Effect of age at slaughter on carcass traits

and meat quality of Italian heavy pigs1

R. Virgili*2, M. Degni, C. Schivazappa*, V. Faeti, E. Poletti, G. Marchetto,

M. T. Pacchioli, and A. Mordenti

*Stazione Sperimentale per lIndustria delle Conserve Alimentari, 43100 Parma, Italy;
Istituto Sperimentale per la Zootecnia, 41100 Modena, Italy;
Centro Ricerche Produzioni Animali (CRPA), 42100 Reggio Emilia, Italy; and
Dipartimento di Morfofisiologia e Produzioni Animali Universita` di Bologna, 40100 Bologna, Italy

ABSTRACT: Barrows and gilts (n = 128) from four
breed crosses were used to investigate the effect of age
at slaughter on carcass traits, proteolytic enzyme activ-
ity, and meat and fat quality. Pigs were blocked by
breed cross into four blocks, and within blocks, one pen
(eight barrows and eight gilts) was assigned randomly
to be slaughtered at either 8 or 10 mo of age. Pigs were
fed a corn-barley-soybean meal finisher diet from 104
2.5 d of age (37.7 0.33 kg BW) to the appropriate
slaughter age. Carcasses from older (10 mo) pigs had
lower (P < 0.01) muscularity indexes and lean cut yields
than those of younger (8 mo) pigs, but dressing percent-
age and longissimus muscle area increased (P < 0.01)
with age. Older pigs produced a redder (P < 0.01) and
darker (P < 0.05) semimembranosus, with lower (P <
0.01) ultimate pH and cathepsin B and B + L activities,
as well as higher (P < 0.01) aminopeptidase hydrolyzing
activity than younger pigs. Moreover, the longissimus
muscle of pigs slaughtered at 10 mo of age had lower
(P < 0.01) drip and cooking loss percentages than that
from pigs slaughtered at 8 mo of age. Ham subcutane-
ous fat from 10-mo-old pigs had greater (P < 0.05) per-
centages of oleic acid and lower (P < 0.01) proportions
of moisture, linoleic, and linolenic acids than subcuta-
neous fat from pigs slaughtered at 8 mo of age. Results
from this study indicate that fresh hams from pigs
slaughtered at 10 mo of age would be more suitable for
the production of high-quality, Italian, dry-cured hams.

Key Words: Age, Cured Meat, Enzymes, Hams, Pigs, Proteolysis

2003 American Society of Animal Science. All rights reserved. J. Anim. Sci. 2003. 81:24482456

Introduction film, and a bitter taste (Guerrero et al., 1996; Virgili et

Excessive proteolysis and fat oiliness and yellowness
are defects of dry-cured ham, largely attributable to the
unsuitability of the raw material for processing into
products aged for 18 mo or longer (Mordenti et al., 1994;
Virgili et al., 1995). Oiliness, yellowness, and rancid
flavor increased in ham containing high concentrations
of PUFA in the external fat; in fact, established regula-
tions for dry-cured Italian hams limit the linoleic acid
percentage and iodine value of fresh ham to no more
than 15% and 70, respectively (Consortium for Parma
Ham, 1992). A high degree of proteolysis leads to in-
creased muscle softness, formation of a white surface
1
Research supported by funds from Regione Emilia Romagna (proj-
ect manager Centro Ricerche Produzioni Animali) and Ministero delle
Politiche Agricole e Forestali.
2
Correspondence: V.le F. Tanara 31/A (phone: 39-0521795237; fax:
39-0521771829; E-mail: r.virgili@rsadvnet.it).
Received May 2, 2002.
Accepted June 3, 2003.
al., 1998).
The postmortem activity of cathepsin B in pork has
been shown to be related to proteolysis in Italian dry-
cured hams (Schivazappa et al., 2002), whereas high
residual cathepsin activities at the end of manufactur-
ing have been associated with impaired texture in dry-
cured ham (Garcia-Garrido et al., 2000). Among the
proteolytic enzymes, alanyl aminopeptidase (or amino-
peptidase puromycin-sensitive) and arginyl aminopep-
tidase (or aminopeptidase B) account for 83% and 11%
of muscle aminopeptidase activity, respectively (Flores
et al., 1997b). Toldra` et al. (1995) indicated that the
aminopeptidases were responsible for the generation of
free AA during processing. The activity of these proteo-
lytic enzymes varies according to swine genetics (Ar-
mero et al., 1999; Russo et al., 2000), weight, age (Sar-
raga et al., 1993; Toldra` et al., 1996), and nutrition
(Van den Hemel-Grooten et al., 1997). Therefore, the
objective of this study was to determine whether the
age at slaughter affects the quality of typical, Italian
dry-cured hams.

2448
 Effect of slaughter age on pork quality 2449
Table 1. Composition of experimental diets (as-fed basis)
1st period 2nd period 3rd period
Item (30 to 50 kg) (50 to 90 kg) (90 to 160 kg)

Corn meal, % 47.0 49.0 56.8

Barley meal, % 20.0 20.0 21.0
Soybean oil meal, % 16.6 16.6 12.0
Soft wheat bran, % 9.0 9.0 5.0
Fish meal (herring), % 2.0
Lard, % 2.0 2.0 2.0
Calcium carbonate, % 1.26 1.26 1.20
Dicalcium phosphate, % 0.9 0.95 1.05
Vitamin and mineral premix, %a 0.6 0.5 0.5
Sodium chloride, % 0.4 0.4 0.4
L-Lysine HCl, % 0.2 0.15 0.15
DL-Methionine, % 0.04 0.04
Analyzed composition, g/100 g feed
Crude protein (N 6.25) 16.2 14.9 13.2
Digestible energy 3224 3200 3250
Lysine 0.96 0.81 0.69
a
Provided the following amounts of vitamins and minerals per kilogram of premix: vitamin A, 3,000,000
IU; vitamin D3, 400,000 UI; vitamin E, 10,000 mg; vitamin B1, 400 mg; vitamin B2, 1,000 mg; vitamin B6,
800 mg; d-panthotenic acid, 3,000 mg; biotin, 30 mg; vitamin PP, 5,000 mg; vitamin B12, 6 mg; folic acid,
200 mg; choline chloride, 80,000 mg; Co, 80 mg (as cobalt carbonate); Fe, 20,000 mg (as ferrous carbonate);
Se, 20 mg (as sodium selenite); I, 300 mg (as calcium iodate); Mn, 5,000 mg (as manganous oxide); Cu,
5,000 mg (as cupric sulfate pentahydrate); Zn, 30,000 mg (as zinc oxide).

Materials and Methods
Animals and Treatment
Pigs (n = 128) of four different breed crosses were
blocked by breed type and assigned within blocks to
pens (two pens per block) of 16 pigs (eight barrows and
eight gilts per pen). Then, one pen per block was allotted
at random to be slaughtered at either 8 or 10 mo of
age. Breed crosses and slaughter ages were selected to
be representative of domestic market pigs typically
used in the production of dry-cured hams in Italy. Fresh
hams intended for processing into typical Italian, dry-
cured hams must be, by law, of Italian provenance.
Genetic types included Italian Large White purebred,
the traditional crossing of Duroc sires on Italian Large
White Italian Landrace dams and two different com-
mercially available hybrid line pigs. The genetic back-
grounds of pigs were individually identified after birth,
and at 70 d of age, pigs were moved into the piggery
until slaughter. Beginning age and weight of pigs were
104 2.5 d and 37.7 0.33 kg, respectively. Each group
(16 pigs) of the same genetic background and allotted
slaughter age were housed in the same pen. Within
breed crosses (blocks), pigs were penned and remained
as a complete pen during transport to the pork slaugh-
ter plant.
All pigs were fed a wet-meal (3:1 water:feed ratio)
diet formulated to meet the dietary requirements of
finishing swine (Table 1). At the beginning of the trial,
feed intake was limited to 1.6 kg/d, and feed allocations
were increased by 100 g/d up to the eighth week of the
feeding period. Then, the amount of feed offered to pigs
was increased by 70 g/d until a maximal ADFI of 2.96
kg/d was achieved at 16 wk of age. Daily feed intake
was not altered thereafter, and the daily allotted feed
was based on the amount consumed by the group show-
ing the lowest feed intake in two daily 30-min meals.
Pigs were individually weighed every 28 d to monitor
growth rate (data not reported) and before slaughter
to calculate ADG. Pigs were transported approximately
80 km and slaughtered after 139 d (8 mo of age) or 202
d (10 mo of age) on trial.
Carcass Traits. Pigs were slaughtered according to
industry-accepted procedures, and hot carcass weight
was recorded during the first hour of the slaughter
process. Then, carcasses were fabricated warm, and the
ham, shoulder, and loin from left sides of carcasses were
chilled for 24 h at 0 to 2C. After the 24-h chilling period,
fresh hams (comprise the shank, knuckle, and cushion)
were trimmed to produce the typical round-shape of
Parma hams (Consortium for Parma Ham, 1992). At
the end of the trimming line, hams were weighed, and
a five-member, trained panel of experts evaluated fresh
hams for overall fatness and marbling on a five-point
scale (0 = absence of fatness/marbling to 5 = abundant
fatness/marbling). Average panel scores for each fresh
ham were recorded, and hams were sorted into three
categories based on fatness/marbling scores (0 to 2.5 =
low, 2.5 to 3.5 = medium, 3.5 to 5.0 = high). Area
of the longissimus muscle (LM) was measured on the
cut surface at the 11th-/12th-rib interface, and the LM
area:hot carcass weight ratio was calculated and re-
ported as the muscularity index (Petersen et al., 1989).
Muscle Sampling. A 50-g sample of semimembrano-
sus was excised from hams 24 h postmortem and subse-
quently refrigerated at 0 to 2C to determine the hy-
drolyzing activities of cathepsin B, cathepsin B+L, argi-
nyl aminopeptidase, and alanyl aminopeptidase, as
well as proximate composition (AOAC, 1990). Addition-
2450 Virgili et al.
ally, a boneless LM chop from the 12th- to 13th-rib
region was trimmed free of subcutaneous fat and con-
nective tissue for analysis of drip and cooking loss per-
centages.
Proteolytic Enzyme Assays. Enzyme activities were
assayed 36 to 48 h postmortem. Cathepsin B and B+L
were determined using N-CBZ-Arg-Arg-AMC and N-
CBZ-Phe-Arg-AMC (Sigma, Milan, Italy), respectively,
as described by Barrett and Kirschke (1981). Muscle
aminopeptidase activity was determined according to
Toldra` et al. (1992b) with the substrates L-Ala-AMC
and L-Arg-AMC (Sigma), and the measured activities
were reported as alanyl aminopeptidase and arginyl
aminopeptidase hydrolyzing activities, respectively.
Activities were expressed as nmol of substrate hydro-
lyzedmin1g protein1.
Meat Quality Measurements. Semimembranosus pH
was measured at 1 and 24 h postmortem with a Hamil-
ton glass electrode probe attached to a portable pH
meter (WTW pH330, Weilheim, Germany). Addition-
ally, drip-loss was determined on the LM chop ac-
cording to the procedure of Virgili et al. (1995). Briefly,
a 3.0-cm-thick LM chop was weighed and placed in a
polyethylene bag (15 30 cm), sealed, suspended, and
stored at 2C for 24 h. Afterwards, each core was re-
moved from its bag, blotted with a paper towel, re-
weighed, and drip loss was expressed as a percentage
of the original LM chop weight. On the third day after
slaughter, a 1- 1- 2-cm sample of LM, free of all
external fat and connective tissue, was weighed, placed
in Pyrex sealed tubes, and heated in a water bath at
68C for 1 h according to the procedure of Tornberg et
al. (1992). Samples were then chilled at 2C for 24 h,
reweighed, and cooking loss percentage was calculated
by dividing the difference between pre- and postcooked
weights by the precooked weight. Instrumental color of
the semimembranosus (SM) was measured 24 h post-
mortem with a CR-200 Chroma Meter (Minolta, Milan,
Italy) with D65 illuminant. Lightness (L*), redness (a*),
and yellowness (b*) of SM samples were the mean of
three random readings, and the colorimetry informa-
tion was used to calculate hue angle (tan1 [b*/a*]),
chroma ([a*2+b*2]), and the a*:b* ratio.
Adipose Tissue Measurements. At 24 h postmortem,
approximately 100 g of ham subcutaneous fat (inner
and outer layers) was collected beneath the biceps femo-
ris, wrapped in aluminum foil, vacuum packaged, and
frozen at 18C for determination of moisture and fatty
acid composition. Moisture content of fat was deter-
mined at 103C. Fatty acid composition was determined
according to the procedures of Della Casa et al. (1999),
where 0.5 g of fat was dissolved in 10 mL pentane and
transmethylated with 0.5 mL of 2N methanolic KOH.
The organic phase was filtered through anhydrous so-
dium sulfate and injected into a Fisons HRGC-MEGA
2 (Milan, Italy) gas chromatograph equipped with a
flame ionization detector and a 50-m silica column SP
2340 (Supelco-Sigma, Milan, Italy) with an internal
diameter of 0.25 m and a film thickness of 0.20 m.
Working conditions were as follows: hydrogen carrier
gas, 79 kPa; split ratio, 70:1; injector temperature,
250C; detector temperature, 250C; and initial oven
temperature, 150C for 4 min increasing to 180C at a
rate of 1.5C/min. The fatty acid methyl esters were
identified by comparison with methyl ester standards,
and results were expressed as percentages of total fatty
acid methyl esters.
Statistical Analysis. Data were analyzed as a random-
ized complete block design with the general linear mod-
els procedures of SAS (SAS Inst., Inc., Cary, NC). Pen
was the experimental unit for the analysis of perfor-
mance data, whereas pig was the experimental unit
in the analysis of carcass data. Additionally, age at
slaughter was the lone main effect included in the
model, and the pooled error term was used to test the
main effect. Least squares means were computed for
the main effect, and the Bonferroni t-test was used to
statistically separate least squares means when P <
0.05. Distributions of fresh hams according to fatness/
marbling categories were analyzed using Pearson 2
and Fishers exact test procedure of SAS.
Results and Discussion
Growth Performance and Carcass Composition
For each slaughtering age, the dietary regimen
yielded a satisfactory ADG (762 g/d for pigs slaughtered
at 8 mo and 713 g/d for pigs slaughtered at 10 mo; Table
2). Established regulations for dry-cured, typical Italian
hams (Consortium for Parma Ham, 1992) stipulate that
the slaughtering weight of heavy pigs aged at least
9 mo must be 160 kg 10%; therefore, DG must be
approximately 750 g/d. The variability found for pig
carcass weight (8% CV) is in agreement with recent
studies carried out on Italian heavy pig populations by
Lo Fiego et al. (2000) and Rossi et al. (2001), who re-
ported 10.0% and 7.7%, respectively.
An age effect was detected for growth and carcass
parameters (P < 0.01); the decrease in growth rate of
pigs older than 8 mo is in agreement with the well-
known effect of the increase in age and slaughter weight
on pig performance (De Greef et al., 1994; Whittemore
1994; Candek-Potokar et al., 1998). Previous research
studies performed on heavy pigs (Bittante et al., 1990;
Franci et al., 1994a) did not show consistent differences
in growth rate between pigs slaughtered at different
ages and weights, but the dietary regimens were not
reported and the compared slaughtering weights were
lower than in the present trial (110 to 145 and 131 to
159 kg, respectively, vs. 143 to 182).
Dressing percentage was higher (P < 0.01) for older
and heavier pigs (Table 3), which is in agreement with
Bittante et al. (1990) and Franci et al. (1994b). Age
increase is characterized by the growth of lean, bone,
and fat, with greater fat deposition being mostly respon-
sible for the increase in dressing percentage detected
in the older pigs. The increase (P < 0.01) in LM area
 Effect of slaughter age on pork quality 2451
Table 2. Effect of age at slaughter on growth performance
Age

Item 8 mo 10 mo SEMa P-value

Number of observations 4 4
Live weight at start, kg 37.72 37.72 1.033 0.999
Live weight at 8 mo, kg 143.6 143.9 1.24 0.873
Live weight at slaughter, kg 143.6 181.8 1.32 <0.001
ADG (8 mo), g/d 761 764 4.0 0.725
ADG until slaughter, g/d 761 713 4.5 0.001
a
Values for SEM represent the pooled standard error of the mean.

with age (and weight) supports the previous finding of
Candek-Potokar et al. (1998), who studied pigs in the
100- to 130-kg range and with about one months differ-
ence in slaughtering age. Muscularity index was lower
(P < 0.01) in 10- vs. 8-mo-old pigs, which is in agreement
with the greater backfat thickness and higher total fat
found in older, heavier pigs (Bittante et al., 1990; Gar-
cia-Macias et al., 1996; Candek-Potokar et al., 1998).
The weight of the lean cuts increased (P < 0.01) with
age, but lean cut yield decreased (P < 0.01) in carcasses
from older pigs (P < 0.01). It is assumed that factors
such as lower growth rate for primal cuts than for the
rest of the body and a higher fat deposition in other
areas of the carcass during the two additional months
of feeding may contribute to the decrease in yield of
lean cuts.
Meat Quality Parameters
Because the ham is the most valuable cut from Italian
heavy pig carcass, most parameters associated with
meat quality were measured on the SM, whereas a
subgroup of data was also collected on the LM. The SM
from younger pigs was lighter (higher L* values; P <
0.05) than the SM of older pigs (Table 4). Even though
a* (redness) values were not different (P > 0.05) between
slaughter ages, the SM from pigs slaughtered at 8 mo
of age was more (P < 0.01) yellow (higher b* value) than
that from older (10-mo-old) pigs. Higher a* values were
reported by Franci et al. (1994b) in older pigs. Moreover,
Garcia-Macias et al. (1996) observed higher a* values
for the SM of heavier pigs; however, carcass weights of
their study were considerably lighter than carcasses of
pigs in the present study. Fernandez-Lopez et al. (2000)
stated that the a* values in pork depend on the concen-
tration of myoglobin and not on its state (deoxygenated,
oxygenated, or oxidized). Results presented in Table 4
demonstrate that, under the conditions of the reported
trial, extending the slaughter age two additional
months does not yield appreciable differences in red-
ness of pork color.
The a*:b* values were higher (P < 0.01) in the older
pigs. According to Fernandez et al. (2000), a high a*:b*
ratio is indicative of a high concentration of either myo-
globin or oxymyoglobin on the surface of the meat,
whereas a low a*:b* value is due to a high concentration
of metmyoglobin. Because there was no (P > 0.05) differ-
ence in a* values between the older and the younger
pigs (Table 4), differences in a*:b* may be attributed
to a lower amount of metmyoglobin in the SM from 10-
mo-old pigs. In this respect, a delay of 2 mo in slaughter-
ing may result in significant differences in color, attrib-
utable not to the amount of meat pigment but to its
oxidative status.
Pigs slaughtered at 10 mo had lower (P < 0.01) L*
and hue angle values, indicating a darker, truer red

Table 3. Effect of age at slaughter on carcass traits

Age

Item 8 mo 10 mo SEMa P-value

Number of observations 62 61
Hot carcass weight, kg 118.7 152.4 0.98 <0.001
Ham weight, kg 14.3 18.1 0.12 <0.001
Loin weight, kg 30.8 37.9 0.30 <0.001
Shoulder weight, kg 17.5 20.7 0.15 <0.001
Dressing percentage 82.44 83.75 0.135 <0.001
Longissimus muscle area, cm2 68.0 73.7 0.81 0.001
Muscularity index, % 57.56 48.49 0.641 <0.001
Ham yield, %b 24.47 23.73 0.086 <0.001
Loin yield, %b 26.00 24.89 0.139 <0.001
Shoulder yield, %b 14.80 13.60 0.063 <0.001
a
Values for SEM represent the pooled standard error of the mean.
b
Yield as a percentage of hot carcass weight.
2452 Virgili et al.

Table 4. Effect of age at slaughter on meat quality traits

of semimembranosus and longissimus dorsi muscles
Age

Item 8 mo 10 mo SEMa P-value

Number of observations 62 61
Semimembranous
Lightness (L*) 49.91 48.77 0.231 0.015
Redness (a*) 8.57 8.92 0.113 0.120
Yellowness (b*) 5.77 5.19 0.092 0.002
a*:b* 1.506 1.752 0.0194 <0.001
Chroma 10.37 10.35 0.136 0.944
Hue angle 33.75 30.03 0.298 <0.001
Initial (1-h) pH 6.463 6.294 0.0217 <0.001
Ultimate (24-h) pH 5.847 5.684 0.0127 <0.001
Longissimus dorsi
Drip loss, % 7.19 6.03 0.221 0.009
Cooking loss, % 17.49 14.85 0.236 <0.001
a
Values for SEM represent the pooled standard error of the mean.

color than pigs slaughtered at 8 mo. When studying the
relationship between fresh muscle and the correspond-
ing dry-cured color, Chizzolini et al. (1996) reported
that L* and hue angle had the highest correlation coef-
ficients (negative association), with the redness score
of corresponding dry-cured hams. On the basis of the
present results, pigs slaughtered at 10 mo, when other
dry-curing parameters with a potential effect on color
(such as weight loss, salt and moisture content, and
degree of proteolysis) can be kept constant, yielded red-
der dry-cured hams.
The pH values, measured at 1 and 24 h postmortem,
were lower (P < 0.01) in the SM from pigs slaughtered
at 10 than 8 mo of age. This is in accordance with
the results obtained by Cisneros et al. (1996) for pigs
slaughtered between 100 and 160 kg, and Beattie et al.
(1999) for pigs slaughtered at lighter weights (70 to 100
kg). The SM is a white muscle susceptible to PSE and
DFD conditions (Warner et al., 1993). The higher fre-
quency of hams with 1-h pH values less than 6.0 was
noted among pigs slaughtered at 10 mo compared to
younger pigs (23 vs. 8%), whereas hams with ultimate
(24-h) pH values in excess of 6.0 were 10 and 2% for
pigs slaughtered at 8 and 10 mo, respectively. Various
events might be considered to account for the differ-
ences reported in mean pH values and distribution be-
tween the two age groups of pigs. The higher pH values
measured in hams of younger pigs might reflect higher
glycogen consumption during the preslaughtering
phases (Swatland 1994). Moreover, older pigs, charac-
terized by producing heavier carcasses, were more mus-
cular and fatter, which may depress heat transfer dur-
ing chilling and result in more rapid postmortem me-
tabolism and pH decline (Cisneros et al., 1996). Similar
results were found in studies carried out on pork LM,
where lower pH values were measured in muscles re-
moved from carcasses of increasing weight and external
fat thickness (Beattie et al., 1999).
Despite the higher pH value of younger pigs, the drip
and cooking losses were higher (P < 0.01) for younger
pigs (Table 4). The effect of age detected for drip and
cooking loss may be related either to the replacement
of water by lipid in older pigs (Beattie et al., 1999), even
though no relationship was found between i.m. fat, drip
and cooking loss, or to the lower moisture:protein ratio
found in heavier carcasses (Garcia-Macias et al., 1996).

Table 5. Effect of age at slaughter on chemical composition

of the semimembranosus and longissimus dorsi muscles
Age

Item 8 mo 10 mo SEMa P-value

Number of observations 62 61
Semimembranosus
Moisture, % 73.16 73.48 0.145 0.271
Protein, % 22.70 22.52 0.071 0.183
Intramuscular fat, % 2.87 3.00 0.086 0.616
Longissimus dorsi
Moisture, % 73.41 72.86 0.061 0.002
Protein, % 23.13 23.27 0.133 0.279
Intramuscular fat, % 2.45 2.90 0.115 0.055
a
Values for SEM represent the pooled standard error of the mean.
 Effect of slaughter age on pork quality
Table 6. The 2 statistic (Fishers exact test) of thigh
distribution into categories of ham sensory scores
of fatness and marbling (values are
numbers per category)a
Age
Item 8 mo 10 mo P-value
Number of observations 62 61
Ham fatness 0.002
Low 21 3 younger pigs, which is in agreement with reports of
Medium 32 42
High 9 16
Ham marbling 0.624
Low 35 43
Medium 25 16
High 2 2
a
Hams were scored on a six-point scale (0 = absence to 5 = very
abundant). According to sensory scores, hams were grouped into three
categories (low = 0 to 2.5; medium = 2.5 to 3.5; and high = 3.5 to 5.0).
A difference of 2 mo in pig slaughtering age did not
cause significant differences in moisture, protein, or
i.m. fat of SM, whereas the moisture content was lower
(P < 0.01) in the LM of older than younger pigs (Table
5). This inconsistency may be partly attributable to
the sampling method, because only the surface (0.5 cm
thickness) of the SM was removed to allow thighs to be
processed, whereas a complete 4-cm-thick section of LM
was taken (see Materials and Methods).
Recent studies carried out on Italian heavy pigs (Lo
Fiego et al., 2000) reported a lower i.m. fat content
in the SM compared with other ham muscles (biceps
femoris and semitendinosus). Nevertheless, subjective
assessment of marbling score (Table 6) of trimmed
hams where surface sections of SM, BF, and ST are
visible, were not affected by age at slaughter, in
agreement with analytical data of i.m. fat assayed in
SM. These results are in accordance with Beattie et
al. (1999), who found only a tendency for marbling to
increase in carcasses of older and heavier pigs, and
Mayoral et al. (1999), who reported slight changes for
i.m. fat during the fattening of Iberian pigs reared out-
doors. However, Candek-Potokar et al. (1998) found
that i.m. fat increased as both age and weight of pigs
fed ad libitum increased until slaughtering.
Subjective assessment of visual fatness (Table 6)
showed an effect for age (P < 0.01 for Pearson 2 and
Fishers exact test), and was independent of the mar-
bling score. If compared with the carcasses of the
younger pigs, the older pigs were mostly rated as me-
dium or high for ham fatness on the distribution of
hams into fatness categories. The higher sensory fat-
ness in older pigs is supported by the concomitant re-
duction in the percentage of lean cuts (Table 3).
Muscle Biochemistry
Proteolytic enzymes cause the formation of small pep-
tides and free AA from proteins, which affect the flavor
2453
profile of aged products, such as dry-cured ham (Flores
et al., 1997a, Virgili et al; 1999). Cathepsins and amino-
peptidases, whose activities are kept at low-water activ-
ity values, are responsible for peptide and free AA gen-
eration throughout the entire manufacturing period of
dry-cured ham (Toldra` et al., 1992a).
Slaughter age affected the activities of cathepsin B
and B+L (Table 7). The older pigs had lower cathepsin
B (P < 0.01) and B+L (P < 0.05) activities than the
Sarraga et al. (1993), Rosell et al. (1998), and Armero
at al. (1999). Fresh muscle activities of cathepsin B are
closely associated with the final proteolysis of dry-cured
hams (Virgili et al., 1998; Schivazappa et al., 2002).
Both excessive final proteolysis and residual cathepsin
activity are considered to be responsible for defects in
the texture and taste of hams, such as softness, pasti-
ness, and bitter taste (Virgili et al., 1995; Guerrero
et al., 1996; Garcia-Garrido et al., 2000). Cathepsins,
because they are involved in the first step of the proteo-
lytic mechanism, are rate-limiting for the whole proteo-
lytic process (Kirschke et al., 1995).
Aminopeptidases break down peptides and decrease
bitterness of foods (Gonzales deLano et al., 1996), but
this role has not yet been confirmed in the case of dry-
cured ham. Alanyl aminopeptidase has a broad sub-
strate specificity for aromatic, aliphatic and basic
amino-acyl bonds, whereas arginyl aminopeptidase is
a chloride-activated enzyme with a specificity for basic
amino-acyl bonds (Flores et al., 1997b). The aminopep-
tidase hydrolyzing activities were higher (P < 0.01) in
the SM from older than younger pigs, supporting the
opposing trend between cathepsins and aminopepti-
dases reported by Toldra` et al. (1996). Thus, hams from
younger pigs may be more susceptible to excessive pro-
teolysis during the manufacturing period, possibly re-
sulting in extreme softness and bitterness in dry-cured
ham. The degree of proteolysis in ham may be influ-
enced by several parameters, such as pH, ham weight,
ham weight loss, salt diffusion, and water activity
within the muscles of hams (OHalloran et al., 1999;
Schivazappa et al., 2002).
Fatty Acid Composition of Subcutaneous Fat
Age at slaughter yielded differences in the moisture
content of fat (P < 0.01) and in monounsaturated fatty
acid and PUFA composition (P < 0.01), with the excep-
tion of C16:1 (P < 0.05; Table 8). Ham subcutaneous
fat from 10-mo-old pigs had greater percentages of pal-
mitic (P < 0.05) and oleic (P < 0.01) acids and lower (P
< 0.01) moisture and linoleic and linolenic acids than
subcutaneous fat from 8-mo-old pigs.
Fatty acid composition of heavy pig subcutaneous fat
was found to be affected by several factors, including
gender, age (Lo Fiego, 1988), energy intake, dietary
fatty acid composition (Mordenti et al., 1994; Della Casa
et al., 1999), carcass weight and composition (Cameron
et al., 1990; Zappa and Pugliese, 1991; Piedrafita et al.,
2454 Virgili et al.

Table 7. Effect of age at slaughter on cathepsin and aminopeptidase activities

Age

Item 8 mo 10 mo SEMa P-value

Number of observations 62 61
Cathepsin Bb 8.13 6.35 0.127 <0.001
Cathepsin B + Lc 36.5 33.3 0.65 0.014
Alanyl aminopeptidased 553.0 673.1 7.92 <0.001
Arginyl aminopeptidasee 1,030.3 1,328.5 13.17 <0.001
a
Values for SEM represent the pooled standard error of the mean.
b
Cathepsin B activity is expressed as nmol of N-CBZ-Arg-Arg-AMC hydrolyzedmin1g protein1.
c
Cathepsin B + L activity is expressed as nmol of N-CBZ-Phe-Arg-AMC hydrolyzedmin1g protein1 .
d
Alanyl aminopeptidase activity is expressed as nmol of L-Ala-AMC hydrolyzedmin1g protein1.
e
Arginylaminopeptidase activity is expressed as nmol of L-Arg-AMC hydrolyzedmin1g protein1.

2001), and genetic background (Lo Fiego, 1988). Wood
(1984) reported that, with an increase in the triglycer-
ide content of fat tissue cells, the moisture content de-
creased. With increasing age and weight, the partition
of ingested energy turns from muscular to adipose tis-
sue growth, which increases the ratio between de novo
synthesized fatty acids (mainly C18:1; Enser, 1991) and
dietary fatty acids (C18:2 and C18:3). The higher sen-
sory fatness score achieved by older pigs (Table 6) is
supported the changes found in fatty acid composition.
Zappa and Pugliese (1991) reported a positive correla-
tion between monounsaturated fatty acid and backfat
thickness, and a negative correlation between backfat
thickness and both backfat moisture and PUFA.
No differences (P > 0.05) were detected for concentra-
tions of stearic acid in ham subcutaneous fat between
younger and older pigs. Cameron et al. (1990) and Pie-
drafita et al. (2001) reported positive correlations be-
tween saturated fatty acids and backfat thickness in
the case of pigs fed an ad libitum dietary regimen,
whereas pigs in the present study were limit-fed. Cam-
eron et al. (1990) reported that the changes in fatty
acid composition of the subcutaneous fat of heavier pigs
were greater for ad libitum-fed pigs than for those with
restricted access to feed. Nevertheless, ham subcutane-
ous fat from pigs slaughtered at 10 mo, characterized
by lower percentages of PUFA, appears more suitable
for dry-cured ham production, meeting the require-
ments of the tutelary consortia (Consortium for Parma
Ham, 1992).
Implications
A delay of 2 mo in the age at slaughter of pigs effec-
tively improves muscle and fat quality of fresh hams
to be manufactured into dry-cured, typical Italian
hams. The lower cathepsin activities and polyunsatu-
rated fatty acid concentrations, the higher aminopepti-
dase activities, oleic acid concentrations, and a*:b* ratio
detected in hams of the older pigs (10 vs. 8 mo old)
indicate that they are more suitable for processing into
products aged for up to 18 mo, or longer, with low salt
adjuncts and without nitrate and nitrite for color devel-
opment. Dry-cured ham producers may use the infor-
mation from the present data in raw material selection
strategies for improving quality of final outcome. Fur-
ther research is needed to investigate whether breeding
or rearing practices can speed up the maturation of
meat so that high pork quality can be achieved at a
younger slaughtering age.

Table 8. Effect of age at slaughter on moisture content

and fatty acid composition of ham subcutaneos fat
Age

Item 8 mo 10 mo SEMa P-value

Number of observations 62 61
Moisture, % 7.67 5.63 0.109 <0.001
Myristic (C14:0), % 1.490 1.588 0.0191 0.009
Palmitic (C16:0), % 22.83 23.29 0.114 0.042
Palmitoleic (C16:1), % 1.946 2.057 0.0254 0.025
Stearic (C18:0), % 11.65 11.37 0.090 0.120
Oleic (C18:19), % 41.55 42.32 0.137 0.005
cis-Vaccenic (C18:111), % 2.857 3.082 0.0243 <0.001
Linoleic (C18:2), % 14.60 13.66 0.126 <0.001
Linolenic (C18:3), % 1.620 1.540 0.0125 0.002
a
Values for SEM represent the pooled standard error of the mean.
 Effect of slaughter age on pork quality
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