Deductive argument

very strict
conclusion is definite
conclusion follows unescapably from the reason
if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true
the premises provide conclusive evidence
it is impossible for all the premises to be true and the conclusion false
if you accept the premises, you must also accept the conclusion

a) hypothetical syllogism
syllogism : three line argument = 2 premises + 1 conclusion
contain at least 1 conditional statement
i. modus ponens (+ve)
ii. modus tollens ( -ve)
iii. chain argument ( if P then Q, if Q then R. therefore, if P then R )

b) categorical syllogism
three line argument in which statement begin with All Some No

c) argument by elimination
logically rule out various possibilities until single possibility is left
Either A or B. Not A, therefore B.

d) Argument based on mathematics

Conclusion depend largely on mathematical calculation or formula

e) Argument from definition

Conclusion is presented as being true because of definition of some
keyword

Inductive argument
 Argument based on assumption
Conclusion follow probably from the reason
Conclusion is indefinite
If the premises are true, then the conclusion is probably true
The premises provide good reason but not conclusive evidence
It is possible for the premises to be true and the conclusion false

a) Argument from authority

Making a statement by citing some presumed authority

b) Predictive argument
Argument has a prediction as a conclusion

c) Causal argument
Declaring or denying that something is the cause of something else

d) Inductive generalization
Which a generalization is claimed to be true based on information of
some members of a group

e) Statistical argument
Argument that use statistical percentage as evidence

f) Argument from analogy

Taking 2 things that are alike in some way and using that to support
that they are similar in another way

Bad Argument
 i. Appeals to emotion
ii. Fallacies of emotion
iii. Fallacies of insufficient evidence

i. Appeals to emotion
Appeal to pity
Appeal to fear / scare tactics
Appeal to anger
Appeal to spite (take revenge)
Appeal to vanity / appeal to flattery
Appeal to popularity / Ad Populum
Appeal to tradition
Appeal to ridicule / Appeal to mockery (ridicule substitute for
evidence)
Appeal to ignorance / Ad Ignorantiam (its true bcoz no one prove it
false)

Fallacy:
- Argument that contain a mistake
- Psychologically persuasive but not logically support the conclusion
- To mislead the audience

ii. Fallacies of relevance

- Premises are logically irrelevant to the conclusion
- Sound like good argument but are not

Personal attack / Ad Hominem (against the man)

Two wrongs make a right

( an action is acceptable bcoz someone else act in similar way)

Look whos talking / Tu Quoque (you too)

Straw man
(create distorted version of ones argument to make others argument sounds
weak)

Red herring
( try to divert your attention by raising an irrelevant issue to change the topic )

Begging the question

( restating the premise as the conclusion using different words )

iii. Fallacies of insufficient evidence

Slippery slope / ripple effect / snowball effect / opening the floodgates

 (A leads to B, B leads to C, C leads to D. We dont want D happen , shouldnt
do A )

Loaded question
( ask a question that contain unfair / unwarranted assumption )
eg. Do you still copy in the exams ?

False dilemma / alternatives

( present only 2 alternatives for consideration )

Inappropriate appeal to authority

Authority is unreliable when the source is not an expert, bias, doubtful
source

Weak analogy
( compare 2 things that are different )

Hasty generalization
- Conclusion from a sample which is too small or representative of the
population