MoralDevelopmentSTAGESOFMORALDEVELOPMENT

lawrencekohlberg meanexample morality social kohlberg child

Theformationofasystemofunderlyingassumptionsaboutstandardsandprinciplesthatgovernmoraldecisions.

Moraldevelopmentinvolvestheformationofasystemofvaluesonwhichtobasedecisionsconcerning"right"and"wrong,"
or"good"and"bad."fiValuesareunderlyingassumptionsaboutstandardsthatgovernmoraldecisions.

Althoughmoralityhasbeenatopicofdiscussionsincethebeginningofhumancivilization,thescientificstudyofmoral
developmentdidnotbegininearnestuntilthelate1950s.LawrenceKohlberg(19271987),anAmericanpsychologist
buildinguponJeanPiaget'sworkincognitivereasoning,positedsixstagesofmoraldevelopmentinhis1958doctoralthesis.
Sincethattime,moralityandmoraldevelopmenthavebecomeacceptablesubjectsofscientificresearch.PriortoKohlberg's
work,theprevailingpositivistviewclaimedthatscienceshouldbe"valuefree"thatmoralityhadnoplaceinscientific
studies.Bychoosingtostudymoraldevelopmentscientifically,Kohlbergbrokethroughthepositivistboundaryand
establishedmoralityasalegitimatesubjectofscientificresearch.

Thereareseveralapproachestothestudyofmoraldevelopment,whicharecategorizedinavarietyofways.Briefly,thesocial
learningtheoryapproachclaimsthathumansdevelopmoralitybylearningtherulesofacceptablebehaviorfromtheir
externalenvironment(anessentiallybehavioristapproach).Psychoanalytictheoryproposesinsteadthatmoralitydevelops
throughhumans'conflictbetweentheirinstinctualdrivesandthedemandsofsociety.Cognitivedevelopmenttheories
viewmoralityasanoutgrowthofcognition,orreasoning,whereaspersonalitytheoriesareholisticintheirapproach,
takingintoaccountallthefactorsthatcontributetohumandevelopment.

Thedifferencesbetweentheseapproachesrestontwoquestions:1)wheredohumansbeginontheirmoraljourneyand2)
wheredoweendup?Inotherwords,howmoralareinfantsatbirth?Andhowis"moralmaturity"defined?Whatistheideal
moralitytowhichweaspire?Thecontrastingphilosophiesattheheartoftheanswerstothesequestionsdeterminethe
essentialperspectiveofeachmoraldevelopmenttheory.Thosewhobelieveinfantsarebornwithnomoralsensetendtowards
sociallearningorbehavioristtheories(asallmoralitymustthereforebelearnedfromtheexternalenvironment).Otherswho
believehumansareinnatelyaggressiveandcompletelyselforientedaremorelikelytoacceptpsychoanalytictheories(where
moralityisthelearnedmanagementofsociallydestructiveinternaldrives).Thosewhobelieveitisourreasoningabilitiesthat
separateusfromtherestofcreationwillfindcognitivedevelopmenttheoriesthemostattractive,whilethosewhoview
humansasholisticbeingswhoarebornwithafullrangeofpotentialitieswillmostlikelybedrawntopersonalitytheories.

Whatconstitutes"maturemorality"isasubjectofgreatcontroversy.Eachsocietydevelopsitsownsetofnormsand
standardsforacceptablebehavior,leadingmanytosaythatmoralityisentirelyculturallyconditioned.Doesthismeanthere
arenouniversaltruths,nocrossculturalstandardsforhumanbehavior?Thedebateoverthisquestionfuelsthecritiquesof
manymoraldevelopmenttheories.Kohlberg'ssixstagesofmoraldevelopment,forexample,havebeencriticizedforelevating
Western,urban,intellectual(upperclass)understandingsofmorality,whilediscreditingrural,tribal,workingclass,or
Easternmoralunderstandings.(SeeKohlberg'stheoryofmoralreasoning.)Feministshavepointedoutpotentialsexist
elementsinmoraldevelopmenttheoriesdevisedbymaleresearchersusingmalesubjectsonly(suchasKohlberg'searly
work).Becausewomen'sexperienceintheworldisdifferentfrommen's(ineveryculture),itwouldstandtoreasonthat
women'smoraldevelopmentmightdifferfrommen's,perhapsinsignificantways.

Definitionsofwhatisorisnotmoralarecurrentlyinastateofupheavalwithinindividualsocietiesaswellas,atleast,inthe
Westernworld.Controversiesrageoverthemoralityofwarfare(especiallynuclear),ecologicalconservation,geneticresearch
andmanipulation,alternativefertilityandchildbearingmethods,abortion,sexuality,pornography,druguse,
euthanasia,racism,sexism,andhumanrightsissues,amongothers.Determiningthelimitsofmoralbehaviorbecomes
increasinglydifficultashumancapabilities,choices,andresponsibilitiesproliferatewithadvancesintechnologyandscientific
knowledge.Forexample,prenataltestingtechniquesthatdeterminebirthdefectsinuteroforceparentstomakenewmoral
choicesaboutwhethertobirthachild.Otherexamplesofrecentlycreatedmoralquestionsaboundinmoderndaysociety.

Therefore,thestudyofmoraldevelopmentislivelytoday.Theriseincrime,drugandalcoholabuse,gangviolence,teen
parenthood,andsuicideinrecentyearsinWesternsocietyhasalsocausedariseinconcernovermoralityandmoral
development.Parentsandteacherswanttoknowhowtoraisemoralchildren,andtheyturntomoraldevelopmenttheorists
tofindtheanswers.FreudianpersonalitytheoriesbecamemorewidelyknowntotheWesternpublicinthe1960sandwere
understoodtoimplythatrepressionofachild'snaturaldriveswouldleadtoneuroses.Manyparentsandteacherswere
thereforeafraidtodisciplinetheirchildren,andpermissivenessbecametherule.Cognitivedevelopmenttheoriesdidlittleto
changethings,astheyfocusonreasoninganddisregardbehavior.(Afteragreatdealofcriticisminthisregard,Kohlbergand
othercognitivedevelopmenttheoristsdidbegintoincludemoralactionsintheirdiscussionsandeducationprograms,but
theiremphasisisstillonreasoningalone.)Behavioristtheories,withtheircompletedenialoffreewillinmoraldecision
making,areunattractivetomanyandrequiresuchprecise,dedicated,behaviormodificationtechniquestosucceedthat
fewpeopleareabletoapplytheminreallifesituations.

Thecontinuingbreakdownofsociety,however,isbeginningtopersuadepeoplethatpermissivenessisnottheanswerand
anotherapproachmustbefound.Schoolsarereturningto"charactereducation"programs,popularinthe1920sand1930s,
wherecertain"virtues"suchashonesty,fairness,andloyalty,aretaughttostudentsalongwiththeregularacademicsubjects.
Unfortunately,thereislittleornoagreementastowhich"virtues"areimportantandwhatexactlyeach"virtue"means.For
example,whenastudentexpressesdislikeofanotherstudent,issheorhepracticingthevirtueof"fairness"or,rather,being
insensitivetoanother'sfeelings?Ifastudentrefusestosalutetheflag,isheorshebetrayingthevirtueof"loyalty"or,rather,
beingloyaltosomehighermoralprecept?Thesecomplexquestionsplague"charactereducation"programstoday,andtheir
effectivenessremainsindispute.

Anotherapproachtomoraleducationthatbecamepopularinthe1960sand1970sisknownas"valuesclarification"

STAGESOFMORALDEVELOPMENT

Childhoodisoftendividedintofiveapproximatestagesofmoraldevelopment:

Stage1=infancythechild'sonlysenseofrightandwrongiswhatfeelsgoodorbad

Stage2=toddleryearsthechildlearns"right"and"wrong"fromwhatsheorheistoldbyothers

Stage3=preschoolyearsthechildbeginstointernalizefamilyvaluesashisorherown,andbeginstoperceivethe
consequencesofhisorherbehavior

Stage4=ages710yearsthechildbeginstoquestiontheinfallibilityofparents,teachers,andotheradults,and
developsastrongsenseof"should"and"shouldnot"

Stage5=preteenandteenageyearspeers,ratherthanadults,becomeofultimateimportancetothechild,who
beginstotryondifferentvaluessystemstoseewhichfitsbestteensalsobecomemoreawareofandconcernedwith
thelargersociety,andbegintoreasonmoreabstractlyabout"right"and"wrong."

or"valuesmodification."Thepurposeoftheseprogramsistoguidestudentstoestablish(ordiscern)theirownsystemof
valuesonwhichtobasetheirmoraldecisions.Studentsarealsotaughtthatothersmayhavedifferentvaluessystems,and
thattheymustbetolerantofthosedifferences.Theadvantagesofthisapproacharethatitpromotesselfinvestigationand
awarenessandthedevelopmentofinternalmoralmotivations(whicharemorereliablethanexternalmotivations),and
preventsfanaticism,authoritarianism,andmoralcoercion.Thedisadvantageisthatitencouragesmoralrelativism,thebelief
that"anythinggoes."Pushedtoitsextreme,itcreatessocialchaosbecausenoonecanbeheldtoanyuniversal(orsocietal)
moralstandard."Valuesclarification"isgenerallyseentodaytobeavaluablecomponentofmoraleducation,butincomplete
onitsown.

LawrenceKohlbergdevisedamoraleducationprograminthe1960sbasedonhiscognitivedevelopmenttheory.Calledthe
JustCommunityprogram,itutilizesageappropriate(orstageappropriate)discussionsofmoraldilemmas,democraticrule
making,andthecreationofacommunitycontextwherestudentsandteacherscanactontheirmoraldecisions.Just
Communityprogramshavebeenestablishedinschools,prisons,andotherinstitutionswithafairamountofsuccess.
Exposuretomoralquestionsandtheopportunitytopracticemoralbehaviorinasupportivecommunityappeartofoster
deepermoralreasoningandmoreconstructivebehavior.

Overall,democraticfamilyandschoolsystemsaremuchmorelikelytopromotethedevelopmentofinternalselfcontrols
andmoralgrowththanareauthoritarianorpermissivesystems.Permissivesystemsfailtoinstillanycontrols,while
authoritariansystemsinstillonlyfearofpunishment,whichisnotaneffectivedeterrentunlessthereisarealchanceof
beingcaught(punishmentcanevenbecomearewardforimmoralbehaviorwhenitistheonlyattentionapersonevergets).
Truemoralbehaviorinvolvesanumberofinternalprocessesthatarebestdevelopedthroughwarm,caringparentingwith
clearandconsistentexpectations,emphasisonthereinforcementofpositivebehaviors(ratherthanthepunishmentof
negativeones),modelingofmoralbehaviorbyadults,andcreationofopportunitiesforthechildtopracticemoralreasoning
andactions.

Aspreviouslystated,thereisdisagreementastotheexactmotivationsinvolvedinmoralbehavior.Whateverthemotivations,
however,theinternalprocessesremainthesame.

TheFourComponentmodeldescribesthemasfollows:

1.moralsensitivity=empathy(identifyingwithanother'sexperience)andcognitionoftheeffectofvariouspossible
actionsonothers

2.moraljudgment=choosingwhichactionisthemostmoral

3.moralmotivation=decidingtobehaveinthemoralway,asopposedtootheroptionsand

4.implementation=carryingoutthechosenmoralaction.

Accordingtopersonal(social)goaltheory,moral(orprosocial)behaviorismotivatedbythedesiretosatisfyavarietyof
personalandsocialgoals,someofwhichareselforiented(selfish),andsomeofwhichareotheroriented(altruistic).Thefour
majorinternalmotivationsformoralbehavioraspresentedbypersonal(social)goaltheoristsare:1)empathy2)thebelief
thatpeoplearevaluableinandofthemselvesandthereforeshouldbehelped3)thedesiretofulfillmoralrulesand4)self
interest.Insocialdomaintheory,moralreasoningissaidtodevelopwithinparticularsocial"domains":1)moral(e.g.,
welfare,justice,rights)2)socialconventional(socialrulesfortheorderlyfunctionofsociety)and3)personal(pureself
interest,exemptfromsocialormoralrules).

Mostpeopleinfacthavemorethanonemoral"voice"andshiftamongthemdependingonthesituation.Inonecontext,a
personmayrespondoutofempathyandplacecareforonepersonoverconcernforsocialrules.Inadifferentcontext,that
samepersonmightinsteadinsistonfollowingsocialrulesforthegoodofsociety,eventhoughsomeonemaysufferbecauseof
it.Peoplealsoshowalackofconsistentmoralitybysometimeschoosingtoactinawaythattheyknowisnotmoral,while
continuingtoconsiderthemselves"moral"people.Thisdiscrepancybetweenmoraljudgment(perceivinganactasmorally
rightorwrong)andmoralchoice(decidingwhethertoactinthemorally"right"way)canbeexplainedinanumberofways,
anyoneofwhichmaybetrueinagivensituation:

weaknessofwill(thepersonisoverwhelmedbydesire)
 weaknessofconscience(guiltfeelingsarenotstrongenoughtoovercometempation)or

limited/flexiblemorality(somelatitudeallowedinmoralbehaviorwhilestillmaintaininga"moral"identity).

TheMoralBalancemodelproposesthatmosthumansoperateoutofalimitedorflexiblemorality.Ratherthanexpecting
moralperfectionfromourselvesorothers,wesetcertainlimitsbeyondwhichwecannotgo.Withinthoselimits,however,
thereissomeflexibilityinmoraldecisionmaking.Actionssuchastakingcoinsleftinthechangeboxofapublictelephone
maybedeemedacceptable(thoughnotperfectlymoral),whilestealingmoneyfromanopen,unattendedcashregisterisnot.
Manyfactorsareinvolvedinthedeterminationofmoralacceptabilityfromsituationtosituation,andthelimitsonmoral
behaviorareoftenslippery.Ifgivenproperencouragementandtheopportunitytopracticeacoherentinnersenseofmorality,
however,mostpeoplewilldevelopabalancedmoralitytoguidetheirdaytodayinteractionswiththeirworld.

DianneK.DaegdeMott

FurtherReading
Crittenden,Paul.LearningtobeMoral:PhilosophicalThoughtsAboutMoralDevelopment.AtlanticHighlands,NJ:
HumanitiesPressInternational,1990.

Gilligan,Carol.InaDifferentVoice:PsychologicalTheoryandWomen'sDevelopment.Cambridge:HarvardUniversity
Press,1982.

Kohlberg,Lawrence.EssaysonMoralDevelopment,I:ThePhilosophyofMoralDevelopment:MoralStagesandtheIdeaof
Justice.SanFrancisco:Harper&Row,1981.

.EssaysonMoralDevelopment,II:ThePsychologyofMoralDevelopment.SanFrancisco:Harper&Row,1984.

.ChildPsychologyandChildhoodEducation:ACognitiveDevelopmentalView.NewYork:Longman,1987.

Kurtines,WilliamM.,andJacobL.Gewirtz,eds.MoralDevelopment:AnIntroduction.Boston:AllynandBacon,1995.

Power,F.C.,AnnHiggins,andLawrenceKohlberg.LawrenceKohlberg'sApproachtoMoralEducation:AStudyofThree
DemocraticHighSchools.NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1989.

Schulman,Michael,andEvaMekler.BringingUpaMoralChild:ANewApproachforTeachingYourChildtoBeKind,Just,
andResponsible,rev.ed.NewYork:MainStreetBooks/Doubleday,1994.

FurtherInformation
DevelopmentalStudiesCenter.2000Embarcadero,Suite305,Oakland,CA946065300,(510)5330213,(800)6667270.

CenterfortheAdvancementofEthicsandCharacter.BostonUniversitySchoolofEducation,605CommonwealthAve.,Room
356,Boston,MA02215,(617)3533262,fax:(617)3533924.

EducatorsforSocialResponsibility(ESR).23GardenSt.,Cambridge,MA02138,(800)3702515.

TheHeartwoodInstitute.425N.CraigSt.,Suite302,Pittsburgh,PA15213,(800)4327810.

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