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The breathing of four stroke

internal combustion engines
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 , LOUGHBOROUGH
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 BREATHING OF FOUR-STROKE

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

by

F.H. I<HASSAF

THESIS Submitted in f'ulf'ilment of' roquirements

of' tho award of' r-Iaster of' Scionce of'

Loughborough Universi ty of' Technology.

SUPERVISOR P<lr. G.G. Lucas

SEPTEHBER 1969
 loughborr.c "
Of "\, ~ l. -,
.. . 'I.
.'
, b"

_~ .. ' .~~1~ ..
c .
. .: . ~Ol.i ~".? /D2. \
 ACKNOWLEDGE~tENTS

The author wishes to thank Mr. G.G. Lucas f'or

his supervision of' the work.

Thanks are also due to the technicians of' the

Department of' Transport Technology, especially

Mr. K. Pawley, f'or their helpf'ul assistance with the

practical work and to the Department f'or providing

the f'acilities to carry out this work.

Notations

A Area, f't2.

D Bore, f't.

c Velocity of' sound, f't./sec.

Cd Discharge coef'f'icient

Cp Specif'ic heat at constant pressure,

chu/lb~deg. C.

Cv Specif'ic heat at constant volume,

chu/lb~deg. C.

D Inlet valve head diameter, in.

d Inlet port diameter, in.

E Internal energy, chu.

F Fuel/air ratio

g Gravity constant, f't. lb~lbf" sec.

H Enthalpy, chu.

h Heat transf'er coef'f'icient,

2
chu/f't /sec./deg. C.

J Mechanical equivalent

K Thermal conductivity,
2 2
chu/f't /sec. /deg. C.

L Valve lif't, in.

M Mass, lb
m
m Uolocular weight

N Engine speed, rev/min.

Nu NU55elt number

P Pressure, cylinder gas pressure,

lb~f't.2
Pr Prandtl number

Q Heat, chu.

R
S illfl>1ARY I

A study or the breathing perrormance of rour-stroke

internal combustion engines with particular emphasis on

heat transfer during induction is presented. An experimental

study into inlet port heat tranefer has been conducted, and

the follol>'ing lal~ has been established for a compression

ignition engine assuming a quasi-steady heat transrer

process I

Nu =

A similar study or the heat pick-up o~a spark-

ignition engine inlet port has railed to produce such a

relation. The Nusselt number has been found to increase

with Reynolds number initially and then decrease,

Figs. (47, 48, 49). This was the .case eVen when this

engine was operated with gaseous ruel suggesting that

fuel evaporation was not the cause.

Theoretical calculations indicats the inlet port

heat transrer is very important and reduces the volumetric

effiCiency by about 5.5% on average. The combined reduction

in volumetric orriciency due to inlet port and cylinder

heat transrer amounts to l4~ on average, depending on the

engine speed. An extensive literature survey of the various

aspects of i'nductien is also presented.

The differential equations involved lfere solved

numerically using an electronic digital computer.

 Re Reynolds number

r Compression ratio

S Stroke, f"t.

s Entropy, chu.
o
T Temperature, cylinder gas temperature, K

t Time, sec.

u Velocity, f"t./sec.

Mean piston speed = 2SN. f"t ./mino

Volume, f"t. :3

Ve Volumetric ef"f"iciency

x Conrold/crank radius ratio

z Inlet Mach index

Subscripts

o Stagnation conditions

a Air

av Average

e Ef"f"ective, exhaust.

ev Evaporation

Fuel, f"ilm

g Gas

i Inlet

j Jacket

m Manif"old

p Piston

r Reduced

s Swept

t Trapped

v Valve
 w Wall

1, 2, J, 4 Stations or thermocouples along

a duct ora pipe

Greek notations

Viscosity, lbm/t./sec.

Deg. Crankangle

Efficiency

Specific heats ratio

Density, lbm/ft. J

Fel~ specialized symbols are defined in the text.

Test Engines Details

1. Compression igni tion erlftine

This was a Ford 4-D ~our cylinder diesel ~itted with

a mechanical governor.

Type - 4-cylinder, in line, overhead valve.

Bore 3.937" (100 mm)

Stroke 4.520" (115 mm)

Cubic capacity 220.35" 3 (3611 cc',

Conrod/crank radius
Compression ratio . 16 I 1

Firing order 1 - 2 - 4 - 3
Rated power output .. 60 b.h.p. at
2400 rev/min.

Valve and port data

Valve head diwater (inlet) 1.720 - 1.730"

(exhaust) 1.533 1.543"

Port diameter ( inlet) 1. 560 - 1. 565"

(exhaust) 1.372 1.377"

Minimum inlet mani~old diameter 1.200"

Val ve Timing

i. v. o.
i. v. c.
0
e. v. o. 50 b . b d c
0
e. v. c. 12 a. t . d . c.
2. Spark ~gn~tion engine

Th~s was a Ford 120E, 4-cyl~nder e~na. The ~nlet

manifold was the standard one fitted normally to these

engines, but the exhaust man~fold was of the Aquaplane super

sports ~Iarine type.

Type 4 cylinder, ~n line, overhead valve.

Bore ',' ).19" (80.97 mm)

Stroke :- . . 2.86" (72.75 mm)
Cub~c capac~,ty , .. 91.42,,3 (1500 cc)

Conrod/crank rad~us . ).36

CompresB~on ratio, ',' . ,. _e 9.0 I 1
Firing order . ' .. 1 -3 -4 -2
Rated power output' ., 78 b.h.p. at
5000 rev/m~n.

Valve data

Valve head d~ameter (inlet) 1.410"

(exhaust) 1.240"
Valve Tim~ng

i. v. o. , .. 27
0
b.t.d.c.

i. v. c. . .' . 65
0

0
a.b.d.c.

e. v. o. 65 b.b.d.c.
0
e. v. c. 0
o o 0
0,
27 a.t.d.c.
 INDEX o F CON TEN T S

Page No.

Summary
Notations
Test engines details
Introduction

CHAPTER ONE

Literature survey
1.1 The induction process 1
1.1.1 Air ~low through intake poppet valves 1
1.1.2 The induction process 4
1.1.3 Comparison between spark-ignition and
compression-ignition engines induction 9
1.1.4 Factors which in~luence engine breathing 11
A Design parameters 11
B Operating parametere 20
1.2 Valve overlap 26
1.2.1 E~~ect o~ valve overlap on engine
breathing 27
1.2.2 Trapping e~~iciency 28
1.2.3 Valve overlap and engine per~ormance 29
1.2.4 Desirability o~ valve overlap 30
Exhaust residual gas and volumetric
e~~iciency 31
1.3.1 Estimation o~ volumetric e~~iciency loss 32

CHAPTER TWO

Analysis o~ ~our-stroke engine breathing

General 35
2.1 Static ~low tests 35
2.1.1 Apparatus
2.1.2 The re~erence area 36
2.1.3 Test procedure and results 37
2.2 The energy balance method 39
2.2.1 Description o~ the mathematical
model 41
 '.

CHAPTER TWO (Continued)

Page No.

Heat transfer 46
2 . 2.3 Air mass flow rate 48
2.3 The reduced area method 50
2.4 The inlet Mach inde\l "Gulp Factor"
method 54
2.5 Experimental pressures and engine
performance characteristics 6Q
2.5.1 Cylinder induction pressure records 60
2.5.2 Volumetric efficiency 62 \'
2.5.3 Air consumption calculations 63\ \
2.6 Discussion 65 ,\,. '\
82 , ,'--.'
2.7 Conclusions
:~
., '"'.\,
\ ,

CHAPTER THREE '" \~

\
Beat transfer in engines
\
3.1 Literature Survoy 83
3.1.1 Modes of heat transfer 83
3.1.2 Radiation 83
3.1.3 Forced convection 85
3.1.4 Cylinder heat transfer 88
3.1.5 Eichelberg's formula 88
3.1.6 Annand' s formula 89
3.1.7 Nusselt's formula 91
3.1.8 Overby's formula 91
3.1.9 Woschinis formula 91
3.1.10 Other formulae 93
3.1.11 Inlet valve heat transfer 94
3.1.12 Inlet port heat transfer 95
3.1.13 Exhaust valve and port heat transfer 95
3.1.14 Factors affecting heat transfer in
engines 95
3.2 Experimental investigation of inlet
port heat pick-up 99
3.2.1 Intake manifolds 99
3.2.2 Heat transfer in tubular passages 100
3.2.3 Experimental equipment 102
 Page No.
CHAPTER THREE (Continued)

3.2.4 Test procedure and development 104

3.2.5 Calculations and results 104
3.2.6 Inlet density and mass flow rate 106
3.2.7 Viscosity and thermal conductivity 107
3.2.8 Heat transfer coefficient 108
3.2.9 Compression-ignition engine 108
3.2.10 Spark-ignition engine - gaseous fuel 109
3.2.11 Spark-ignition engine - liquid fuel 109
3.2.12 Discussion 112
3.2.13 Further Discussion 117
3.2.14 Alternative definition of "Re" no. 118
3.2.15 Comparison with published results 119
3.2.16 Liquified petroleum gases 121
3.2.17 Conclusion
Appendix
References
Computer programme
Graphs
INTRODUCTION

The induction process of internal combustion

engines may be defined as "the events which take place

in the induction system, cylinder and the exhaust

system while the inlet valve is open".

To investigate the induction process as defined

above is a problem of' immense dimensions and requires

the linking of the flow processes ,<1 th the events taking

place in the cylinder in suffiCient detail. This becomes

more complicated if unsteady flow processes are considered.

To date, investigators have tended to concentrate on a

specific point such as valve design and timing, induction

pipe geometry or valve overlap.

Lately, efforts have been made to investigate the

induction process as a whole, or as a part of a more

general investigation of engine perfonnance as \~ill become

clear from the literature survey.

Despite the previously mentioned efforts, many

questions .related to engine broathing remain unanswered.

Amongst these are the problems of charge heating and the

effect of f'uel evaporation, in carburetted engines, on

the heat transfer process in the inlet port. The adverse

effect of heat transfer on engine breathing is readily

realized. It results in the expansion of the incoming

gases and hence in a reduction in volumetric efficiency

and engine power. Uany formulae have been established

~or the instantaneous heat trans~er coe~~icient ~or the

engine cylinder (see Chapter 3). Invostigations on

simulation rigs have indicated that heat transfor ~rom

the inlet valve sur~aces has little e~~ect on volumetric

e~~iciency, but that in1et port sur~aces may have a

substantial e~~ect on the chargo heating 48 To evaluate

inlet port heat transEcr, ~ormulae relating to cylinder

heat transfor or pipe flow are usually used. To the

author's knowledge there is no ~ormula dot ermined

exporimentally on an actual engine inlet port as has been

done ~or the cylinder. The procedure used hore is basically

48
the same as that used by Annand and by Kapadia 38 although

these investigators carried out their work on a simulation

rig and dealt with inlet valve heat transfer.

To estimate the losses in volumetric e~~iciency due

to heat trans~er from the engino port using the experimental

formula, a theoretical model of the gas flow process has

beon developed. The theory on \~hich this modol is based

makes uso o~ the energy equation and the perfoct aas

law. The induction process is divided into small steps

o~ one degree crankangle and tho ~low is assumed to be

quasi-steady. This model has its limitations in the sense

that it does not take into account the ovents ,;,hich take

place in tho oxhaust system which are, obviously, an

integral part of the induction process. In any case, the

computer progrrumno, developed for the induction system,

can be easily extended to include the flow processes in

the exhaust pipe.

 Various flow theories are in existence for engine

breathing calculations. These have been investigated

and compared using the volumetric efficiency as predicted

'by theee theories, compared to the measured value, as a

measure of merit.

As a part of a wide research programme being

carried out at this Department, an extensive literature

survey into the various aspects of induction is also

presonted. The effect of the rosidual eases on the

volumetric efficiency could be investigated, for example,

on similar linos to those 6ug~e6ted in Chapter 1,

Section 1.3.
CHAPTER ONE

Literature Survey

1.1 The induction process

1.2 Valve Overlap

1.3 Exhaust residuals

 1.

1.1 THE INDUCTION PROCESS

1.1.1 AIR FLOW TlllWlJGH INTAKE POPPET VALVES

The resistance to air flow into the engine by the

inlet manifold, port and valve was recognised very early

in the development of internal combustion engines as one

of the main factors limiting its breathing capacity,

particularly at high speeds 12 This problem has received

great deal of attention OVer the years (see list of

references).

To calculate the resistance of the induction system

or part of it, such as the inlet valve, an analogy is

drawn with the flow of fluids through venturis and

orifices under steady or intermittent conditions, the

restricting effect of the various orifices is allowed

for, similarly, by a discharge coefficient. The procedure

of static testing is well illustrated in many of the

references quoted here and also in this report (See Chapter 2).

The poppet type inlet valve, in general use in

four-stroko piston engines today, offers the greatest

resistance to air flow in the induction system. The flow

through these valves is not steady but intermittent due

to the nature of the engine breathing which is governed

by the piston motion. Experiments have shewn 5 7 that

this is not such a critical matter and that coefficients

determined under steady flow conditions are very nearly

equal to intermi ttent flow coefficients. Thi", ie nOl~

very well established and steady flow coeficients are

universally used in evaluating engine breathing performance.

 2.

Great deal of work has been done on the flow

charactoristics of poppet intake valves. Studies of

different valve and port combinations are usually made

to improve the performance of a specific engine by the

method of cut and tryll Few investigations 1tere also

made with the intent of improving the system design

generallyl,2,7. Most of the work in the literature

deals with the steady flow resistance while recognising

that the charging process of the four-stroke engine is

complicated by other factors such as heat transfer and

the pulsations of the intake gases.

From all points of viel1, therefore, the steady flow

characteristics of the inlet poppet valve are important.

Improving these characteristics amounts to increasing the

effective area of cross-section of the inlet passage.

Such an improvement roduces the heating of the charge,and

2
decreases the flow resistance

1 24711
Tanaka , and subsequently many others ' " ,

conducted some pioneer investigations on the performance

and design of poppet valves. He recognised that there

are, generally, five factors which may have an influence

on the air flow through the valvos.

These are :-

1. The fillet radius of the valve stem.

2. The angle of the valve head.

J. Overlap width between the faces of the

valve and soat.

4. The angle of the valve seat.

5. Sharp corners upon the valve and seat.

 3.

Tanaka dotormined the discharge coofficiont over

the fUll lift range and at various pressure ratios across

the valve, varying the above parametors one at a timo.

He discovered that four flow roeimes exist as the valvo

lift is increased to its maximum value. The change over

points were called singular points and i t ,~as concluded

that the various regimes exist duo to changes in the flow

patterns around the valve. The other important point which

2
was mado, and also emphasised by Woods and others, was

to round off all edges and corners and that the loss

coefficiont should be determined using a small pressure

drop acros s tho val vo. La tor i t '~as found 7 , and the

author's exporience confirms, Fig. (8), that the discharge

coofficient at 10,~ lifts is practically indopendent of the

pressure drop.

In ordor to detormine tho dischargo coefficient a

charaotoristic area I~st be solectod upon which a

coefficiont Llay be based. The discharge coefficient may

bo thoueht of as the ratio of the effoctive flow area to

the characteristic area cbosen as a baso. Thore is a

considorable conflict of opinion about the choice of

the characterist~c flow area and there are many different

approaches. It is \1ell known that when a fluid flows

,
past an orifice or a venturi a vena, contracta is formed
10
dO\1nstroam of tho minimum geomotrical area. Woods

analysed tho situation theoretically and sot up tho

relevant equations (energy and continuity equations) and

 4.

derived an expression for the effective flow area as a

function of the pressure ratio across, say, a poppet

valve by assuming an isentropic flow process. An equally

efficient approach involves the choice of a characteristic

area which is usually based on some geometrical area in

the flow system such as the valve head, or port area.

The flow through the characteristic area is a measure of

the discharge coefficient. The effective area is then

given by the characteristic area multiplied by the

discharge coefficient. Some authors 7 derive expressions

to allow for the valve seat angle and stem diameter.

Several attempts have been made to allow for the various

restrictions present in the induction system such as the

induction manifold, carburettor, port and valve aperture

in order to obtain a more realistic representation for

the flow resistance 11, 25. In the present case a

variable area has been chosen for the inlet valve instead

of a fixed area, such as the valve head or port area,

for reasons to be advanced later (see discussion in

Chapter 2).

The point to be made here is that once an area is

chosen for a mathematical mo~el of the flow system, it

must be adhered to.

1.1.2 THE INDUCTION PROCESS

The induetion process of an internal combustion

engine is defined as the events which take place in the

induction system, cylinder and exhaust system while the

 5.

in1et valve is open. A quantity which is used almost

exclusively as a measure of engine breathing is the

volumetric efficiency. This is defined as the actual

air capacity of the engine to the ideal air capacity at

given entry conditions. These may be atmospheric, or

inlet port conditions. When based on atmospheric conditions,

the volumetric efficiency is a measure of the breathing

performance of the whole engine including the induction

pipe. A considerable amount of work has been done to

analyse the induction process of four-stroke engines.

Paramount in this field is the work of the M.I.T.

(Massachusetts Institute of Technology) (See list of

references for NACA TN).

12 14-16 "
Taylor and his co-workers' 18 a
19 t the

M.I.T. llIodifi.ed the classical definition of air velocity

through the inlet valve. According to the latter theory,

often called the Ricardo theory, the velocity of the air

through the valves is given bYI

Ap
u =--- up . (1.1)
Av
Where I

Ap piston area

Av - valve geometrical area

Up = 2SN mean piston speed

In the M.I.T. definition, the valve area is taken

to be the effective area Ae = Av x edav., and not just

 6.

simply the geometrical area. Thds concept was included

in an "Inlet Mach Index" or "Gulp Factor" given by.

Ap u
x __
p _
B2 x U
p
z = =-=---- (1.2)
Ae c D2 x Cdav x c

As can be seen from equation (1.2), thds factor is

very powerful in the sense that it comprises several

quantities which influence engine breathdng such as the

cylinder and valve sizes, mean piston speed and inlet

conditions. Thds theory is expounded in detail in

Chapter (2). It has been found 15 , 18 that the volumetric

efficiency of the four-stroke engine, for various design

and operating conditions is a unique function of the gulp

factor as defined by equation (1.2). It is claimod that

this is so because this factor describes the gas velocity

through the valve correctly12, see Fig. (30).

In general, studies dealing with the induction

process fall into two categories. One in which a specific

parameter is investigated, and the other is one in ,,,hich

induction is studied as a part of a wider programme

comprising the whole engine cycle. The latter approach

has raised considerable interest due to the availability

of digital computors. The use of computer as a design

aid has become a part of the engineer's everyday life.

The advantages are very great and have been reiterated

else,~here
28 Previous to the introduction of computers,

the analysis of engine cycles was based on the air-standard

cycle assumptions. Air-standard cycle analysis can be

improved by the introduction of more realistic expressions

for thermodynamic properties of combustion gases, and by

the introduction of prescribed amount of heat transfer

during the various processes. More recently, the analysis

of adiabatic constant-volume fuel-air cycloe has been

programmed for the digital computer36. This type of

analysis gives useful relationships between the performance

parameters, compression ratio, fuel air ratio, and type of

fuel used. In these early computer simulations, induction

was not considered. Patterson35 and strange 34 both

considered heat transfer and finite combustion rates but

did not include an analysis of induction. Tho model of

Uhitehouse 33 was one of the first computor simulations of

engine cycles to include induction in the analysis without

taking into account heat transfer in both induction and

exhaust processes. The flow through the valves was computed

at each crankangle from the valve lift and the instantaneous

pressure difference assuming quasi-stoady adiabatic flow.

Huber and Brow.n25 presented a model for a spark-ignition

engine which is valuable in that it deals, in detail, with

the flow processes during induction and exhaust and volumetric

efficiency computations. The resistance to air flow of the

inlet valve was combined with that of the induction manifold,

carburettor, and port, in a way much the same as that of the

8
reduced area method (See Chapter 2). WOlgemuth constructed

an interesting model for the four-stroke spark ignition.

engine in ~mich unsteady flow procoss were considered.

The programme deals with dimensionless quantities so that

 8.

~t can be appl~ed to any model once the boundary cond~t~ons

are de~ned. Breath~ng numbers or ~nlet and exhaust valves

were ~ntroduced or orward and reverse low. So, or the

~nlet valve, the breath~ng d~monsionless number B~ ~s g~ven

by I

Cd.Av.c
B~ = (1.2a)
N.Vs

It can be saen that the breath~ng number as deined

by equat~on (1.2a) ~s the ~nverse o the gulp actor,

equat~on (1.2); and represent a measure o the breathing

character~stics o the valve. Annand J7 has written a

computer programme or a compress~on ~gn~t~on eng~ne in

which the discharge coeicient o~ the inlet valve was

asswned to be polynom~al Unction o the valve l~t.

However the exhsut valve was assumed to have a constant

d~scharge coeic~ent throughout the process. In th~s

programme heat transer rom the ~nlet valve was cons~dered.

One o the most comprehensive computer simulations

o the compression - ignit~on eng~ne ~s that of McAulayJl.

Unsteady low processes and the pulsat~on of the gas

column in the induct~on p~pe were included in comput~ng

the n~r mass low into the eng~ne, as ,~ell as heat trans:f'er

rom the inlet port and valve. The theoretical calculations,

wh~ch coverod the whole engine cycle, were backed by

experimental measurements and showed good agreements on

the whole.

The literature on this subject ~s growing so fast

that it is di~cult to d~scuss all simulat~on attempts

in this field. Goyal et a1 28 in ~s simulation of the

 induction and exhaust systems considered unsteady low

processes and heat transer. One o the most rccent and

interesting mOdels is that o Brandstetter

40 From

theoretical consideration o the charging process, several

dimensionless factors are established which speciy the

behaviour of the unsteady process. The calcuation o the

volumetric eficiency and the oscillation phenomena in

the intake system are thereore valid or all engine siZes.

The actual method of solution o equations describing the

flow processes was the method o characteristics (more

will be said about this soon). However, Brandstetter did

not consider heat transfer and the intake system was assumed

to be isolated from the exhaust effects. The volumetric

eficiency curves reported in this reference are very

remarkable.

1.1.3 COMPARISON BETWEEN SPARK-IGNITION AND CO~~RESSION

IGNITION ENGINE INDUCTION

Before diSCUssion the speciic aspects of design

and operating parameters which influence the induction

process of the four-stroke engine, it is as well to

outline the dierences and requirements of compression-

ignition, and spark-ignition engine induction.

When the inlot valve begins to open, the air rushes

into the sudden enlargement formed by the piston motion

with great speeds, with the result that a considerable

proportion of the energy converted into heat and eddies

or small BWirls 9 , that is, conversion of energy rom

kinetic into internal energy.

In the spark-ignition engine these eddies are not

 10.

without their use because they provide the rapid and

indiscriminate turbu1ence which is essentia1 for efficient

combustion. For the compression ignition engine, an

indiscriminate turbu1ence is not required. It is a we11

defined order1y swir1ing movement that is needed. This

movement is produced by either one, or a combination of

two separate effects. These are induction swir1, created

during induction by suitab1e port design, and the so ca11ed

'squish' resu1ting from the shape of the piston crown and

occurring towards the end of the compression stroke.

Induction swir1 is produced by giving a directiona1 effect

to the air as it enters the cy1inders. The directiona1

effect is produced by either an offset in1et port, or

masked in1et va1ve, which admits the air tangentia1ly to

the cy1inder. The downward movement of the piston promotes

a rotation of the air as the cy1inder is filled 11

Such expedients might reasonab1y be assumed to have a

marked adverse effect upon the v01umetric efficiency,

especial1y ,~i th masked in1et va1 ves, because oruy part of

the perimenter of the valve isUti1ized and so necessitates

a higher ve1ocity, but experience has proved that the

requisite air movement can be produced without resulting

in a measurable reduction in volumetric efficiency.

The explanation of this seems to be, according to Dicksee 9 ,

that the amount of eddying is reduced and much of the energy

is retained in the orderly rotationa1 movement.

The induction system of a compression-ignition

engine differs from that of a spark-ignition engine in

that it plays no part in supplying the fuel to the engine.

 11.

The problems of maintaining the fuel in suspension and

of ensuring its even distribution, in a multi-cylinder

engine, are therefore eliminated and the system becomes an

air duct pure and simple. As indicated above, it may be

saddled with ensuring the rapid and complete combustion

of the fuel by inducing a swirling motion to the incoming

charge and hence provide better mixing.

The compression-ignition engine can only utilize

part of the air it receives and hence a high volumetric

efficiency is essential especially at high speeds, where

the combustion is less efficient and even less air is

utilized. This calls for efficiently desib~ed ports and

valves from the aerodynamic p,)int of view, by avoiding, as

far as possible, all sudden changes in direction, bosses

and projections and sharp edges and corners.

1. 1.4 FACTORS ~lHICH INFLUENCE ENGINE BREATHING

In broad terms, these may be divided into two parts.

DeSign, and operating parameters. For the purpose of

discussion these parameters are considered as separate entities,

but in reality they are very much related.

A. Design parameters

a., Inlet valve flow capacity, timing and overlap.

A high valve lift is desirable since i t means a

greater effective area of the intake passage for a greater

fraction of the valve opening period, and hence 'a greater

flow capacity2, 7 This is, however, limited by the

necessity of getting the valve open and shut quickly.

The designer is, ao usual, faced with the necessity to

compromise. The flo,~ coefficient at maximum lift is

 <

12.

especially important because a very large fraction of the

charge enters the cylinder with the valve at nearly full

lift 9 The opening is greatest then, and remains so for

sometime and the pressure drop is high.

The two features of inlet valve timing which have

important effects on volumetric efficiency are valve overlap

angle, and inlet valve closing angle. Within the limits of

conventional practice, the other valve events have little

effect 12 Valve overlap will be dealt with separately in

eection (1.2). The valve closing point is very important.

Consider first the case where the valve closes at b.d.c.

The piston, descending on the intake stroke induces a small

pressure gradient in the inlet manifold, and a much larger

pressure gradient across the relatively slmdy opening inlet

valve. Because of this pressure differoncebetween the

cylinder and atmosphere, air flows into the cylinder, and

continues to enter while the piston is slowing down and

the inlet valve is closing. Under these circumstances, it

is evident that delaying the inlet valve closure to a

point a.b.d.c. will allow more fresh charge to enter tho

cylinder than would be the case if the valve is closed at

b.d.c. 16, 17. Since the valve cannot be closed

instantaneously when pressure equillibrium is reached,

some loss of fresh charge will take place, but the gain

realized with the late inlet valve closure is justified

12
with the closing position used normally in a given engine

However, if the valve is not closed until the piston has

travelled back some distance on the compression stroke, the

 I).

amount o~ ~resh charge pushed back into the inlet manifold

may result in a nett reduction in volumetric ef~iciency and

loss of compression ratio.

b. Inlet system design.

The mass of air induced into the engine cylinder is a

function of the pressure drop across the inlet valve and the

effective area. However, gains in volumetric efficiency can

be obtained by paying at.ention to other components of the

induction system such as the inlet pipe. In the final

analysis, the nett result of a properly designed inlet pipe

is to increase the pressure drop across the inlet valve.

In the operation of four-stroke single cylinder

engines, it has been found that a considerable increase in

the air flow to the engine, and hence in its power output,

can be obtainod with a suitable inlet Pipe 29 This simple

method of supercharging o~ten called "inertia supercharging"

has been the subject of a considerable 'nmount of investigation.

The principle o~ "inertia supercharging" involves the use of

the pressure waves set-up in the inlet pipe to enhance the

engine breathing. Pressure waves are developed in the inlet

pipe due to two factors. One is the standing wave set up

by the proceeding cycle, and the othor is the oscillatory

movement of the gas column set up in the pipe by the piston

movement excitation. This phenomenon is particularly

pronounced in single cylinder engines. In multi-cylinder

engines, the prAssure waves are considerably damped by the

nearly' continuous flow. Kastner JO carried out a detailed

experimental study to determine hot( the fluctuations of

pressure which occur in the induction pipe of four-stroko

 14

engines may be best emp10yed to improve the charging of the

cy1inder. DennisonJ2 worked out theoretica1 solutions

on the simp1ifying assumptions of incompressib1e and uniform

air f10w a10ng the 1ength of the in1et pipe, however his

so1utions have not been found to agree with experimenta1

measurements 29 Tay10r and others 29 , investigated the

effects of the 1ength and diameter of the in1et pipe, as

we11 as the timing and capacity of the in1et valve

experimenta11y, and theorectica11y, of a four-stroke engine

over a wide range of engine speeds. The main conc1usions

of these studies may be summarized as follows 1-

1. The dynamic effect of the in1et pipe on vo1umetric

efficiency of a sing1e cy1inder engine was found to be

associated with (a) the process of acce1erating the in1et

pipe air co1umn during the first part of the inlet-stroke

and taking advantage of the ramming effect of the air co1umn

during the 1ast part of the same in1et stroke, and (b) the

action of the standing wave set up in the air co1umn during

the proceeding cyc1e.

2. Both the ramming effect, and the standing wave offect

were found to depend strong1y on the 1ength and diameter

of the in1et pipe, the timing of the in1et valve, as we11

as the engine speed. By suitab1e choice of the in1et pipe

geometry and va1ve timing, it was found that a considerab1e

gain in vo1umetric efficiency cou1d be achieved at a given

constant speed. In many cases the gain extended over a

considerab1e range of speed 29

 15.

3. A ~ormula ~or calculating inlet pipe length, L, to

bene~it ~rom the ramming e~~ect, was derived by Kastner30 ,

~.u
L =
2N

Where,

~ - The natural period o~ oscillation o~ the gas

column in cranksha~t degrees. It was recommended that this

should be between 220 and 240 degrees.

u - Velocity o~ propagation o~ pressure waves in

the pipe approximately equal to the speed o~ sound.

In multi-cylinder engines, the problem o~ inlet

mani~old deSign becomes complicated, especially i~ liquid

~el as well as air must be distributed. In carburetted

engines using liquid ~uel, the mani~old shape and size is

dictated to a considerable degree by the necessity o~

securing even distribution o~ the ~eI16.

c. Exhaust pipe design

The exhaust system o~ an engine should be so designed

as to o~~er little resistance to the out-going gases and,

in a multi-cylinder engine, to causo the minimum inter~erence

to the charging o~ the cylinders. In unsupercharged ~our-

stroke engine ,dth no valve overlap, the design o~ an

exhaust pipe is not critical to inter~erence e~~ects.

Provided reasonable pipe sizes are used, the resistance

~7
e~rects are negligible' In the case o~ the two-stroke

cycla eF~ine, it was appreciated at an early stage in the

development o~ these engines that the exhaust system had

a critical e~~ect on the charging. and gas exchange process

 16.

and hence on the overall per~ormance o~ the engine.

This arises ~rom the cycle o~ events during the exhaust

and recharging phases when the exhaust pipe and induction

mani~old are both open to the cylinder at the same time.

In a similar manner to in1et pipes, pressure ~luctuations

are set up in the exhaust pipes. A suitable pipe length

will enhance the e~~icient scavenging o~ the engine and

hencaimproves its breathing per~ormance.

As indicated abovo, the design of exhaust pipes ~or

23 24
two-stroke cycle enginas is very critical. List ,Wallace ,

and Benson57 devoted considerable e~~orts for studying the

pressure ~luctuations in the exhuast pipes o~ two stroke

engines, both experimentn11y and theoretica11y by the

method o~ char.acteristics. Wa11ace adopted the theory o~

waVes o~ ~indte amp1itude in his investigation and concluded

that (a) high air-consumption is possible with natural.

aspiration provided that e~~ective use is made o~ wave

action by correctly designed exhaust and inl.et systems, and

(b) satis~actozy scavenging is on1y achieved if not only the

external pipe system, but also the engine speed and geometry

con~orm to certain requirements c~nEntly expressed in the

~orm of' dimension1oss groups. Wal.lace' s analysis ro:fers

t.o a naturall.y aspiratod two stroke ellgine. List's work

on the same subject was based throughout on ths smal.l wave

theory.

d. Exhaust val.ve capacity

~low

12
Experimental. evidence shows that, over very wide

speed rango, no gain in vol.umetric e:f~iciency is obtained

lnth exhaust val.vcs o~ sizes much bigger than inlet valves.

The exhaust valve capacity can be cut by as much as 50% of

in1et valve capacity without affecting the volumetric efficiency

over the normal speed range of a four-stroke engine, however

the effect of small exhaust valves on the work lost on the

exhaust stroke may be considerable

18 ,and, in general, exhaust

valves of smaller capacity than 0.60 of the inlet valve

capacity are not recommended.

e. Compression ratio

In a normally aspirated engine when Pe/Pi is nearly

unity, changes in compression ratio have small effect on

volumetric effiCiency9. The effect of compression ratio

on the breathing of supercharged engines with large valve

overlap does not seem to have been investigated. Large

valve overlap results in a loss in compression ratio which

promotes knocking in compression-ignition engines, but

with spark ignition engines the tendency to knock is reduced

This is due to a reduction in the temperature of the charge

at the end of compression. Similarly, it might be argued

that raising the compression ratio could have an adverse

effect on the volumetric efficiency because of the higher

temperatures encountered. Higher compression ratios however

give improved fuel consumption because of the higher thermal

e~ficiencies obtained with engines using the otto cycle,

spark-ignition engines. The compression ratio in these

engines is limited by knocking considerations. In compression-

ignition engines an improvement in the thermal efficiency is

obtained because of increased maximum pressure. Structural

considerations and thermal loading set the limiting value

of compression ratio in these engines. Also, when there is

 18.

valve overlap for better scavenging of the cOQbust~on

chamber, the overall space required for the valves imposes

limitations on the possibility of high compression.

f. Stroke/bore ratio

There is little published work on the effect of the

stroke/bore ratio on engine breathing. Consider an engine

in which the stroke alone is varied. Valves and ports

l~ill be unaffected by this change. Recalling equation (1.2),

the Gulp factor is given bye

2SN x Ap 2SN x B2
z = =
Acav x c D2 x edav x c

rt can be ~ssumed that D is proportional to B.

For the case cons~dered above

z =
for a g~ven engine speed N.

Hence under conditions l1here Z controls, it is evident

that the volumetric efficiency is independent of the stroke/

bore ratio.

12
Livengood et al showed that for the above case where

the stroke and the engine speed are the only independent

variables, the volumetric efficiency ~s a ~que funct~on of

piston speed (and Z). From the above analysis and Fig. (39),

a short stroke is favoured. This question does not seem to

have been settled yet. In a recent series of art~cles

King
26 put forward a theory which Gives the stroke/bore

ratio some importance on engine breathing. His argument

is that the use of mean piston speed (in either its simple

form (2SN) or as definerl by Mach index theory) as a measure

 19.

of engine speed is not correct. The incoming charge as a

whole is regarded to undergo a series of accolerations and

is just as much a reciprocating part as the piston itself

with which it moves approximately in phase. King says that

in the same way that the engine speed is related to the

inertia of the piston, so also is the movement of the charge.

According to King, a long stroke engine will not only ,rork

reliably, but t#ill also breath more effectively, at a highor

mean piston speed than a short stroke engine of the same

cylinder volume. From dimensional analysis the following

definition for the mean piston speed t1as arrived at :

2SN
up .,

These considerations do not throw any light on the optimum

stroke/bore ratio. A search of the literature did not shOt"

any positive ideas concQrning the optimum stroke/bore ratio.

The best way to investigate this problem is to carry out an

extonsive experimental programme.

g. Cam contour

It has already been pointed out that valves cannot be

opened and clo&ed instantane: ous1y. In the case of the inlet

valve this is not required in ,any case because the piston

motion near the top and botto~ centros is slow. The shape

of the cam lift of present day engines using poppet valves

is similar to the curve shown in Fig. ( ) . With the usual

form of lift curve, the dischrage coefficient increases quite

slowly as the valve lift is increased, Fig. (10), to about

 20.

0.25 o~ the valve head diameter. At ~irst glance it might

be expected that nothing ,~ould be gained by having the maximum

li~t great or than this value. That a higher li~t can be used

to advantage is obvious on a second thought because with

higher li~t, the e~~ective area o~ the intake passage is

large ~or a greater ~raction o~ the valve opening period 2

Ho,~ever, because of' geometric and stross conoiderations,

poppet valves are seldom li~ted beyond t o~ the valve head

diameter
14 For exhaust valves a sudden opening near bottom

centre on the exhaust stroke would be very desirable in order

to minimise the cranl<angle occupied by the blowdolm process,

that is, the crankangle between exhaust valve opening and

approach to exhaust system pressure in the cylinder. Such

an arrangeoont is impossible in practico and it is compromised

by starting to open the valve well be~ore bottom centre.

B. OPERATING PARAMETERS

These may be subdivided into the f'ollowingl~

-
a. Heat transf'or

b. Exhaust-inlet pressuTe ratio

c. Engine Speed

d. Fuel-air ratio and fUel evaporation

Other ~actor6 include atmospheric ef'~ect8, humidity,

oil temperature, coolant ~lOl~ rate and spark advance.

These may be either considerod constant normally such as

the oil temperature, or deemed to have a very small eff'ect

at sea level such as atmospheric eff'ects. Atmospheric

e~f'ects become very important if lar~e variations are

encountered.
 21.

a. Heat Transfer

Unlike steam prime movers, where the transer of heat

is necessary to raise the temperature of the working fluid,

heat transfer in internal combustion engines takes place

from the working fluid to the coolant and thereby it may be

considered as an unavoidable loss. Heat transfer in engines,

to borrow the words of Eichelberg, is a phenomenon that

causes undamental disturbances in our machines, but i t

is not itself a fundamental phenomenon of the internal

combustion engine.

Heat transfer, though unavoidable, is very undesirable

in engines. Due to the cyclic vnriations in metal surface

temperatures thermal stress are introduced. \~hen these

stresses are superimposed on the mechanical stressos may

cause a component to fail. Overheated parts of the cylinder

can give rise to pre-ignition or detonation which may

eventually re suI t in failure. An abnormally cooled cylinder

liner can suffer corrosion due to condensation of acidic

components of the combustion products.

Wi th regard to broathing, the nett effect of heat

transfer is to give a higher temperature at the beginning

of compression than l>'Quld be the case without heat transfer.

Various investigations have shown that heat transfer is

responsible for most of the volumetric efficiency loss

particularly at low engine speeds 7, 9, 38, 39. This can

be understood readily since the heat transferred to the

charge results in a decrease in its density. During the

 22.

intake, compression, and exhaust strokes, the velocity o~

the gases is related to piston speed, and there~ore the

heat trans~er per induction stroke increases with increasing

speed (0.8 power according to most authors, more will be

said about this in Chapter 3). However, the quantity o~

charge passing through the engine directly increases ,d th

speed (1.0 power), and there~ore heat trans:t'er to the charge

per unit mass is reduced and hence a decrease in the

temperature rise o~ the gas with engine speed 17

During induction, heat is trans~erred to the charge

:t'rom (a) the inlet port and valve (b) the cylinder sur~aces

(c) exhaust residual gases. The ~irst tlfO :t'actors are dealt

with in Chapter 3). Residual gas e~ect is discussed in

section (1.3) separately.

From the above discussion it can be seen that it is

essential to obtain some estimate o~ heat transfer at the

design stage, so that heat transfer e~.ects may be allowed

~or to prevent ~ailure and improve e~~iciency. The methods

o~ tackling such problems are outlined in detail in Chapter 3.

b. Exhaust-inlet pressure ratio

The e~~ect o~ the pressure ratio can be seen :t'rom the

~ollowing expression derived :t'or the volumetric e~~iciency

o~ an ideal induction stroke

14

Ve = 1 + (1.3)
(r - 1)

It is clear that i:t' PelPi = 1.0, the e:t'icioncy o~

the ideal cycle will be unity. This relation depends on the

 23.

~act that, i~ the in1et pressure is higher than the exhaust

pressure, when the in1et valve opens ~resh charge ~lows into

the cylinder be~ore the piston starts to move. On the other

hand, when the exhaust pressure is higher than the inlet

pressure, residual gas ~lows into the inlet pipe, being

returned to the cylinder later on account o~ piston motion.

In the ~irst case the rosiduals are compressed, in the

second they are expanded, to inlet pressure.

The e~~ect o~ exhaust-inlet pressure ratio on the

scavenging o~ a ~our-stroke engine has been investigated

by Croagh et al 19 It was ~ound that scavenging without

loss o~ chargo was con~ined to a narrow range o~ exhaust-

inlet pressure ratios, especially at the lower engine speeds.

However, as will be seen ~rom the discussion on valve overlap

section (1.2), in many cases it is bene~icial to lose some

o~ the ~resh charge in order to obtain better scavenging.

Supercharging (Pe/Pi ~ 1.0) is sometimes essential such

as in high altitude power generating stations. It has been

~ound particularly use~l in scavenging two-stroke cycle

diesel engines since it involvos, un1ike carburetted engines,

no loss o~ ~el.

c. Engine Speed

This ~actor has been discussed SO ~ar on various

occasions. A typical volumetric e~iciency versus engine

speed curvo is shown in Fig. (23). At low speeds lower

volumetric o~iciencies are obtained due mainly to the loss

o charge pushed back into the inlet maniold due to the

 24.

piston motion and heat transfer. The curve rises to a

maximum at a certain speod, approximately the maximum

torque speed, and then dips as the speed is further increased.

The efficiency losses at the higher speeds are due to

increased flow resistance in the flow passages.

d. Fuel-air ratio and fuel evaporation

In any carburetted engine, if inlet conditions are

measured ahead of the point ~lhere fuel is injected, the

volumetric efficiency will be directly affected by the

introduction of the fuel. If the fuel is gaseous and at

air temperature, it will displace some of the air and a

definite reduction in volumetric efficiency will result,

Fig. (:n).

In the cnse of liquid fuel which evaporates during

the induction process, the evaporation may have a marked

offect on the working gas tegperature at the end of

induction. Uith a given inlet air temperature, the

temperature after induction ..rill vary with fuel composition,

fuel-air ratio, the fraction evaporated, and with the

fraction of the heat of evaporation supplied by the engine

parts
14 Under these circumstances it is virtually

impossible to predict the quantitative effects of ch~nges

16
in fuel or fuel-air ratio in a given case Qualitatively

it can be said that, since fuel evaporation lotiers the

temperature at the end of induction, this effect will

tend to increase volumetric efficiency as the fuel-air

ratio, or the latent heat of evaporation of the fuel

 25.

increases 12 With petroleum fuels, ,~i thin the usual fuel-

air ratio range o~ carburetted engines, effects o~ changes

in fuel-air ratio on the thermodynamic characteristics

o~ the ~resh mixture are usually too small to be important.

However, a drastic change in fuel composition, such as ~rom

gasoline to producer gas, may cause changes in mixture

characteristics which may have important ef~ects on

volumetric e~~iCiency14. In both carburetted and injection

engines., the effect o~ ~uol-air ratio on combustion

temperatures may have an important e~~ect on volumetric

e~~iciency. Changes in combustion temperature change the

sur~ace temperature o~ all parts exposed to the hot gases,

including that o~ the inlet valve and cylinder walls.

High combustion temperatures mean high surfAce temperature

and reduced volumetric e~~iciency. The injection o~ ~uel

in compression-ignition engines occurs a~ter induction,

hence the injection process itsel~ can have no e~~ect on

volumetric e~ficiency. In spark-igni tion engines a change

~rom a carburettor-manifold system to injection of liquid

fuel into the inlet port usually improvos air capacity ~or

two reasons 18

1. Pressure drop through the intake system is reduced,

unless the equivalent of a carburettor is retained ~or

metering purposes. The need ~or inlet-manifold hoating

to assist distribution may also be reduced or eliminated

entirely. Thus density at the inlet port may be increased.

2. The amount of liquid fuel in contact with the walls

o~ the induction system is reduced. The result is a

 26.

reduction in the heat picked up during induction and

there~ore an improvement in volumetric e~~iciency.

Experiments reported in the last re~erenco sugeest

that volumetric e~ficiency may be increased by l~ by

injection into the cylinder during induction as compared

to carburation. Inlet-port injection usually gives a

lesser, though appreciable, improvement. Direct injection

in spark-ignition engines has a great cooling e~ect on

cylinder and contents thus producing the improvement

~ d t 0 12, 14, 16, 18
re~erre

1. 2 VALVE OVERLAP

Thepoppet valves o~ the usual reciprocating piston

engine are opened and closed Ly cam mechanisms. Clerances

betlfeen cam, tappet, and valve must be slowly taken up and

the valve slolfly li~ted, at ~irst, i~ noise and lfear are

to be avoided. For simil".r reasons, the valve cannot be

closed abruptly, elso it lfill bounce on its seat. Thus the

valve opening and closing periode are spread ovor a

considerable number o~ cranksha~t degrees. Consequently,

it is a universal practice to start opening the inlet

valve of tho ~our-stroke engine be~ore t.d.c. on the

exhaust stroke since (a) the opening areas exposed to

oxhaust flow are small and (b) it is desirable ~or the

valve to be fully oponed when piston speeds are high.

Similarly the slowly closing exhaust vulva comes to rest

a~ter t.d.c. on the intffi(e stroke to avoid a rise in

exhaust pressure, which would lead to ~lowback into the

inlet mani~old.
 Since both valves are open at the t.d.c. position, they

are said to be overlapped. The inlet valve remains open

during the early part o~ the compression stroke to allow time

~or charging the cylinder at high speeds and, also, to reduce

the compression ratio at low spoeds ss a means o~ avoiding

knock in the spark ignition engine.

The exhaust valve opens be~ore the pot~er stroke is

completed to allow most o~ the gases to escape in the blowdown

process be~ore the exhaust stroke is well underway. Although

a part o~ the available energy is wasted, the lower pressures

encountered on the exhaust stroke yield a nett gain at wide

open throttle and ~ll speed17

It ~ollows that raising the deeign speed o~ the engine

is best accomplished by earlier opening o~ the exhaust valve

and latter closing o~ the inlet valve. An alternative course

would be to increase the size o~ the valves and passageways,

but this is usually not possible ~or lack o~ space. Too

large exhaust valves are apt to burn. A typical valve timing

diagram is shown in Fig. (4).

1.2.1 EFFECT OF VALVE OVERLAP ON ENGINE BREATHING

From the ~low point o~ view, the cylinder with valve

ov~rlap can be represented by a cylinder with no overlap plus

a bypass passage between inlet and exhaust pipes.

When Pe/Pi is less than unity the ~low through the

bypass is posi t:iive. , which means that f'resh air or mixture

f'lot~s through the bypas s into the exhaus t pipes.

lthen the exhaust pressure is greater than the inlet

pressure (Po/Pi> 1.0) exhaust gas will f'10\~ through the

bypass into the inlet pipe. Tho cylinder will take in a

 28.

combination of' :fresh mixture and exhaust gas. Obviously

the f'low through the bypass t~~es place during the valve

overlap. During the period of' positive f'low through the

bypass (pelPi <. 1.0) the f'low helps to scavenge, that is,

to sweep out residual gases f'rom the clearance spaces above

the piston.

1.2.2 TRAPPING EFFICIENCY

When Pe/Pi is less than unity and f'resh aixture f'lows

through during overlap, some of the f'rosh mixture is lost

for combustion purposos. In engines with valve overlap,

output will be proportional to the air retained in the

cylinder rather thrul to that supplied to the cylinder.

Let the ratio of' air retained to air supplied be known as

the trapping eff'iciency ~t. Volumetric ef'ficiency based

on air retainod is designated as V~ and is equal to ve~t

where Ve is the volumetric eff'iciency based on air supplied.

With carburetted engines, escape of' f'resh mixture eut

of' the exhaust valve involves a loss of fuel, and hence an

21
apparent decreaso in thermal ef'f'iciency For direct

injection engines, if' there is escape of' the air during

overlap, the ef'f'ectivo fuel/air ratio, that is, the ratio

in the cylinders will be greater than the f'uel/air ratio

based on air supplied. In both cases the indicated thermal

ef'ficiency can no longer be regarded as independent of' air

capacity if' the fuel/air ratio based on air supplied is held

constant. On the basis of' the f'oregoing discussIDn, the

ef'fective fuel/air ratio Fl f'or carburetted engines will be

given by 'tF and that f'or compression ignition engines by

 F/~t where F is the fuel/air ratio based On fuel and air
supplied.

1. 2.3 VALVE OVERl,AP AND ENGINE PERFORNANCE

An investigation was conducted by J.lI.R. Greagh19 et aI,

to determine the effect on performance of a two-valve air-

cooled, aircraft cylinder of increasing the valve overlap

trom the conventional value of 40 degrees to 130 degrees.

Direct cylinde::;- injection of fuel was used throughout the

investigation, which covered a range of inlet and exhaust

pressures at various engine speeds. During some of the runs

with 130 degrees overlap, a gas sampling valve was installed

in the cylinder head to determine the combustion fuel/air

ratio.

With 1)0 degrees overlap nearly complete clearance

volume scavenging was obtained, approximately 50 per cent

of the increased charge air flow was wasted in the scavenging

process.

Despi te the increased power output \1i th the 130 degrees

valve overlap, the cooling effect of the scavenging air was

sufficient to prevent any increase in the exhaust-valve-seat

temperature and docreased the exhaust-valve-guide temperature

as r.luch as 50 deg. F.

It is clear that overlap improves engine performance

by improving its charging which results from 1-

(a) The lengthening of the induction period and hence

increaSing the valve flow capacity.

(b) Scavenging of the combustion chamber.

Satisfactory combustion chamber scavenging depends

 30.

very largely upon the extent of valve overlap. l'Iith small

overlap (up to 40 degrees) the time aVailable for the

simultaneous opening of the inlet and exhaust valves is in

most cnses so small that on1y a small quantity of air is

0
scavenged through. The increase in charging for 40 overlap
21
compared to no overlap is however considerable

This is due to the fact that with ovorlap, there is no

compression caused by throttling at the end of the exhaust

stroke. In the above reference, it is considered that

increased charge and noticeable scavenging are recorded

only with overlaps exceeding 80 degrees of crankshaft angles.

Scavonging increases the amount of frosh air

concentration in the combustion chamber by forcing the exhaust

residual gas out of the cylinder and, also, as pointed out

earlier, producos a cooling effect upon the hot exhaust

valves.

1.2.4 DESIRABILITY OF VALVE OVERLAP

Whether or not valve overlap is desirable depends on

the way an engine is to be operated. For any engine whose

useful regime includes running throttled, or \1ith high

exhaust pressure, large overlap is obviously undesirable.

On the other hand some degree of valve overlap is used on

most engines, simply to lengthen the valve opening period,

and thus increase the valve flow capacity in addition to

reasons already pointed out. lfith the usual valve l.ift

curve, overlap up to about 20 degrees crankangle involves

such small valve lift during the overlap poriod that adverse

flow through the valves even under throttled conditions is

 31.

12
not sufficient to be objectionable For unaupercharged

diesel ongines considerable overlap can be tolerated,

although its usefulness seems doubtful (seo same rof.).

1.3 EXHAUST RESIDUAL GAS AND VOLUMETRIC EFFICIm;Cy

An ideal induction process is one in which valve

events occur at top and bottom centres and in which all

events are adiabatic. Induction tw<es place at constant

pressure equal to the inlet pressure and the comprossion

stroke starts at inlet pressure. For such a proceRs it is

also assumed that the fresh charge and the residuals are

completely mixed at the end of induction. Recalling

equation (1.3), the volumetric efficiency of such a process

is given by :

1 -(p e/p i)
Ve = 1 +
"V(r - 1)
It is noticeable that this expression does not contain

either the inlet temperature or that of the rosidual gases.

This is because, in deriving this equation, it is assumed

that the residual gases behave as a perfect gas and have

the same molecular woight and molal spocific heats as the

entering mixture (also assumed perfect gas), in which case

the expansion of the fresh charge will oxactly equal to the

contraction of the residual gas and hence the residual gases

have no effect on volumetric efficiency except that they

occupy a volume, the clearance space.

Clearly this is not the oase in real engines.

Residual gases are at tempAratures considerably higher than

 32.

that oC the Cresh charge and contain burnt gases as well

as unburnt Craction and hence have diCCerent speciCic heats

and molecular weights. Opinions differ on the extent of the

adverse eCfect oC the residuals on volumetric efficiency.

20
Reynolds and Taylor estimated the eCCect oC residuals on

engine charging under adiabatic conditions. Their study

shows that this eCfect is negligible Cor a high speed

4-stroke engine.

Bonamy
41 in a series of articles investigated the

eCfect oC the pressure ratio Pe/Pi on the residual gas

Craction. He Cound that volumetric eCCiciency decreased

rapidly with increased P~Pi and that the mass fraction oC

the residual gas increased linearly with increased pressure

ratio. An increase in exhaust pressure increases the quantity

oC high temperature residual gases trapped in the cylinder

when the exhaust valve closes. These gasos increase the

temperature and reduce the density of the charge at the

beginning oC compression and. thereCore. restrict the weight

oC the fresh charge admitted per induction stroke.

1.3.1 ESTIMATION OF VOLUMETRIC EFFICIBNCY LOSS

Losses due to the heating eCCect oC the residuals

were ostimated for the Ford 4D diesel engine by carrying out

the Collowing experiment. The engine was run at full throttle

at constant speed. The load was varied and volumetric

eCficiency was measured. This was done by varying the fuel

pump rack setting and adjusting the hydrauliC dynamometer

to maintain constant speed. As the load is increased the

residual gas temperature is also increased resulting in

 JJ.

more heat transfer to the new charge and a decrease in

volumetric efficiency. The resulting reduction is due to

the combined heat transfer from the residuals and the

increased thermal loading of the engine parts. To separate

the effect of the latter, the engine was first run at very

hot temperature (high cooling water temperature, 90 deg.C),

and then with the cooling water at relatively low temperature

(25 deg. C.). The results are shown in Fig.(7).

Extrapolating to zero load reprosents the engine running as

a pumping mechanism. For zero load the volumetric efficiency

when running hot was 8n and 92% when runn:i.ng cold. At low

loads the exhaust gas effect :i.s neglig:i.ble since the fUel-

air rat:i.o is low and combust:i.on takes place in a m:i.xture

in which a good deal of excess air is available. At full

load, Fig. (7) shows that the volumetric ef'ficiency is very

nearly'the same for hot and cold runn:i.ng. This seems to

indicate that losses in efficiency at fUll load due to heat

transfer are caused mainly by the residuals rather than by

the walls. A closer look at Fig . (7) shows that the

d:I.f'ference bett~een zero and fUll load effic:i.encies depends

on the temperature of the engine parts, and hence on the

heat transfer between these and the working gas. In this

estimation, it can be said that at 1200 rev/min. and cold

running (25 deg. C.), the reduction in volumetric efficiency

is about 1<>% and is mainly due to the residual gases.

As the engine is 'run hotter (90 deg. C,)" heat transfer

from the cylinder surfaces becomes important. At hot

 34.

running the residual gas accounts for about 5~ loss in

efficiency. With normal operating temperatures the losses

due to the residual gases heating amount to a value between

these two extremes, that is between 5 and 10 per cent

showing the importance of the residual gas heating effect

on engine breathing. The heating effects of surfaces and

residuals cannot be separated entirely from each other but

the effect of one or the other can only be minimised in

this war.
 CHAPTER TWO

Analysis of 4-stroke engine breathing

2.1 Static flow tests

2.2 The energy balance method

2.3 The reduced area method

2.4 The inlet Mach index method

2.5 Experimental rosults

2.6 Discussion

2.7 Conclusions
 35.

GENERAL

In this chapter the air ~1ow into the cy1inder is

computed theoretica11y by two di~~erent methods, name1y, the

energy ba1ance method and the in1et t-lach index method. The

~irst method makes use o~ the energy equation and the per~ect

gas 1aw. The so1ution was carried out in two ways. In the

~irst the e~~ective ~10w area was based on the in1et va1ve

variab1e curtain area, 1\1>"'. In the second so1ution, the

concept o~ the reduced area was used, Section (2.3). The

in1et Mach index has a1ready been re~erred to brie~1y and

wi11 be discussed more ~11y 1ater on. A11 the theoretica1

and practica1 ana1yses in this chapter refer to the Ford 4D

compression-ignition engine (see engino description).

With s1ight modification, the method wou1d apply to a

spark-ignition engine.

2.1 STATIC FLOV TESTS

The discharge coe~~icient o~ any f10w measuring

device is defined as the ratio of the actua1 mass f10w (as

defined by a standard ca1ibrated orifice, or a venturi) to

the idea1 mass f10w through that device (See Appendix).

2.1.1 APPARATUS

Tho apparatus for measuring the discharge coefficient,

henceforth known as the static test rig, is sho,,," in Fig.(l).

It consists of a Roots type b10wer driven by a variab1e speed

motor so that the required pressure drop across the va1ve

cou1d be obtained.

The b10wer is connected to a stee1 pi po of two inches

diameter via a rubber hose, a venturi tube is p1aced a10ng

 36.

the pipe which is then connected to the port of the cylinder

under test. A short pipe length opens to the

e.
atmosPher~to

simulate the cylinder. With this apparatus, the measured

coefficient of discharge thus includes all dissipation

effects I that is, the sudden contraction entrance effect,

the friction losses in ~he straight pipe, the losses in the

port bend, the valve contraction and friction losses, and

the sudden enlargement losses. The engine systom may thus

have a slightly different coefficient since the sudden

enlargement dissipation may be differont for the cylinder-

piston geometry than for the short pipe used in the tests

to simulate the cylinder.

A venturi tube was designed in accordance with the

B.S. 1042 of 1964 specifications, Fig. (2), to measure the

actual mass flow rato through the system. It \#as placed

about three feet upstream of the cylinder head and a similar

distance downstream of .the blower. The pressure tappings

are as shown in Fig. (2). The total temperature upstream

of the venturi was measured by a mercury thermometer.

By a micrometer screw adjustment, the valve lift \#as

varied at intervals of two degrees crankangle over the whole

range up to maximum lift. The mechanism is shown in Fig. (1).

The depth micrometer was secured to the valve by means of a

steel collar and grip screws.. The valve lift versus the

crankangle curve is shown in Fig. (3).

2 1 2 THE REFERENCE AREA

A nominal flow area l#as defined in two ways 1-

a. The port circular area

4
 37.

b. The variable inlet valve curtain

area ~DL

The coe~ficient o~ discharge based on the inlet valve variable

curtain area will be used in subsequent calculations ~or reasons

to be explained later (see discussion).

2.1.3. TEST PROCEDURE AND RESULTS

The motor was started and flow was allowed to settle

as ~ndicated by steady pressure and temperature readings.

The mass ~low at each li~t was calculated as shown in the

appendix.

For each li~t the ~ollowing quanti ties were measured 1-

a. Total pressure and temperature upstrcam o~

the venturi.

b. The pressure drop at the venturi.

The total pressure upstream o~ the valve was taken to

be equal to that upstream o~ the venturi assuming total pressure

recovery. The total temperature ,~as similarly taken to be that

upstream o~ the venturi.

A series o~ tests was ~irst carried out to determine

the e~fect o~ pressure drop across the valve on the discharge

coe~ficient. Fig. (8) shows that it is practically independent

o~ the pressure drop ~or the range studied (1.0 - 8.0 inches Hg),

and ~urther tests were per~ormed keeping the pressure drop

within this range.

The coe~~icients, as de~ined above, were calculated,

Figs. (9, 10). The ef~ective ~low area was also calculated

~or each li~t.

Ae = Av. Cd
 38.

It was then possible to calculate the average effective

flow area by integrating the equation above, and averaging

over the period to maximum lift, i.e.

9.
Ae
av.
= 1
eo J
o
Av. Cd.

Where 90 degrees crankangle is the valve opening period

up to maximum lift, the other half of the valve lift range

being identical.
 39.

2.2 THE ENERGY BALANCE METHOD

In section (1.1.2), reference was made to several

mathematical models which were constructed to simulate the

internal combustion engine cycle or a particular process in

that cycle. Before discussing the present model, a brief

discussion will be presented which is intended to ,

(a) Explain the basic concepts and requirements

essential for constructing a mathematical model.

(b) Discuss, in more detail, typical examples of

those models with direct bearing on the induction

process.

Mathematical simulation of an engine requires that :

1. All thermodynamic systems involved in the

simulation be defined.

2. Assumptions for each system be clearly stated.

3. The equations which apply to each system be

written.

4. All required data be collected.

5. The resulting equations be solved.

In addition, in order to improve the assumptions and

to gain confidence in the simulation, it is essential to

collect and compare computed and experimental results.

Usually, the following equations are required to

completely describe the behaviour of a thermodynamic system 31

1. Conservation of energy

2. Conservation of mass

3. Conservntion of momentum
 40.

4. A relationship bet,~een pressures, volume, and

temperature tor tha working fluid.

5. An expression for the internal energy of the

working fluid in terms of temperature, pressure,

and composition of the working fluid.

The model of Goyal, Scharpf and Borman28 was intended

to simulate the intake and exhaust systems of a single cylinder

engine. Three thermodynamic systems were defined. These were

the intake and exhaust systems, and the engine cylinder.

The intake and exhaust systems equations liere coupled to the

rest of the cycle by the boundary conditions at the valve ends

of the systems.

Unsteady flow, with friction and heat transfer, was used

to solve for the temperature and prossure in the exhaust system.

The intake thermodynamic system was treated slightly differently

in that it was assumed that the gas in the intake port '~as at

a temperature and a pressure uniform ldth distance but varying

,~i th time. The port pressure was computed as a space average

pressure obtained from the unsteady flow analysis, neglecting

friction and heat transfer. The gas temperature was then

calculated using an energy equation which included terms of

instantaneous heat transfer from the back of the valve and

port surfaces. In ths above model, the intake and exhaust

systems were simplified as straight pipes which either opened

directly to th& at~csphere, or t~rough a ta~~. In the above

reference the solution was carried out for the exhaust proc~ss

mainly, liith some solutions for the intako process.

The model of ~fcAulay et a1 31 is basically of' similar

 41.

nature except that ~t was more compl~cated. One more

thermodynamic system was cons~dered. Th~s was the cool~ng

system. This model (single Cyl~nder Compression ~gnition eng~ne)

evaluates the induction, compression, combustion, and the exhaust

processes. With regard to the induction process, s~m~lar

assumptions were made as in the prev~ous model. These t,~o

models may be taken as typical examples o~ models where

unsteady flow processes are considered.

The mathematical models o~ Whitehouse J3 et aI,

Kastner
30 et aI, and TSU 60 ,are examples of models in wh~ch

quasi-steady ~low processes are assumed. In these models

the pressure and temperature at the valve boundaries are

assumed constant. However, unlike the model to be described

soon, those mOdels did not deal with heat trans~er in the

inlet port which made the assumptions of constant pressure

and temperature at the valve boundary more realistic.

A common feature o~ this category of models is to consider

the cylinder as a thermodynamic system to which the energy

equation (see below) and the per~ect gas law are appl~ed.

The boundary cond~tions at the valves are assumed and the

isentropic flow equations are used to compute the mass flow

through the valves. The equat~ons are then solved for the

cylinder pressure and temperature.

2.2.1. DESCRIPTION OF THE ~fATHEMATICAL MODEL

This model is intended to evaluate the broathing

performance of a four-stroke engine with particular emphasis

on the heat transfer from the inlet port and its effects on

the volumetric efficiency of the eng~ne. A r~gorous treatment

would necessitate the uSe of non-steady flow procedures as

 42.
in some o the models described previously. However, i t was

decided to use a simpler model based on quasi-steady low

assumptions to get some idea on how important heat transer

in the in1et port is rom the experimental relationship

established in Chapter Three.

Fig. (53) shows the simpliied induction process.

For the genera1 case, the energy equation may be written as

0110ws 31 ,

dE = -P.dV+ + '[~. cI~ (2.1)

Index K = Diez'ent surt'aces at the boundaries o

a particular system.

h = Speciic enthalpy.

The 1D0del shown in Fig. (53) is based on the ollowing

assumptions I

1.. The kinetic energy o the gas column in the intake

maniold, port, and cylinder is negligible and the

waVe action in accelerating ~~d decolerating the

air can be also neglected.

2. The rosidua1 gases let in the clearanco spaces

rom the previous cycle have tho same speciic

heats and molecular weight as the eJ'te;-ing charge

in which case tho expansion o the t'resh charge

will exactly equal the contraction ot' the residual

gases.

3. Flow takes place to, and rom, the cylinder via

the inlet valve only during the period analysed,

that is, rom suction t.d.c to in1et valve closuro

 43.

4. In1et pressure and tecperature, station i in Fig. (53),

are assumed constant throughout 8nd are used to

calculate the mass flow through the intake valve.

5. Inlet port average gas temperature is assumed constant

for calculating heat transfer.

6. In1et port heat transfer is added to energy of the

cylindor contents.

7. Isentropic compressible flow equations are used to

compute the mass flow across the inlet valve (see

the Appendix).

8. At inlet valve opening, the residual gases are at

a temperature and pressure equal to the inlet

values.

Assumptions 4, 5 and 6 need some justification. The

simple assumption of constant port pressure is a usefUl one

and does not introduce a major source of error. McAauly et a1 3l

consider that this assumption may be justified. The intake port

temperature undoubtedly varies with time and distance. To

assume it to be constant may be the major source of error in

the calculations.

Having made the above assumptions with rogard to the

intake port prossure and temperaturo, and then to add the intake

port heat transfer to the energy equation of the cylinder

contents (see below) seems unreasonable at first Sight.

By doing this, one pushes the charge into the cylinder and then

calculates the intake port heat transfer effects on it.

However, TSU
60 considers this procedure as an adequate

approximatj.on. The more correct procedure would be to

~stablish the temperature and pressure at station i, Fig. (53),

 44.

with heat trans~er cons~derat~ons. This would establish the

~ntake valve end boundary o~ the cylinder. Annand 37 and

McAauly et a1 3l in their respective models added the heat

transferred ~rom the back o~ the inlet valve to that ~rom

the cylinder walls also.

Flow through the intake valve is computed using quasi-

steady compressible ~low equations (see Appendix) and an

e~fective f'lot~ area which is determined experimentally ~or

the particular port and valve combination by steady ~low bench

tests, section (2.1). The e~fective area is determined

assuming isentropic ~low relations. In the actual engine,

heat transf'er does occur, and the ~low is intermittent.

St~tz5 has concluded that the error in us~ng e~~ective aroas,
as determined by steady ~low bench testing, is a maximum o~

a ~ew per cent when appliod to eng~ne condit~ons (see also

the literature survey). Heat transfer could contribute to

some of the discrepancy between computed and experimental

results. Differences between actual valve lifts (in the

running engine) and the static lifts, as a result of valve

dynamics and temperature et'i'ects, could also contribute to

this discrepancy.

Re~erring to Fig. (53), the thermodynamic system

consists of.the engine cylinder with inlet valve boundary

condition assumed. The temperature and pressure at station i,

at the inlet valve, are assumed constant.. These quantities

are used to compute the mass flow across the ~nlot valve.
 Applying the energy equation to the thermodynamic

system considered,

..
dE = .-:p. dV + d Q + Cp Ti (U! ....... ( 2.2)

E = C lo1 T
v
dE = C
v .M dT + Cv T dM ( 2.3)

Combining equations (2.2, 2.3). re-arranging and introducing

a crankangle base :

dT =
d "'"
1
--':C'=-:"!M-
[ Cv ("(Ti - T) ~ - P. gy +.illl1
v. de de de

dE - Change of internal energy of the cylinder contents

Ti - Inlet temperature, upstream of the inlet valve,

Fig. (53).

dM - Mass of charge admitted to the cylinder in time t

dQ - Sum of the heat transferred to the incoming gases

from the intake port and cylinder surfaces.

T - Average cylinder contents temperature

e- 360. N t

de - 360 N Crankshaft deg./unit time

dt

The cylinder volume V, and dV are given by the usual

de
equations

V ;: ~B2. S
8 [ r + 1
r - 1
+ X cos e _}x2 _ 2.] 5<n

And I
 46.

dV Sin e (1 + cos 6 )
de =

From the per~oct gas law :

PV= JlIRT ......... (2.5)

2.2.2. HEAT TRANSFER

Hoat trans~er in internal combustion engines, particularly

during induction, is dea1t with in Chapter (3). For the present,

it ie required to evaluate Q in equation (2.4). It has been

dt
shown that heat trans~er ~rom the inlet valve back ~ace amounts

to a reduction in volumetric effiCiency o~ on1y 1 - 2%48 ,and

hence will not be considered. What will be considered here is

the heat transfer ~rom the inlet port Ql, and the cylinder

surfaces Q2 where,

,gg
de = re +
dQ2
49
! (2.6)

dQl_ hi Ai (Tlti - Ti) (2.7)

de-
Ai Inlet port inside surface area.

TVi Inlet port ~verage sur~Qco tem~e~at~re.

Ti AVerage gas temperature in the inlet port

A ~ormu::'a ~O:;.' "!;he beat t::,ans~er coe~~!ci(lnt has been

established ~or the in1et port of a compression-ignition

engine, to which this analysis refers, by experiment

(See Chapter J) which is I

 0.53
hi = 3.155 Ki (Rei ) (2.8)
D

t!here,

RO i = Fi B2 S N

I"'i D

and suffix i refers to inlet port conditions.

The valve head diameter D is taken as the characteristic

length.

Similarly,

-
dQ2
de
= (.
J'"
3
h

Vhere j is the number of surfaces considered.

T) (2.9)

The

surfaces are divided, according to the te','perature, into

(a) the cylinder head, (b) the cylinder liner, (c) piston
crown. Reasonable estimates of these temperatures for four-

stroke compression-ignition engines are given by Annand 37

For cylinder heat transfer calculations, the heat

transfer coefficient is evaluated from :

1. Annand formula,
0.8
h = 0.2!! K Re . . . . . . . . . . . . .. (2.10)
B
1-!here,

Re = M B S N
V

. 2. Eichelberg
t
h = 8 06 (PT) (2.11)
Viscosity and thermal conductivity are evaluated as

in Chapter (3), using the av~rage instantaneous gas

 48

temperature, T.

Annand formula is used in all calculations, Eichelberg

formula is only used for the purpose of comparison. It is

used only when indicated.

2.2.3 AIR MASS FLOW RATE

The mass of aspirated air over the whole induction stroke

is calculated as shown in the Appendix. The inlet valve throat

pressure is taken to be that of the cylinder for forward flow.

There are three cases to be considered :-

1. Forward flo,~ Pi

Ae Pi
6N

(2.12)
2. Reverso flow P ..., Pi ,

.. +1
elM - Ae P (Pi) _or '. )
de = 6N p

............ (2.13)
3. Choked flow,

At, and beyond, the sonic threshold, that is,

when the flow is choked,

:i = (.,2+1)
' +1
'f-\ ..
And,
.. +1
dr.t Ae Pi ( 2 ' ) '11-1 (2.14)
d9 = 6N .. +1
 Reversed choked rlow does not take place in practice.

Aa is the errective rlow area as evaluated rrom the

static rlow tests. The dirCerential equations (2.4), (2.6),

(2.12), (2.13) and (2.14) are solved step-by-step using the

Runge-Kutta method in conjunction with an electronic digital

computer. This method is very sensitive to the step length.

The solution became unstable when a step length or more than

two degrees was used. The solution '~as carried out using a

step length or one degree crankangle. Even so it was Cound

necessary to Cit a second order polynomial Cor the erCective

area between successive stops, that is

Ae =
\{here I, 2, 3 reCer to the erCective aroa at three

successive points.

The computer programme calculates the cylinder

pressure, temperature, mass Clow, and heat transrer at each

step, and sums up the total air mass rlow into the cylinder

and the total heat transCerred to the incoming gases rrom

the inlet port and rrom the cylinder surCaces Cor each

induction stroke and various engine speeds. For each speed

the volumetric erCiciency is also calculated from,

Ve ..1L
Ms

M Total air mass induced at given inlet conditions

per induction stroke.

Ms Air mass which Cills the s,~ept volume or the

cylinder at the same entry conditions.

 50.

2.3 THE REDUCED AREA METHOD

An engine induction system has severa1 restrictions

'~hich tend to 1imit its breathing performance. In the previous

section the air aspirated through the in1et va1ve '~as ca1cu1ated

using an effective area based on the in1et va1ve curtain area

1"'- DL. However, it is important to rea1ize that there are

other restrictions in the induction system which affect the

mass of air aspirated, and hence vo1umetric efficiency.

The fo11owing approach is intended to show '~hether improved

resu1ts can be obtained ..hen these other restrictions are taken

into consideration.

A method proposed by Ho1d 13 , for two-stroke engines,

11
and expanded by Jones ,for four-stroke engines, assumes

that the induction system can be considered as severa1 orifices

in series, the"se arel

1. The in1et manifo1d minimum cross-section, A1.

2. The in1et port minimum cross-soction, A2.

3. The in1et va1ve variab1e curtain area, A3.

In carburetted engines, the carburettor may be

considered as an additiona1 orifice 25 , a1though in the 1ast

reference somewhat different approach is adopted.

THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Assmning incompressib1e f1ow, the vo1ume of air

f10wing past each orifice at any time is the same and the

density remain constant.

Using the notations of Fig. (5), then for an

 51.

incremental mass flow,

(f1.f = dMl = &f2 = (f1.fJ

Hence

dt ...... (2.15a:

dt ;- ..... (2.15b:

J r 2g (p
J - P )
dt ...... (2.l5c

Re-arranging the above equations and manipulating; the

following expression is obtained for the mass flow rate:

~ 2g f (Pa - p)
~
dt = 1 ].
+
. . . .. (2.1'

If an area Ar is defined having a discharge coefficient

Cdr such that the same mass of air flows past it as that

through the areas AI, A2 and AJ thon,

~=
dt Cdr Ar J 2g r (Pa - p) ......... (2.17)

Comparing equations (2. 1 6) and (2.17),

Cdr Ar = 1 =K
~==========================
1 1
+. +
{Cdl (Cd2 A2)2 (CdJ
 52.

Hence

Cdr = 1
.......... (2.18)
Ar. K

Whero ~or a unity ori~icel3,

Ar = I ...... (2.19)
+ +

For convenience Ar and Cdr are called the reduced area

and the reduced discharge coe~ficient respectively.

2.3.2 METHOD OF SOLUTION

11
Jonee ,who advocated this approach solvod the equations

involved by a step-by-step method using increments o~ two

degrees crankangle. During each increment the initial pressure,

volume and mass was assumed equal that existing at the end o~

the provious step. The gas '"as then assumed to expand (due to

piston motion) ,..ithout any gas entering the cylinder. The

"apparent" terminal pressure '''as calculated assuming adiabatic

expansion, and ~rom this the "apparent" average pressure during

the increment was computed. This "apparent" average pressure

was used to determine the pressure ratio across tho reduced

area Ar from which the mass of' air entering the cylinder during

the increment '''as established. The resultant total mass of'

gas in the cylinder at the end o~ the increment enabled the

true cylinder pressure to be calculated. Presumably the

temperature ,,,as calculated asslUlling adiabatic expansion also.

 53.

An attempt was made to solve the equations envolved in a

similar manner. This gave results which differed appreciably

from the measured volumetric efficiency and cylinder pressure.

In any case this approach is not adequate if heat transfer is

to be considered. The problem was solved in much the same

way aa the "energy balance method" discussed previously.

It has been labelled 8S the "reduced area method" .purely for

distinction.

------ -----------
 54.

2.4 THE INLET MACH INDEX "GULP FACTOR" METHOD

The in~luence exerted by the inlet valve on engine

breathing has been acknowledged by all authorities. The exhaust

valve in the normal size compared to the inlet valve has little

e~f'ect. This is because the exhaust pressure is normally

substantially eqnal to the cylinder pressure at the start

of induction as long as the exhaust valve is not abnormally

12
small With very small exhaust valves, the residual gas

exerts a greater pressure, and hence reduces the amount of

air induced into the cylinder.

It is reasonable to say, therefore, that the inlet

valve is responsible f'or most of the losses in volumetric

efficiency attributable to pressure losses through the valves

with increasing speed.

The effect of heat transfer on the efficiency due to

increased engine speod has been found to be small

16
Present

knowledge shows that this is not strictly true, still the

eff'ect decreases \<1 th speed.

From considerations of the fluid mechanics of' the

f'low process, it is known that in high VelOCity, compressible

flow, the most important parameter controlling the prossure

pattern is the Mach number of' the system, or the ratio of

gas velocity at the smallest cross-section to the speed of'

sound in the gas ahead o~ that section. Considering typical

engine designs, it appears that the smallest croBs-section

in the inlet flow system is usually the inlet valve opening.

Since the actual velocity through the inlet valve is

 55.

a variaLle and is seldom known, it liould be convenient to find

a known velocity upon which the actual velocity through the

valve depends. If the fluids involved were incompressible, the

mean Velocity through the inlet valve at any instant would be

Ap Up/Ae av ' where Ap is the piston area, Up = 2SN, the mean

piston speed, Ae the effective inlet valva aroa.

av
Aa av is determined as indicatod in section (2.1.3).

The corresponding "lach indox Z is then given byl2,

Z = Ap. Up
. ............... (2.20)
Ae av c

c - Speed 01' sound in the inlet port

A Mach index ia similar to a ~fach number, except that the

speed of some mechanical part on which gas velocity depends is

substituted for thegas velocity. Z is also knO\m by the

expressive name of "Gulp Factor".

It has been shown15 that a good correlation is obtained

between a four-stroke engine breathing capacity, in the form of

its volumetric efficiency, and the inlet Mach index when this

engine was tested for various inlet valve designs and widely

varying operating conditions over a wide speed range. The

correlation, howevor, was poor when the discharge coeft'icient

was not included, that is, by taking the valve nominal area

and not the e1't'ective area, see Fig. (30). This shows that

the volumetric efficiency is high for low values of Z and

decreases as Z is increased for various fixed valve diameters.

However, for the same engine speed a higher volumetric

efficiency is obtained by using a valve with a larger diameter

 56.

and higher discharge coe~icient, that is, greater e~fective

area. This means that the volumetriC efficiency is higher

for greater effective areas which is what one expects.

The direct dependence of Z on the piston speed means

f\t'c't.'1
that higher v01umetrictis obtained ldth lower speeds as can

be seen from equation (2.20) and Fig. (30). This is, however,

not strictly true ~or real engines, Fig. (24). This is also

the reason why a short stroke engine is recommended by the

advocates o~ this theory.

To summarize then, the inlet Mach index theory, as

expounded above, can be expressed by :

Ve = ~(Z) ........ ..... ' (2.21)

where the exact form of the fUnction must be determined

experimentally.

The literature is rich with data based on this theory

(see list o~ re~erences for NACA publications). Xt is possible

to car,ry out extensive tests to cover a wide range o~ design

and operating conditions relating to 4-stroke engines.

Livengood et a1 18 per~ormed such a task. Their data can be

expressed in charts such as those shown in Figs. (27-29).

For an existing ~our-stroke engine, or ~or a new engine or

a proposed induction system deSign, the inlet /.Iach index can

be easily determined as demonstrated above. Easier still the

inlet Mach index, for a well designed automotive four-stroke

engine, may be taken to be proportional to the maximum 1i~t

12
to the inlet valve head diameter ratio ,
L
Z .. 1.45 D
 57.

(This relation has been found to apply ~hen the engine is

operating at maximum rating).

L - maximum valve lift. This relation has beon found

16
to apply up to LID W 0.25.

From the charts. the volumetric efficiency can be

determined as illustrated below.

To make use of the charts it must be emphasised that:

1. They are based on data relating to a single

cylinder engine equipped with a short inlet pipe and

large surge tanks to minimise pulsations in tho inlet

pipe.

2. The volumetric efficiency is based on inlet port

conditions. and thus tho data represent the cylinder

breathing performance alone.

2. 4.1 METHOD OF USING THE CHARTS

1. The gulp factor for each speed was determined as

indicated above. From Fig. (27). tho volumetric

efficiency corrosponding to the appropriate inlet

valve closure was noted.

2. A correction factor to allow for valve overlap

was noted from Fig. (28). using tho inlet Hach index

and the valve overlap of the engine at hand.

3. A correction factor for exhaust to inlet pressure

ratio was similarly deteroined from Fig. (29).

4. The efficiency obtained in the first step was

multiplied by the overlap and the pressure ratio

correction factors.
 58.

2.4.2 SAr-lPLE CALCULATION

Let

P = 14.7 1b~in2 at a11 speeds.

e

= 14.7 xo.9 1b~in2 at maximum speed.

Asswning that the in1et pressure drop varies 1inoar1y

with the engine speed, then at 1000 rev/min.,

p
e
= 1.04) (see Tab1e 2)
Pi
c. o
i. v. = 4S 49' 12" a.b.d.c.

, ..
Va1ve over1np = 25 degrees.
. 2
The average effective in1et va1vo area, Ae av. = 0.495 in
(as obtained rom the static tests)

2
Ap - Piston area = ., 12.)97 in
4

2 x 4.52 :x N
Up - f.fean piston speed = = O.754N ft./min
12

c - Ve01ci ty of sound = 49 x r;"i x 60 ft/min

(ti = SOoF. being the assumed in1et temperature).

c = 60 x 49 1"'80 + 460

= 68)20 ft/min

From equation (2 . 20), the gu1p factor Z is given by,

Up x Ap
z =
c x Ae av.

= 0.754 x 12.397 x N

6S)20 x 0.495

= 0.000276N
 59.

At N = 1000 rev/min.

Z = 0.276

From Fig. (27),

Ve = 0.854

Overlap actor = 1.0, Fig. (28)

Pressure actor =0.992, Fig. (29)

Ve = 0.854 x 1.0 x 0.992

= 0.847

= 84.7'1>

Similar calculations ,~ere carried out or other speeds

up to the maximum speed, 2400 rev/min., see table (2). The

eiciency as determined by this and other methods is plotted

against both the inlet Mach index and the engine speed in

Fig. (23).
 60.

2.5 EXPERIMENTAL PRESSURES AND ENGINE PERFORMANCE

CHARACTERISTICS

As a check on the theoretical results the cylinder

induction pressure, volumetric eiciency, and other engine

peronnance characteristics relating to the compression-ignition

engine were measured experimentally.

2. 5.1 CYLINDER INDUCTIUN PRESSURE RECORDS

A Farnboro indicator was used to obtain records of

the induction pressure for the fUll speed range o~ the engine.

The Farnboro indicator is capable of providing large and

accurate indicator diagrams over a very wide range of engine

speeds. The diagram it produces is not that of a single cycle

but ropresents instead a composite diagram derived from ~ifty

or more successive cycles. This instrument is therefore not

suitable for a work in which individual cycles have to be

analysed, such ns cyclic dispersion studies, but is quite

adequate for the present purpose.

The indicator essentially comprises two major units,

the recorder, and the pick-up. The set-up is shown in Fig. (52).

The recording unit consists of a revolving drum driven by the

engine through a clutch provided with a synchronizing device

and a brake so that the drum may be stopped and re-started

whilst the engine is running. The clutch is so designed that

engagement can only take place with the drum in a ~ixed angular

position relative to the engine crankshaft.

The pressure cylinder, attached to the side of the

recorder, is provided with a gas-tight piston actuating a

linkage which gives straight line motion to the spark point,

axially travoroing the surf'ace of the drUiD. Notion of this

linkage results When nitrogen, ~rom a high pressure cyliner,

 61.

or f'rom n small electric pump f'or low pressure records

(see below), is admitted to the pressure cylinder through the

medium of' the main control valve. r-Iovement is, however,

controlled by two calibratod springs, and a pressure scale

f'or the diagram is thus established.

The pick-up is connected to the engine combustion chan.ber

via a suitable tapping in the cylindor head. Essentially a

pressure controlled electrical contact breaker, it contatn~ a

f'loating disc valve guided axially by an electrically insulated

spindle. The Valve disc is f'ree to move by less than 0.25 mm

between two seats, both f'orming the earth return of' an electric

circui t. One Sids - of' the disc is exposed to engine combus-tion

pressure, the other to the ref'erence pressure in the pressure

cylinder of' the recording unit to which the pick-up is connected

by a pipe. Every time the cylinder pressure rises to just above

the ref'erence pressure or f'alls to just below that, the light

disc moves and breaks and makes an electrical contact. This

action producos a spark f'rom the pointer to the drum through

the special paper wrapped around the drum producing a series

of' holes which make up the pressure curve.

Since taking induction pressures '"las the objective,

the pressure cylinder was f'itted with calibrated light springs.

These were recalibrated BS follows "ith aid of' an eloctric

vacuum pump; by- applying various pressures, ."Mch were measured

by an ordinary mecury-in-glass manometer, traces 'fere obtained

on the indicator paper. A calibration is thus obtained by

plotting the applied pressure versus the distance corrosppndine

to that pressure, see Fig. (16). An atmospheric ref'crence line

was obtained by opening the pressure cylinder to the atmosphere.

'" Teo ccw:cN -.J4\~ t. ~O" p"e.("" . c.1I> ....d.,~'tc:I~s
6 ~ he"'\) bt.o. - ~",c..l\L~ \"- <.-\I"'f"b'f'" ~ ~"we~1('
'vt. '? e~ t\...e. >''f"~e...r 0 f- f~t;.'!I .i"c..k.~ ~.(:.
\l1J e... tc,.,. ~-'\,.c\ S k~G ~~ t '" It..ro 1lU.t..f ab ~t'J
e.-rO'f""
 62.

The induction pressure records obtained in this manner are

shown in Figs. (15, 17).

A more detailed description of this type of Farnboro

indicator, and a more modern model is given by Green and Lucas 59

2.5.2 VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY

The volumetric efficiency and other engine performance

characteristics, such as bhp etc., were calculated from

experimental data by a general computer programme developed at

the department of Transport Technology of this University which

will accept data, and perform the calculations, for both spark

and compression-ignition four-strol~e engines running at full,

and part load. The programme is for volumetric efficiency

calculations, but ~Jill carry out other calculations if the

brake load or fuel data are also supplied.

Values of the inlet port gas stream temperature and

pressure wer.e road-in so as to perform volumetric efficiency

calculations based on the air density of the inlet port.

However, the calculations were repeated basing the efficiency

on ambient conditions by factoring by, .,. Se.. OfP~~ "'''"'t

29.92 J Ta + 460
Fl = ~
(Pa - DP) 520

DP - Pressure drop across the tank orifice which

was used to meter the air flow into the engine (see orifice detail

below).

In this repeat calculation also the bhp, bW\ep, and torque

were corrected to standard intake conditions by factoring by

F2 ..
29.92 Ti + 460

Pa - Pi 520
 63.

All pressures measured in "Hg, temp~ratures in

degrees Fah.

For both Fl and F2, the square root sign should be

removed ~or part load calculations ~or the compression-ignition

engine. This is because the air cor.sumption in this case is

more nearly proportional to the temperature, rather than the

square root o~ it 58
2.5.3 AIR CONSUMPTION CALCULATIONS

Accurate measurements o~ air ~low into an engine is

di~~icult to achieve in practice due to the conditions under

which measurement has to be made. The inlet valve is open

during only one third o~ the engine cycle. This gives rise

to pulsating ~low in the induction system. The pulsations

are more pronounced in a single cylinder ~our-stroke engine

running at low speed. The greater the number o~ cylinders,

the steadier the air ~low becomes.

The most popular method o~ measuring the mass of air

aspirated by the engine is the tank-and-ori~ice method which

was used for this work. A large metal drum and a B.S. sharp

edged ori~ice were used. The latter was calibrated in the

same manner as the venturi tube, section (2.1.1). The drum

was connected to the engine intake mani~old by a ~lexible

rubber hose. The drum also served to damp. oscillations in

the intake system in order to get reasonable average readings.

The air mass ~low rate was calculated from the usual equationl

M =C 1 bm/min

Where C is the ori~ice calibration ~actor.

 64.

2.5.4 ORIFICE DETAILS

Diameter - 1.753 in.

2
Area 2.412 in

Calibration factor - C = 15.15

The performance characteristics are shOlm in

Fig. (24).
2.6 DISCUSSION

It has been stated that the discharge coefficient is

independent of the pressure drop across the inlet valve.

However if this becomes too low, viscosity effects become

important. It is recommended that the pressure drop should

not be below 10 inches of water(2). At very high pressure

drop tho frictional resistance becomes important.

Experiments shO~ that this is small up to a pressure d~op

of 20 inches Hg.

From Fig. (8) it can be seen that the above argument

holds very well except at low lifts. The reason for this

is attributed to a change in the flow pattern.

Tanaka(l) conducted some pioneer experiments on poppet

valves characteristics and found that four flow regimes exist

as the valve lift is increased from zero position. In the

early stages of the valve lift process, where the valve lift

is small, it is supposod that the flow boundaries remain close

to the wall of the valve passage and any breaksway of the f'low

occuring at a vena contracta at entry to the narrow passage

between head and seat is small.

The flow after the vena contracta is able to expand

and fill the whole channel, accompanied by recovery of pressure

energy. The sudden fall about LID = 0.02 in Fig. (9), may be

due to increase in port friction as the flo\1 increases.

In the second stage of the process it is supposed

that the velocity just upstream of the valve passage begins

to influence the flow in the passage. The curve on the

underside of the valve head diverte the flow outwards and

a vena contracta is formed considorably downstream. This

 66.

vena contracta results in a reduced discharge coe~~icient.

At higher li~ts than the li~t at which breakaway occurs, the

valve head radius does not cause so abrupt a change in the

~low boundary and the coe~~icient o~ discharge may recover a

little. This recovery Fig. (9) can be seen at LID = 0.08.

In the third stage it is believed that the flow breaks

away ~rom the valve seat! as well as from the valve head, and
that a vena contracts is ~ormed well downstream o~ the

geometrical minimum area.

The steady ~alling o~f o~ the coe~~icient during this

stage suggests that the breakaway from the seat is a relatively

gradual process, not a sudden one.

In the ~ourth and ~inal stage the valve head has been

lifted so far that there is no longer any breakaway from the

sealing ~a'ce on the valve head. The valve head exerts less

influence on the ~low, and thedischarge is now limited by

surface friction rather than by any reduction o~ area.

Fig. (9) exhibits the di~ferent ~low patterns discussed

above and presents a more realistic picture o~ the ~low process

than Fig. (10). It is on this ground that the variable curtain

area is to be preferred to the ~ixed port area usually used to

calculate the coef~icient o~ discharge.

In order to calculate the cylinder induction pressure

and temperature, a mathematical model has been adopted which

makes use of the energy equation and the perfect gas law,

together with the experimental information about the discharge

coef~icient and the laws governing the heat exchange process.

The mathematical model used for this investigation

has ample room ~or improvement. One of the weak links in it

is the inlet valve boundary o~ the cylinder. The pressure

and temperature at this point are assumed to remain constant.

This is not the case in practice. Another approximation which

has been made is to add the heat transfer ~rom the inlet port

surfaces to that ~rom the cylinder sur~accs in the energy

equation, section (2.2.1). This has been resorted to due to

the lack o~ an e~fective mathematical tool in the model.

The only alternative is to abandon the quasi-steady ~~ow

assumption and build the model on unsteady ~low basis. This

will enable the intake port to be considered as thermodynamic

system in its Olal right. Intake port heat trons~er eff'ect on

engine breathing can then be seen more clearly. The incoming

charge elements are heated all the way during thoir passage

through the intake port. The procedure adopted here represents

a shi~t in the time scale in the sense that the charge mass

elements, during a step, are first admitted into the cylinder,

and then the e~~ect o~ the intake port heat trans~or is

evaluated( 61), which can be accepted as a simplic'Ltion to

obtain ~irst estimates o~ engine breathing per~ormance.

Examples have been quoted, section (2.2.1), where a similar

procedure has been used in other models, or rocommended as a

suitable approximation.

In section (1.3), it was shown that tho exhaust

residuals may have important adverse in~luence on volumetric

e~~iciency. This is an area in which a uee~ul work can be

20
done. Contrary to the present experimontal evidence, Reynolds

et aI, concluded that the heating o~ the charge by exhaust

residua1s was negligible and that it reduced the volumetric

 68.

efficiency by less than l~.

It is difficult to establish the relationship between

an actual engine and a mathematical model. People tend to talk

about a model as the "engine". The results obtained from a

model must be viewed within the definitions and assumptions

made.

Figs. (13, 14) show the theoretical presHure loops

without, and with heat transfer considerations rospectively.

Fig. (15) shows tbe experimental induction 'pressures as measured

on tbe engine by a Farnboro' indicator. Once these pressures

are determined, the mass flow into tbe cylinder, and hence

volumetric efficiency, is determined for any speed. The

cylinder pressure was taken as the valve throat pressure.

Figs. (IBA, IBD, 19) show the theoretical pressures with, and

without heat trnnsfer by both the energy balance and the reduced

area methods as compared to tbe experimental pressures.

A close look at Figs. (IBA, lBD) shows that although

the experimental and theoretical curves agree reasonably well

in general shape and display the same features, there are

certain discrepancies. Consider first the pressure loops as

calculated by tbe energy balance method (beat transfer allowed

for). It is noticeable that the experimental cylinder pressures

are consistently lower at a given speed than the calculated ones

during the first half of the induction period, and higher during

the latter half of the period. The discrepancies are due to

the wave action in accelerating and decelerating the air in the

induction system. This was neglected in the theorotical analysis.

The acceleration whicb would, generally, corrosppnd to the

valvo-opening period would result in a lowering of the

theoretical pressures during this period, while the deceleration

of the air in the induction system during the valve-closing

period, would assist the air flow and tend to raise the

theoretical pressure curves. As can be seen from Figs.

(18A, 18B) this argument generally holds for tho pressure

curves calculated by the reduced area method. However, the

latter curves are always lOt~er than those calculated by the

energy balance metnod.

Certain characteristics of the induction process are

displayed by both the theoretical and experimental curves of

Figs. (18A and IBB). In the early stages of the induction

stroke the valve opening is comparatively small and in spite

of the high coefficient of discharge under these conditions,

the rate of air flow is not sufx'icient to counterbalance the

fall of pressure due to the rapid increase in cylinder volume.

For a given initial pressure, atmospheric in the present case,

the beginning of the intake process is marked by a rapid fall

in pressure and the higher the mean piston speed, tho greater

is the depression in the cylinder. At all speeds the pros sure

recovery as the cylinder fills is quite rapid and in nearly

all cases the cylinder pressure is either equal or well

above atmospheric pressure by the time the inlet valve is

closed, table (1).

Before dealing with the effects of heat transfer on

the engine breathing, it is t~orthwhile to clarif'y the reduced

area concept, section (2.3). It is obvious that the inlet

valve is only one of the restrictions present in the induc~ion

system. In a compression ignition engine the manifold and port

may offer an appreciable restricting influence on the air flow.

 70.

In a sprak ignition engine the carburettor represents a

fUrther restriction.

The e~ect o~ combining these orifices by this method

is clearly demonstrated graphically in Figs. (25, 26). The

reduced discharge coe~~icient, Fig. (26), is of nearly steady

value. According to Jones's 11 calculations, this coe~~icient

approximated to unity thus simplifying the calculations.

This was not ~ound to be the case in the present instanco.

The mass ~low at a particular crankangle WaS calculated using

the reduced coef~icient corresponding to that angle and the

corresponding reduced area. This method, ho,,,ever, does not

seem to give improved results. Figs. (18A and l8B) in ~act

show that the predicted pressures are in~erior to those

predicted by the energy balance method where the inlet valve

curtain area alone is considered.

The predicted volumetric e~~iciency after allowing ~or

heat transfer, Fig. (23), compares reasonably well with the

experimental curves. l1ith both the energy balance and the

reduced area methods, the predicted curves are lower than the

measured e~iciency by about 5% on average. The characteristic

shape o~ the volumetric e~ficiency curve is shown in both

Figs. (23, 24). At the low speed range, the major VOlumetric

e~ficiency loss ,factor is heat transfer. As the speed is

increased the e~fect o~ heat trans~er diminishes and another

~actor becomes more important. This is the induction system

resistance due to increased veloci,ty of the gas stream. These

are the main ~actors which give the shape o~ the measured

volumetric e~~iciency curve sho\1TD in Figs. (23, 24). The

maximum deviation between the predicted and measured volumetric

 71.

eiciency occurs at the maximum volumetric eiciency Fig. (23).

Several reasons contribute to the discrepancy between the

measured anrt ostimated volumetric eiciency. One reason is that

heat transer eects have been over-estimated as will be shown

below. Other actors include errors due to the various

assumptions used and experimental errors in measuring the

volumetric eiciency and the discharge coeficient. Diesel

engines o similar design to the engine used in this investigation

are reputed to have a flatter volumetric eiciency curve than .

is shown in Fig. (24).

Figs. (19, 20) show the eect o heat transer on the

predicted pressures and temperatures respectively at some

selected speeds. Fig. (19) very clearly shows that a better

agreement with the experimental pressures is obtained by taking

account o heat transfer. Heat addition from cylinder walls

raises the pressure in the cylinder, a feature exhibited by

the predicted curves with all speeds. Fig.(20) shows some

interesting eatures and brings the discussion to an important

point. This is the concept of charge heating. It is a false

impression to think that the charge temperature is raised at

the end o induction simply because o heat transfer from the

port and cylinder walls. Undoubtedly this is a major contributing

factor. The dash-dot curve of Fig. (20) shows that although heat

trAnsfer was neglected, the charge temperature at inlet valve

o
closure is raised by as much as 28 C. OVer the temperature at

inlet valve opening. The contents in the clearance space lose

temperature as they are expanded, but the air entering through

the inlet valve is assumed to undergo, overall, a process of

throttling and enters the cylinder at the same temperature it

 72.

had in the iruet port. This accounts for the ini tia1

depression of the tempe:rature curve, Fig. (20), with no heat

transfer. As the cylinder fills up, the air in the cylinder

is compressed once more and there is a steady rise in

temperature during the latter part of the induction stroke,

becoming somewhat steeper after b.d.c. because of the

reduction in cylinder volume as the piston rises. The dotted

curve on the same graph shows the predicted temperature

behaviour taking heat transfer into account. This curve

shows a characteristic initial sharp rise in temperature

corresponding to the initial depression discussed in the

previous case. Here again the cylinder contents are cooled

due to the increasod volume. Since the cylinder and port

walls are assumed to be at fixed elevated temperatures, the

heat transfer process is enhanced and the rise in temperature

due to this overcomes, and supersedes, the cooling effect of

an increased volume. The initial rise in temperature falls

off steadily ~ecause of decreased heat transfer. The temperature

rises steadily and then sharply a.,b.d.c., because of the piston

compression, as well as heat transfer." At 2000 rev/min,

calculations indicate that the charge temperature is raised

0
by 91 C. over that at iruet valve opening, when heat transfer

is taken into consideration, at the end of the induction stroke.

The broken curve of Fig.(20) shows the predicted tomperature

behaviour when heat transfer from tho inlet port alone is

considered which, as expected, lies between the curves of the

two previously discussed cases. Tables (lA, lB, lC, ID) show

the Variation of the gas temperature, pressure and volumetric

efficiency over the whole speed range for different heat

 73.

transer conditions, at inlet closure.

In evaluating volumetric eficiency, i t is. vital to

indicate the reorence point o definition, that is whether

it is referred to the inlet port or to atoospheric conditions.

As can be seen rom Fig. (11), the volumetric eiciency,

ref'erred to atmospheric conditions, increases with decreased

inlet port average gas temperature as one might expect.

Fig. (12) however shows that when tho volumetric eficiency

is based on inlet port conditions, the eicisDcy increases

with increased inlet port temperature. At a glance this might

seem paradoxical, but in act, it is a perectly valid result.

It is clear that the higher the inlet port gas temperature,

the less Will be the temperature rise at the end o induction,

and remembering that the volumetric ef'iciency is reerred to

inlet port conditions, the higher will be the volumetric

ef'iciency. This behaviour would be r~lized with a rca1

engine i all other variables were kept constant.

Heat transer eects on engino breathing arc well

illustrated in Fig. (22). Consider first the case with no

heat transer. The volumetric eiciency decreases slowly

f'rom 94.5% at 800 rev/min to about 89), at 2400 rev/min

(maximum speed), not showing the characteristic maximum,

Fig. (24), of' the real engine. The reasons behind this

deviation have been dis'cussed a1roady. At the low speed

range, the main reason or the deviation is the fact that

heat transer eects are not included. The drop in volumetric

eiciency at the highest speeds is due to increased :flo,~

resistance in the induction system, particularly the inlet

valve. The second curve in Fig. (22) shows the volumetric

 74.

efficiency when heat transfer from the inlet port only is

allowed for by the formula established experimentally in

chapter (3). See equations (2.8 and 3.18). According to

this formula, the efficiency is 10lfered by 7'" at 800 rev/min,.

and by 4.51> at 2400 rev/min. The fact that heat transfer is

greater at the lower speeds than at the higher ones can be

seen from equations (2.8, 2.10, 2.11), where the heat transfer

coefficient is proportional to the engine speed raised to an

index of less than unity in the three formulae. In addition

to this, the mass flow rate is increased in proportion to

engine speed, producing a cooling effect. The third curve in

Fig. (22) shows the case where heat transfer from the cylinder

only is considered. The same features are shown as in the last

case, heat transfer was allowed for in this case by the Annand

formula, equation (2.10). The corresppnding reduction in

efficiency here varies from 15'" at the low speed range to 81>

at the highest speeds. To get the combined efect of heat

transfer on engine breathing from both port and cylinder by

adding the effect of both indicate a total reduction of between

21% and 12.5%. However the lowest curve in Fig. (22), in which

heat transfer from both port and cylinder was allowed for shows

a total reduction of between 19% and 9~ at the lowest and

highest speeds respectively. The reason for the apparent

discrepancy is that the cylinder heat transfer will be greater

i:f the charge enters the cylinder cooler, as is the case \fhen

port heat trans:fer is neglected. When the latter is taken into

account, however, heat trans:fer :from the cylinder walls becomes

less, due to the increased heat contents of the enteri~~ gas,

thus the discrepancy in the figures quoted above.

 75.

Fig. (21) shows the erfect of heat transfer on the

volumetric erficiency as computed by the Annand and Eichelberg

formu1ae, equations (2.10 and 2.11). This tigures shows that

the Eichelberg formula, derived for laree slow running engines,

is inrerior to that of Annand's. An interesting point to

be made here is that the Eichelberg formula indicatos that

with increasing engine speed heat transfer effects on volumetric

efficiency decrease at a greater rate than is shown by Annand's

tormula. This is because the Eichelberg equation (2.11) implies

that the heat transfer coefficient is proportional to the engine

speed raised to the power 1/3, \'Ihile the corresponding ADnand

power is 0.8.

It is concluded rrom the abovo discussion that heat

transrer effects have b .... n somel1hnt over-estimated, as Fig. (23)

shows. Within reasonable limits, and considering that various

assumptions were made in the theory, the results on the l1bole

show the correct trends reasonably well.

There has been some conrlicting opinions about the

meaning and implications of the inlet Mach index. This has

been clarified in the text. Fig. (23) shows thnt this is merely

another way of expressing the gas vel.ocity through the inlet

val.ve. The inlet rfach index h011ever also deponds on the inlet

temperature, vol.ve and cyl.inder geometry, equation (2.20).

It is this fact that makes the inlet Nach indox, or gulp factor,

such a usetul design tool. In other words, this rnctor is

more signiricant than tho engine speed sinco it embodies other

factors which arfect engine breathing. It has been pointed

out already, section (2.4), that experimental eVidence shows

that vol.umetric efficiency is a unique function or the gulp

 76.

factor over widely varying operating and design conditions

and over a wide speed range. Fig. (30)15, suggests that

engines should be designed to have an inlet Mach index of about

0.5 at the max~mum operating speed. Above this value the

ef1.'iciency falls off rapidly; Also according to this

theory, little gain in efficiency is to be expected by

increasing the inlet valve si;e or flow coofficient, equation

(2.20), if the Mach index is already less than 0.5 at the

highest operational speeds. It is interesting to note that

the measured efficioncy of the engine does actually' fall off

at about 0.5 inlet Mach index, Fig. (23).

The charts shown in Figs. (27, 28, 29) express the

data of Livengood, who employed this approach. These charts

have been prepared by Rootes Motor Co. from ths original data.

It has been suggested that such data may be used to obtain a

preliminary estimate of the volumetric 'efficienoy of a new

or an exi~ting engine. The procedure of using the charte

wae discussed in section (2.4). Fig. (23) shows that the

volumetric efficiency computed from these charta agrees very

well with the measured value for the inlet Mach index abovo 0.4.
The agreement is however less favourable below that value.

The reason for this discrepancy may be seen as follows.

From oquation (2.20),

Up 2SN
z =
Ae av Ae av

Thus at low speeds, for a given design and inlet

conditions, a low inlet t-fach index is obtained. From Fig. (27),

a low Z will give a high volumetric efficiency for the usual

angle of inlet valve closure. Remembering that, in preparing

the charts, the volumetric efficiency was based on inlet

 77.

port cond~t~ons and there~ore they represent the cyl~nder

per~ormance alone, and that the engine was ~itted with short

intake and exhaust pipes and large surge tanks so as to

minimise ~luctuations in the inlet system, section (2.4).

Conditions such as these enhance a lligher volumetric e~~~ciency

at low speeds particularly. A basic requirement ~or obtaining

good results ~rom the charts is that the design o~ the engine

should bo similar to that o~ CF~ engine ~or which these results

were obtained. Also the measured volumetric e~~iciency,

Fig. (24), should have been determined in a similar manner

to the original experiments.

A ~inal and most important conclUsion, is that, since

thermal e~~iciency is little a~~ected by engine size 50 , Power

output is proportional to piston area, bmep, and piston speed

~or engines o~ similar design. Also, similar engines have

been ~ound to have the same volumetric e~~iciency at the same

12
piston speed The conclusion drawn ~rom the above argument

is that the output o~ similar engines is proportional to the

piston area rather than the piston displacement. However

since the engine weight is proportional to displacement, the

weight per unit output is proportional to the stroke. Th{s

relation constitutes a ~avourable argument ~or the use o~

small cylinders, where ~oasible. It should also help in

12
deciding the number o~ cylinders to be used
 TABLE 1

Charge Conditions at inlet valve closure

(EnergY balance method)

A - No heat transfer B - From port only

Speed rev/min 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 BOO 1200 1600 2000 2400

-.J
Vol efficiency?& 94.5 94.2 93.2 91.8 89.2 87.4 88.5 88.4 87.7 85.9 00

Pressure
16.27 16.47 16.61 16.68 16.49 16.47 16.67 16.79 16.87 16.73
1b;tlin2

Temperature 26.62 31.38 36.89 42.73 47.58 53.23 53.21 55.96 60.03 63.96
,

o
Initial tei!lpe~ature = 15.0 C.
. 2
Initial pressure = 14.7 1b;tlin
 TABLE 1 cont.

C - From cylinder only D - Transfer from cylinder and port

Speed rev/min 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400

Vo1 eiciency ~ 79.8 81.3 81.8 81.7 80.0 74.7 77.1 78.1 78.5 78.0

2
Pressure1b:r!in 16.74 16.99 17.14 17.23 17.18 16.88 17.13 17.27 17.36 17.33

0
Temperature C. 87.63 86.87 88.12 90.48 93.03 1l.3.44 107.93 106.44 106.97 108.33
 TABLE 2
Volumetric efficienc~ evaluation b~ the inlet 4i
:.
Nach indox method, see figs. (27,28,29) I;
Speed Inlet Vol. Factor Vo1. Inlet Inlet Pressure Pressure Vo1
r.p.m. ~lach efficiency overlap
0
efficiency Pressure Pressu?ie Ratio correction ef:Ciciency
index Vel. 25 1'0 Ve2=Vel x 1'0 Drop 2 1btl'in P~Pi factor f
p
Ve=Ve2 x f p
1btfin

800 0.221 0.860 1.000 0.860 0.49 14.21 1.034 0.994 0.855
900 0.249 0.857 1.000 0.857 0.55 14.15 1.039 0.993 0.851
1000 0.276 0.854 1.000 9. 8 54 0.61 14.09 1.043 0.992 0.847
1100 0.304 0.853 1.002 0.856 0.67 14.03 1.048 0.991 0.848
,
1200 0.332 0.852 1.004 0.855 0.74 13.96 1.053 0.990 0.846 !Xl
0
1300 0.359 0.852 1.005 0.857 0.80 13.90 1.058 0.989 0.848
1400 0.387 0.852 1.006 0.857 0.86 13.84 1.062 0.988 0.847
1500 0.415 0.851 1.007 0.857 0.92 13.78 1.067 0.988 0.847
1600 0.442 0.850 1.008 0.857 0.98 13.72 1.071 0.987 0.846
1700 0.469 0.847 1.009 0.853 1.04 13.68 1.075 0.985 0.840
1800 0.498 0.843 1.010 0.851 1.10 13.60 1.081 0.983 0.837
1900 0.527 0.837 1.010 0.848 1.16 13.54 1.086 0.981 0.832
 TABLE 2 (Continued)

Speed Inlet Vo1 Factor Vo1 Inlet Inlet Pressure Pressure Vo1
r.p.m. Mach ef'f'iciency overlap ef'f'iciency Pressure Presa~e Ratio correction ef'f'iciency
0
index Vel 25 f'o Ve=Ve1 x f'o Drop 2 1b:r!in PelPi f'actor f' Ve=Ve2 x f' p
p
Ib:r!in

2000 0.553 0.832 1.011 0.841 1.22 13.48 1.091 0.978 0.822
2100 0.581 0.824 1.011 0.833 1.28 13.42 1.095 0.976 0.814
2200 0.608 0,815 1.012 0.825 1.55 13.35 1.101 0.975 0.804 00
~

2300 0~637 0.803 1.012 0.815 1.41 13.29 1.106 0.974 0.794
2400 0.663 0.790 1.012 0.800 1.47 13.23 1-0111 0.974 0.780
 82 .

2.7 CONCLUSIONS

1. Heat transfer has bean shown to be a most

critica1 factor affecting engine breathing.

2. The formula establiahad experimentally in

chapter (3) for evaluating in1et port heat transfer

of a compression ignition engine shows that the

volumetric efficiency is reduced by about 5.51'0, on

average, due to heat transfer from this locality.

,. The overall roduction in efficiency due to heat

transfer from both port and cylinder amounts to

about 14%, on averago, depending on engine speed.

4. The various methods used to evaluate the engine

breathing capaCity, are, generally, in agreement

with the actua1 measurements.

CH A.P T ER THREE

Heat transrer in engines

3.1 Literature survey

3.2 Experimental investigation of

inlet port heat pick-up.

 83.

3.1 LITERATURE SURVEY

3.1.1 MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER

The heat exchange process between the working fluid

and the surfaces which contain it in an engine takes place by

both convection and radiation. Radiation only becomes important

when the working fluid--is inlamed, that is, during combustion

and part of the expansion strokes.

It is generally agreed that most of the heat transfer

takes place by forced convection to the walls where it is

conducted through to the cooling medium. Forced convection

is also the mode by which heat is transferred rom the walls

to the cooling medium with normal engine operations.

RADIATION

The theory of radiant heat transer is built up on

the concept of a "black body", that is, one which has a

surace which emits or absorbs equally well radiations of

all wavelengths, and which reflects none o any radiation

falling upon it.

The emissi ve potter of a blacl< body depends on its

- 42
temperature only. It has been shown that the rate of heat

transfer from ono black body at a temperature Ti OK to another

o
at a temperature T2 K, parallel to it across a space containing
no absorptive material, is given by,

Q
= 2.8 x 10 -12 (Ti
4 - T2 4) chu. ft -2 s e-2
c . ; ( 3.1)
A

Real surfaces are not black but reflect radiation to

an extent which depends on the wavelength. Gases are very

 84.

far from black and they absorb and emit radiation almost

exclusively within certain wavelength bands characteristic of

the materia1 4J.

The variation from a black body is usually dealt with

by applying a multiplying factor to the black body equation.

A shape factor is also app~ied to cover the fact that radiation

over an actual surface varies from point to point. Those

factors can only be calcula~ed for simple cases.

In the internal combustion engine radiation is from

a mixture of gases at high and varying temperatures and the

surfaces concerned are very far from simple.

Radiation differs in spark ignition engines from

compression ignition engines due to the nature of the combustion

processes in the two cases. In the former combustion takes

place in a more or less homogeneous mixture of fuel and air

and the flame front proceeds from the point of ignition across

the combustion chamber. Although the flame f'ront is illu,ainous,

it appears 4J that all the chemical intermediaries in the process

are gaseous.

In the compression ignition engine, the combustion

process involVes the formation of solid carbon particles as

an intermediate step between the reactants and the products

of' combustion. These. are highly illuminous and indicate

that radiation in compression ignition engines may be of

greater importance than in spark ignition engines 44

To summarize then,

(a) Radiation is only important during the periods

of' combustion and expansion phases and may be

considered negligible compared to convection

 85.

during the rest o the engine cycle.

(b) The extent o radiation as compared to convection

in spark-ignition engines and compression-ignition

engines are dierent. This ia to be expected due

to the dierent nature o the combustion process.

(c) It is not possible at the moment to determine the

chemical composition o the combustion gases

accurately or the low patterns which exist in

the combustion chamber o an engine and the best

that can be oered, as far as radiation is

concerned, is a actor applicable to the entire

combustion-expansion phase.

FORCED CONVECTION

Forced convection is the term used to designate the

process o heat transer between a luid and a solid surace

in relative motion, when the motion is caused by orces other

than gravity. It has already been indicated that most o the

heat which flows between the working fluid and the engines

parts and between these and the cooling fluid is transferred

by this process.

In the study of forced convection from a fluid to a

surface under steady conditions use is made of heat transfer

coefficients which are defined as the rate of heat transfer

between the two media per unit area, per unit time, per unit

temperature difference, that is,

Q
h = ............ (3.2)
A (T - Tw)
Furthermore, studies of forced convection heat transfer
 86.

betl4een a fluid and a smoot;h tubular passage in the turbulent

regime have shown that results may be correlated by using the

following expression :

...............
Where,
hD
Nusselt's number.
Nu =

Reynold's number.
Re =

Pr = Prandtl's number.

For gases Pr remains substantially constant and when

raised to its exponent is very nearly equal to unity, hence,

h =
D
............... ( 3.4)

In engines conditions are not steady but vary cyclically.

If the process can be regarded as quasi-steady BO that the

instantaneous transfor rate is proportional to the temperature

difference existing betl~een the surfaces and the t~orking fluid

at any instant, then the idea of an instantaneous transfer

coefficiont may be applied.

It is very important to realize the difficulties

involved in applying relations of the form given in equation

(3.4) to the process of heat transmission between the working

fluid and the cylinder assembly of an engine. These may be

listed as follows 1

1. The cyclic nature of the process t'lith temperatures,

velocities, and fluid characteristics varying with

time and position in the system~

 2. The complex goometry of the flow passages and

the fact that their shapes vary with the crank position,

and thus with time.

J. The heat transf'er process is convective as well

as radiant, hence the formula must be completed to

allow for radiation as for instant in Annand's formula 4J

4. An appreciable portion of the heat flow to the

cylinder walls is due to piston friction.

To these theoretical difficulties aro added great

technical di i cuI ties such as in measuring sur:face te;:tperatures

and in measuring or even de:fining gas temperatures, :flow

patterns, and other important fluid characteristics.

On the other hand, at least for four-stroke engi~es,

geometrical simlitude may be assumed and the working fluid

composi tien, for the usual range o:f fuel-air ratio, may be

considered to be nearly similar despite the violent changes

it undergoes in passing through the engine. Under these

circumstances it may be considered that experimental relations

obtained on a given engine may be applied to other engines.

For convenience, heat trnnsf'er surfaces in an engine

may be subdivided into the :followine :-

1. Inlet port

2. Inlet valve

J. Cylinder surfaces including liner, hoad and

piston crown.

4. Exhaust port.

5. Bxhaust valve.

The hoat pick-up o:f the incoming charge from the

inlet port is the prime area o:f interest in this study.

 88.

An experimental investigation will be described shortly.

In what follows a review of formulae commonly used in heat

transfer calculations is presented 1-

CYLINDER HEAT TRANSFER

~tany attempts have been made to establish a relation

for the instantaneous heat transfer coefficient between cylinder

surfaces and the working fluid. The most commonly used formulae

are those of Annand 43 , and Eichelberg45 In his paper Annand

gave an excellent historical and critical review of nearly all

existing formulae including Eichelberg's.

EICHELBERG'S FORmILA

Eichelberg put forward his formula in 1939 and despito

tho elapse of considorable tim~ since, it is still widely used

in the United states and Europo.

Eicholborg and his co-workers tiere the first to attempt

direct measuroments of the instantaneous hoat transfer rate in

an operating engine. They chose a point in the combustion

chamber of a large, slo\f running, ttfO stroke comprossion-

ignition engine such that tho heat flux was substantially

normal to the surface. Using thormocouples, they determined

the variation with time of the metal surface tomperature inside

the chamber, and of the outer surface at the same point.

Those measuroments enabled them to determine the transfer

rate at any instant by a method which involved harmonic

analYSis 45

Eichelberg exp.ressed his results in the following

formula which was intended to cover both convective and

radiant heat tranafer components :

h = 8.06 x 10-5 (u ) 1/3 (PT)!
p
p Cylindor pressure, atmospheres.
 Annand levelled the following criticisms against

this formula :

1. The constant term is not dimensionloss since it

c~vers both radiation and convection which vary so

differently.

2. The piston mean velocity (Up) was raised to the

palter 1/3 with no explanation.

J. The choice of the (PT) group was arbitrary.

It seems that this was borrowed from the Nusselt

equation (see lator) with the powers of P and T

adjusted to give groater importance to the latter as

a means of allowing for radiation.

4. Since the experimental data, on which this

formula is based, was obtained on relatively slow and low

rated engines, the results are not applicable to modern

high specific output fast running engines.

5. The thermocouples used for the experiments were

relatively crude, which measured the temperature 0.25 mm

belo~1 the surface, where the teLlperature would be

considerably damped. In order to allow for this effect,

corrections \1ore cmde to the recorded temperature to

yield the trmmetal surfaoe temperature, but the

- .
adequacy of these corrections is questionable.

3.1.6 ANNAND 'S FOIDlULA

From dimensional considerations of the various

variables ,~hich might have an influence on the heat exchange

process and after carofUI review of the literature and published

43 .
experimental dota, Annand concluded that the most important

single parameter affocting heat transfer by forcod convection

 90.

in a given location in an engine is the Reynolds number and

produced a power law o~ the ~orm.

b
Nu = a Re

He considered that radiation must di~fer in magnitude

in dif~erent engine types and decided to include a separate

term ~or radiation. in contrast to the Eichelberg ~ormula.

as f'ollows:-

aK
............ (3.6)
h = D

Where B. the engine bore. is the characteristic dimension

for the cylinder.

c Constant during combustion and expansion.

c = 0.0 during the rest of' the engino cycle.

The actual limits sot by ADDand on the val~es o~ the

constants a. b and c. are as ~ollows :-

For a two-stroke engine.

a = 0.76

b = 0.64'!: 0.10

c = (l.48.t 0.52) x 10-12

4
Chu. ~t-2 Sec -1 deg C-

For a four-s-troke engine.

a =,0.26

b = 0.75.t 0.15
c = (1.67 + 0.60) x lO~2

Chu. ~t
-2 soc -1 deg.C -4

The gas exchange procosses wore excluded ~rom this

analysis by Ar~and.

Gas properties are to be evaluated at the average

 91

temperature of the charge which is derived from the cylinder

pressure diagram.

This formula is an attempt successful in that the

constants are dimensionally correct but in common with the

other formulae it suffers from the fact that the mean piston

speed is used to represent the flow patterns and the limits

set on the constants are very wide for design purposes.

The first term on ths right is the convective component while

the second term represents radiation.

3.1.7 NUSSELTS roRr-IULA

Nusselt carried out some experiments on the heat

losses from cylindrical bombs after the ignition of a quiescent

air-fuel mixture and produced the following formula for the

instantaneous heat transfer coefficientl 4

-3 (T - Tw)
h == 5.24 x 10- 5 (1 + 0.38U ) (p2T)1/3 + -=2"".O""6::..,o::x:...;::;1::,O_ _ _ _ __
p (T - Tw)

p - atmospheres.

The first term on the right represents convection and the

second term radiation. This formula is now little used.

The constants are again not dimensionally corroct, mean

piston speed is used to characterize the flow patterns, and

the flame radiation, by far the more important part of

radiation
46 , i s neglected.

3.1.8 OVERBY'S FORMULA

Overby and his co_workers 47 were not able to express

their results in terms of an instantaneous heat transfer

coefficient. They constructed a formula for a motored engine

in terms of instantaneous transfer rate Q/A Chu. t- 2 sec -1

 92

Q S su ri
= _..tP:..-.l-_Cpi
__ t 0.26 P - 0.035) x 10-
4
+ 0.1:'" - 0.0;
3600A Id tI Ki rP
i r: i

.......... (3.8)
P ~ atmospheres.

Where suffix (i) indicates in1et manifo1d conditions.

Xt is noticeab1e that the wa11 temperature does 'not

appear in this formu1a at a11 and the same heat transfer rate

wou1d be predicted, for given manifo1d conditions, whatevor

the wa11 temperature.

For the fired engine, the authors proposed that the

heat transfer rate obtained from the above equation for any

crankang1e shou1d be mu1 tip1ied by the ratio of the differences

between gas and wa11 temperature for the fired and motored

engine appropriate to that same ang1e.

3.),.9 WOSCHNXS FORHULA

In a reoent pub1ication Woschni 46 presented yet another

formu1a for the instantaneous heat transfer coefficient in

interna1 combustion engines. From the 1aws of simi1arity

governing convective heat transfer, he derived an equation

oontaining t\#O conveotive terms, one of whioh takes into

account the piston motion and the other convection duo to

combustion as fo11owsr-
h = 110 B-O. 2 p O S iO. 53 WO. S Kca1. m-2 hr
-1
deg. C
-1

......... (3.9)
VT1
(p - Po)
P1 V1
c 1 ' 02 - Constants.
 93.

Suffix (1) indicatos gas conditions at a known point

for example at inlet valve closure and characterizes the

weight of the working fluid.

Po - the pressure ~ch would occur if, under the same

charge conditions, the engine was motored.

The terms in equation (3.9) relate ,luid flow conditions

during the~avenging periods and take into consideration the

type of combustion system.

Woschni's equation is supposed to be univorsally

applicable, but only in case of engines whose cylinder cover

configurations are geometrically similar. Different cylinder

cover designs necessitate investigations of other constants

on an experimental unit that is representative of a given

engine group. The experimental unit and the manner in which

Cl and c are determined for this particular unit and their

2
numerical values are described by Woschni
46

This formula represents a departure, for the'tetter,

from other formula in that it attempts to represent the flow

patterns in the engine more realistically.

As far as radiation is concerned,. Woschni used a

procedure much the same as that of Annand's.

3.1.10 OTHER FORHULAE

Many more formulae exist, thqmore important of l'lhich

are 1-

Elser's

Nu = 6.5 (1 + 0.5 A s/cp) (Re pr)!

~s - 'increase of entropy per unit mass from thestart

of combustion.
 94.

Oguri's formula represents a development of Elser's and

is as follows I

Nu = 1.75 (1 + ~s/Cp) (.Re p;Y (.2 + cos ( 8- 20

0

e _ degrees crankangle a.t.d.c.

3.1.11 INLET VALVE HEAT TRANSFER

To calculate the heat transfer rate from the inlet

valve to the incoming charge Annand's, Eichelberg's and the

relationship for low viscosity fluid flow in straight pipes

42 .
as proposed by McAdams are usually used.

Recently, Kapadia et al]8 and Annand 48 independently

conducted similar experiments on a model consisting of the

inlet valve which was heated electrically by wire heaters

in an apparatus similar to that shown in Fig. (1). Kapadia's

results are shown in Fig. (34) and a law was established to

fit the results in the form,

NU = 1.012 ~ 10-
4
Re l 27

Annand's results are shown

, in Fig. (35) and similarly

the following law was established.

0.6
Nu =a Re '.

However Annand found that the dimensionless factor

"a." was a function of the valve lift, Fig. (36).

Both authors concluded that the valve heating effect

on volumetric effiCiency was very small in the order of l~

to zt,.
These experiments were intended to investigate the

heating effect on the discharge coefficient on the inlet

valve under static conditions and controlled environment

which bear little resemblance to actual engine conditions.

 95.

3.1.12 XNLET PORT HEAT TRANSFER

As with inlet velve, similar relations are used in

both spark-ignition and compression-ignition engines. An

experimental investigation into the validity of such assumptions

will be described shortly. No attempt has been made to establish

a formula by carrying out experiments on an actual engine or

even a model.

3.1.13 EXHAUST VALVE AND PORT HEAT TRANSFER

Here again the same relations are used as those for

the inlet valve and port. Huber and Brown in their simulation

of the spark-ignition engine 25 have used these procedures.

They also calculated the heat lost from the exhaust pipe to the

atmosphere on the basis of free convection.

FACTORS AFFECTXNG HEAT TRANSFER IN ENGINES

(a) Gas motion

Nearly all the formulae quoted in the text use the

mean piston speed as a means of describing the motion of the

gases in the cylinder. Actual flow patterns are too complex

to admit description in details.

The various gas moyements that t~e part in the transfer

of heat are the flow of gases through the intake and exhaust

ports, the sweeping of the gases over the cylinder barrel and

head surfaces produced by the piston motion, and the turbulence

that may be set up in thegases.

A source of turbulence is the high gas velocity through

the intake port which reduces to swirl when the gas enters the

cylinder. In compression ignition engines swirl is assential

for efficient combustion and is sometimes promoted by using

 96.

masked or directional inlet valves

9

During combustion there is evidence o~ the existence,

within the charge, o a ~ield o small swirl or eddies.

As an explanation o the ~act that the rate o lame propagation

increases with engine speed, it has been suggested 49 that these

sWirls are the mechanism whereby the ~lame is propagated in

the cylinder. It is evident that this mechanism would also

trans~er heat and it may be one o~ the most important

contributing ~actors.

Possible source o~.this small-grain turbulence may be

the breaking down o~ the swirl induced in tho suction stroke

or of an unstable low conditions set up by the rapid compression

o the engine gases.

An account o these gas movements must be taken i the

low pattern in
, the engine cylinder is to be described more
realistically. All that can bo said about the mean piston

speed is that the gas velOCity is proportional to it.

(b) Gas Composition and Properties

Here again it is di~ficult to know the exact composition

of the gases during combustion and indeed during the rest o

the engine cycle since conditions change so rapidly with

location as well as with time. To perform cycle calculations

reasonably accurately, a knowledge o the gas composition is

essential. This is particularly important if heat transfer

e~ects on engine performance are to be evaluated.

The relevant gas properties are the molecular weight,

speciic heats, viscosity, and thermal conductivity - tables

of these properties are available and may be used for cycle

calculations.

For computer calculations it is much more convenient to

use expressions in which these properties are given as functions

of temperature (see next section).

For a mixture of n gases, if the molal fraction of the

jth component is Xj, then the mean properties are 4 ) t

Cp = 1: (Xj mj Cpj ) Im
n

m = 1. (Xj mj)
n

cz: (X
n
j r-;;;j )
From these, other properties such as the thermal

conductivity m~y be calculated. Properties aro usually evaluated

at the average of the gas and wall temperatures.

(c) Gas Temperature

The most dif~icult quantity to evaluate in engine cycle

heat transfer calculations is the mean temperature of the

working fluid.

EichelbOrg45 , Taylor 50 , and others determined effective

values for this temperature by varying the coolant temperature

for zero heat flow across the walls. The procedure is as

follows. A thermocouple is embedded in the location desired

such as the cylinder head, or combustion chamber walls, where

the rate of heat transfer could be determined from coolant

calculations. A plot of ,~all temperature against the rate

of heat transfor is then obtained which when extrapolated to

zeo heat flow gives the mean gas temperature. This roquirHs
 98.

great care in measuring the surface temperature of the wall.

A detailed cycle analysis requires the knowledge of

the gas temperature throughout the cyclo. An instantaneous

mean temperature may be obtained from instantanoous pressure

measurements together. with an estimation of the temperature

at the beginning of induction43 Such a temperature is not

satisfactory for the combustion phase since the temperature

varies widely throughout the combustion chamber. However tho

lack of an alternative forces the use of the mean temperature

so determined during the entire cycle.

 99.

3.2 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF INLET PORT HEAT PICK-UP

3.2.1 Intake Manifolds

The differences between, and the requirements of, the

induction manifolds of compression-ignition and spark-ignition

engines have been already discussed in secU.on (1.1;3). It was

pointed out that the induction system of the compression

ignition engine should be designed so as to give the maximum

breathing capacity. With carburetted spark-ignition engines,

the induction system is saddled with ensuring the equal

distribution of fuel and air to the separate cylinders, in a

multi-cylinder engine, as well. The fuel spray after leaving

the carburettor consists of partly evaporated fuel, a mist of

fine particles, and an amount of heavier particles of fuel.

The fuel spray becomes coarser and the proportion of heavier

particles increases as the suction head and air velocity at

the jets are decreased. The condition of the mixture at the

engine ports depends upon the heat added between the carburettor

and the cylinder entry point, the velocity of the flow, and

the design of the intake manifold. The manifold should take

the mixture supplied by the carburettor and equally distribute

both the air and the fuel between the various ports. Ports

must be designed to provide equal distribution between two

cylinders where both are fed from a single port.

It is extremely difficult to obtain equal distribution

between the various cylinders of a multi-cylinder engine

throughout the range of speed and load. Variation in

compression pressure between cylinders indicates unequal

air distribution 2l , which may correct or accentuate the unequal

 100.

distribution of fUel. Also a manifold that provides equal

air distribution does not nocessarily provide equal fUel

distribution, particularly when the mixture contains liquid-

fUel particles 17

The problem of unequal fUel distribution may be reduced

or entirely eliminated by making sure that all the fUel is

evaporated in the intake manifold and port. This however

requires supplying heat to the fUel. The drawback here is that t

the volumetric efficiency will be reduced by the heating effect

and the displacement of the air by the gaseous fUel.

Heat Transfer in Tubular Passages

When a fluid flows in a straight, smooth, tubular

passage and the passage wall is at a uniform temperature, then

if the flow is 'in tho turbulent regime the heat transfer

coefficient h may be predicted from the relation given by

equation (3.4).
Relations of this form have been established for the

inlet valve and cylinder walls with the values of the factor

'a' and the index 'b' determined experimentally for each case

as has been pointed out already.

The inlet port of an engine is very far from being a

smooth, straight, tubular passage. The flow process is not

stoady, neither is the heat flow. For a spark ignition engine

with a carburettor the situation is fUrther complicated by the

presence of liquid and vaporised fUel. In an attempt to make

temperature measurements in this part of the engine, one is

faced with great uncertainty. In view of these considerations,

and in order to isolate the effect of fual evaporation, a

 101.

comparative approach ~a6 adopted. The tirst step was to

investigate the problem on a compression-ignition engine inlet

port. A spark ignition engine running on a gaeeous tuel was

then studied. Xt is to be noted that in both the abovo cases

no tuel evaporation exiets. Xn the tinal stage, the spark

ignition engine vas stUdied running on the normal liquid tuel.

 102.

EXPERIf.1ENTAL EQUIPMENT

Fig. (31) shows, in diagrammatic form, the inlet port

of either engine with the thermocouples in position, Nickel-

Chromium/Nickel Aluminium alloy wires of 0.015 inch diameter

were used to measure the average gas and wall surface

temperatures.

Thermocouples Tg 2 and Tg were fixed in the middle of

l
the inlet port to measure the average gas temperature at

entrance and as near to the inlet valve as possible

respectively. Four thermocouples, designated as Tw ' Tw ,

l 2
TW and Tw4 were welded to the inlet port wa1ls at equa1
3
spacing along the port form entry to a position corresponding

to that of thermocouple Tg
2
A fine spot welder and a special tool similar to an

electronic gun were used to fire the wires at the metal

surfaces. A special holding rig had to be designed to reach

the desired locations due to the awkward geometry of the

~ylinder head and port.

The cylinder head had to be dismantled to weld the

thermocouples or to clean or replace them which had to be

done frequently. Incidentally, the port inside surface

area was measured by forcing plasticene so as to fill the

port completelY and then measuring the surface area of the

cast obtained.

A thermoflask containing melting ice was used as the

cold junction and copper compen("ating leads were connected

to the thermocouples at this unction, then to a voltage

measruing device.
 10).

Air and fUel mass flow rates into the engine were

computed in the usual way briefly descibred in chapter (2)

section (2.,.)}.
Liquid commercial propane in special bottles was used

to operate the spark ignition engine in one series of the

tosts as described above. This made necessary the use of

special carburation system. Of the many systems available,

the one used here was the TARTARINI. A schematic layout of

this appears in Fig. ()2). It is a liquid off-take system

because the fUel is drawn off the bottles in liquid form.

Before passing to the engine cylinder, this liquid must boil

to produce gas.

The essential components of the system are, a vaporizer

which is mere!y a heat exchanger where the engine outlet

cooling water is used to vaporize the liquid fUel, and a

carburettor l1hich is a simple aluminium al.loy casting.

T~e quantity of the gas entering the carburettor was controlled

by an adjustable brass screw plug. An idle by-pass circuit is

provided to allow fUel to flow dOlmstream 01' the throttle at

small openings. This by-pass circuit also ensured that there

was no mis-firing when the throttle is snapped open after

periods of idling. A venturi tube is also included in the

system upstream 01' tbe carburettor to measure the quantity of

gas supplied to the engine.

The manifold and port of the cylinder under test were

carefUlly lagged externally to avoid the cooling effect 01' the

engine fan, and the heating effect of the exhaust port and pipe

as much as possible.
 104.

).2.4 TEST PROCEDURE AND DEVELOP/lENT

It was first thought that the inlet port surface

temperature would remain substantially constant along the

length of the port for a given engine speed. Only one

thermocouple, Tv4 in Fig. (31), was welded. However for

curiosity's sake further thermocouples were welded in positions

Tv , TW and Tv3 to test this assumption. A glance at

l 2
Fies. (37, 38) shows that the surface temperature along the

port walls, for the same engine speed, varies quite considerably.

Needless to say that the above assumption is unjustified.

Hence the wall surface temperature was taken as the average

of Tvl and Tw Similarly, the average inlet port gas

4
temperature was taken to be the mean of Tg and Tg
2 f''!adings...
l
With the compression-ignition engine conditions settled

fiarly quickly and the cooling water temperature was controlled

rather easily. This was not the case with the spark-ignition

engine. About 15 minutes were allowed between readings for

con~itions to settle. The cooling water temperature was very

difficult to maintain constant. About six hours were required

to complete a single run.

For each speed a total of six temperature readings,

besides the readings necessary to compute the air, and, in

some cases, the fuel mass flow rates into the engine, were

recorded .

CALCULATION AND RESULTS

As implied above, the transfe1' process is assumed

to take place entirely by forced convection. The low

temperatures encountered during induction rule out the

 105.

importance of' radiation anyway. The calculations are further

simplif'ied by assuming one dimensional heat flow in a direction

normal to the metal surf'aces.

As in most studies of' f'orced convection heat transf'er,

the experimental data are present in terms of dimensionless

quantities involving a NusBit number and a Reynolds number.

In forming these groups geometric parameters have to be chosen

f'rom those which have some control on the f'luid f'10\1.

The basic def'inition of' Reynolds number is,

tu L . . . . . . .. (J .1.0 )
Re '"
".
L - Characteristic length dimension.

But,

Taking A , where D is the vulve head diameter taken

4-
aB the chnractex'istic length

48 r-t ~ e-. ( :3 .11 )
Re '"

The gas velocity in the inlet port may be given by,

UxA = ~'l x 2 S N
4 60

U = S B2. N

30 D2
 106.

Equation 3.10 may now bo written as f'ollOl~SI-

2 f S B2 N
!
Re = 5 f'" D

A similar procedure gives the f'ollo\1ing expression f'or

the Nusmlt number,

hD
Nu =
12 K

The problem has been reduced, mathematically anyway,

to evaluating Re and Nu as given by equations (3.11), (3.12), and

(3.13), however to do this t" t'\ 1 r, h and K have to be

eValuated.

INLET DENSITY AND AIR ~IASS FLOb' RATE

The density of' dry air in a mixture of' wate~ vapour,

air, and gaseous (or vaporised liquid) fuel is give)' very

12
closely by this expression

= ( 1 )x l~l_- )
R Tg 1 + F..!J!!L 1 + 1.6 ~
mf'

Z Mass ratio of' water vapour to dry air.

Tg - Average gas tecperature in the inlet port.

The two expressions in parenthesis can bo regarded

as corroction f'actors to the air density computed on the

assumption that the mixture is composed of dry air only (as

in the case of compression-ignition engine inlet port).

Tables of'these correction f'actors are given in the above

reference whore it is shown that their valuos, for normal

running condi tions, are very nearly equal to un! ty. Any

errors introduced by considering the gas as dry air in

calculating the density are, theref'ore. small compared to

 107.

errors arising from temperature ooeasurements.

The air mass flow was computed regarding the gas in

the inlet port to be a dry air.

VISCOSITY AND THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

These properties were evaluated at the film temperature

given by,

Tg + Tw
Tf =
2

Tg and Tw are as defined in section (3.2.4).

The viscosity of the gasee in the inlet port was taken

to be that of dry air ae given by the Sutherland formula 51

t' =

The values of the constants Cl and 02 are given in

the above reference for various gases for T in degrees Rankin.

Hence for air.

71.484 Tf3/ 2
= Tf + 180

Thermal conduotivity was evaluatod from.

K '" 0.25 (9) -5) r Cv ca1. cm.

-1
S9C.
-1
deg.C.
~l

Where:

poises

Cv ca1. g. -1 deg.C. -1

Taking y= 1.4, and assuming that Cv rewain constant

over the temperature range considered and converting units,

then:
K = 0.326 r
 108.

HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

The heat transfer process in the inlet port is unsteady,

that is to say it is time dependent. If the transfer processes

can still be regarded as quasi-steady, SO that the instantaneous

transfer rate is proportional to the temperature difference

existiI~ at any instant, then the heat transfer coefficient may

be given by the following expression 1-

Q
h = ..........
As (Tw - Tg)

2
As - port inside surface area ft.

The heat picked-up in the inlet port results in

elevating the gas stream temperature from Tg at entry to inlet

1
port to Tg at entry to the cylinder and to vaporize some of
2
the Uel in the case of liquid Uel-air mixture.

To set-up the relevant equations, there are throe

cases to be considered:

COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE

The gas stream consists of dry air only. If the

specific heat at constant pressure remains constant in the

temperature range considered, then the heat picked-up by the

air is given by:

)

Q = Cp Ma (Tg2 - Tgl )

. 1. Frem equation (3.14)

h = c~ (Tg
2 - Tgl ) ........... '3.15)
As (Tw - Tg)
 109.

).2.10 SPARK IGNI~ON ENGINE - GASEOUS FUEL

Assuming that gasoous fuel, commercial propane, onters

the inlet port completely vQPou~ized and dry, a similar equation

~or tho heat transfer coefficient as equation 3.15 holds with the

maes term adjusted to include the gaseous propane mass flow rate.

With the usual fuel-air ratios encountered at full

throttle operations gas propertios such ae epocific heats,

Viscosity, and thermal conductivity, at the temperatures

prevailing at the inlet port, remain substantially constant

and very nearly equal to those of air

14 For this case thon,

Cp ~Ia(l + F) (Tg2 - 'l'gl)
h = .......... (3.16)
As (Tw - Tg)

SPARK IGNI~ON ENGINE - LIQUID FUEL

The hoat transfer procoss in this case is further

complicated by the fuel evaporation and by the presence of

liquid on the walls. This last factor will be examined in the

discussion.

Tne fuel fraction evaporated cannot be detormined

quantitatively under engine conditions 16 Setting up an

equation for the heat balance as before gives.-

Cp Ma (1 + F) (Tg - Tg ) + Qev
h =
As
2 l

(Tw - Tg)
.. .. "' ........ ().17)

Wher.."

Qev = x Ma F L , the heat rate obsorbed in the evaporation
h
process.

x = Fraction of fuel evaporation.

Latent heat of evaporation.

 110

: Qev cannot be determined ,d th any certaini ty since x

cannot be determined. The heat transfer coefficient as given

by equation ().17) was evaluated by assumingl

a Total evaporation, that is x = 1.

b No evaporation at all, x = O.

It must be emphasised here that the assumptions regarding

the extent of evaporation affect Qev only s~nC9 all the other

quantities which aro affected by it, i.e. the temperatures and

mase flow rate, in equation ().17) were measured Ulmer actual

running conditione.
All the experiments wore carried out at ~ll throttle

and the spark pOSition ,,'as adjustod for best pOt1er. The jacket

water tCDperature was maintained constant for each run so as to

maintain reasonably steady conditions. 1:ni tial trai.l:.. shot~ed

that the ~e1-air ratio was very near~y equal to the stoichiometric

value and considering thescattering and thenon-conformity of the

spark-ignition enBi-ne results (see discussion), the ~e1-air

ratio was taken to be stoichiometric in all cases for both

liquid and gaseous ~el runs.

The Nu - Re relationship on a log - log scale is shown

in F:I.g. (45) for the compression ignition engine. It can be

seen rom this figure that a straight line relationship is

obtained with the usual scatter. In order to determine the

factor 'u' and index 'b', the scatter was eliminated by fitting
a straight line through the points by the method of least

equares, Fig. (b6). It has been found that the following

law fits these rosults:

Nu = e . ...... (3.18)
 Ill.

The corresponding pretrol engine results are shown

in Figs. (47, 48, 49) for propane, liquid fuel assuming

complete evaporation, and liquid fuel with no evaporation

respectively. As can be seen from those graphs no such

relation as that of the compression ignition engine could

be established.

The variation of wall surface and gas temperatures

of the inlet port with engine speed for the three cases and

the heat transfer coefficient are shown in Figs. (37-44, 50) .

 112.

3.2.12 DISCUSSION

It has been demonstrated in the text that gas

properties in the engine inlet port remain eeeentia11y

constant over the whole speed range. From equation (3.13),

the Nusselt number is dependant main1y on the heat tran8~er

coefficient. Similarly, the Reynolds number is a function

of the engine speed or the mass ~low rate, equations (3.11,

3.12), since these factors are proportiona1 to each other.

From equations (3.15,3.16 and 3.17) the heat trans~er

coe~ficient, h, may be written as ~ollowsl-

M (Tg2 Tg ) + Qev
h 0<.. _---==------::0...-__
l _
(Tw - Tg)

Where Qev= 0, except ~or spark ignition engine using

liquid fuel. In the other two cases no fuel evaporation

takes place.

The mass ~low rate M increases with increasing engine

speed. Tg - Tg , the temperature rise, decreases and

2 l
Tw - Tg, the driving wall-gas temperature difference increases

with speed. However, the variation of h with speed, that is

with Reynolds number, depends upon all those quantities as

given by the above expression simultaneously.

For the compression ignition engine Figs. (45, 50)

show that the heat transfer coefficient, and the Nusselt

number increase with engine speed and with the Reynolds

number respectively. The scatter of the points is typical

o~ heat transfer measurements. Several sets of data relating

to runs at dif~erent cooling water tomperatures were plotted

on the same graph SO as to obtain average values o~ the

~actor 'a' and the index 'b' o~ the usual Nusselt-Reynolds

 113.

relation,
b
Nu = a Re

The corresponding spark-ignition engine results are

shown in Figs. (47 - 50). The general trend shows that

the Nusselt number initially increases with the Reynolds

number to a maximum, then decreases as the latter is further

increased.

These results do not lend themselves to a rational

analysis and no law o the type established or the compression-

ignition engine inlet port heat pick-up could be obtained.

This trend applies equally well whether the spark-ignition

engine is run on liquid or on gaseous fUel. This behaviour

is very surprising in view o the act that with gaseous fUel

the situation seems to be more like that which exists in the

compression-ignition inlet port in the sense that a gas

stream is heated in a passage whose geometry is nearly the

same in both cases. In addition to this, the gas and surace

temperatures are vory nearly o the same order o magnitude

or both liquid and gaseous fUels as will be shown shortly.

In order to try to explain what seems to be a

. misbehaviour, which is encountered with the spark-ignition

engine inlet port heat pick-up, i t is logical to compare

the results or the three cases to see whether in act thore

is a basic reason which might explain the dierences and

hence the causes behind it.

It has Just been pointed out that the same trends

of results were obtained or the spark-ignition engine inlet

port with either gaseous or liquid fUel. This seems to

indicate that the fUel evaporation "apparently does not

 114.

affect the heat exchange process in SO far as the shape of

the curve of log Nu vs. Log Re is concerned, See Figs.

(47 T 49). It is very clear that the liquid propane is

completely vapourized by the time it reaches the engine

inlet port. This is because the boiling point of propane

is - 44F. at atmospheric pressure, and in view of the fact

that the engine cooling water which was used to vaporize

0 0
the propane was kept at temperatures between 50 e, and 80 e.
Hence no liquid propane could be present in the inlet port

even considering the cooling effcct of the carburettor

venturi.. It is therefore concluded t~at the fuel evaporation

is not the cause behind the peculiar spark-ignition engine

inlet port results. This does not mean that it has no effect

at all on the heat exchange process. Studies of wet mixtures

show that the presence of a liquid film on the walls of a

tube tends to increase the rate of heat tranefer

16 This

is confirmed in the present investigation as can be seen

from Fig. (50) where the heat transfer coefficient is numerically

greater for liquid fuel than for gaseous propane.

In discussing gas and wall surface temperatures, it

cannot be claimed that these represent the true temperatures

in the inlet ports. However the sheer consistency of the

rssults over many long runs give confidence in that they at

least represent the correct~ends. The literature is

completely lacking in experimental data in this field.

Hence, the gas temperature in Figs. (39, 40, 41) and port

wall surface temperatures in Figs. (42, 43, 44) offer

valuable information which may be used as a guide to estimate

gas and liall temperatures for theoretical calculations and

 115.

dos~gn. Improved ~nstrumentation will g~ve even more

conf~dence.

As far as the present results which have boen obtained

for the spark-i~ tion en~ne inlet port, a comparison between

these and those obtained for the comprossion-ignit~on engine

does not offer a great deal of help. The temperature trends

for both gas and walls referred to above are vary similar

for both the spark and compression-i~tion eng~nes. In all

cases the upstream gas temperature Tg , the downstream

l
t.emperature Tg and the temperature rise of tha gas stream
2
due to its passage through the inlet port (Tg - Tg2 ) ,
l
decrease with increasing en~ne speed. This is due to

~ncreased gas velocity and mass flow rate ~nto tho engine

with ~ncreased engine speed. Port walls surface temperatures

are generally on the decrease, Figs. (42-44).

t~",llP":"'"t" H. ;_<.vt;<-(e.~
It is evident that the e~ne parts BliO'IT;: .'A,!" et r

'N It"'- ev\ei,,,,1I. Ut'l.e!. tl

" copetp"bt temper..aiur.e at a given throttle, or fue1 rack,
''7
setting and constant coolant water temperatura. However

tho ~ncreaeed mass flow rate and level of turbulence in the

inlet ports with speed result in somewhat decreased wall

surface temporatures. In the presence of fUel evaporation,

the gas stream leaves the carburettor at very low temperatures.

It was common to seo ice formation on the outside surface

of the carburettor. Although the gas temperature Tg2 was

actually lower than thoee for the other two cases ata given

speed, the temperature rise, Tg - Tg , was higher, see

2 l
F~gs. (39, 40, 41).
One point which must not escape attention is that

although the trends of inlet port gas and surface temperatures

 116.

are similar, there are hOl~ever differences in magni tude

which could produce the differences reported here between

the inlet port heat exchange process of the spark and

compression-ignition engines.

All the relevant parameters affecting Nusselt

number have been discussed. No single reason can be seen

which may explain the spark-ignition engine results.

All that can be said in this respect is that the combined

effect of the mass flow rate M,the gas stream temperature

rise (Tg - Tg ) , and the driving temperature difference

2 I
(Tw"" - Tg), leads to an increase in the Nusselt number in
the inlet port of the compression ignition engine as the

engine speed is increased. With the spark-ignition engine

this increase is realized to a certain point after which"

Nusselt number decreases with increased speed.

Zt is difficult to pinpoint the changeover point,

that is the point at which Nusselt number begins to decrease

with further increase in Reynolds number, with any certainty

since it seems to vary from one run to another. Zt has been

observed howevor that in a lot of cases the change over point

occurs at about 2000-2250 rev/min. From Fig. (:)3)~. the

maximum volumetric efficiency and therefore the approximate

maximum torque speed occurs at about 2000 rev/min. These

observatione apply to both gaseous and liquid fuel results.

This however does not seem to be more than a coincidence

since there is no reason to believe that the spark-ignition

engine differs from the compression ignition engine in

this respect.
 117.

).2.1). FURTHER DISCUSSION

It can be seen from Fig. (50) that the heat trans~er

cop~ficient ~or both the spark and compression-ignition engines

increases linearly with speed up to about 2400 rpm. This

happened to be the maximum speed o~ the compression-ignition

engine. A~ter this point the heat tran9~er coe~ficient o~

the spark-ignition engine inlet port shows distinct discontinuity

and begins to fall with increased speed. It is interesting

to ask what would happen if the compression-ignition engine

speed could be raised or a high speed engine were to be used

in a similar investigation. The question hinges on the effect

of engine speed on the heat transfer process in the inlet

port. In the absence o~ experimental data, it is difficult

to assess the situation. To draw a comparison with cylinder

heat transfer measurements is useless in this respect, because

the data on which the accepted formulae (including Annand and

Eichelberg ~ormulae) have been obtained ~or 10\1 speed engines.

The present experimental evidence shows that heat transfer

coefficient increases \1ith engine speed raised to a power

n, (n <. 1.0). This procedure has been use.d with no

restriction on engine speed.

By de~inition

Q
h =
As (T,., - Tg)

For the c.i. engine, equation ().15)

Cp Ma (Tg2 - Tgl )
h =
As (Tw - Tg)
 118.

Ma increases with engine speed. (Tg2 - Tg ) decreases,

1
Figs. ()9, 40, 41). Xt is reasonab1s to expect this to be the

trend or a high speed c.i. engine. The present investigation

shows that Tg also decreases with speed. If speed was the

only variable and the cooling water temperature was maintained

constant, Tw would increase with engine speed17 However,

in the inlet port Tu decreases slightly with speed, Fig. (42).

With higher engine speeds, uhether h will decrease depends

on the way in which (Tu - Tg) varies. Xn the case o the s.i.

engine (Tu - Tg) increased ater a certain speed. Whother

the same pattern would be shown by the c.i. engine could only

be seen by experiment. These indings throw some shadow o

doubt on heat transer formulae in use today, but in these

matters, one can't be dogmatic.

ALTERNATIVE DEFXNITION OF "Re" NUMBER

So ar, the results have been computed with one

particular definition. o "Re" number, that is (Equation ).12),

N
.5,..D
For the conditions prevailing in the inlet port.

However an alternative deinition could have been

used (equation ).11);

Also .1 I<. N, hence wi thin the experimental errors,

it can be seen that Re ,,(. Re , and it may be expected
1 2
 119.

that the graphs of Re vs. Nu ~n both cases (on a log-log

scale) should have the same slope. Th~s means that nb" should

be the same ~n the equat~on,

However, ua n could be d~fferent. Fig. (51) shows

the Nu - Re relat~on. where Re = Re 2 , for the compression-

~gn~t~on eng~nG. It was found that the results ~n th~s

case were correlated by the following relationship;

0.55
Nu 0: 5.07 Re

W~th this defi~tion, the park-i~tion results

obviously will show the same trend as before.

).2.1.5 COMPARISON WITH PUBLISH~ RESULTS

To the author's knowledge, there ~s no comparable

work ~n the l~terature. All ~nvest~gations ~n the literature

deal with cyl~nder barrel, exhaust valves and inlet valves.

In the present investigation, ~t has been found that for

the compress~on i~tion engine inlet port,

Nu 0: ).15.5 ReO. 53

Annand's
4) and Kapadia's 38 results refer to the

heat pick-up of the charge from the inlet valve and were

obtained for the specific purpose of determining the effect

of heat transfer on the flow characteristics of the valve

~n static conditions. These results were d~scussed ~n

sect~on ().l.ll). They gave ~ndices of 0.6 and 1.27

respect~vely. Both authors reported that the reduct~on ~n
 120.

volumetric efficiency due to the in1et valve heating was

small, in the order of 1 - 2%.

"Pinkel's55 data on a cylinder head and liner of an

air cooled engine show an index of 0.76. Measurements on

exhaust valves quoted by Zip Kin 56 and by Taylor50 give

index values of 0.48 and 0.5 respectively. Therefore the

value of 0.53 reported here seems to be, broadly speaking,

in agreement with the publi6he~ results. The effect of

heat pick-up from the in1et port on volumetric efficiency

is discussed in detail in chapter (2).

rt is difficult "to assess the spark ignition engine

in1et por~ results, Figs. (47, 48, 49), in the absence of

directly comparable work. Perhaps the best that can be done

is to investigRte the problem on a single cylinder engine

using more refined instruments.

 121.

3.2.16 LIQUIFIED PETROLEUM GASES (LPG)

The use of LPG as fuel for internal combustion engines

warrants some comments. The performance characteristics of

an engine running on propane gas, stored in special bottles

in a liquified form,.have been investigated by Lyon54 among

many others. . The most important advantages in using LPG as

engine fuel are I

a Combustion chamber deposits are greatly

reduced.

b The exhaust contains lower percentage of

toxic substances than that of engines using

the normal liquid fuel.

c When used in quantities, fuel costs can be

much lower than most liquid fuels.

A reduction in power output is the sacrifice associated

with using a gaseous fuel such as propane. This is because

volumetric efficiency is reduced as can be seen from Fig. (33).

The reduction in volumetric effic~ency occurs because

of the absence of fuel evaporation inthe inlet port and

manifold and due to the displacement of induced air by the

gaseous fuel. It was found that a reduction of about 10%

in volumetric efficiency occurred with propane.

In the present instant, propane gas vas used to isolate

the effect of evaporation. From this discussion, it can be

observed that as far as heat transfer problems dealt with

here are concerned, the use of the gaseous Uel does not

represent a serious departure fram normal engine performance

obtained with liquid fuel.

 122.

).2.17 CONCLUSIONS

1. The compression ignition inlet port heat transfer

data can be correlated by the law.

Nu = ).155 RO. 5 )

Theoretical analysis shows this reduces the engine

volumetric efficiency by 5.5% (see chapter 2).

2. The spark ignition engine measurements cannot be

correlated in a similar manner whether a gaseous

fUsl, Fig. (47), or a liquid ~~el Fig. (48, 49) is

used.

). Fuel evaporation in the inlet port is not important

as far as the general trend of the Nu vs Re relation

is concerned, see Figs. (48, 49, 50), however in

terms of the numercial values of the heat transfer

coeffiCient, it is higher for liquid fUel than for

gaseous fUel as explained in the text, Fig. (50).

4. Gaseous fUel reduced the volumetric efficiency by

about. 10%
 123.

APPENDIX

GAS FJ,OW THROUGH A NOZZLE

To deal with the low o luids through sections o

varying aroa, certain assumptions are made to simpliy the

situation, these are=

1. The luid has a uniorm velocity, temperature, and pressure

across sections at right angles to the 10".

2. The low is reversible adiabatic, that is, without

appreciable riction or heat low between the luids and

the passage walls.

Fig. (6) shows a passage ovarying area o the convergent

div~rgent nozzlo typo, or vonturi, with the minimum section

marked 2.

From the steady lowequationr.p 7

2 /'
H2 + U2 (::; W / : Q
'"
2g 2g
With W '" 0, Q '" 0, this becomes

2 2
U2 Ul c Hl - H2 (al)
2g
2
Hol = U H2
2 +
2g
2 ,
Where Hol c Hl U
+ _1_ the stagnation enthalpy.
2g
 124.

Hence U2 = if 2g (Hol - H2)

If the fluid is an ideal gas for which Cp is constant,

then,

Hol - H2 = (Tal - T2)

And,

U2 = '/2g"R (Tal - T2)

V "Y-l
In an isentropic process for an ideal gas,

!,.g ' -1
r
= Y
Tol

Where r is the pressure ratio,

( ~ -1)1' 1
U2 = J215. "Y R Tol (1 r ) (A2)
1C -1
The density r at a point where the pressure is
P is given by

(A)

Aleo M = (A4)
Combing equations (A2, A) and A4),

2l'g
M = A Pol
-y -1
Tal (A5)
 125.

FLOW OF ACTUAL FLUIDS

It ~s obvious that an actual case of fl~d flow never

duplicates exactly the assumpt~ons wh~ch wers used for the

~deal case.
In pract~ce t~s ~screpancy is usually allowed for by
~ntroducing a flow coefficient def~ned as follows :-

Actual mase flow

Cd ::
Ideal mass flow
So that

M actual = Cd x M ideal

Cd ~s the discharge coeff~c~ent and was determined

using this procedure from the "stat~c test rig experiments".

CRITICAL FLOW

When the sonic velocity ~s reached at the m~nimum

section, the maximum mass flow occurs for ~ven upstream

cond~tions.

At "this po~nt

'Y
P2/ = 0.528 if' "= 1.4
Pol
- (
1 i'21 ) "'-1

g 2 .. +1

'~+1 ) "-1
M = A2. Pol
(A4)
 126.

Rr.Fr:RENCES

1. Tanaka, K

"Air f'low through suction valves of' comcal seat".

Report No. 50, Aero Resoarch Inst. To~yo.

Imperial University 1929.

2. Woods, Jr., G.B. et al

"Air f'low through intake valves"

SAE trans., Vol. 50, No. 6, 1942.

3. Dicksee, C.B.

"The influence of' valve port design on the volumetric

ef'f'iciency of' the compression-ignition engine"

I. Mech. E. Auto. Div., proc. 1949.

4. Annand, W.J.D.

"Engine Breathing"

Automobile Engineer, Feb. 1969.

5. Stantiz, J.D. et al

"steady and intermittent f'low coef'f'icients of' poppet

intake valves".

NACA TN No~ 1035, 1946.

6. t1cCloy, D. et al

"Some static and dynamic characteristics of poppet

valves"

I. Moch. E., proc. 1965.

7. Kastner, L.J. et al

"Poppet inlet valve characteristics and their influence

on the induction process"

I. Mech. E., Proc. 1963-1964.

 127.

8. Wolgemuth, C.H. et al

"A study of engine breathi.ng characteristics"

SAE paper No. 650448, 1965.

9. Dicltsee, C.B.

"The high speed compression-ignition engine"

(Blackie and Son Ltd., Glasgow) 1940.

10. Woods, W.A. and Khan, S.R.

"An experimental study of flow through poppet valves"

X. Mech. E. proc. 1965-66 vol, 180, pt 3N paper 3.

11. Jones, P.E.

"Induction system development for hi.gh perf'ormance

direct injection diesel engines"'.

Paper 4 (Ref. 10)

12. Livengood, J.C. et al

"The volumetric efficiency of f'our-stroke engines"

SAE Quart. trans., part 4, Oct. 1952.

1). Hold, P.

"Untersuchungen von spuelsystemen an der zuendenden

zweitakt maschine"

~fl'Z 1941, ).
14. Taylor, C. and Taylor, E.
"The internnl combustion engine"

"International text book company".

15. Livengood, J.C. et al

"The effect of inlet valve design, size and lift

on the capacity of a four-stroke engine".

NACA TN No. 915 April, 194).

 128.

16. Tay10r, C.F.

"The interna1 combustion engine in theory and

practice n

V01. 1, Wi1ey

17. Obert, E.
"Xnterna1 combustion engine n

Xnternationa1 text book company.

18. Livengood, J.C. et a1

nE~~ect o~ ch~nging mani~01d pressure, exhaust.

pressure, and va1ve timing on the air capacity and

output o~ a ~our-stroke engine operated with in1et

va1ves o~ various diameters and 1i~tsn.

NACA TN No. 1366, 1945.

19. Creagh et a1

"An investigation of' va1ve over1ap scavenging over

a wide range o~ in1et and exhaust pressures.

NACA TN No. 1475, Aug. 1947.

20. Reyn01ds, B et a1

"The charging process in a high speed, sing1e

cy1inder ~our-stroke engine n

NACA TN No. 675 1939

21. Schmidt, F.

"The intElrna1 combustion engine n

,.
Chapman &I Ha11.

22. Dennison, E.S. et a1

"Experiments on the ~10w o~ air through engine va1ves".

ASME Trans. (OGP - 53 6) V01. 53 1931.

23. List, H.

"The charging process o~ internEl1 combustion engines

with specia1 re~erence to the two-stroke cyc1e".

X. Mech. E. Auto. Div. Proc. 1953-54.

 129.

24. 'tlal.1ace, F. J. et al
A~r ~low in a naturally aspirated two-stroke engine.
I. Mech. E. proc. Vol. 168, 1954.
25. Ruber, P. and Brown, J.R.
"Computat~on o~ ~nstantaneous a~r ~low and volumetr~c

e~~~c~ency".

SAE paper 812 B Jan. 1964.

26. K~ng, F.R.B.
"The ~nert~a theory o~ eng~nesn.

Automobile Eng~neer, March 1968.

27. Cole, N.B. et a1
"The theory o~ sudden enlargements applied to the
poppet exhaust-valve, w~th spec~a1 re~erence to
exhaust pulse scaveng~ng".

I. f.iech. E. Proc. Vol.1\. B 1952-53.

28. Goya1, M. et al
"The s:!.mu1at~on o~ s~ngle cy1~nder intake and
exhaust system".
SAE paper No. 670 478.
29. Tay1or, C.F. et al
"Dynam~cs o~ the ~nlet system o~ ~our-stroke

s~ngle cylinder ~nterna1 combustion engine".

ASME trans. 1955 Vol. 77

30. Kastnor, L.J.
"Induction ramm~ng e~~ect in s~ngle cylinder
~our-stroke engine".
I. tlech. E. proc. 1943.
 130.

31. McAu1ay, K.J. et al

"Development and evaluation of the simulation of

the compression ignition engine".

SAE paper No. 650 451.

32. Denssion, E.S.

"Inertia supercharging of engine cylinders".

Trane. ASME OGP Vol. 55, 1933.

33. Whitehou5e et al.

"Method of predicting some aspects of performance

of a diesel engine using a digital computer".

I. Mech. E. proc. Vol. 176, 1962.

34. Strange, F.r-f.

"An analysis of the ideal otto cycle, including

the effects of heat transf'er, finite combustion

rates, chemical dissociation, and mechanical losses".

SAB prog~ess in technology Vol. 7.

"Digi tal calculation of' engine c;Tcles".

36. Patterson, D.J. and Wylen, G.V.

"A digital computer simulation for spark-ignition

engine cycles"

(ref'. 34).

36. Edson, M.H. and Taylor, C.F.

"The limit of' ongine perf'ormance-comparison of

actual and theoretical cycles".

(Ref'. 34).
37. Annand, W.J.D.

A computer programme f'or diesel engines.

"~fanr.heater Uni verai ty" 'Unpublished'

 131

. 38. Kapadia, D.N. and Borman, G.L.

"The e~fect o~ heat trans~er on the steady ~10w

through poppet valves.

SAE paper No. 6701~79.

39. Forbes, J.E. and Taylor, E.S.

"Rise in the temperature o~ the charge in its passage

through the inlet va1ve and port o~ an air cooled

aircraf't' engine cylinder".

NACA TN No. 839 1942

40. Brandstotter, W.R.

"Similari ty laws ~or four stroke engines and

numerical results ~or the intake process calculated

with the method o~ characteristics".

SAE paper No. 690466. May, 1969.

41. Bonamy

"Solution o~ supercharged engines".

Automobile Engineer, Oct. 1959.

"Exhaust back pros sure'!

Automobile Engineer, Dec. 1959.

"Mani~old Prossures".

Automobile Engineer, sept. 1954.

42. McAdams, W.H.

"Heat transmission"

3rd Edition 1954.

McGrow-Hill New York,

43. Annand, W.J.D.

"Heat trans~er in the cylinder o~ reciprocating

internal combustion engines".

I. Mech. E. proc. Vol. 177, 1963.

 132.

44. Austen, A.E.W. et al

"Relat~on between fuel ~nject~on and the heat release
~n a d~rect-~gndt~on eng~ne and the nature o~ the
combust~on process".
r. Mech. E. Auto. D~v. proc. Vol. 47 1960-61.
E~chelberg, G.
"Some new ~nvest~gations on old combustion engines
problemsl-
Eng~neer~ng Oct. 1939.
pp 463 and 547
46. WOBC~, G.
HA un~varsally appl~cabla equat~on ~or the ~nstantaneous

heat trans~er coe~~~c~ent ~n the ~nterns1 combust~on

e~ne".

SAE Trans. Vol. 76 paper no. 670 931, 1968.

'47. Overbey, V.D. et al
"Unsteady heat trans~er ~n eng~nes".

SAE Trans. Vol. 69, 1961

48. Annand,,~.J .D.

"Exper~ments on a model s~mulat~ng heat trans~er

bet,~een the ~n1et valva o~ a rec~procating eng~ne

and the entering stroam".

r. Hoch. E. proc. 1967-68 Vol. 182 pt. )H.

49. JIlnrv:l.n et al
"Further studies o~ ~lame movement and pressure
development in an engine cylinder".
NACA TR. No. 556 1936.

50. Taylor, C.F.

"Heat Transm~ss~on ~n ~nternal oombust~on e~nesn.

r. Mech. E., ASlI1E

 1)).

51. Hall, N.

"Thermodynamics o~ Fluid ~low.

)rd ed. 1957.

52. Spiers, H.M.

"TecbJrl.cal data on fUeln.

6th ed. 1961.

5). Verschoor, H. et al

"Heat trans~er in two phase ~low.

(see re~. 50).

54. Lyon, T.

"Liquidi~ied Pe"troleum Gas"

Automotive design engineering, June 1965.

55. Pinkel, B. et al
"Correlation o~ cooling data ~rom all aircooled

cylinder and several multi-cylinder engines".

NACA Rep 1940, No. 68).

56. Zipkin, M.A. et al

"Correlation of' exhaust gas temperatures with

engine operating conditions and valve design in an

air-cooled cylinder".

57. Benson, R.S.

"Tho application of' gas dynamic theories to exhaust

systems o~ I.C. engines.

1957 Trans. Liverpool Eng. Soc. Vol. 76 p.SS.

58. Lucas, G.G.

"A comprehensive computer programme ~or engine

per~ormance calculations".

Unpublished l~ork. Loughborough Univ. of' Tech.

 134.

59. Gree~ A.B. and Lucas, G.G.

"The testing o~ i.e. engines.

The English Universities Press, 1969.

60. TSU,

"Theory o~ in1etand exhaust processes o:f

the i.e. engine".

NACA TN No." 1446, 1943.

61. Whitehouse, N.D.

"Private communications"

UMIST, Jan. 1970.

 COMPUTER PROGRAI>fi4E snmoLS

Main Programme

T( J) Crankangle array - Deg. at.d.c.

xx( J) Inlet valve lif't array - in.
CDD(J) Discharge coef'f'icient array.
2
Z(J) Ef'rectiva area - f't.
PA Atmospheric pressure - lb~in2.
TA o
Atmospheric temperature - K.
B Bore - in.
S Stroke - in.
ALe Conrod/crank radius.
R Comp. ratio.
PC Cylinder pressure - lb~in2.
VS Swept volume - f't'.
AMR Residual gas mass - lb.
SP Engine speed - rev/min.
D) Inlet valve head dia. - in.
TW
o
Inlet port wall temp. - K.
l
TW2 Cylindor head temp. - %.
Tw) Piston crown temp. _ OK.

Cylinder liner temp. -

o
Tw4 K.
'I'M Inlet manif'old air temp. _ OK.
TI Temporary storage f'or TA.
U Piston mean velocity - f't./min.
p
2
PE Exhaust pl'essure - lb~in
H
o
Step length - C.A.
INIT Control, zero f'irst entry, one
af'terwards.
M n + 1, n is tho number of
dif'f'erential equations.
Y(l) Crankangle - Deg.
Y(2) TC/TA
o
TC Cylinder gas temp. - K.
ye)~ Mass of' gas in cylinder - lb
m
 136.

Y(4) Inlet port heat transfer - cbu, ft. lb

f
Y(5) Cylinder heat transfer - chu, ft. lb
f
YE Volumetric efficiency.
WA YE Average mass flow rate - Ibm/sec.

Subroutine DERY
2
Al Inlet port inside surface Brea - ft
lUlO Inlet port gas density - Ibm/ft 3
V Cylinder volume _ ft 3 ;
DV dV/d _ ft 3 ./Deg.CA
w Effective area _ ft2.
DY(j) Derivative of the 'V' variable with
respect to the CA or time.
o
TF Film temp. - R.
VIS Viscosity - lb /ft./see.
m 0
CON Conductivity - chu/ft./hr./ C.
REl Inlet port Reynolds No.
Hl Inlet port heat transfer coefficient -
2 O
chu/ft ./hr./ C.
RE2 Cylinder Reynolds No.
H2 Cylinder snrfaces hoat transfer
coeffiCient -
chu/ft 2 ./hr ./oC.

DQ Total heat transfer rate from surfaces

to gas -
chu, ft. lb;t!Deg. CA.
 -
. .. -----.. - - - - -
---_ .

--- -- --.. -.------ L1ST(lP), .-----.---.. ----.. -----.-.--------- .. -- - .. - ..----.------.--..... - --- - ....- - - - . -
.- --. ----- - -- SF.:l D TO (E D, F :JP'Tr.L~",~,~ ~ 1\. ONE) -.---------.----- - ...-- - --------------.- --.--------.-.
.. --.. - --- -- ... PRl1rlHAI-1(B130) - .. - .-.. ..- .. --------.- --- .. ---- .---- .-.----.. -.-----.-
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---.. - - . - .. --- ~n1ENsIO~ V(6),[ly<f,),Q(6) .. - ' - - ' " - ' -.-.-- ..- -.... -.-- ....
-""-'-"'--"'-- COI1P'ON PP., TA, R r.S, ALe, Z, PI, R, ~t, VS, A.1R, S p, D3, TIJ1 , Tw2, TW3, TW4 .. ------..- - - - - -..
-'--"-".- ...... ~ F. M ( " 35,1) '!' ~" .. -.. . ...... -. .. - .... - ... - ... -..- .... -. .. -
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- - - - - - - 300 .~ORMAT (4 pO, r,) .... -. . . - ....... - -. .. .. .. . ' - " ' - - " - ' .. - - - - - - - - -
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,
- - - - - - 3 0 HlP.MATOFO.O) .... -.. .-.-..----------
----c--- NEXT DO LOOP -IS TO WORK OUT DI',CHARGE COEP.,VALVEUn-AND---------
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