliva

- Tears and saliva also secrete lysozyme which helps protect the eyes and mouth
from bacterial invasion

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The Second Line of Defence

1. Despite the physical and chemical barriers, pathogens may still able to gain
entry into our body. To fight against these pathogens, the body has a second line
of defence, called phagocytosis.

2. Phogocytosis is the process by which phagocytic white blood cells

(phagocytes) engulf and ingest microorganisms or other particles such as cellular
debris.

3. The two main types of phagocytes are:

(a) Neutrophils

- found in the blood

(b) Monocytes / macrophages

- found in the interstitial fluid

4. When an infection occurs, neutrophils and monocytes migrate to the

infected area. During migration, monocytes enlarge and develop into
macrophages.

5. The stages of phagocytosis:

(i) When a phagocyte encounters an invading pathogen, the phagocyte engulfs

the pathogen.

(ii) After the pathogen is engulfed and drawn inside the phagocyte, the enzyme
lysozyme kills the pathogen.

The Third Line of Defence

The third line of defence is immune system. It is a specific or targeted defence.

During an infection, the immune system identifies the antigens invading the
body.

The antigens induce the lymphocytes to release antibodies into the bloodstream
to destroy a particular antigen.

The mechanism used by antibodies to destroy antigens

Antigen is destroyed by different mechanisms:

Agglutination clump pathogen together for phagocytosis

Neutralisation neutralize toxin

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 Opsonisation mark antigens for phagocytes

Lysis cause antigens to rupture or disintegrate

The Various Type of Immunity

1. There are two types

of immunity:

(a) Active immunity

- the body makes its own

antibodies in response to
stimulation by an
antigen.

(b) Passive immunity

- the body receives

antibodies from an
Antigens foreign substances produced by microorganisms,
pathogens, toxin
Antibody protein to react with antigen
Specific one type of antibody can only react with one type of antigen

Immunity ability of the body to resist and infection by producing

antibodies
When a person has immunity towards certain disease, he/she is said to be
immuned to the disease.
Immunisation process of acquiring an immunity

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1.7Transport of substances in plants

XYLEM transport water & mineral salts

PHLOEM transport organic substances
Vascular system is not involved in the transport of oxygen & carbon
dioxide.

STRUCTURE OF XYLEM IN RELATION TO TRANSPORT

It has two important functions :

It transport water & mineral ions from roots to the upper parts of the plant
It also provide mechanical support to the plant
In flowering plants, the xylem consists of xylem vessels, tracheids,
parenchyma & fibres.
The vessels are elongated cells arranged end to end. To allow water to
flow in a continuous column.
The end walls of the vessels have broken down to provide an
uninterrupted flow of water up the plant.
The side walls of xylem vessels are perforated by pits, which allow water &
mineral salts to pass sideways.
The lignified walls make the xylem vessels rigid to prevent them from
collapsing under the large tension forces set up by the transpiration pull.

STRUCTURE OF PHLOEM IN RELATION TO TRANSPORT

Transports organic food substances (sucrose & amino acids) from leaves to
various plant parts
Consists mainly of sieve tubes & companion cells
A sieve tube is a cylindrical tube made up of elongated living sieve tube
cells.
Each companion cells has a nucleus, dense cytoplasm & many
mitochondria.
Help to transport manufactured food from leaf cells into the sieve tubes.
Many mitochondria to generate ATP needed for active transport of sucrose
from companion cells into the sieve tubes.

TRANSLOCATION

The transport of dissolved organic food substances by the phloem.

IMPORTANCE OF TRANSLOCATION

Ensures a plants survival

Organic food molecules can be transported :
To the growing regions in the plant for growth & development
To the plant cells for metabolism
Downwards from the leaves to the storage organs such as the roots

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TRANSPIRATION

The loss of water as water vapour from a living plant to the atmosphere
due to evaporation.
Most of the water is lost through the stomata of leaves.
A small amount is lost through the cuticle or through the lenticels in
woody stem

The Importance of Transpiration

Creates a transpirational pull that pulls water & dissolved mineral ions
from the root to the leaves.
Water supplied to the plant is used for photosynthesis & cell metabolism.
Mineral ions is used for cell activities & growth & development of the
plant.

THE EXTERNAL CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE RATE OF TRANSPIRATION

The external factors that affect the rate of evaporation.

Air movement
Temperature
Light intensity
Relative humidity

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