File1 ROAD MAP

lR;eso t;rs
Road Map for Oil Spill

Management for India
May 2003
Prepared and Submitted by

by
Project Revie
Review and Monitoring Committee
view
for oil spill management
Under the auspices of

The Office of the Principal Scientific Adviser
to the Government of India
326, Vigyan Bhawan Annexe,
Moulana Azad Road,
New Delhi - 110001
OSM
PRMC
DISCLAIMER
This report deals with spills of liquid Hydrocarbons, Hazardous Chemicals and
Petrochemicals in the Marine Environment. This includes Ports, near Coast Locations
and the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). The report does not cover pollution emanating
from hydrocarbon gases, such as Propane, Butane and Methane in Gaseous and/or
liquid form.
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Road Map implementation Action Plan

Road Map for Oil Spill Management for India iii
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Dr. R. Chidambaram E-mail : chairman@tifac.org.in
Principal Scientific Adviser to the Govt. of India
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Continuously increasing maritime activities, like oil tanker transportation and
exploration-cum-exploitation of oil from the sea bed, have focused attention on the need for an
adequate system to monitor, legislate and ensure quick response to an eventuality of oil spill
disaster that may take place due to an accident, blow-out or structural failure of oil installations
in high seas or near the Indian coastline.
Considering the need for the comprehensive approach for Oil Spill Management, the Office
of the Principal Scientific Adviser to the Government of India had, in September, 2002,
constituted a Project Review and Monitoring Committee (PRMC)-consisting of representatives
drawn from the Government and Public and Private Sector Oil Companies-for facilitating the
preparation of a Road Map for Oil Spill Management for India.
The PRMC had held its first meeting in New Delhi on the 9th of October, 2002, wherein
the approach to the issue was discussed in totality and Specialist Groups were constituted to
provide specific inputs. Thereafter, the PRMC held a series of meetings to cover various aspects
of Oil Spill Management in Marine Environment and has now brought-out a comprehensive
Road Map detailing the need and strategy to combat any catastrophe arising out of an oil spill
in Indias maritime zone.
Correspondence address in Mumbai

Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC)
VI Floor, Central Complex, Trombay, Mumbai-400085
Tel. : 5505305 Fax : 5505132
E-mail : rc@magnum.barc.ernet.in
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The Road Map for India deals with all relevant aspects of oil spills, including sources of oil
spills, contingency planning, mitigation strategy, need for review of different existing legislation
for oil spill management, need for training and re-training, etc. An organization to deal with all
the above requirements has also been suggested, in the Road Map. Oil spill management is a
dynamic exercise and it is hoped that the organizational structure suggested will answer the
changing demand.
The situation around India, and the threat perception envisaged, requires an
urgent action to immediately put into operation the recommendations contained in
this Road Map.
In this context, I must congratulate the Chairman, the Members and the Member-Secretary
of the PRMC, as also the members of the various Specialist Groups and the Consultant, who
did a splendid job in bringing-out the Road Map in such a short time.
Dr. R. Chidambaram
Place : New Delhi

Date : 16th May 2003
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PREFACE
PREFA
The ocean remains the frontier of intercontinental trade. The Indian Ocean is the third largest
of the four major oceans of the world covering an area of 74 million sq. km and comprising some
20% of the total area of water in the world. Petroleum is the most significant mineral in the area.
This region accounts for 28.5% of the total world oil production.
The geo-strategic location of India, as a central point to the Indian Ocean, makes it imperative
for the country to consider issues that have a bearing on maritime security. India has a coastline
of 7500 km, which harbours twelve major, twenty intermediate, and 144 minor ports. In addition,
the country has to protect its 2.2 million sq. km of Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ).
A large number of countries, including India, are increasingly dependent on the Indian Ocean
for their foreign trade, in terms of energy mainly from the Gulf, as well as sea-borne exports. The
future is expected to make the sea lanes of the Indian Ocean important not only to India, but also to
the littoral states of the Indian Ocean that are dependent on the ocean for shipping and transportation.
Currently, India has only 0.4% of the world's proven reserves of hydrocarbons. On the other
hand, the demand for oil is increasing faster than the addition to the proven reserves of the
country. India's present demand is about 110 MMTPA. The indigenous production being about
33 MMTPA, the rest of the crude oil is imported. The import of crude oil is expected to grow at a
compounded rate of 7-8% per annum. Similarly, some of the states in South-East Asia, East Asia,
Japan and China are heavily dependent on the import of oil from West Asia. The estimated demand
for crude oil from these regions will rise to 1058 MMTPA by 2005 at an annual growth rate of 3-
3.5%. This, too, will increase in the future.
The shipping routes, through which the crude reaches the countries importing them from West
Asia, pass through the straits of Hormuz located in Oman/Iran, which connects the Persian Gulf of
Oman and the Arabian Sea Oil destined for Japan, United States and West Europe also takes this
route The strait is by far the world's most important oil choke point. This is followed by the Strait
of Malacca, which connects the Indian Ocean with the South China Sea and is close to the Andaman
Sea. Oil bound for Japan, South Korea, China and other Pacific rim countries passes through this
strait. The Bab-el-Mandab, located in Djibouti/Eritrea/Yemen, connects the Red Sea with the Gulf
of Aden and the Arabian Sea, from where oil is exported to destinations in Europe, the United States
and Asia. This is another choke point. Approximately 73,000 ships of all types and class were
travelling these routes annually in 1998, and this figure has already reached over 100,000 transits
annually. The principal routes in the Arabian Sea are shown in Figure 0.1.
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Due to the narrowness of these lanes, routes are accident-prone. An accident even to one of
these very large crude carriers (VLCCs) could spill up to 100,000 tonnes of oil on the Indian coastline.
India's 7500 km long shoreline is, therefore, at risk of a serious ecological disaster from such oil
spills. Immediate steps, therefore, are required to be taken to deal with such spills. A recent
accident involving "MT Prestige" off the Spanish coast affected coastlines of a number of European
countries.
The major source of oil spills, next to oil transportation, is the hydrocarbon exploration arena.
With the increase in exploration and production, the probability of oil spill from this activity has
increased dramatically.
Oil Spill Response Management (OSRM) is therefore, extremely important and critical. At
present, the country has a National Oil Spill Disaster Contingency Plan (NOS-DCP) issued by the
Indian Coast Guard (Ministry of Defence). This plan details the readiness required of the industry
members, besides the role and deployment of the Coast Guard. This plan is updated from time to
time; the last revision was in the year 2002. Three tier response management at local, regional and
national level details the actions and plans to handle oil spills of increasing magnitude.
At present, the immediate response capability available is limited to handling a spill of

less than 1000 tonnes. This is grossly inadequate, on both temporal and spatial scales, to deal
with even the current anticipated risk perception.
Previously only National Oil Companies in the public sector were entrusted with oil explora-
tion and production in India both on land and offshore. Opening up the oil exploration under a
liberalized National Exploration Licensing Policy (NELP) of the Government of India, and the
subsequent dismantling of the Administered Pricing Mechanism (APM), has encouraged foreign
and private national oil companies to increase their interest in oil exploration and production
including deep waters of the Indian continental shelf (Details at Appendix I). The monitoring of
the activity, and assessing the risk of marine oil pollution, has become a complex but important
task.
As a result of freeing the trade between nations and liberalization of import procedures under
the World Trade Organisation (WTO), industrial growth and transportation of goods and materials
to and from India has greatly increased. The structural changes in the Indian oil sector and the
advent of NELP have led to large leap in oil exploration and exploitation on Indian seas which
has its own risk of oil spill. But the increase in marine transport poses a greater danger of acci-
dent and consequent spillage of oil in the Indian Maritime zone. The danger to the marine
environment, and consequential economic activities, which heavily depend on the sea for their
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functioning, such as fishing, tourism, atomic power plants, thermal and hydro power plants and
coastal refineries, underscores the need for a comprehensive and holistic approach to oil spill
management. This approach should encompass monitoring, control, installation of a proper legal
system to deal with the accidental effects including the cost recovery mechanism based on the
principle of 'Polluter Pays', building up of facilities for containing and combating oil spills, and
establishing international co-operation in major spills; providing trained manpower for above and
near port facilities, and building major oil spill response centres at a few selected locations to cover
the vast Indian coastline.
There is a persistant threat to Indian waters particularly on the west coast which may create
man-made oil spills. Any such activity may create a catastrophic situation. Our present readiness
to deal with any such emergency is woefully inadequate. It is, therefore, urgent that the
recommended plan is approved post haste and put into operation in the shortest possible time.
Considering all the above and related aspects bringing out the importance of oil spill
management to the maritime security of India, the Office of the Principal Scientific Adviser to the
Government of India and the ONGC joined together to organise a two-day workshop on "Oil Spill
Management" which was held in Goa during 19 and 20 July 2002, to bring together all the
stakeholders in the Government and the Industry. All the delegates, special invitees and the
dignitaries of this workshop brainstormed, deliberated and decided that:
For upholding the national concern for environment protection and to prevent and remediate
the oil spills in the country an 'Entity' with autonomous powers to be formed comprising of all
oil companies in the Government sector, Private sector and International Oil companies / consortia
operating in India (Appendix III).
In line with the above declaration and to update the procedures and the practices continuously
to international standards the Principal Scientific Adviser to the Government of India, in office
Memorandum Number Prn.SA/ADV/IMM/OSM/2002 dated 16th Sept 2002 (Appendix IV)
constituted a Project Review and Monitoring Committee (PRMC) to prepare a Road Map for oil
spill management for India.
This committee has prepared a comprehensive document detailing all the aspects of oil spill
management and related issues. It is hoped that the early approval of this Road Map will greatly
assist the speady response to any contingency of oil spill at sea.
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ACKNO WLEDGEMENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It is commendable that the PRMC had received excellent support and co-operation, technical
input and guidance from different concerned authorities and experts in the field. Assistance and
technical input provided by the following Members of the PRMC is gratefully acknowledged:
! Ayyar, P.V.R., Executive Director, Oil Industry Safety Directorate
! Chafekar, Commandant V.D., Joint Director (Operations), Indian Coast Guard
! Deb, Dr. P. C., Director, Naval Materials Research Laboratory
! Gaur, S.R., Director (MM), Ministry of Shipping
! Guha, A.K., General Manager (Technical), Indian Oil Corporation Limited
! Gangan Prathap, Dr., Scientist-in-Charge, CSIR Centre for Mathematical Modelling and
Computer Simulation (C-MMACS)
! Hosabettu, Dr. N.H., Director, Hazardous Substances Management Division, Ministry of

Environment and Forests
! Jagati, K.K., Executive Director and Chief Safety, Health and Environment, Oil and Natural
Gas Corporation Limited
! Naphade, Captain S.S., Retired Nautical Adviser to the Government of India, Directorate
General of Shipping
! Pai, R.L., Group Senior Vice-President, Reliance Industries Limited
! Panda, Captain L.K., Deputy Nautical Adviser to the Government of India, Directorate
General of Shipping
! Saggi, Captain M.M., Nautical Adviser to the Government of India, Directorate General
of Shipping
! Subramanian, Dr. B.R., Adviser, Department of Ocean Development
Thanks are due to Inspector General Prabhakaran Paleri, Deputy Director General, Indian Coast
Guard and Shri. T.K. Kumar, Chief Manager (S&EP), Indian Oil Corporation Limited, special invitees
for their valuable suggestions.
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Special thanks are due to Dr. K.L. Goyal, Former Director, IMD, ONGC, for his expert input,
editing and restructuring the report in its present form. In this task, the help and assistance provided
by Shri. K.L.A. Khan, DGM, ONGC, deserves special mention. Assistance provided by other ONGC
officials is also appreciated.
The support and guidance provided by the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, Government
of India, and suggestions made during the preparation of this report are gratefully acknowledged.
Full support provided by Shri Subir Raha, Chairman and Managing Director, ONGC for
completion of the above report of National importance is gratefully acknowledged.
It gives me immense pleasure to put on record my most respectful gratitude to Dr. R.

Chidambaram, Principal Scientific Adviser to the Government of India for his continuous inspiration,
guidance, support and valuable suggestions made during the preparation of this report. But for
these, the present work would not have been possible.
Special thanks are due to Shri Neeraj Sinha, Scientist 'E', Office of the Principal Scientific Adviser
to the Government of India and Member Secretary of the PRMC for providing all the assistance and
support for the preparation of the report.
Thanks are also due to the Office of the Principal Scientific Adviser to the Government of India
for working as the Secretariat to the PRMC and convening of all its meetings.
In preparation of this report, photographs, data and information taken from various published
reports, and websites are duly acknowledged.
Chairman
Project Review and Monitoring Committee
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EXECUTIVE SUMMAR
SUMMARYY
The Government of India's policy and serious concern for environment protection, particularly
in the maritime environment, calls for a urgent attention and adequate measures for oil spill
management. The geo-strategic location of India, as a central point to the Indian Ocean, makes it
imperative for the country to consider issues that have a bearing on environmental pollution along
the maritime zone. Currently about 70% of the world oil demand of 3400 Million Metric Tonnes
per Annum (MMTPA) is ferried through the Indian coastline. The increase in hydrocarbon
exploration and production, marine transport and the volatility of the situation around the Indian
coastline poses the threat of accident and consequent spillage of oil in the Indian Maritime zone.
In view of the above and related aspects, the Office of the Principal Scientific Adviser to
the Government of India and the Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited (ONGC) brought
together all the stakeholders in the Government and the industry to discuss the way to an
adequate system for oil spill management for India. It was concluded that an "Entity", with
autonomous powers, is required to be formed (Appendix III) as per declaration of the Goa
Workshop on Oil Spill Management during July 19 and 20, 2002. Accordingly a Project Review
and Monitoring Committee (PRMC), having representatives from the Government and Public
and Private sector oil companies was constituted to prepare a Road Map for Oil Spill Management
for India (Appendix IV).
The PRMC was mandated to study all aspects of oil spill management including existing
legislations, international practice, available technologies, compensation claims, cost recovery
mechanisms, training and organisation to address all aspects of oil spill management regarding India.
The organisation recommended for the establishment of an Entity, with power and authority to
ensure implementation of policy guidelines and recommendations is in consonance with the best
international practices as appropriate and applicable to Indian conditions.
The PRMC deliberated each aspect and issues related to oil spill management in detail, analysed
the causes of spills both natural and accidental, immediate and long term effects on marine
environment and beaches, studied major spills in national and international waters, including the
strategy adopted to contain them, lessons learnt from these spills to recast the combat strategy and
suggested legislative and procedural changes for better management and control of oil spill incidents.
Sensitivity of the Indian coastline, risk perception, the impact of spill on environments such as
beaches, aquatic life and vegetation, and also the impact on near coastal installations, because of
the presence of spill in water intake, was also considered (Chapters 1, 2 and 3).
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The PRMC made a review of existing mathematical models and focused on the need to develop
more comprehensive and pragmatic models to speed assessment and prediction of spill movement,
direction and changes in property of a spill at a given time and location in specific weather and sea
conditions (Chapter 4).
The PRMC considered Tier I facilities - to manage spills up to 700 tonnes - based on assessed
risk perception of the installations, the slow progress in providing them and the need to have a
strict time frame for their implementation. International scene, including the type of organization
to deal with large and small spills, was studied beside the Indian programme and readiness of the
Indian Coast Guard to create Tier II facilities to manage medium oil spills up to 10,000 tonnes. The
contingency plan in place and its efficiency, and the need for better monitoring and control was
also discussed (Chapters 5, 6 and 7).
The PRMC debated in great detail the existing legislation and multiple authorities such as
Director General Shipping, Ministry of Environment and Forests, and Port authorities to deal
with some of the aspects of oil spill management, making it difficult to process claims. It was
also observed that none of the existing legislations wholly answers the requirement of oil spill
management. Furthermore the aspects considered by the individual organisations do not answer
all the requirements of oil spill management and need major changes. It was concluded that there
must he a holistic approach to the complete system and a legal framework to deal with oil spill
specifically is required. A fast track judicial system is also recommended to smooth the process
of claims with international organisations and polluters (Chapter 8).
The PRMC also considered the absence of a single point agency to manage the media, the
NGOs and educate the public, which is one of the most important aspects in the case of a spill.
Lack of training and re-training facilities was observed. Absence of periodic inspection at different
levels, and the lack of a system to ensure the righting of deficiencies was considered.
Standardisation of practice and policies and a single point approach to deal with all aspects by a
centralized independent autonomous agency (Entity) is recommended. A structure based on
international practice and collaboration with national and international agencies to indigenise,
modernise and update the system, procedures and facilities is suggested to be put in place.
Keeping in view the above, the report envisages the establishment of an 'Entity' to have a holistic
approach to National Oil Spill Management (Chapter 9). Some of the suggested names of the above
Entity are:
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Oil Spill Management and Regulatory Authority (OSRA)
Oil Spill Authority of India (OSA)
Oil Spill Management Authority of India (OSMA)
The proposed organisation (Figure 9.1) along with the broad functions and responsibilities of
the 'Entity' have been worked out. The initial fund requirements and the working of the Entity
have also been suggested (Chapter 9).
The main functions envisaged for the Entity include scanning the global scene and
developments in oil spill strategy including legislation and suggest modifications in the existing
maritime laws of country relating to marine oil spill, ensure quality and standardisation of
environment friendly chemicals for use in oil spill management, develop training and re-training
programmes in collaboration with the Indian Coast Guard, and to organise national and international
workshops and seminars to exchange knowledge and experience contributing positively to the
international environmental issues, foster alliances and seek national and international co-operation
especially with rim countries around the Indian Ocean, the Bay of Bengal and the Atlantic Ocean
for a consortium approach to get quick response, periodically monitor installations both offshore
and in ports and to develop an auditing system to ensure safety and correct spill management plan
implementation, develop a strong Communication and Public Relations Centre and periodically
publish educational material for the general public, and the NGOs, and to act as a spokesman in an
oil spill situation. Establishing a Tier III ( to manage major spills above 10,000 tonnes) response
facility in the west coast of India on the lines of OSRL, U.K., EARL, Singapore, and other related
international organisations should also be taken up by the 'Entity'.
A Governing Council is proposed to guide and monitor the programmes, policies and
functioning of the Entity to which the Director General of the Entity will be responsible. It is also
proposed to have a Scientific Advisory Council for assistance with the scientific programmes to be
undertaken by the Entity.
In order to have funds for the functioning of the Entity, the following alternatives are proposed:
! Levying an Oil Pollution Cess of two paise per litre on the sale of Petrol, Diesel and
Aviation Fuel.
! Fully funded by the Oil Industry Development Board (OIDB).
! Any other suitable mode of funding decided by the Government.
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In consonance with international practice, it should be a statutory requirement that all

organisations active in the Indian maritime zone and ports must take membership of the Entity.
Until such time the Director General of the Entity is appointed, it is suggested that interim
arrangement be made to head the Entity for effective implementation of the accepted
recommendations. The Director General designate with the assistance of a small core group and the
Office of the Principal Scientific Adviser to the Government of India may take all the required action
to put the Entity in place and start its functioning swiftly.
The report recommends a comprehensive Road Map and action plan (Chapter 10) for the
formation of the 'Entity' and immediate requisite steps to achieve the objectives for effective Oil
Spill Management for India.
Some of the committee members had visited USA and UK to study the international practices
and organisational setup for oil spill management. They have also confirmed that, the setting up of
the proposed Entity for Oil Spill Management for India, and its suggested organisational setup, is
more or less, in conformity with International practices.
The situation around India and the threat perception, requires urgent action to put into
operation immediately the recommendations contained in this Road Map.
(R.C. Gourh)
Chairman
Project Review and Monitoring Committee
Place : New Delhi

Date : 9th May, 2003
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CONTENTS
Foreword v,
Preface vii,
Acknowledgements xi,
Executive Summary xiii,
Acronyms and Abbreviations 121
Chapter 1 Sources of Oil Spill and Environmental Impact 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Sources of Oil Spill 2
1.2.1 Natural seepage from seabed 2
1.2.2 Ship-borne 2
1.2.3 Upstream Exploration and Production 4
1.2.4 Transfer to Downstream 4
1.2.5 Ports and Terminals 5
1.2.6 Near Coast Refineries and Processing Plants 6
1.3 Environmental Impact of Oil Spills 7
1.4 Effect of Oil on Marine Organisms 9
1.5 Effects of Oil on Birds 11
Chapter 2 Oil Spill Incidents and Related Responses 13
2.1 Introduction 13
2.2 International Oil Spills 13
2.2.1 Major Oil Spills 17
2.3 Case Studies of Oil Spills 20
2.3.1 The Sea Empress Oil Spill 20
2.3.2 The Exxon Valdez Oil Spill 22
2.3.3 Prestige Oil Spill 27
2.3.4 Globtik Sun (Gulf of Mexico) Oil Spill 30
2.4 Indian Oil spills - an appraisal 31
2.4.1 Indian Oil Spill Statistics 31
2.4.2 MV Pacific Acadian Oil Spill 33
Chapter 3 Indian Coastlines and Ecological Threats 35
3.1 Indian Coastlines and Eco sensitivity 35

3.2 Oil Spill Risk Assessment 35
3.2.1 Oil production from Offshore platforms and its handling at Ports 38
3.2.2 Oil spills in Indian marine environment 38
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3.2.3 Oil Spill from Offshore Pipelines 40

3.2.4 Other Effects 40
3.3 Sensitivity and Vulnerability of the Coastlin of India 42
Chapter 4 Oil Spill Modelling and its Applications 47
4.1 Significance of Oil Spill Modelling 47

4.2 Essential Input and Data Requirements 47
4.3 Weathering Process 48
4.4 Oil Spill Models 50
4.4.1 Enclosed sea - A Case study of the Gulf of Kachchh 50
4.4.2 Open sea - A Case Study of Bombay High 53
Chapter 5 Oil Spill Management - Contingency Plann ing 57
5.1 Introduction 57
5.2 Hazard identification 58
5.3 Vulnerability analysis 59
5.4 Risk Assessment 59
5.5 Response actions 60
5.6 Improving Plans with Geographic Information System (GIS 60
5.7 Designing a Contingency Plan 61
5.8 Integration with other Organizations 61
5.9 Resource Preparedness 63
5.10 Proposed Organogram for Contingency Plannin ing 63
5.11 Oil spill movement and tracking 63
5.12 Spill Response Techniques 64
5.13 Shore line cleaning 65
5.14 Oil Spill Response Equipment 65
5.15 Health and Safety 66
5.16 Reporting 66
5.17 Training 66
5.18 Communication and Media Management 67
5.19 Roles and Responsibilities 67
5.20 Laws, Insurance and Compensation 68
Chapter 6 Oil Spill Response (OSR) Management - International Scene 69
6.1 Introduction 69
6.2 U.S.A. 69
6.3 Europe 70
6.3.1 United Kingdom 71
6.4 South Asia 72
6.5 ASEAN Countries 72
6.5.1 Malaysia 72
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6.5.2 Singapore 73
6.6 Gulf Countries 75
6.7 Salient Features of International OSR Organizations 75
Chapter 7 Oil Spill Response (OSR) Readiness - National Scene 79
7.1 Introduction 79
7.2 Existing Response Capability in India 80
7.2.1 Tier I Oil Spill Response Centres (OSRCs) 80
7.2.2 Tier II Oil Spill Response Centres (OSRCs) 81
7.2.3 Tier III Oil Spill Response Centres (OSRCs) 81
7.2.4 Time Frame for OSRCs 81
7.2.5 Current Status 82
7.3 National Oil Spill Disaster Contingency Plan (NOS-DCP) & the Indian Coast Guard 83
7.3.1 Present facilities of the Indian Coast Guar 85
7.3.2 Future Plans of the Indian Coast Guard 86
7.4 Gaps Observed 86
7.4.1 Near Coastline Exploration and Production facilities 87
7.4.2 Tanker Wash and Ballast 88
7.5 Setting up of Tier II and Beyond Capabilities 88
Chapter 8 Legislation, Monitoring and Control 89
8.1 Introduction 89
8.2 International Protocols and Conventions 89
8.3 Indian Legislation 90
8.4 Compensation and Recovery Regime 92
8.5 Need for changes in legislation 94
Chapter 9 Formation of the Entity 99
9.1 Introduction 99
9.2 Criteria and Factors considered for the Formation of the Entity 100
9.3 Basic Role and Functions of the proposed Ent ity 101
9.3 Basic Role and Functions of the proposed Enti ty 101
9.4 Proposed Names 103
9.5 Organisation of the Entity 103
9.6 Governing Council 105
9.7 Oil Spill Crisis Management 106
9.8 Manpower 106
9.9 Scientific Advisory Council 108
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9.10 Funding 108

9.11 Membership of the Entity 108
9.12 Budget 108
Chapter 10 Recommendations and Road Map 111
10.1 Introduction 111

10.2 Recommendations 112
10.2.1 Organisation of the Entity 112
10.2.2 Funding of the Entity 113
10.2.3 Oil Spill Combat Facilities 113
10.2.4 Other Important Aspects 114
10.3 Road Map for Implementation - Action Plan 116
Appendices
EXPLORATION BLOCKS AWARDED UNDER FIRST ROUND OF NE 125
Project Review and Monitoring Committee for Oil Sp 128

Declaration of the Goa Workshop 129
OFFICE MEMORANDUM 131
A Typical Oil Spill Response Organogram 138

National Oil Spill Disaster Contingency Organogram 139
Decision Tree for Oil Spill Response 140
Equipment with the OSRL, UK and the EARL, Singapor 141
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Road Map for Oil Spill Management for India xxi

CHAPTER 1
Sour
Sources
Sources of Oil
ces of Spill and
Oil Spill Envir
vironmental
Envir
and En onmental Impact
vironmental Impact
1.1 Introduction
The present consumption of petroleum products in India is around 110 million metric tonnes
per annum (MMTPA). The indigenous production accounts for only 33 MMTPA, out of which
offshore oil production is about 22 MMTPA. The demand for petroleum is expected to be
190 MMTPA by the year 2011-12, which will go up to 364 MMTPA by the year 2024-25.
The natural gas requirement by 2024-25 is expected to grow to 391 million standard cubic
meters per day (MMSCMD), which works out at about 143 MMTPA oil equivalent. Thus, if
an adequate quantity of natural gas is not available, the pressure on crude oil will increase
further. The indigenous production is expected to be around 40 MMTPA by 2024-2025 mostly
from offshore or deep sea. Thus, imports of about 400 MMTPA of crude oil will be required
by the year 2025, either from equity oil abroad, by oil companies in India, or through
purchase.
Currently, the world oil demand hovers around 68 million barrels per day, (about 3400
MMTPA). The world crude oil demand is growing at the rate of two percent per annum.
Thus, by the year 2024-25, the world oil demand will be around 5500 MMTPA. About 70%
of this is ferried through Indian waters. With the present trend of larger tankers, dangerous
spills, even from a single accident, would create a catastrophic situation. The modern crude
oil tankers are built to state-of-the art design and safety features, yet a normal accident
involving even one tanker can spill about 7000 to 10000 tonnes of oil.
Only national oil companies in the public sector were entrusted with oil exploration and
production activities in India, previously, both on land and offshore. Opening up oil
exploration under a liberalized national exploration licensing policy (NELP) of the
Government of India and the subsequent dismantling of the administered pricing mechanism
(APM), has increased the interest that foreign and domestic oil companies take in oil
exploration and production including the deep waters of the Indian continental shelf.
Monitoring to assess the risk of marine oil pollution has, thus, become a most important task
demanding urgent attention.
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India is a signatory to the World Trade Organization (WTO), which calls for free trade
between nations and the liberalization of import procedures and duties. This resulted in
increased industrial growth in the country, and import and export of goods and materials
from India. The structural changes in the Indian oil sector and the advent of NELP have led
to a quantum leap in oil exploration and exploitation in the Indian seas with accompanying
risk of oil spill. However, the increase in marine transport poses a greater threat from accidents
and consequent oil spills in the Indian Maritime zone.
The problem in worsened by the single hulls of many of the Indian tankers handling
the bulk of Indian imports, which are likely to remain in service up to 2015. These old
tankers are certainly far more susceptible to accidents. Apart from this huge quantity of
oil passing through the Indian maritime zone, including the Exclusive Economic Zone
(EEZ), and our own imports, creates problems from tar balls due to leakage, minor
spillages and tanker wash in high seas, which is totally uncontrolled. Our beaches and
coastal facilities require frequent cleaning because of these tar balls.
All the above underscores the need for comprehensive oil spill management around the
Indian coastline.
1.2 Sources of Oil Spill

There are various sources of oil spill depending upon what is taking place offshores, within
the territorial regions, in the EEZ, and beyond. Each of these is considered below.
1.2.1 Natural seepage from seabed
Seepage can occur either through a fault zone extending to the seabed, or the absence of a
impervious cap rock. Seepage from small shallow oil sources below the seabed can also
contribute to leak of oil into the sea. Most of the total oil coming to the sea surface is through
these natural seepages, which sometimes appear on the shore as tar balls in certain sea
conditions.
1.2.2 Ship-borne
All sea going marine craft, including drilling rigs, are required to comply with the various
International Maritime Organization (IMO) conventions as well as the International
Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Ships Convention 1973 as modified
by the Protocol of 1978 (MARPOL 73/78) requirements. With full compliance of the pollution
control requirements of MARPOL 73/78, there should be no incidence of oil spill. Pollution
2 Road Map for Oil Spill Management for India

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continues to take place, however, from both ships and drilling units. There are three broad
categories : (a) Operational, (b) contravention of conventions and legislations, (c) accidental.
a) Operational: Operational spills may occur due to the malfunction of oil water
separators and other shipboard systems. Such events are infrequent, as all ships are
periodically inspected, maintain a log, recording all operations involving the transfer
of oil. On general cargo ships, pollution occurs mainly from discharges from the engine
room, whereas in oil and chemical tankers it can occur from the cargo holds as well.
b) Contravention of Conventions and Legislations: These are deliberate actions, and occur
mainly when oil tankers in ballast discharge tank washings out on the open sea in the
Arabian Sea or the Bay of Bengal, uncomfortably near Indian coasts. These pollutants
eventually reach the Indian coast and cause most of the visible pollution on beaches.
c) Accidental: These are the result of ship collisions, structural failure of cargo tanks, or
ship groundings. Such events can generate catastrophic quantities of oil spill. Though
these risks are now minimized on modern tankers, which are required to have double
hull nevertheless, accidents do happen releasing enormous quantities of oil and
endangering the marine environment. Furthermore, the old single hull oil tankers of
India are likely to be in service until 2015 adding to the risk of accidental spills. An
example photograph of one such spill is given in Figure 1.1.
Fig. 1.1: The BURMAH AGATE collided with the freighter MIMOSA southeast of Galveston Entrance in the Gulf of Mexico on
November 1, 1979. An estimated 2.6 million gallons of oil were released into the environment; another 7.8 million
gallons were consumed by the fire on board. (Source: www.noaa.gov)
Road Map for Oil Spill Management for India 3

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1.2.3 Upstream Exploration and Production
This covers a wide range of activities in the offshore region. All world-class operators
maintain high standards of safety and operational efficiency. The design of equipment and
training of operators ensures that the risk of accidental spills is minimized. During operations,
minor spills may occur due to valve or equipment leakages.
Major spills may occur in the event of blowouts, failure of structures/equipment or rupture
of risers and pipelines. All crude oil contains a large percentage of persistent oil fractions,
which are the cause of serious oil spill situations. A range of service vessels and equipment
can also create pollution. All marine craft are required to comply with the IMO and MARPOL
conventions, the E&P operator is responsible for ensuring compliance. Figure 1.2 depicts an
accident due to an oil well blow-out.
Fig. 1.2: The IXTOC I exploratory well blew out on June 3, 1979 in the Bay of Campeche off
Ciudad del Carmen, Mexico. (Source: www.noaa.gov)
1.2.4 Transfer to Downstream
The oil produced from offshore wells is processed on platforms or Floating Production Storage
Offshore (FPSO). After processing, the crude oil (and associated gas) is transferred to shore

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terminals and refineries. This is done through various means : (a) direct transfer by trunk
pipeline to shore after aggregation from a group of wells, (b) pumping the produced oil to
single point mooring systems (SPMs) which can berth large tankers for transfer of oil to a
shore refinery, (c) ship to ship operations (STS) from storage vessels to daughter ships, (d)
use of FPSOs.
All these operations transfer oil with hoses and other portable equipment- a possible risk of
accidental oil leakage. Strict adherence to international codes for equipment and practices
such as those prescribed by the Oil Companies International Marine Forum (OCIMF)
minimizes such risks. An example of a recent oil storage facility on fire is shown in figure
1.3.
Fig. 1.3: An oil storage facility at the edge of New York's Staten Island burns after an explosion
rocked the facility, on Friday, Feb. 21, 2003. (Source: AP Photo/Chris Gardner)
1.2.5 Ports and Terminals
In India there are twelve major ports which come under the administrative control of the
Central Government (Ministry of Shipping). A large number of minor ports are governed by
the Indian Ports Act but administered by State Governments. In the case of major ports,
centralised policies are set-out by the Ministry of Shipping (MoS); additionally, each port

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has its own byelaws. As India is a signatory to the Oil Pollution Prevention Conventions
(OPRC), certain minimum facilities and equipment are, therefore, required to be maintained
at ports to deal with operational and accidental oil leakages as well as to receive contaminated
ballast from tankers. The setting-up of ballast reception facilities has not so far progressed
due to the high capital cost involved as well as the absence of any enforcing legislation.
Convention requirements and local regulations prohibit the release of pollutants within
territorial waters or regions adjoining the ports. Minor spills may take place during the course
of port operations; in most cases, these are due to contraventions of the regulations. Accidents
such as collisions between ships or groundings in ports or navigation channels may lead to
major spills. Figure 1.4 depicts a fire on board a vessel during offloading operations.
Fig. 1.4 : The JUPITER was offloading petrol at Bay City, Michigan on September 16, 1990,
when a fire started on board the vessel. (Source:www.noaa.gov)
1.2.6 Near Coast Refineries and Processing Plants
This will include all industries located on the Indian coast such as refineries, chemical and
petrochemical plants dealing with a wide range of hydrocarbons and other derivative
chemicals. The Oil Industry Safety Directorate (OISD) and the national regulatory bodies
prescribe regulations and guidelines for the design, construction and operations of such
industrial plants. Barring accidents and other exceptional events, there is little risk of
operational leakages to the marine environment from well-managed processing plants.

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1.3 Environmental Impact of Oil Spills
The seriousness of spills varies with the amount, the type of oil, and the location. Visible
signs of a spill generally vanish in a relatively short time, but local plants and animals may
be hurt, and the diversity of species is sometimes affected.
Spilled crude and other oil products may affect organisms both directly through physical
and toxicological processes, and indirectly through habitat impacts, food-chain disruption
and alteration to their community. The magnitude of the impact varies depending on the
type of product spilled, the climate and flow dynamics of the system receiving the spill, and
the response measures taken. Figure 1.5 shows a schematic representation of an oil spill on
the sea surface.
Fig. 1.5: Schematic Spreading of an Oil Spill on sea surface

Source: Concawe Report: A Field Guide to Oil Spill Control and Clean-up techniques

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Since oil is comprised of hydrocarbons essentially the remains of ancient organisms

the moment it is spilled into water it begins to weather and degrade. Weathering is a natural
process that breaks down the oil through physical and chemical changes: spreading,
evaporation, dispersion, emulsification, biodegradation, dissolution, oxidation, and
sedimentation.
Spills close to the shoreline tend to have the greatest immediate impact because more diverse
forms of life may come into contact with the oil. In addition to ecological concerns, shoreline
spills can affect the air quality, due to the hydrocarbon gases and sulphur compounds present
in the oil, and are also a potential fire hazard. They will also depress recreational areas,
harbours, industries, commercial fishing grounds and tourist attractions. Figure 1.6 represents
a typical oil spill depicting transformation of oil as the spill moves.
Fig. 1.6: Physical, Chemical and Biological changes affecting the fate of an oil slick.
Source: Concawe Report," A Field Guide to Oil Spill Control and Clean-up Techniques"

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The rate at which oil spills spread will determine the effect on the environment. Most oils
tend to spread horizontally into a smooth and slippery surface, called a slick, on top of the
water. Factors which affect the ability of oil to spread include surface tension, specific gravity,
and viscosity.
The severity of the impact of an oil spill depends on several factors, including
characteristics of the oil itself. Natural conditions, water temperature, weather and wind
conditions also influence the behaviour of oil in aquatic environment. Various types of
habitats have differing sensitivities to oil spills.
Some lighter substances in the oil spill may evaporate quickly. Therefore, plant, animal, and
human exposure to the most toxic substances is reduced with time, and usually limited to
the initial spill area. Although some organisms may be seriously injured or killed very soon
after contact with the oil in a spill, non-lethal toxic effects can be more subtle and often long
lasting. For example, aquatic life on reefs and shorelines is at risk of being smothered by oil
that washes ashore. It can also be poisoned slowly by long-term exposure to oil trapped in
shallow waters on beaches.
1.4 Effect of Oil on Marine Organisms
The extent of damage caused by an oil spill depends upon the quantity of the oil spilled, the
type of oil, and the prevailing oceanographic and meteorological conditions there. When oil
spills in a large quantity it temporarily affects the air-sea interaction, thus preventing the
entry of oxygen from the atmosphere. The first set of organisms to be affected is the primary
producers, such as phytoplankton, which is the base of the marine food chain. Other free-
swimming organisms such as fish larvae, and fish, are also affected. When they come in
contact with the oil, the gills of the fish are clogged by the oil, which prevents their breathing
and kills them. If the oil spill occurs in an enclosed area and the surface remains undisturbed
by winds and other oceanographic conditions, the water below becomes deoxygenated due
to the absence of air-sea interaction. This causes the mass mortality of inhabiting organisms
due to lack of oxygen for respiration. Furthermore, when the oil eventually sinks it affects
the benthic organisms such as clams, and mussels, as tar particles are deposited in the mantle
of these organisms, arresting their physiological activities including respiration.
Spilled oil can also damage parts of the food chain, including human food resources. Aquatic
environments are made up of complex interrelations between plant and animal species and

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their physical environment. Harm to the physical environment will often affect one or more
species in a food chain. The effect an oil spill is likely to have on an organism is dependent
on the coastal environment in which the organism spends most of its life, for example in
open water, near coastal areas, or on the shoreline. In case of fire the organisms are killed
by high temperatures and burning gases.
In open water, fish and whales have the ability to swim away from a spill by going deeper
in the water or further out to sea, reducing the likelihood of their being harmed even by a
major spill. Aquatic animals that generally live closer to shore, such as turtles, seals, and
dolphins, risk contamination by oil that washes on to beaches or by consuming oil-
contaminated prey. In shallow waters, oil may harm sea grasses and kelp beds, which are
used for food, shelter, and nesting sites by different species. The most affected are the
submerged and sessile organisms such as corals, and the organisms inhabiting the inter-tidal
area. Both, of these have the richest biodiversity and density in any given area.
Spilled oil and cleaning operations can also threaten different types of aquatic habitats, with
varying degree of impact. Some of them are listed below:
! Coral reefs are important nurseries for shrimps, fish, and other animals as well as
recreational attractions for divers. Coral reefs and the aquatic organisms that live within
and around them are at risk from exposure to the toxic substances in oil as well as
smothering.
! Exposed sandy, gravel, or pebble beaches are usually cleaned by manual techniques.
Although oil can soak into sand and gravel, only a very few organisms live full-time in
this habitat, so the risk to animal life or the food chain is far less compared to tidal
flats, for instance.
! Sheltered beaches have very little wave action to encourage natural dispersion. If timely
cleaning is not done, oil may remain stranded on these beaches for years.
! Tidal flats are broad, low-tide zones, usually containing rich plant, animal and bird
communities. Deposited oil may seep into the muddy bottoms of these flats, creating
potentially harmful effects on the ecology of the area.
! Salt marshes are found in sheltered waters in cold and temperate areas. They host a
variety of plant, bird, and mammal life. Marsh vegetations, especially their root systems,
are easily damaged by fresh light oils.

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! Mangrove forests are located in tropical regions and are home to diverse plant and
animal life. Mangrove trees have long roots, called prop roots, which stick out well
above the water level to hold the mangrove tree in place. A coating of oil on these
prop roots can be fatal to the mangrove tree and, because they grow so slowly, replacing
a mangrove tree may take decades.
! Marshes and swamps, with little water movement, are likely to incur more severe
impacts than flowing water. In calm water conditions, the affected habitat may take
years to restore.
! Other standing water bodies, such as inland lakes, and backwaters are home to a variety
of birds, mammals and fish. The human food chain can be adversely affected by spills
in these environments.
1.5 Effects of Oil on Birds
! Contact with crude oil causes their feathers to collapse and mat together. This can
severely hamper the ability of the bird to fly.
! There is a breakdown in thermal insulation - oiled birds often suffer from hypothermia.
! Crude oil can also cause severe irritation of the skin.
! Birds often ingest the toxic crude oil in an attempt to preen themselves. They may also
ingest oil via their prey if their food chain becomes contaminated. The consumption of
oil poisons the birds.
In addition to above there may be small, yet, unknown but important, changes which may
affect the sea and aquatic life. Therefore, it is even more important to initiate combat
measures immediately.

CHAPTER 2
Oil Spill Incidents

Oil Spill and R
Incidents and Rela
elated
Rela
elated Responses
Responses
ted R esponses
2.1 Introduction
In this chapter, the global oil spill scene for the last thirty years, the total amount of yearly
oil spillage, a brief description of major oil spills, and some representative case histories have
been analysed. The environmental impact of the spill, the lessons learnt and how they have
influenced the preparedness, combat strategy and post-spill monitoring needs have been
brought out.
A brief account of oil spills in Indian maritime waters has been mentioned. One of the major
oil spills in Indian waters has been analysed, wherein international agencies were involved
in combat and salvage operations of the distressed tanker. Role of the Indian Coast Guard
was limited due to inadequacy of the facilities to the requisite scale.
This further calls for the establishment of a national organization for comprehensive and
co-ordinated action to deal with such a contingency.
2.2 International Oil Spills
Since 1974 the International Tanker Owners' Pollution Federation Limited (ITOPF) has
maintained a database of oil spills from tankers, combined carriers and barges. This covers
all accidental spillages, except those resulting from acts of war. The database contains
information on both the spill itself (amount and type of oil spilled, cause and location) and
the vessel involved. For historical reasons, spills are generally categorized by size (less
than 7 tonnes, 7-700 tonnes and more than 700 tonnes) although the actual amount spilt
is also recorded.
Information is now held on nearly 10,000 incidents, the vast majority of which (85%) fall
into the smallest category, less than 7 tonnes. Information is gathered from both published
sources, such as the shipping press and other specialist publications, and also from vessel
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owners and their insurers. Not surprisingly, information from published sources generally
relates to large spills, often resulting from collisions, groundings, structural damage, fires and
explosions, whereas most of individual reports relate to small operational spillages. Complete
reporting on this latter type of spill is clearly difficult to achieve.
It should be noted that the numerical figures on the amount of oil spilt in an incident relate
to all oil lost to the environment, including that which is burnt or remains in a sunken vessel.
There is considerable annual variation in both the incidence of oil spills and the amounts of
oil lost, and so the figures in Table 2.1 and any averages derived from them should be viewed
with caution.
The incidence of large spills is relatively low and detailed statistical analysis is rarely possible,
consequently emphasis is placed on identifying trends. Thus, it is apparent from the table
above that the number of large spills (over 700 tonnes) has decreased significantly during
the last thirty years. The average number of large spills per year during the 1990s was about
a third of that witnessed during the 1970s.
The vast majority of oil spills are small (less than 7 tonnes) and data on numbers and amounts
is incomplete. In most years, however, it is probable that they make a minor contribution to
the total quantity of oil spilled into the marine environment as a result of tanker accidents.
Reliable data on spills of over 7 tonnes is held, and the amounts of oil spilt during these
incidents have been added to give a series of annual estimates of the total quantity spilled
for the years 1970-2001.
In November 2002, a major spill was caused by the breaking up of the tanker "MT Prestige"
spilling about 11000 tonnes of oil off the Spanish coast, which still continues to release the
oil. Photographs and details about the incident are given in paragraph 2.3.3 in the following
pages.
It is notable that a few very large spills are responsible for a high percentage of the oil spilt.
For example, in the ten-year period 1990-1999, there were 346 spills of over 7 tonnes, totalling
1096 thousand tonnes; whereas 830 thousand tonnes (75%) was spilt in just ten incidents
(just over 1%). The figures for a particular year may, therefore, be severely distorted by a
single large incident. This is clearly illustrated by incidents of 1979 (Atlantic Empress - 287,000
tonnes), 1983 (Castillo de Bellver - 252,000 tonnes) and 1991 (ABT Summer - 260,000 tonnes).
Analysis, number, quantities of oil spills and their trends are shown in Figures 2.1 and 2.2.

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Table 2.1 Number of oil spills and total quantity spilt
Year 7-700 tonnes >700 tonnes Quantity of

Oil ('000 Tonnes)
1970 6 29 301
1971 18 14 167
1972 49 24 311
1973 25 32 166
1974 91 26 169
1975 97 19 342
1976 67 25 369
1977 65 16 298
1978 54 23 395
1979 59 34 608
1980 51 13 103
1981 49 6 44
1982 44 3 11
1983 52 11 384
1984 25 8 28
1985 29 8 88
1986 25 7 19
1987 27 10 30
1988 11 10 198
1989 32 13 178
1990 50 13 61
1991 27 8 435
1992 31 9 162
1993 30 11 144
1994 27 7 105
1995 20 3 9
1996 20 3 79
1997 27 10 67
1998 22 4 10
1999 19 5 29
2000 18 3 12
2001 16 3 8
Source: International Tanker Owners' Pollution Federation Limited (ITOPF) Website

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Fig. 2.1: Numbers of spills over 700 tonnes

Fig. 2.2: Quantities of oil spilt


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2.2.1 Major Oil Spills
Table 2.2 gives a brief summary of 20 major oil spills. A number of these incidents, despite
their large size, caused little or no environmental damage as the oil did not impact coastlines.
The Exxon Valdez is included because it is so well known although it is not the twentieth
largest spill of all time. The location of important oil spills is shown in figure 2.3.
Table 2.2 Selected major oil spills
S. Ship Name Year Location Oil lost

No (tonnes)
1 Atlantic Empress 1979 Off Tobago, West Indies 287,000

2 ABT Summer 1991 700 Nautical Miles off Angola 260,000
3 Castillo de Bellver 1983 Off Saldanha Bay, South Africa 252,000
4 Amoco Cadiz 1978 Off Brittany, France 223,000
5 Haven 1991 Genoa, Italy 144,000
6 Odyssey 1988 700 Nautical Miles off Nova 132,000
Scotia, Canada
7 Torrey Canyon 1967 Scilly Isles, UK 119,000
8 Urquiola 1976 La Coruna, Spain 100,000
9 Hawaiian Patriot 1977 300 Nautical Miles off Honolulu 95,000
10 Independenta 1979 Bosphorus, Turkey 95,000
11 Jakob Maersk 1975 Oporto, Portugal 88,000
12 Braer 1993 Shetland Islands, UK 85,000
13 Khark 5 1989 120 Nautical Miles off Atlantic 80,000
coast of Morocco
14 Aegean Sea 1992 La Coruna, Spain 74,000
15 Sea Empress 1996 Milford Haven, UK 72,000
16 Katina P. 1992 Off Maputo, Mozambique 72,000
17 Assimi 1983 55 Nautical Miles off Muscat, Oman 53,000
18 Metula 1974 Magellan Straits, Chile 50,000
19 Wafra 1971 Off Cape Agulhas, South Africa 40,000
20 Exxon Valdez 1989 Prince William Sound, Alaska, USA 37,000
Source : International Tanker Owners' Pollution Federation Limited (ITOPF) Website

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Fig. 2.3: Location of Selected Spills

Source: International Tanker Owners' Pollution Limited (ITOPF) Website
The analysis of various oil spills, their category, quantity and causative factors, has been
shown in Table 2.3 and Figures 2.4, 2.5 and 2.6.
Table 2.3 Incidence of spills by cause, 1974-2001

< 7 tonnes 7-700 tonnes > 700 tonnes Total
OPERATIONS
Loading/discharging 2767 299 17 3083
Bunkering 541 25 0 566
Other operations 1167 47 0 1214
ACCIDENTS
Collisions 163 254 87 504
Groundings 222 200 106 528
Hull failures 562 77 43 682
Fires & explosions 150 16 19 185
Other/Unknown 2221 165 37 2423
TOTAL 7793 1083 309 9185

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Fig. 2.4: Incidence of spills < 7 tonnes by cause, 1974-2001

Fig. 2.5 : Incidence of spills 7-700 tonnes by cause, 1974-2001

Fig. 2.6: Incidence of spills >700 tonnes by cause, 1974-2001


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2.3 Case Studies of Oil Spills
Four representative oil spills and the mitigation strategies adopted to combat them are briefly
summarized below:
2.3.1 The Sea Empress Oil Spill
Incident Summary
The vessel, Sea Empress, carrying North Sea light crude oil ran aground upon a wave-exposed,
current-scoured section of coastline of southwest Wales, UK involving the release of some
70,000 tonnes of oil. The accident occurred on 15th February 1996. Further damage was
sustained and oil continued to flow during the ensuing days. The conditions of the coastline
facilitated the spread of heavy oil slicks well beyond the immediate area of grounding. They
drifted into Milford Haven, as well as north and south along the open Pembrokeshire coast.
Some shores beyond the specified area were affected by relatively light oiling. During the
early weeks of the incident, oil was observed across a wide area of the Bristol Channel. The
most distant shores affected included those around Lundy Island and the southeast coast of
Ireland. (Figure 2.7)
Fig. 2.7: Coast Line most affected (shown in red)

Source: Peter Dyrynda, Rob Symberlist Website: www.swan.ac.uk

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Many of the Pembrokeshire shores improved greatly during the weeks after the spill as a
result of the cleaning operation and/or natural processes. Afterwards major bathing beaches
were reopened by Easter. Residual oil contamination, however, continued with the
reappearance of significant quantities of tar balls and surface sheens, unwelcome at the time,
but accelerating natural recovery in the long term.
Cleaning operation
Aircraft were used to spray

chemical dispersants on to slicks at
sea during the early days of the
incident. Specialized vessels were
used to recover oil from the sea
surface. Booms were deployed to
protect ecologically sensitive
areas.
A variety of techniques was

employed by a large workforce
during the onshore cleaning
operation. Hand scrapers,
mechanical diggers and bowsers
were used on sandy shores (Figure
2.8).
Absorbent scrubbing materials and

high-pressure water hoses were
used on some rocky shores. Fig. 2.8: Manual cleaning Operation
Source: Peter Dyrynda, Rob Symberlist Website:
Chemical dispersants were used to
www.swan.ac.uk
remove persistent oil encrustations
from rocks on some tourist beaches. Dispersants were applied to oiled rocks. High-pressure
water jets were used to remove oil after the application of chemicals (Figure-2.9).
Many inaccessible shores remained uncleaned - natural processes played the major role in
clearing these shores. Natural cleansing was rapid on many exposed rocky shores, but was

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much slower for all sheltered shores, particularly vegetated muddy shores. Natural dispersal
and intensive cleaning had restored the aesthetic appeal of many badly affected shores by
April 1996, and by the summer, bathing and water sports were recommenced in many areas.
Fig. 2.9: Shore Cleaning using High Pressure water hoses

Source: Peter Dyrynda, Rob Symberlist Website: www.swan.ac.uk
Lessons Learnt
Early response and availability of facilities for protection of beaches and fish hatcheries
is essential for limiting the damage. Chemical dispersants are effective only during the
initial stage of a spill, usually in the first few hours. Natural processes play a key role
in cleaning the shore and cleaning was rapid on many exposed rocky shores.
2.3.2 The Exxon Valdez Oil Spill
Incident Summary
On March 24, 1989, the tanker Exxon Valdez, en route from Valdez, Alaska to Los Angeles,
California, ran aground on Bligh Reef in Prince William Sound, Alaska. The vessel was
travelling outside normal shipping lanes to avoid ice. Within six hours of the grounding, the
Exxon Valdez spilled approximately 37,000 tonnes out of its 1,85,000 tonnes cargo of Prudhoe
Bay crude oil. Eight of the eleven tanks on board were damaged. The oil eventually affected

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over 1,100 miles of non-continuous coastline in Alaska, making the Exxon Valdez the
largest oil spill to date in U.S. waters (Figures 2.10 and 2.11 refer).
Fig. 2.10: Map showing the region of Spill

Source: www.noaa.gov
Shoreline cleaning began in April 1989 and continued until that September in the first year
of the response. Cleaning operations continued during the summer months of 1990 and 1991.
By 1990 surface oil, where it existed, had become significantly weathered. Sub-surface oil,
on the other hand, was generally much less weathered. The liquid sub-surface oil could give-
off a sheen when disturbed. Cleaning in 1991 concentrated on the remaining reduced
quantities of surface and sub-surface oil. Fate and effects monitoring by state and Federal
agencies continued.
Behaviour of Oil
Prudhoe Bay crude oil has an API gravity of 27.0, and a pour point of zero degrees C. The
bulk of the oil spilled from the Exxon Valdez was released within 6 hours of the ship's

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Fig. 2.11: Exxon Valdex aground on Bligh Reef

grounding. The general trend of the oil was south and west from the point of origin. For the
first few days after the spill most of the oil was in a large concentrated patch near Bligh
Island. On March 26, a storm which generated winds of over 70 mph in Prince William
Sound weathered much of the oil, changing it into mousse and tar balls, and distributing it
over a large area. By March 30, the oil extended 90 miles from the spill site. Ultimately, oil
extended more than 500 miles from Bligh reef, oiling shorelines in Prince William Sound,
the Kenai Peninsula, the Alaskan peninsula and Kodiak Island. Oil impact in the Prince
William Sound region was the most severe.
In addition to the storm of March 26, the spill occurred at a time of year when the spring
tidal fluctuations were nearly 18 feet. This tended to deposit the oil on to shorelines above
the normal wave zone. The diversity in shoreline types of the affected areas led to varied
oiling conditions. In some cases, oil was present on sheer rock faces making access cleaning
difficult, or rocky beaches with grain size anywhere from coarse sand to boulders, where
the oil could percolate through to a sub-surface level. The spill affected both sheltered and
exposed (to high wave/weather action) shorelines. Once oil landed on a shoreline it floated
off at the next high tide and landed in a different location, making the tracking of oil migration

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and shoreline impact very difficult. This migration ended by mid-summer 1989. The remaining
cleaning dealt with oiled shores, rather than oil in the water.
Counter measures and Mitigation
Deployment of booms around the vessel was complete within 35 hours of the grounding.
On March 26, after a successful dispersant test, dispersants were applied. Due to the heavy
storm in the evening of March 26, much of the oil turned into mousse, inhibiting the use of
dispersants on floating oil. The adverse effect and benefit analysis limited the further use of
dispersants.
Approximately 50 to 100 tonnes of oil was collected and ignited. The oil was reduced to
approximately 1 tonne of residue that could easily be collected. It was estimated that the
efficiency of this test burn was 98 percent or better. Continued in-situ burning was not possible
because of the change state of the oil after the storm.
Due to lack of equipment to protect all the shorelines, containment booms were deployed to
protect fish hatcheries (Figure 2.12). Overall, the deflection of oil from the hatcheries was
very successful. At least 87 per cent of the herring spawning grounds in Prince William Sound
was heavily oiled.
Fig. 2.12: Exxon Valdez Surrounded by Booms at Anchor in Outside Bay


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Sufficient numbers of hydrocarbon degrading bacteria exist naturally in Alaska, which helped
in microbial cleaning. An important observation that resulted from the Exxon Valdez oil spill
was that natural cleaning processes, on both sheltered and exposed beaches, were in many
cases most effective. It took longer for some sections of shoreline to recover from invasive
cleaning methods (hot water flushing in particular) than from the oiling itself. (Figures 2.13
and 2.14 showing Block Island before and during washing respectively).
Fig. 2.13: Block Island Before Washing

Fig. 2.14: Block Island During Washing


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The Exxon Valdez oil spill aroused more media and public interest (both national and
international) than any other spill in U.S. history. Alaska is considered by many to be a
pristine environment that includes many species of wildlife which is endangered
elsewhere. The Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation (ADEC) had to cancel
the 1989 black cod season in Prince William Sound, ban fishing for Pacific herring and
cut short the shrimp season as a result of the spill.
Lessons Learnt:
Timely action by deploying booms to protect the fish hatcheries was successful.
Endangered wild life in the pristine environment of Alaska was affected. Application of
dispersants was of limited success due to formation of mousse following disturbed
weather conditions. In-situ burning of spilled oil could reduce the residue to a significant
extent, but bad weather limited the use of this technique. The natural bacteria present
in Alaska's marine environment helped in bio-degrading the spill.
2.3.3 Prestige Oil Spill
On 19 November 2002, The Prestige was carrying more than 70,000 tons of oil cargo from
Latvia to Gibraltar when it was damaged in a fierce storm 45 kilometres off the coast of
Spain. Almost immediately, 4500 tonnes of oil leaked into the ocean and washed ashore along
the Spanish coastline.
Spanish authorities and Dutch salvage ships tried to tow the Prestige further out to sea before it
could do more damage to the sensitive coastal areas. The ship had suffered extensive damage, so
it soon took on water, broke in half and sunk with the remaining cargo. Over 64,000 tonnes of oil,
trapped in the cargo hold, went down to the ocean floor with the rest of the ship. The breaking
up of MT-Prestige is shown in Figure 2.15.
Most of the damage occurred along 550 kilometers of the Galician coast, Spain's most
ecologically vital area. At greatest risk were seabirds and coastal ecosystems, including
shellfish.
At that point, hundreds of seabirds of 33 species had already been oiled, including guillemots,
auks, shearwaters, petrel, gannets and gulls. Of deepest concern was the Balearic shearwater,
a critically endangered species. Scientists are hopeful that, if the temperature of the waters
near the ocean floor is low enough, the oil will become a solid mass and pose a less serious

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Fig. 2.15: Prestige oil tanker breaks up

The leaking oil tanker Prestige sinks off Spain's northwestern coast, taking more than
70,000 tonnes of fuel into the Atlantic with it.
Source Photo: Lavandeira, AP
threat. Installation of floating barriers to prevent oil reaching the shore is shown in Figure
2.16.
French Coastline also affected
French authorities closed some beaches on Thursday, 5th January 2003, after gooey black
patches of oil began washing up on France's sandy southwestern coast from the leaking
sunken tanker off the coast of Spain. So far, there has been no major damage to the French
coast, but French officials were bracing themselves for the possibility that larger oil slicks
could quickly reach the shore. About 100 large oil slicks - 10 to 20 square yards in size -
were heading towards France at a rate of about 24 miles a day, according to Sylvain le Berre,
of the maritime prefecture in Brest.
Response Measures
Small fishing boats and harbour cleaning vessels were particularly effective at collecting the
oil close to the shoreline and at the entrance to the Rias. Two vessels were engaged in offshore

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Fig. 2.16: Workers install a floating barrier (containment boom) in an attempt to prevent
more oil reaching the coast in Camelle, north-west Spain.
recovery operations in Portugal, co-ordinated by the Portuguese Navy. Shoreline cleaning

progressed well in many areas, with voluntary organisations who used mainly manual
methods as the oil was extremely viscous and becoming difficult to pump. Access to some
remote bays remained a problem and a number of temporary roads had to be built.
Elsewhere, volunteers have been assisting with cleaning by forming human chains to remove
oil from beaches where vehicles access is difficult.
Current Status
The Spanish government has closed the Galician fisheries and 1,000 miles of coastline,
immediately putting most of Galicia's population out of work just before the height of the
fishing and shellfish season. Environmental groups estimate that 15,000 birds have died so
far, including rare and protected species. The Prestige could go on leaking its remaining cargo
of 20 million gallons - approximately twice what the Exxon Valdez spilled into Prince William
Sound in Alaska - for years, possibly until the year 2006.
Fragments of oil from the MT-Prestige continue to oscillate between the French and Spanish

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coasts as a result of variable winds. An overflight on 29th January showed patches of

emulsion close to the French shore south of Bordeaux, and patches of emulsion were also
observed at the entrance of the estuary at Vivero in northern Spain.
A sheen continues to be reported around the wreck position. The amount of oil escaping
from the wreck is estimated at less than 5 tonnes per day and is not considered to be a threat
to shorelines. The Spanish Ministry of Science and Technology has established a
Commission to investigate the long-term risk of further pollution from the wreck, and to
consider ways of preventing any future escape of oil.
As of 28th January, 41,000 tonnes of solid waste and 21,000 tonnes of liquid waste had been
collected in Spain. Although liquid waste will eventually be recycled, solid waste is being
stored at several sites pending a decision on the final disposal method to be employed.
Lessons Learnt:
The cost of the cleaning operation, which Spanish officials warn could take several years,
has been already estimated at some 100 million. The Prestige's sinking is Europe's second
major disaster in three years, involving old-fashioned single-hulled tankers. Many
European countries have banned them from plying in their waters. Preliminary estimates
indicate that the cost of preventive measures and cleaning in Spain, France and Portugal
could be in the range of 215-320 million, and that losses in respect of fisheries and
aquaculture could be in the range of 80-250 million depending upon when the fishing
bans are lifted. It is too soon to predict the likely losses in the tourism sector.
The danger to the marine environment could have been greatly reduced had the Spanish
authorities given the "Port of Refuge" to the distressed tanker. In the absence of a policy
on the disposal of solid waste recovered, it continues to be lying at different places.
2.3.4 Globtik Sun (Gulf of Mexico) Oil Spill
Incident Summary
At 0130 hours on August 15, 1975, the M/V Globtik Sun struck an unmanned Chevron Oil
Company's oil production platform approximately 100 miles from Galveston, while en route
from Aruba to Baytown, Texas. The platform, designed for 12 oilwells, was unmanned

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because it was not then in operation. Approximately 7,000 barrels of oil spilled into the
Gulf of Mexico after the vessel's port bow tank ruptured. As flames engulfed the vessel,
the master gave the order to abandon ship. Forty of the forty-six crew members were
rescued, three charred bodies were found on board ship on August 17, and three crew
members were lost at sea. Weather at the time was mild with clear skies, a south westerly
wind at 10 knots and seas between 1 and 2 feet.
The ship was apparently on autopilot with the radar turned off when the watch was
relieved at midnight. The charts that were in use were not up-to-date and showed no
fixed structures on the ship's track line. When the radar was turned at 0030 hours, nothing
was visible. At 0045 hours, the radar revealed an object approximately 9 miles away on
the starboard side of the vessel. The captain of the vessel claimed that he saw no
navigational lights on the platform, even though a Chevron spokesman said they were
functioning correctly. The mate failed to plot the object. At 0130 hours, the port bow of
the vessel struck the eastern side of the platform, opening up a gash 2 feet wide along
the length of the bow tank. The cargo ignited and the fire spread towards 15 drums of
lube oil. An emergency call was made, and the ship was abandoned while fire and smoke
engulfed the forward port section of the ship.
Response measures
Personnel working on other platforms in the area immediately responded to the accident.
Six utility boats had surrounded the Globtik Sun within 30 minutes. Two coast guard
cutters and four aircraft arrived on the scene on August 15. The charred vessel was towed
by McAllister Towing to Galveston on August 18. The Globtik Sun was later sold for
scrap. An oil slick about two miles long and half a mile wide leaked out from the vessel's
damaged port bow. Most of the oil slick was on fire and burned away, so no cleaning of
oil on the water was required. Survivors of the incident reported encountering with flames
and oil in the water. By the morning of August 16, only a very light, rapidly dissipating
sheen was reported. After the fire was controlled, the vessel was towed and anchored
off the coast of Galveston for inspection and lightering.
2.4 Indian Oil spills - an appraisal
2.4.1 Indian Oil Spill Statistics
Table 2.4 summarises the oil spills from 1991-98 in Indian waters.

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Table 2.4 Oil Spills in Indian Waters
Date Quantity / Type of Position / Location Vessel Involved

Oil Spill (Tonnes)
07 Sep 91 692.5 (Fuel Oil) Gulf of Mannar MT Jaybola

14 Nov 91 40,000 (Crude oil) Bombay High Zakir Hussain
22 Feb 92 Not Estimated 40 NM south of New Unknown.
(Tanker wash) Moore Island
06 Apr 92 1000 (Gulf Crude) 54 NM West of Kochi SCI Tech Homibhabha
15 Aug 92 1060 (Kerosene oil) Madras Harbour Albert Ekka
17 Nov 92 300 (Gulf crude) Bombay Harbour MV Moon River
Jan 93 40,000 (Crude oil) Off Nicobar Island Maersk Navigator
20 Apr 93 110 (Bombay High Crude) Bombay Harbour MT Nand Shiv Chand
(Jawahar Island)
10 May 93 98 (Diesel) Bhavnagar MV Celelia
17 May 93 5460 (Bombay High BHN platform BHN Platform
Crude) Bombay High
02 Aug 93 260 (Diesel) Off New Mangalore) MV challenge
01 Oct 93 260 (Bombay High Crude) Kochi Harbour MT Nand Shiv Chand
22 Mar 94 Not Estimated 360 South West MV Stolidi
(Crude oil) off Porbandar
21 May 94 1400 (Crude oil) Off Sacramento Pt Innovative-1
05 Jun 94 1025 (Diesel) Off Aguada Goa Sea Transporter
20 Jul 94 100 (Crude oil) Bombay Jawahar Island MVMaharishi Dayanand
27 Nov 94 288 (Heavy oil and Diesel) Off Madras MV Sagar
26 Mar 95 200 (Diesel) Off Vizag Dredger Mandovi-II
24 Sep 95 Not estimated (Fuel oil) Off Dwarka MC Pearl
13 Nov 95 Not estimated Elliot Beach Madras Unknown
(Tanker Wash)
21 May 96 370 (Diesel) Off River Hugly Prem Tista
(IOC Chartered Barge)
18 Jun 96 Not estimated Off Bandra, Mumbai Zhen Den
(Heavy fuel oil)
18 Jun 96 Not estimated Off Karanja, Mumbai Indian Prosperity
(Heavy fuel oil)
23 Jun 96 Not estimated Off Worli, Mumbai MV Bomanska
(Heavy fuel oil)
16 Jun 96 Not estimated Off Prongs, Mumbai MV Tupi Buzios
(Heavy fuel oil)

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Date Quantity / Type of Position / Location Vessel Involved

Oil Spill (Tonnes)
16 Aug 96 124 (Fuel oil) Outer anchorage MV Ali Hadi

43.5 (Diesel) off Malabar Coast
25 Jan 97 Not estimated Off Kakinada coast Not known
(Heavy fuel oil)
19 Jun 97 Not estimated Off Prongs, Mumbai MV Arcadia Pride
(Heavy fuel oil)
19 Jun 97 Not estimated In River Hugly Green Opal
(Heavy fuel oil)
02 Aug 97 Not estimated Off Mumbai MV Sea Empress
(Heavy fuel oil)
14 Sep 97 Not estimated Visakhapatnam HPC Oil Refinery
(Heavy fuel oil)
12 Mar 98 Not estimated Bombay High Offshore Platform
(Heavy fuel oil)
01 Jun 98 Not estimated Off Vadinar SBM
(Heavy fuel oil)
08 Jul 98 500 (Fuel Oil) Ambuja Port Kodinar MV Pacific Acadian
Gujarat
Source: The Indian Coast Guard Publication, Blue Waters, January 2000
2.4.2 MV Pacific Acadian Oil Spill
Incident Summary:
MV Pacific Acadian, a Liberian flag cargo vessel ran aground at Mul Dwarka Port in Gujarat
at about 0900 hours on 08 July 1999, causing an oil spill. The pollution report (POLREP)
contained the following information.
Company M/s Hongkong Mingwa

Indian Agent M/s Arvind and Company
Type and quantity of oil on board 1074 MT fuel oil
Last port of call Richard Bay, South Africa
Cargo Onboard 10,000 tonnes coal
Approximately 500 tonnes of fuel oil was spilled. The Coast Guard response team arrived
on the scene from Mumbai and carried out aerial surveillance, monitoring and dispersant
spraying. The spill was brought under control by the afternoon of 13 July, 1999. On

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examination of the grounded ship, it was found that ten underwater tanks had been
damaged.
On 10 July, 1999, the owners appointed M/s Nippon with co-salvers M/s Smit Tak for
salvaging of the grounded vessel. The salvage master arrived at Mul Dwarka on 10 July 1999.
The vessel was floated by the salvers at 1230 hrs on 15 July 1999 and discharged its cargo
alongside Mul Dwarka Jetty on 18 July 1999.
An area of two kilometers south of Mul Dwarka Port, creek area south of port and sandy
beaches were affected due to the spill from the vessel. The Coast Guard response team
dispersed the oil and levied from the owners Rs 43,73,120 towards the cost of the operation.
The above incidences, both in national and international waters, underscore the need
for a well organised, suitable system for India with adequate capabilities, expertise and
authority to deal with any situation arising out of oil spills and thus to minimize the
damage to the Indian coastline.

CHAPTER 3
Indian
Indian Coastlines
Coastlines and
and Ecolo
Ecological
gical T hr
Ecological ea
hrea ts
eats
3.1 Indian Coastlines and Eco sensitivity
India has a coastline of about 5500 km on the mainland and about 2000 km on its offshore
islands. The coastal area of the country is blessed with a vast network of backwaters, estuaries,
creeks, lagoons and specialized ecosystems such as mangroves and coral reefs. The country
is blessed with beaches all along the coast. The biodiversity in the coastal waters, the Gulf of
Mannar and Kachchh, in the waters of Andaman, Nicobar and Lakshadweep islands, in
specialized ecosystems such as Chilka Lake, and mangroves along the east coast, is
significantly high. More than 5000 species of marine flora and fauna have been recorded so
far in the coastal and marine waters of the country. There is an urge to preserve, conserve
and protect the coastal habitats and the marine environment from all man-made activities.
The enormous beaches and the adjoining land are being extensively used for recreation,
relaxation and for creating attractions such as amusement parks. Oil spills that occur during
the accidents of ships/tankers, their grounding, rupture of seabed and onshore oil pipelines,
offshore oil production and exploration platforms affect these habitats, beaches and their
adjoining land severely and cause irreversible damage to the biodiversity as well as create
an unaesthetic appearance.
3.2 Oil Spill Risk Assessment
The western part of the Indian EEZ, that is, the Arabian Sea adjoining peninsular India,
forms the main international tanker route for oil tankers originating from the Persian Gulf.
It has been estimated that some 330 million tonnes of crude oil is transported annually along
this route, involving approximately 2500 laden tankers. The preferred route is through the
nine degree channel between the Maldives and Lakshadweep Islands, during the southwest
monsoon (May to September), and north of Lakshadweep following the 200-metre depth
curve west of Mangalore, at other times. Considering the large volume of oil transported
and high rate of tanker movement, the probability of tanker accident is high - once every
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few years. The last major accident in the area occurred in January 1993 in the Nicobar Sea.
Oil spills occurring during the southwest monsoon between 68 E and 76E, tend to drift
towards the Lakshadweep Islands and Kerala coast. At other times, oil spills threaten the
Lakshadweep islands between December and February, and the Kerala coast during October,
November, March and April. Any accidental spillage of oil along the tanker route will cause
severe and, in some cases,
irreparable damage to the
Table 3.1 Oil Handling Facilities along the Indian Coast
marine ecosystem. Similar
Port / Area Function
damage is caused if accidents
Gulf of Kachchh Ship to ship transfer
take place during the southwest
Port Kandla Single point Mooring Buoy
monsoon season. In addition to
Vadinar Single point Mooring Buoy
offshore oil exploration and
Bombay High Offshore oil field
production, the transfer
Mumbai (Offshore) Ship to ship transfer
operations of oil at single buoy Bassein Offshore oil field
mooring stations, as well as in Ratna/Heera Offshore oil field
lightering operations and Butcher Island Marine Terminal
during bunkering operations in Mumbai Refinery / Depot
the major ports, also cause Marmagoa Marine Terminal
spillage of oil particularly Mangalore Marine Terminal
during accidents. Besides such Cochin Marine Terminal

Tuticorin Marine Terminal
oil transfer facilities in India,
Cauvery Offshore oil field
lightering operations carried out
Chennai (Offshore) Ship to ship transfer
in other South Asian countries
Chennai Marine Terminal
may also be additional sources
Vishakhapatnam Marine Terminal
of oil pollution to the Indian Vishakhapatnam Offshore oil berth "VIZAG"
waters especially during Krishna Offshore oil field
accidents. The details of tanker Godavari Offshore oil field
terminals, oil depots, refineries, Mahanadi Offshore oil field
pipelines and offshore oil fields Haldia Marine Terminal Refinery / Depot
in India are given in Table 3.1 Calcutta Marine Terminal
and represented pictorially in

Figures 3.1 and 3.2:

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Mumbai
(6.9/5.5)
Vizag
(7.5)
Mangalore
(9.69)
Cochin
(7.5)
Fig. 3.1: Supply Locations- Refining (As on 1.4.2002)
Fig. 3.2: Pipelines identified by Industry towards formation of Network

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3.2.1 Oil production from Offshore platforms and its handling at Ports
The total quantity of oil produced from the offshore wells of the ONGC along the western
coast of India is approximately 22 MMTPA. This oil is transported mainly through pipelines
and oil tankers. Besides, crude oil imports and other petroleum products totalling to about
90 MMTPA are handled at major ports and this is likely to increase in future. This crude oil
is carried by tankers and ships per year. The Shipping Corporation of India Ltd (SCI) also
operates more than 24 crude carriers delivering imported oil to the major ports of the country.
The ecologically sensitive and risk prone areas are shown in Figure 3.3
Fig. 3.3: Map showing the ecologically sensitive and other areas that need to be
protected from oil spills (Red indicates the entire area as sensitive)
3.2.2 Oil spills in Indian marine environment
Even though very few oil spills have occurred in Indian waters, the damage caused to the
marine environment on such occasions was alarming in one or two cases, for example, when
in 1974, the American tanker Transhuron, carrying furnace oil, ran aground spilling about
3,000 tonnes of oil on the shores of one of the Lakshadweep group of islands, the Kilton

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Islands. Investigations revealed that the inter-tidal organisms of these islands were severely
affected, with mass mortality of lobsters and crabs.
During the oil spills, even though the fish in that area may not always die, a layer of oil
coats the surface of the fish, which makes it unacceptable for human consumption. Therefore,
the fishermen who happen to catch only those fish during the oil spill incidents are affected
economically, since most of the fishermen working coastal areas are poor and depend only
upon their daily catches for their livelihood.
Reports in the media on 26th January 1991 stated that large quantity of oil was sighted in
the Gulf. The quantity of oil spilled was estimated at 15 million barrels or 2.2 million tonnes.
Investigations conducted in April and October 1991 by the National Institute of
Oceanography, using Sagar Sampada, did not reveal any impact of the spill on the ecology
of the marine environment. This could be due to the following three main reasons:
Firstly, there is an anti-clockwise movement of currents during most of the year in the Gulf,
so the movement of water is restricted largely to the Gulf. Whenever it moves out of the
Gulf towards the Arabian Sea, the high density Gulf water being heavier than the water of
the Arabian Sea, sinks to the depth of its density. Normally, the characteristics of Gulf water
can be detected down to a depth of three hundred metres and its movement is traceable
east of 63 degree up to 18 degree north latitude, close to the Oman coast. Secondly, nearly
forty per cent of crude oil, its lighter portion, evaporates within 24 hours and another ten
per cent is subjected to photo oxidation and microbial degradation. The heavier portion
gradually sinks to the bottom and slowly weathers. During the course of time, oil at the
surface is fragmented and forms small tar balls. These tar balls, being lighter than seawater,
will float and eventually be deposited on the beaches of Gulf countries. Thirdly, the distance
between the point of an oil spill in the Gulf and the maritime boundary of India in the Arabian
Sea is about 1400 nautical miles (about 2800 km). The Indian coast is about 400 nautical
miles from there. At the surface oil travels at a rate of 3.5 percent of the prevalent wind
speed (less than ten nautical miles per day during this season) and because of the prevailing
anti-clockwise surface water movement inside the Gulf, the slick is unlikely to move out of
the Gulf. Hence, any effect from a Gulf oil slick, will be felt only between the 100 m and
300 m depths in the Arabian Sea. Oil requires oxygen at a rate of 1:3 for weathering.
Considering the large volume of dissolved oxygen present at this layer (estimated to be 53
million tonnes), the two million tonnes of oil that may be present in this layer will have
weathered away.

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3.2.3 Oil Spill from Offshore Pipelines
Rupture of NF platform feeder `riser' pipeline from Bombay High-North (ONGC) resulted in
the spilling of crude oil into the sea on 17th May 1993 about 165 km from the shoreline
north of Bombay. Although the exact quantity of crude spilled into the sea is not known, it
is variously estimated between 1000 and 2000 tonnes. Research vessel `Sagar Kanya', which
was deployed in on-site scientific observations, reported several patches of degraded crude.
At the mean wind speed of 20 km an hour then prevailing, it was considered that the floating
oil would reach the Konkan coast within seven to ten days with the shores of Murud as the
most likely landfall location. A mathematical model study of probable movement of oil spill
in Bombay High region undertaken by ONGC and later by the National Institute of
Oceanography (NIO) had also indicated that the coast between Bombay and Ratnagiri was
most likely to be contaminated by the spill occurring during May-September. The petroleum
hydrocarbon residue (PHC) drifted in the form of floating patches of varying sizes in the
near-shore waters between Alibaug and Shrivanrdhan as predicted depriving the holiday
makes of the beach and the associated near shore water at Murud for a few days during
the cleaning operations.
Local abnormal concentrations of dissolved-dispersed PHC in the water column exposed

pelagic biota to high levels of oil residues. Plankton in general was not severely affected though
damage, restricted to some species, was evident in terms of oily coatings on cell surfaces. It
is unlikely that weathered PHC, however, will cause measurable long-term damage to
plankton. No adverse impact on macrobenthos was evident, since the PHC had not
sedimented as expected. There was also no evidence of damage to the fish caught.
The deposit of viscous tarry residue on three km long Murud beach was estimated at less
than 1000 tonnes. The adjacent rocky shores were also oiled and pools of water formed in
between rocks trapped the PHC, thus affecting oyster beds in some instances. High PHC
contamination of the beach sand and rocky shores is expected to cause considerable harm
to the inter-tidal biota.
3.2.4 Other Effects
Besides a deleterious impact on marine ecology and the lives of fishermen, oil spills cause
operational problems to several coastal industries as well as shipping. A few examples are
given below:

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a. Atomic Power Plants:
Normally, water for cooling systems is taken at a sub-surface level from the sea
adjoining the plant. Whenever the oil floating on the surface is taken below the surface
by wave action, there is a possibility that oil contaminated seawater enters the cooling
water system, thereby somewhat reducing the heat transfer in steam condensers and
heat exchangers causing reduction in power generation during the period. Furthermore,
dilution of liquid radioactive waste may be affected by any oil spill, which may increase
concentration.
b. Thermal Power Plants:
The seawater used in cooling systems, if contaminated with oil, will affect heat transfer
in condensers and soft water coolers, which in turn affects the condenser vacuum. This
may cause a reduction in generation of power and increased fuel consumption.
Furthermore, oil spill may cause choking in rotating screens and filters in cooling water
systems leading to disruption of the whole working system.
c. Shipping industry:
Ships and tankers experience the following difficulties:
! Seawater cooling systems of shallow draft vessels will be fouled up by oil. Deep
drafted vessels may change over to lower sea suction.
! Fresh water generation has to be stopped when navigating in oil-polluted waters.

If the oil spill does not clear away, stationary rigs may face fresh water problems.
Fresh water making plants are operational in oil polluted waters; therefore, the
operation of the stationary unit will be stopped and personnel removed. Moving
craft will have to navigate in safer unpolluted waters.
! All ballasting operations have to be stopped, otherwise a clean ballast tank may
be contaminated, with the risk of oil pollution during deballasting operations. On
all vessels, sea water is used as a cooling and fire extinguishing medium. An oil
spill combined with a fire caused by the gases emanating from the oil spill, cannot
be effectively controlled or extinguished. Thus, the hazards to life and property at
sea are increased in geometric proportions.

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d. Fire hazard:
There is a potential danger of fire when lighter fractions of oil are evaporating. The
dispersion of hydrocarbon gas/air mixture is inhibited by low wind speeds. Wind speeds
above five metres per second are sufficient to avoid any risk of flames depending upon
the area involved in the oil spill. The polluted waters of the area cannot be used for
controlling and extinguishing a fire, as the sea water cooling system will be polluted
causing contamination for the machinery installed on board all merchant vessels, crafts,
platforms and units in the vicinity.
! Sparks from funnels and blowing down of boilers must be avoided at all costs.
! The affected hulls of the craft will need to be cleaned to prevent further water
pollution.
e. Disturbances:
! In the event of an oil spill moving to a port, traffic will need to be diverted causing
chaos to the movement of essential commodities and goods such as crude oil, oil
products, and edible oil, completely disrupting the operation of oil refineries.
! Shortage of essential imported goods will cause hardship to the national economy.
! Fire hazard to the vessels docked in the port increases manifold.
! Containing and removing an oil spill is a slow, time consuming process and
prolonged disruption will stall all the activities in the spilled area.
! Ships navigating through polluted waters will have to spend enormous amounts
of time and money to have their cooling systems cleaned thoroughly to return them
to operational working condition.
3.3 Sensitivity and Vulnerability of the Coastline of India
The long coastline of the country has several sensitive ecosystems, such as mangroves, coral,
breeding and nursery grounds of marine animals and tourist beaches. The details of some of
these locations are given in Figures 3.4 and 3.5. Statewise details of these locations and their
extent of sensitivity are given in detail in Table 3.2.
There needs to be a long-term national co-ordinated programme on the mapping of the coastal
marine environment and its resources, especially in the 32 locations identified as
environmentally sensitive areas to be protected against damage caused by the oil spills. Such
a programme can commonly be evolved with funding from the Ministry of Environment
and Forests, the Departments of Ocean Development and Animal Husbandry and Dairying

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Fig. 3.4: Coral Distribution around the Mandapam Group of Islands
Fig. 3.5: Gulf of Mannar and its 21 islands
or by the proposed entity. The database generated through this national effort will have to
be periodically updated, and the information shared among the agencies involved in
combating oil spills as well as the concerned State Government. The risk assessment made
at these locations also needs to be periodically updated with information generated on
ecologically sensitive areas through the database. Training of agencies involved in the
implementation of oil spill contingency plan to track the movement of the oil spills through
the models developed by DOD and other agencies should also be taken on periodically.

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Table 3.2 Ecologically Sensitive Areas of the Indian Coast
S.No. Location Ecological Importance Extent of Oil Spill Risk
1 Gujarat - National Marine Park from Okha to Sabya. Four SPMs and
Gulf of Kachchh Corals in south and mangroves in north. movement of tankers.
800 species of marine organisms, with great Risk is High.
diversity. Salt pans, refineries and power
plant using seawater for cooling.
2 Beaches south of Historical and pilgrimage site. Beaches Located in Shipping
Dwarka regularly visited by tourists. route. Risk is Moderate.
3 Maharashtra - Beaches at Juhu, Versova attract eco tourists Tanker traffic in port.
Beaches of Mumbai and visitors. Power plant using seawater Risk is High.
for cooling.
4 Malvan coast Historical Sindhdurg Fort and inter tidal Located in Shipping
corals. route. Risk is Moderate.
5 Goa Entire 105 km long coast has Area near Marmagoa
beaches of tourist importance. port Risk is High. Other
areas Risk is Moderate.
6 Karnataka - Western Ghat close to coast. Located along shipping
Coast at Gokhran Virgin beaches. route. Risk is Moderate.
7 Mangalore Beaches visited by tourists. Area close to Mangalore
port. Risk is High.
8 Kerala Entire coast is of natural beauty with fine Area around Kochi port.
network of back waters which are of Risk is High. Other areas
fishing and navigational importance. risk is Low to Moderate.
9 Tamil Nadu - Historical importance. Pilgrims Close to tanker routes.
Kanyakumari visit regularly. Risk is High.
10 Gulf of Mannar 21 Islands declared as Biosphere Reserve. Islands close to
Have highest Biodiversity. Coral pearl Tuticorin Port have High
oysters, sea grass and mangroves. Fishing Risk. Other Islands have
in Gulf. Most sensitive ecosystem. Tuticorin Moderate risk.
Thermal plant uses seawater for cooling.
11 Vedaranyam Coastal bird sanctuary and salt pans. Away from shipping
10 15 N - 10 35 route. Risk is Low.
IN 79 20'E-79 56'F
12 Pichavaram Dense mangrove for 1100 hectares. Away from shipping
Mangrove route. Risk is Low.
13 Mahabalipuram Historical and cultural site. Located close to
shipping route Risk is
Moderate.
14 Beaches around Beaches from Mahabalipuram to Marina Marina has High risk.
Chennai have tourist importance. North Chennai Other areas Risk is
Thermal power plant uses seawater for Moderate.
cooling.

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S.No. Location Ecological Importance Extent of Oil Spill Risk
15 Pulicat lake Belongs to Tamilnadu Andhra. Close to Ennore port.

Biodiversity and high importance for prawn Risk is High.
fishing.
16 Andhra Pradesh - Krishna delta has great fishing importance. Away from shipping
Machilipatnam route. Risk is Low.
17 Coringa 23570 hectares mangrove area with good Close to Kakinada Port.
Mangroves species diversity Risk is High.
18 Beaches of Vizag 10 km wide beaches used for recreation. Vizag Port poses
High Risk.
19 Orissa - Chilka Largest lake in Asia, rich in biodiversity and Away from shipping
Lake fisheries. route. Risk is Moderate.
20 Bhiltarkanika Extensive mangrove forest and Away from shipping
several other fauna. route. Risk is Moderate.
21 Gatiranata 35 km long coastline near Dhomna ground Away from shipping
for resting ground of endangered Olive route. Risk is Moderate.
Ridley Turtles largest in the world.
22 Beaches of Puri Tourists and pilgrims visit beaches. Away from shipping
and Konark route. Risk is Moderate.
23 West Bengal - Largest mangrove formations in the country Holding Kolkata ports.
Sundarbans Hooghly used for ship navigations. Risk is High.
Hooghly system
24 Digha Beaches visited by week-end tourists. Away from shipping
route. Risk low.
25 Andaman and Most pristine marine ecosystem. Nicobar Andaman has moderate
Nicobar Islands Islands have coral, Andaman has risk. Nicobar close to
mangroves, waters rich in biodiversity international tanker
route. Risk is very high.
26 Lakshadweep 37 coral islands. Located along the
Islands international tanker
route. Risk is very high.

CHAPTER 4
Oil Spill Modelling

Oil Spill Modelling and its Applications
4.1 Significance of Oil Spill Modelling
Oil spill contingency plans involve equipment and organization that are very expensive.
Prevention, planning, response and cleaning associated with oil spills in coastal or high seas
demand a total understanding (modelling) of such complex functions as existing and antecedent
oceanography, meteorology, climatology, the interacting chemistry and biology of the water,
atmosphere and surrounding sediments. The model must be able to:
! Forecast the movement of a contaminate
! Hindcast the movement of a contaminate to possible local sources
! Predict the fate of oil
! Provide the shoreline impact assessment
! Adjust and update the results with field observations (own source code)
This need, coupled with the total lack of realistic observational data, led to a number of
oil spill simulation models. Since no actual values are normally available on process rates,
the programme may not produce real results. It is a case of intelligent guess work. Based
on the magnitude of the process, the computer calculates the overall result.
But, despite its handicaps, a forecast from an oil spill model with information about where the
oil slick is, how much oil is on the surface of the sea, the slick mobility and other information
is, however, a relatively inexpensive exercise. A fast means to get an immediate estimation of
slick movement details greatly helps in supplementing and aiding oil spill control and combat.
4.2 Essential Input and Data Requirements
The major factors that must be considered in an evaluation of potential or actual oil spills are:
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! The location, size, physical and chemical properties of the oil spilled
! The transport of the oil by wind and currents
! The physical, biological and chemical transformation that the oil undergoes while moving.
The prediction of the behaviour of spilled oil is complicated by a wide variety of conditions
that may be present in the receiving waters, and the stochastic nature of important
environmental factors influencing oil slick transport. In addition, there is a significant lack of
data on many of the most important aspects of oil behaviour. Facing these predicaments,
instantaneous, rather than chronic oil spill models, can serve most purposes. The main object
should be to formulate an oil spill weathering model meeting the following demands:
! The model should be easily combined with a transport model, should be short-term
and able to give a reasonable forecast within one week of the spill.
! The model should be operational, that is, with the available (and often limited)
information about the characteristics of the spilled oil, the spill location and the
weather conditions, the model should be able to calculate with reasonable accuracy
how much oil is left on the surface of the sea and the area, viscosity, density, and
water content of the oil slick.
The weathering processes taken into account in the model are spreading, vertical and horizontal
dispersing evaporation, emulsification and the welling-up of dispersed oil to the surface.
4.3 Weathering Process

Spreading
Oil discharged on water surface will immediately start increasing its surface area. Two
different mechanisms cause this. The first is spreading induced primarily by the oil properties
(differences in the density of the oil and seawater and surface tension). The sum of retarding
and spreading forces will determine the spreading rate.
Models have been suggested for the prediction of spreading rates for oil slicks at sea. Perhaps
the best known is due to "Blocker", whose model assumes that the instantaneous rate of
spreading is proportional to the prevailing slick thickness. "Fay" developed a more detailed
treatment in which the following three distinct spreading phases are identified.
! An initial phase where spreading is controlled by gravity and inert resistance forces

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! An intermediate phase where gravity and viscous drag forces predominate
! A final phase controlled by surface tension and viscous drag forces
Evaporation
Evaporation represents a major physical change to crude oil spills at sea, particularly in the
early stages. The rate of evaporation is primarily dependent upon the vapour pressure of oil at
ambient temperature (which is dependent upon the vapour pressure of its constituents and
their concentration), but enhanced by high winds and rough seas which may promote
spreading. This is expected to increase the evaporation rate due to the increased surface area.
The spreading is checked to some extent by emulsification of the oil. The evaporation losses
are unaffected by the high degree of water in oil emulsion which takes place, presumably due
to the fact that the oil is in the continuous phase.
Dispersion
Transport into the water column can be accomplished by a number of mechanisms such as
dissolution, dispersion, accommodation and sedimentation. Dispersion and accommodation
are by far the most important mechanisms during the first week of weathering.
Random motions induced by waves, wind and tidal currents translocate the elements of the
slick in relation to each other and to the centre of the mass. When the slick is decomposed,
only dispersion will move the oil elements away from the centre of the mass.
Dispersion is a mechanical process. Water turbulence tears off globules of oil and entrains
them, forming an oil-in-water emulsion. Surface-active agents present in chemical dispersants
coat the oil-water interface and, preventing the oil from coalescing, stabilize these emulsions.
This formation of colloids is called accommodation. In rough weather, the dominant dispersal
mechanism is probably wave breaking, while in calm weather, the most significant mechanism
is probably the stretching and compression of the slick, leading to droplet separation.
Emulsification (Water Uptake)
One of the major processes which leads to the persistence of crude oil on the surface of the sea
is the formation of water-in-oil emulsion. The ease of formation and stability of this emulsion
varies according to the nature of the oil. For instance, the stability of the emulsion is closely
related to the amount of surfactants present in the oil. The rate of water uptake is closely
related to state of the sea.
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Heat Transfer
Vapour pressure and viscosity are strongly temperature dependent. It is, furthermore, observed
that an oil slick can become considerably warmer than the surrounding air and it is, therefore,
relevant to establish a model for calculating the slick temperature.
Wind Fields
Wind is an important factor in the determination of oil slick behaviour. Its primary effect is on
the advection of the slick through the generation of the surface waves and near surface currents
and through the creation of shear stress on the slick surface. The wind also influences the
dispersion and weathering (especially evaporation) of the slick.
Although the wind field is inherently variable in time and space, it is not normally widely
observed and measured. Accordingly, in specifying the wind field when predicting oil spill
behaviour, it is often necessary to use some type of model for the wind field structure in time
and space. The model might calculate winds determined from governing equations, or it might
generate them stochastically using statistical correlation , or the model might simply apply
spatial and temporal interpolation and extrapolation schemes.
4.4 Oil Spill Models
Software is available for predicting the movement of oil spills. Application ranges from open
sea conditions to semi enclosed bodies, such as lakes and gulfs.
4.4.1 Enclosed sea - A Case study of the Gulf of Kachchh
The Gulf of Kachchh (Figure 4.1) is a semi enclosed water body, known for its rich bio-diversity,
comprising vast inter-tidal zone with mud flats, beaches, flood plains, mangroves, coral reefs
and associated fauna. The strategic location of the Gulf of Kachchh near the oil producing
Gulf countries has recently attracted the establishment of facilities for the refining and piping
of petroleum and related products to meet the growing demand by north Indian consumers.
The circulation in the gulf is governed by tides and winds. After analysing the historical wind
data available on the Gulf of Kachchh, the habitats of the southern part of the Gulf of Kachchh
were mapped in the GIS as coral reef, mangrove and mud flat areas. The impact of oil spill
after 48 hours under (a) No wind conditions, (b) 5m/s constant wind speed from 240 degrees
north, and (c) 5 m/s constant wind speed from 330 degrees north, obtained from the model
were overlaid using GIS. The area affected under each condition is given below:

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Fig. 4.1: Gulf of Kachchh and its Environment
Analysis using GIS indicated the extent of coral reef, mangrove and mud flat areas that will
be affected after 48 hours of an oil spill under the above conditions. The details are given
below:
Area (in Sq. Km.)
Resources exposed to oil Scene I Scene II Scene III
Mud flats 37.20 0.20 33.85
Sandy flats 0.63 0.00 1.80
Mangroves 0.15 0.00 1.20
Coral reefs 6.37 0.00 2.42
Coastal water 103.90 257.95 42.09
Total 148.25 258.15 81.36
Length of shore/beach/low waterline in Km.
Length of low water line exposed to oil 54.32 2.02 34.40
Length beach/coast exposed to oil 4.48 0.00 0.00

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Fig. 4.2: (a), (b) and (c). Ecological areas affected by Oil cover after 48 hrs of spill in 3 wind scenarios (a) No wind, (b)
5 m/s from 240N and (c) 5 m/s from 330N. Red dots on the islands are mangroves. Blue on the periphery of the
islands are coral reefs. Rest of the coastal edges are mud flats.

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4.4.2 Open sea - A Case Study of Bombay High
In the case of Indian conditions, Dr. K.L. Goyal and his team in the ONGC developed two
models, OILTRACK and OILLEFT, in 1987. The OILTRACK model predicts the movement of
spilled oil from Bombay High region during different seasons (Figures 4.3 to 4.5). The OILLEFT
model provides the estimation of oil lost due to various physical and chemical processes during
its movement, and thereby estimates the changes in oil slick properties and composition during
its movement. The model has been validated by the actual spilling of Bombay High oil and
tracking it as it moves towards the shore. Similar versatile models now being developed by the
Department of Ocean Development (DOD), Government of India also incorporate current
and wave conditions.
Fig. 4.3: Oil Spill Simulation Flow Chart

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OBESERVATION ON TEST SLICK OF 50 LITRES CRUDE OIL NEAR TROMBAY TERMINAL
Fig. 4.4: Oil Spill Observations on Test Slick at Different Distances

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Legend: (1) to (12) Denote calendar months (January to December) 30 D - No. of days for spill to reach the coast (30 Days)
Fig. 4.5: Trajectories of Simulated Oil Spills

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From Figure 4.5 it is evident that the most crucial period for an oil spill to hit the Mumbai
Coast and surrounding beaches is from May to September when the spill from Mumbai High
area could reach the coast in seven to twenty days. In thirty days the spill might reach further
south beyond Goa. It is expected that combat strategy, if initiated within a week during these
five months, can safeguard the coastline. Any spill in the remaining seven months will, at
least, not harm the coastline and, unless euormous will not affect aquatic life, since the oil
would be dispersed by the high seas.
An early prediction of the behaviour, fate and location of spilled oil is of prime importance
in designing a successful and economical combatment strategy. It is, therefore, essential
to develop a response system model for each oil exploration, producing, loading and
unloading site and to keep it continuously revised.

CHAPTER 5
Oil
Oil Spill
Spill Managem ent
ent -- C
Management
Managem
Management Contingency
ontingency Planning
Contingency
5.1 Introduction
Oil spill incidents are dealt with by the National Contingency plan. A contingency plan
is like a "game plan", or a set of instructions showing the steps to be taken before, during,
and after an emergency. The plan looks at all the possibilities of what could go wrong
and, contingent upon actual events, has the contacts, resource lists, and strategies to assist
in the response to the spill.
Contingency plans are to ensure the safety of people, protect the environment, safeguard
commercial interests and to respond immediately to an emergency scene and classify it.
Contingency planning is the first step towards effective oil spill response. A contingency plan
is location specific. It covers various aspects such as sources of spillage, prevailing risk with
possible size, maximum rate of oil discharge, likely reasons, types of oil handled, oil
characteristics, spill movement data, trajectory, fate of the spilled oil through time, mechanical
recovery plan, application of dispersants, sensitivity mapping and logistics, to control the
situation and minimize the economical and ecological damage.
The potential benefits of the contingency plan include:
! Effective and efficient response
! Clear re-affirmation of business and government concern for environmental priorities
! Helping the public and media to understand the organization or industry's efforts
! Incident control and loss prevention
Local contingency plans are integrated with the contingency plans of industry partners and
ports in the area of operation, and dovetail into the regional contingency plans and the
National Oil Spill Disaster Contingency Plan issued by the Indian coast guard. These
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contingency plans are periodically reviewed, updated and practiced through mock drills.
At a glance, an oil spill contingency plan may appear complicated because it provides so
many details about the numerous steps required to prepare for, and respond to spills. It
also covers many spill scenes and addresses different situations that may arise during or after
a spill. Despite its complexity, a well-designed contingency plan should be easy to follow.
Although they are different in many respects, contingency plans usually have four major
elements in common (EPA, 1999):
! Hazard identification
! Vulnerability analysis
! Risk assessment
! Response actions
Planners use hazard identification and vulnerability analysis to develop a risk assessment.
The risk assessment is then used as the basis for planning specific response actions. Each of
these four elements is described below.
5.2 Hazard identification
It is impossible to know when an oil spill is going to happen and how much oil is likely to
be spilled. But it is possible to identify where oil is stored, the corridors through which it
travels, and what industries use large quantities of oil.
Different situations can affect how response personnel contain and clean an oil spill, such
as weather conditions, geographic isolation and spill size. Private companies and local, state,
and federal agencies design their contingency plans to address spills from many locations
and under different conditions. The following information is usually collected as part of
hazard identification:
! Types of oils frequently stored in, or transported through, that area
! Locations where oil is stored in large quantities and the mode of transportation used
to move the oil, such as pipelines, trucks, railways, or tankers
! Extreme weather conditions that might occur in the area during different times of the
year

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! The location of response equipment and personnel trained to use that equipment and
respond to the spill swifty
5.3 Vulnerability analysis
The vulnerability analysis section of a contingency plan provides information about resources
and communities that could be harmed in the event of a spill. This information helps
personnel involved in clearing up a spill to make reasonable, well-informed choices on
protecting public health and the environment. Vulnerability analysis information should
include the following:
! List of public safety officials in the community
! List of facilities such as primary health centres, nursing homes and hospitals
! List of recreational areas, such as camping grounds
! List of critical habitats that can be affected when a spill occurs
! Identification of parts of the environment that are particularly susceptible to oil or water
pollution
5.4 Risk Assessment
Each location which is prone to oil spillage is assessed for probable spillage, source and likely
quantity of spill, its environmental impact and movement of the spilled oil based on a Hazop
and risk analysis. Effects of an oil spill and the consequences are unique for each location.
Therefore, it is essential to develop data regarding weather conditions, sea conditions
including sea current and wind speed, and other sensitivities in preparing a contingency
plan. Databank are created for all oil handling locations for all seasons and, in the event of
an oil spill, this can be consulted to understand the fate and movement of the spilled oil.
Data include information covering pre-monsoon, post-monsoon and low and high tides, water
temperature, salinity of the water, wave height, wind velocity and direction, sea current and
direction. These elements have an important bearing on the effect of an oil spill and its
consequences.
A computer model for each major location, particularly those connected with upstream
activities and major transport routes is, therefore, essential. These aspects are separately dealt
with in a previous chapter (Chapter 4).

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Contingency planners compare the hazards and vulnerability of a particular location to see
what risk is posed to a community. The plan then addresses those problems by determining
how best to control the spill, how to prevent certain populations or environments from
exposure to oil, and how to repair the damage caused by the spill.
5.5 Response actions
Responses are developed to address the risks that are identified in the risk assessment. A
carefully designed contingency plan will describe major actions that need to be taken in a
sequential manner when a spill occurs. These actions should take place immediately after a
spill so as to minimize hazards to human health and the environment. The following
responses should be included in a contingency plan:
! Notifying all private companies or government agencies that are responsible for cleaning
! Getting trained personnel and equipment to the site quickly
! Defining the size, position and content of the spill, its direction and speed of movement,
and its likelihood of affecting sensitive habitat
! Ensuring the safety of all response personnel and the public
! Stopping the flow of oil from the ship, truck, or storage facility, if possible, and
preventing ignition
! Containing the spill to a limited area
! Removing the oil
! Disposal of oil once removed from the water or land
5.6 Improving Plans with Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
Contingency planners and other response organisations are now using Geographic
Information Systems (GIS) to make contingency plans better and easier to use. GIS makes
electronic maps that can focus attention on the location of what is important to planners
and oil spill responders. GIS can also provide detailed information about each of the items
shown on a map, such as the dimensions of an oil storage facility or pipeline, whether a
road is paved, or the times of the year that sensitive species are in the area. GIS can also
help to determine the best way to get to potential spill sites and identify areas where
responders might have difficulty of access.

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Having all these data easily accessible in one place and being able to see items in relation to
each other makes planning more effective. It allows planners to know where spills are most
likely to occur and how bad they might be, and lets them give priority to actions for protecting
the most sensitive resources first. It can also help planners know what kind of resources
and the quantity (booms, skimmers, and vacuum trucks) they may need in a given area.
5.7 Designing a Contingency Plan
The objectives of a contingency plan are
! To develop an appropriate and effective system for detecting, identifying sources and
reporting of oil spillage to concerned authorities
! To ensure a prompt, correctly organized response system to prevent, control and combat
oil pollution and minimize loss and damage
! To ensure that there is adequate protection for sensitive areas, public health, welfare
amenities and marine environment
! To ensure that appropriate techniques are employed for the restriction of pollution to
a minimum level remembering spill volume, type of oil, prevailing weather and sea
conditions, and the disposal of recovered material in an environmentally acceptable
manner
The scope of a contingency plan includes the response organizational structure, techniques
and readiness, communication, reporting system, tracking of spilled oil, disposal of recovered
oil and salvage. Training and retraining systems, periodical drills and exercises, as well as
legal aspects such as compensation, and recovery of costs, also form part of the plan.
5.8 Integration with other Organizations
The primary responsibility towards oil spills and marine pollution lies with the owner of the
installation or port authority as applicable. The regional headquarters of the Indian Coast
Guard monitors and co-ordinates these operations. For areas beyond the port's prescribed
limits or 500 metres from the installation, the Coast Guard assumes responsibility.
The organization responsible for Tier-I identifies a Chief Crisis Co-ordinator or On-scene Co-
ordinator (Senior level executive) who has overall responsibility for ensuring that an
appropriate response is made to any incident (Appendix-V).

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Once information about oil spillage in the sea is received, the Chief Crisis Co-ordinator or
On-scene Co-ordinator follows the steps as given in the decision tree (Appendix-VII) for
handling the spill and reports to the following:
! Internally within organization
! Indian Coast Guard
! Other oil companies in the neighbourhood
! Concerned port authorities
! Concerned State Government authorities
! The proposed entity for oil spill response
! Oil Industry Safety Directorate
! Any other agencies, such as tankers or ships and installations in the area.
Every oil spill response activity involves many agencies within and outside the organization.
It requires effective co-ordination with various statutory and government agencies and the
Indian Coast Guard. Therefore, a proper administrative set-up, ensuring the full support of
the State Government and State authorities in facilitating quick movement of material and
resources to the site and other logistics support, such as road, air and marine transportation
including custom clearance for any external help, should also form part of the contingency
plan. All these activities require the most urgent clearance and support.
The following government departments or agencies will act as major resource agencies
! Indian coast guard
! Ministry of Shipping or the Directorate General of Shipping
! State Government Maritime Board
! Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas
! Ministry of Environment and Forests
! Ministry of Defence
! Department of Fisheries
! Major Port Authorities

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! Department of Ocean Development
! National Institute of Oceanography, Goa
! State Pollution Control Board
! State Forest Department.
5.9 Resource Preparedness
The readiness takes care of most likely spill as per risk assessment during operation and
planning for worst-case scenes. The state of preparation for oil spill response at each location
is mentioned in the contingency plan. This includes mechanical response equipment, logistic
support such as vessels, boats, aircraft, and consumables including dispersant chemicals. The
available resources are occasionally reviewed to ensure the minimum quantity as indicated
in the contingency plan is always ready. In addition to local resources, similar resources of
mutual aid partners and their contact numbers are also to be indicated in a contingency
plan. The list may include logistics such as aircraft, vessels, vehicles, dispersant, trained
manpower and other items available with mutual aid partners. Modes of sharing oil spill
response resources of member organizations and its financial implications are clearly spelled
out in the contingency plan. All oil spill response resources should be integrated at district,
state and national level. In case of response to the magnitude of Tier III, resources available
at regional level should be pooled and assistance from international expert agencies may be
sought if required.
5.10 Proposed Organogram for Contingency Planning
The NOS-DCP organogram for combating major spills is in Appendix VI. With the setting
up of the proposed Entity, the organogram for oil spill contingency may need to be revised
and updated.
5.11 Oil spill movement and tracking
The Department of Ocean Development is developing software for tracking spilled oil and
the fate of oil through time. The agencies, which are capable of providing tracking facilities
or the software package with data for the location, can be approached, if needed, for effective
tracking of the spilled oil. Properties and behaviour of oil spilled, including oil classification,
for example, heavy fuel oil, crude oil, and bitumen, are to be made available in the
contingency plan. Finger printing of spilled oil is necessary to identify the polluter.
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5.12 Spill Response Techniques
There are two types of oil, persistent and non-persistent. Oil spill response techniques are
based on the type of oil. Mechanical recovery is the best option, but needs to be applied
quickly, preferably within six hours, before spilled oil can spread and emulsify through the
action of the waves. Application of dispersant and type of dispersant needs to follow the
guidelines issued by the Indian Coast Guard. Dispersant chemicals should have a toxicity
test and be certified by a recognized laboratory as approved by the proposed Entity.
In-situ burning by containing the spilled oil with a fire resistant boom is an accepted
technology but rarely applied due to difficulty in application and safety reasons.
Ports should have the reception or storage facility for recovered oil after mechanical
recovery. Recovered oil can be sent to refinery for further process or treated through bio-
remediation technique for final disposal. Regular monitoring and deployment of booms for
jetty operation can be considered as a preventive oil spill response technique. Bio-remediation
of spilled oil requires containment of spilled oil by booming and considerable time, nearly
two or three months, for microbes to eat up the hydrocarbons. Bio-surfactant may also be
applied along with the bacteria. Figure 5.1 depicts the laying of a container boom.
Fig. 5.1. Containment Boom being laid.


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Monitoring the movement and behaviour of spilt oil is required. According to accepted
practice, a large oil spill in deep sea or when the sea is turbulent, is left alone for nature to
take its own cleaning action.
5.13 Shore line cleaning
Contingency plans are to have procedures and resources for cleaning beaches and shorelines
if spilled oil moves there. Each type of shore or beach, such as a sandy beach, beach with
marshy land, a beach with boulders and gravel are cleaned using an appropriate method.
Lists of equipment agencies and personnel along with other resources, such as hot water
availability, are to be made. Sometimes boulders are cleaned manually consuming both time
and manpower. The best method to protect beaches and shores is to lay preventive booms.
Figure 5.2 shows manual oil cleaning operations on shore.
Fig. 5.2. Manual Clean-up of Oil on the shore

5.14 Oil Spill Response Equipment
The maintenance and service of oil spill response equipment are important functions to ensure
their readiness for immediate response. Most equipment is manufactured and supplied by

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the overseas parties. It is, therefore, difficult to get any assistance from the indigenous source
for their repair or maintenance.
5.15 Health and Safety
Great care about occupational health and safety is to be exercised in preparing the
contingency plan. This pertains to personnel of the response organization and the upkeep
and maintenance of machinery and equipment.
The proposed Entity would ensure proper training of the health personnel and
development of indigenous capability for the maintenance and servicing of the equipment.
5.16 Reporting
Reporting of an oil spill incident should be according to the format and structure given in
the National Oil Spill Disaster Contingency Plan (NOS-DCP). Blank Oil Spill Reports and
POLREP Message Formats form part of the contingency plan.
5.17 Training
To ensure effective working of the contingency plan, training must be conducted regularly
for both equipment operators and response personnel, to improve their skills in effective oil
spill response in an actual scene. The plan must be exercised regularly through mock drills
at frequencies approved by the contingency plan to check its efficacy, prefrebly twice a year
at local level, once a year at regional level and once every three years at national level.
The Indian Coast Guard also organises drills from time to time in which concerned
organisations can participate. On completion of each drill, an evaluation is conducted to
check any deficiency and make amendments necessary to improve the system.
Currently, the Indian Coast Guard has training facilities at its Mumbai installation, where
its experts train technicians and managers in oil spill response in a structured method. This
meets the requirements of the IMO level training modules. The proposed Entity will have
full training facility with international accredition. International exposure is desired, however,
for key personnel associated with oil spill response.

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5.18 Communication and Media Management
In every oil spill incident, media management is one important activity to develop confidence
among the public in general, and also the various stakeholders including the statutory
authorities. Bad media publicity can result in confusion and adverse comment from the
interested parties resulting in enhanced claims and insurance payment. Therefore, all those
interested should be kept informed about the plan and response to controlling the oil pollution
in case of a spillage, and they should be made aware of the recovery plan. Hence, an efficient
communication and media management team, with their roles and responsibilities clearly
defined, is also part of the contingency plan. Service of an expert media agency can be used,
depending upon the size of the spillage and the extent of damage or pollution, to make media
management more effective. Oil spill response readiness can be demonstrated to media by
associating them with structured mock drills.
5.19 Roles and Responsibilities
Roles and responsibilities of various resource agencies, as defined in the National Oil Spill
Disaster Contingency Plan, are given at Appendix-VI. Existing legislation and systems do
not have clearly defined guidelines for assigning responsibility or accountability of various
agencies involved in oil spills and their management. The proposed entity should draw up
a specific policy with guidelines to assign responsibility to the following involved parties
and to ensure enforcement.
! Polluter or source of pollution
! Corporate entity owning or managing the polluting unit
! Local or regional authority for monitoring and response
! In the case of ships or rigs, beneficial owner or manager
! National response agency for performance in spill response
! Administering government departments for policy and legislation
The proposed Entity will also have a centrally co-ordinated approach to seek assistance
from international response agencies. While commercial arrangements and liability issues
are the responsibility of the polluter, the Entity should standardise them, on the basis of
successful international models, to ensure recovery and full compensation.

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5.20 Laws, Insurance and Compensation
An oil spill anywhere affects various sensitivities including the general public. Hence, an
incident results in various litigations according to the law of the land, and international
practices. Loss of revenue due to oil spillage, affecting tourism, fishing, closure of industrial
or salt works, and damage to the marine environment, attracts court cases and claims.
Hence, the contingency plan should clearly indicate the provisions to deal with those
consequences, such as compensation under IOPC fund 1992, or CLC 1992. Furthermore,
the Indian Merchant Shipping Act 1958 (under revision), the Environment Protection Act
1986, the Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991 must be consulted. Compensation to the
affected party is inevitable. Effective identification of legally right claimants, corrrect
assessment of damage, and prevention of adverse media publicity should minimize the number
of claimants. Suitable insurance coverage will help an affected company or organization to
meet the expenditure on cleaning and compensation. The proposed Entity would assist in
preparing and consolidating the legal claim documents in such cases.

C HAPTER 6
Oil
Oil Spill
Spill R
Response
esponse (OSR)
Response Manag
Manag
(OSR) Mana gement
ement --
Inter
Interna
national
Interna tional Scene
national Scene
6.1 Introduction
In most countries the oil spill response management is overseen and co-ordinated by a
Government Agency with the involvement of Coast Guard and Navy wherever required.
Some of the oil companies have tie-ups with International Tier III response agencies such
as the OSRL, U.K. and the EARL, Singapore. Response is generally carried out by the
polluter or individual organisation and or private co-operatives with the Coast Guard or
environmental enforcing agency overseeing the oil spill response operations.
The organization arrangements for OSRM in some countries is given below :
6.2 U.S.A.
After the Exxon Valdez incident, the U.S. Government has promulgated a comprehensive
legislation (Oil Pollution Act 1990) to cover the entire gamut of issues.
According to this act, ship owners are now required to file a vessel pollution response plan
with the U.S. Coast Guard, naming a private Oil Spill Response Organization (OSRO), which
will act on behalf of the ship in the event of an oil spill. Similarly, an owner or operator of
any facility is required to identify the levels of discharges, that is, Average Most Probable
Discharge (AMPD), Maximum Most Probable Discharge (MMPD), and Worst Case Discharge
(WCD). They must also tie up with the OSROs such as MSRC, NRC and CCC to handle
these levels of spills.
U.S. Coast Guard is the leading federal agency for responding to oil and hazardous
material spills and releases in the Coastal and Marine Environment under the Oil
Pollution Act 1990. There are about 130 private oil spill response organisations and a
few co-operatives operating in the country.
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Fig 6.1. U.S. Coast Guard Surveillance Vessel
Four level contingency plans (national, regional or state, local and facility levels) exist. The
National Contingency Plan (NCP) is activated, bringing the collective expertise and capabilities
of the sixteen federal agencies.
In case the U.S. Coast Guard finds the response of the spiller in any given spill case
inadequate, it can step in to respond on its own - either directly using its own resources
or through one or more of the OSROs, of course on payment basis, recoverable in full
from the spiller through any means possible, including litigation. A fund is created out
of oil pollution cess collected through ports which is used for expenditure by the U.S.
Coast Guard which they recover under the Polluter pays principle.
6.3 Europe
A few international Petroleum Industry Associations such as the Conservation of Clean Air
and Water-Europe (Concawe), International Petroleum Industry Environmental Conservation
Association (IPIECA) and Oil Companies International Marine Forum (OCIMF) are involved
in European oil spill response activities. In most European countries, a Government agency
supported by industry is responsible for oil spill response. Individual oil companies,

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however, have their own schemes for oil terminals. Most European Governments also have
agreements for mutual aid.
6.3.1 United Kingdom
Maritime and Coast Guard Agency (MCA), an executive agency of the Department of
the Environment, Transport and the Regions (DETR), has the overall responsibility for
the implementation of the National Contingency Plan. For this purpose, MCA exercises
the function of the Secretary of State (for the Environment, Transport and the Regions) under
the 1995 Act, including the Secretary of State's intervention powers.
Regulations under the Pollution Prevention and Control Act 1999 create parallel powers for
the Secretary of State (for Trade and Industry) in relation to offshore installations and
pipelines. MCA exercises these powers, too.
Within the MCA the following officers may exercise the Secretary of State's powers:
! The Chief Executive
! Director of Marine Operations
! The Secretary of State's Representative (SOSREP)
! Head of Operations
! A Principal Counter-pollution and Salvage Officer (PCPSO), if so authorized by one of

the above for a specific incident
The Government has appointed SOSREP to provide overall direction for all marine pollution
incidents involving the salvage of ships or offshore installations that require a national
response. The normal arrangement is therefore for SOSREP to exercise operational control.
Lord Donaldson of Lymington's report on salvage and intervention and their command
and control, recommends that the ministers and senior officials should not attempt to
influence SOSREP's operational decisions while operations are in progress. In Lord
Donaldson's words, they should "back him or sack him".
Action to prevent marine pollution remains a function of the U.K. Government. Nevertheless,
the Scottish Executive, the Northern Ireland Executive, and the National Assembly of Wales
(the 'devolved administrations') are closely involved when their areas are, or could be, affected.
They have responsibilities for the marine environment and fisheries in waters adjacent to

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their coasts, and are concerned with the effect on their coastal areas. The MCA has signed
an operational agreement with the Scottish Executive Rural Affairs Department (SERAD)
and a memorandum of understanding with the Environment and Heritage Services of
Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland. Discussions of an Operational
Agreement between MCA and the National Assembly for Wales are in progress.
Oil Spill Response Ltd (OSRL) is based in Southampton, U.K. and is the largest OSR centre.
It is a co-operative financed by major oil companies, and provides oil spill response services
to member companies on a preferential basis. Non-members can also use their services if
available. It is a non-profit co-operative managed by full-time staff and has three regional
centres in Scotland, Wales and the eastern region. Major stockpiles are at Southampton. It
has forged a strategic alliance with EARL of Singapore and can now provide services from
either U.K. or Singapore or both. Incidentally OSRL was involved in the response to the recent
"MT Prestige" incident off the Spanish Coast.
6.4 South Asia
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has a regional seas programme for the
South Asian Seas Region, which includes India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Maldives and Sri
Lanka. The South Asia Co-operative Environment Programme (SACEP) and the IMO have
jointly funded the development of a S.A.R.O.S.C.P. for the region. The plan was submitted
to a high level meeting which approved it in December 2000, prior to formal acceptance by
the respective governments. The plan envisages mutual aid and co-operation among the
participant countries for any contingency which may affect all or some of them.
6.5 ASEAN Countries
Six ASEAN countries formed a common agency Asean Oil Spill Response Action Plan
(ASEAN-OSRAP) in 1993 to deal with oil spill problem. The emphasis is on Government
and Industry co-operation for effective implementation of the National Oil Spill Contingency
Plan.
6.5.1 Malaysia
In line with established international practices, Malaysia has adopted a three-tiered approach
to all aspects of oil spill preparation and response. Local or Industry (Tier-I), Area and
Regional Councils (Tier-II) and the Department of Environment National (Tier-III) directing

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the response efforts, all having clear roles and responsibilities. These tiers are defined in
the Environment Quality Act 1974 as amended in 1996.
Regional Councils respond to oil spills which exceed the cleaning capability of Tier-I. They
also respond to those spills for which no party can be held responsible. The Department of
Environment offers adequate resources to Regional Councils to ensure that sufficient
equipment, personnel training courses and opportunities to exercise their expertise are
available for them to undertake this role competently.
Tier-III response the Department of Environment, which manages the National Oil Spill
Contingency Plan. When a spill which is beyond the resources of the region, occurs within
a region, or the cost to the Regional Council is expected to be huge, the Department of
Environment will assume responsibility for managing the spill response. The Department of
Environment will also manage the response to any oil spill within the Exclusive Economic
Zone (EEZ), but outside Regional Council boundaries (the Territorial Sea). Spills which occur
outside the EEZ and over the Malaysian Continental Shelf are also the responsibility of the
Department of Environment. It is activated when the spill spreads into waters of
neighbouring countries.
Malaysia maintains oil spill response equipment, which allows it to contain and clean a spill
equivalent to approximately 25,000 tonnes of persistent oil. This equipment is owned by the
Marine Department, Petroleum Industry Malaysia Mutual Aid Group (PIMMAG).
National Oil Spill Control Committee (NOSCC) co-ordinates the spill response having
representatives of Government and the Petroleum Industry.
6.5.2 Singapore
The Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore (MPA) is the National Authority responsible
for regulating and controlling oil spill response operations within Singaporean territorial
waters. Pollution response is directed from the Port Master's Department with a senior officer
assuming the role of On-Scene Commander. MPA responds to spills using resources from
the oil industry and oil spill response companies. Regulations made under the Prevention of
Pollution of the Sea act, permit the MPA to call upon equipment, materials and manpower
held by various oil companies and other private enterprises operating in Singapore. If oil
reaches the shore, the shore cleaning responsibility rests with the Ministry of Environment
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(Environmental Health Department), which provides the necessary manpower and logistic
support.
East Asia Response Private Limited (EARL) is an international Tier III Oil Spill Response
Centre based in Singapore (established in 1993), to provide a rapid and efficient response to
oil spill incidents in the Asia-Pacific region. It is a non-profit organisation with shareholders
from the major oil companies operating in the region. Membership of EARL is offered to
any company with interests in exploration, production, transportation and terminal operation,
refining, distribution and other oil related activities. EARL has a stockpile of oil spill response
equipment worth nine million U.S. dollars at its Regional Centre in Singapore. EARL's primary
role is oil spill response, and it attends oil spills with equipment and specialist staff to combat
the spill and provide technical support to its members on preferential rates and priority. Non-
members can also use their services, if available, at higher rates.
In addition, EARL provides oil spill response training in Singapore, also at the client's facilities
in the region. EARL also offers consultancy services on oil spill related matters to industry.
EARL formed a strategic alliance with Oil Spill Response Ltd (OSRL), U.K. The resources of
both companies are combined for the benefit of all members, ensuring that services can be
provided from either EARL or OSRL or a combination of the two. Equipment and manpower
available with the OSRL, UK and EARL, Singapore is given in Appendix VIII.
Fig 6.2. Facilities at EARL Singapore for Oil Spill Response

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6.6 Gulf Countries
The Gulf countries have Gulf Area Oil Companies Mutual Aid Organization. In Kuwait,
response resources are owned by Environment Public Authority (EPA), Kuwait Ports
Authority (KPA), Kuwait Oil Company (KOC) and Saudi Arabian Texaco (SAT). KOC is a
member of the Regional Clean Sea Organization (RECSO). EPA is the co-ordinating Agency.
6.7 Salient Features of International OSR Organizations
The salient features of Oil Spill Response Organizations of some countries are summarized
in Table 6.1.
From the table it is evident that the arrangements for oil spill management are country
specific, depending on the needs and systems of the country. A central agency is normally
responsible and all activities are carried out through the polluters capability, oil spill
response co-operative, on the Polluter pays principle. The organization and response
system in India, therefore, needs to have its own response system designed to suit specific
needs, and should be guided by the international practices in vogue.

Table 6.1. Country wise Summary of Oil Spill Response Organisations
l. Organisation / Country Fornation /Justification Organisation Operating Philosophy/ Funding and

No. Government control Resources
U.S.A In 1997, nine oil companies Non-profit U.S. CCC operates on the Membership
Clean Caribbean operating in Caribbean Corporation premise of close co-operation fee
Co-operative (CCC) formed the co-operative managed by full with local industry and Training
(Warehoused in (CCC). time staff National Governments. Response
Fort Lauderdale. revenues
(Florida, U.S.A.) Major Oil Companies in U.S. Coast Guard is the Consultancy.
the Caribbean, leading federal agency
Latin America and for responding to oil
South America use and hazardous material
the facilities. spillls and releases in the
Coastal and Marine
Environment under the
Oil Pollution Act 1990.
130 Private Oil Spill Individual entities and Four level plans Privately funde
Removal Organizations co-operatives. (National, Regional/ Membership f
(OSROs) operate. Of State, Local and facility Response
these Marine Spill level) exist. revenues
Response Corporation NCP is activated MSRC is fund
(MSRC) incorporated in bringing collective by member oil
1990, and the National expertise and capabilities companies
Respose Corporation of the sixteen federal through the
(NRC) operate nation- agencies together. Marine
wide. Several Oil Spill Preservation
co-operatives operate Associaton.
on West East Coasts.
Australia AMOSC formed in 1991 as a Non-profit AMOSC and Oil Industry Membership f
The Australian Marine wholly owned subsidiary of Corporation Oil Spill Response resources Training
Oil Spill Centre Australian Institute of managed by are available to the National Response
(AMOSC) at Geelong, Petroleum (supported by full time staff plan through AMOSC. revenues
Victoria. The training countrys Oil companies). Oil Spill Arrangements of Consultancy.
centre is located at Designed to respond to each oil company, AMOSC
Geelong. spills around Australian Coast facilities and Oil Industry
and South-West Pacific. Mutual Plan supplement
each other.
Norway NOFO is oil industry forum Non-profit Throuch contracts and Membership f
Norsk Oljevernforening for Oil Spill Response on the Corporation agreements, response Training
For Operatorselskap Norwegian Continental shelf managed by full equipment is available to Response
(MOFO) and has five equipment depots time staff the organizations in the event revenues
of a major spill. Consultancy.
United Kingdom OSRL is based in Non-profit Services are available to Membership f

Oil Spill Response Ltd. Southampton, U.K. and is the Corporation member companies as Training
(OSRL) largest OSR centre. It is a managed by full principally agreed. Subject Response
co-operative financed by major time staff three to availability, however, revenues
oil companies. Has strategic regional centres resources are available to Consultancy.
alliance with EARL, Singapore. in Scotland, non-member companies.
Wales and the
eastern region.
Major stockpile kept
at Southampton,
U.K.
Singapore Formed in 1992 as co-operative Non-profit U.S. EARL operation is on premise Membership f
East India Response by five oil companies to Corporation of their close co-operation and Training
Ltd. (EARL) provide response to oil spills managed by full co-odination with local Response
in Asia-Pacific Region. time staff industry and national revenues
Has strategic alliance with governments. Consultancy.
OSRL, U.K.
6. Malaysia PIMMAG established in 1993, Non-profit U.S. Department of Environment Membership f

Petroleum Industry of is a cooperative funded by ten Corporation has overall authority of OSR. Training
Malaysia Mutual Aid oil companies operating in managed by Operating Role is with Marine Response
Group (PIMMAG) Malaysia. full time staff Departmet of Transport. revenues
It has four epuipment bases. National Oil Spill Control Consultancy.
Committee co-ordinates the
spill response with
representatives of Government
and Petroleum Industry.
Hong Kong Formed as co-operative by five Non-profit U.S. Membership f

Hong Kong Response oil companies. HKRL is Corporation Response
Ltd (HKRL) intended to cover a Tier II managed by revenues
spill in Hong Kong waters full time staff
Korea Originally established by five Non-profit U.S. Membership f

Korea Marine Pollution major Korean Oil Companies Corporation Training
Response Corporation to respond to marine chemical managed by full Response
(KMPRC) and oil spills at a Tier II level time staff revenues
within Korean waters. It is in Consultancy.
the process of constructing
five bases.
9. Japan PAJ has formed a co-operative Non-profit Government subsidy for Membership f
Petroleum Association as a voluntary mutul aid U.S. Corporation major oil spill response Response
of Japan (PAJ) organisation for implementing managed by programme which PAJ revenues
the OSR Project. Required full time staff operates.
equipments are stocked at
strategic sites along the
primary oil routes to Japan
and has six domestic stockpiles
distributed throughout Japan
0. Philippines A co-operative between the Non-profit Caltex and Shell alternately Membership f
Waterborne Industry Phillippines arms of Caltex U.S. Corporation act as administrators of the
Spill Equipment (WISE) and Shell. It is a Tier II managed by co-operative for thirty months
response centre. full time staff each.
1. Kuwait EPA is the co-ordinating

Response resources are Agency.
owned by Environment Resources can be requested by
Public Authority (EPA), the Government through the
Kuwait Ports Authority Marine Emergencies Mutual Aid
(KPA), Kuwait Oil Centre (MEMAC) based in
Company (KOC) and Bahrain which is a part
Saudi Arabian Texaco of ROPME.
(SAT). KOC is a member
of Regional Clean Sea
Organization (RECSO).
CHAPTER 7
Oil
Oil Spill
Spill R
Response
Response (OSR) R
esponse (OSR) Readiness
eadiness --
Readiness
National
National Scene
Scene
7.1 Introduction
Previous chapters have identified sources of oil slicks and spills in offshore environments,
causes and identified the major sensitive beaches. A contingency plan defining the roles of
different government and private agencies in developing a participative combat and disaster
management plan should an oil spill occur has been outlined.
Depending upon the type and level of facilities to be created for combat on IMO guidelines,
the oil spill is classified in three categories. These are termed Tier I, Tier II and Tier III
facilities.
Tier I pertains to facilities to combat oil spills from a minimum of 100 tonnes to 700 tonnes
(based on the Risk analysis). The equipment, chemicals and trained manpower required to
combat Tier I spills is the responsibility of the owner of the port or installation. The ports,
however, are free to make arrangements for financing these facilities, either by themselves
or by sharing the cost with the facility users, as they deem fit. In case of an actual spill, The
Indian Coast Guard may supervise or even help in spill combat.
Tier II pertains to combined, total facilities to combat oil spills up to 10,000 tonnes. The
facilities must be available at a location within a reasonable distance from likely oil spill sources
to ensure quick mobilisation of resources. The initial time is very crucial to initiate combat as
any delay may inhibit the use of certain simple and less costly techniques such as chemical
dispersants.
Tier III pertains to the capability of responding to oil spills of more than 10,000 tonnes.
Normally it is not practical for a country to own complete facilities for handling such large
spills, especially when the chemicals used to contain major oil spills are costly, sometimes
toxic and have a limited shelf life. It is normally prudent to seek international co-operation
by seeking membership of co-operative spill combat organisations or consortia such as East
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Asia Response Private Limited (EARL) and Oil Spill Response Limited (OSRL) by paying a
membership fee for preferential response at concessional rates. Details of the facilities with
EARL and OSRL are given in Appendix VIII. It may be noted that all such companies have
only limited manpower for supervision and guidance of the combat operations. The affected
host country is expected to provide all support facilities and well trained operational
manpower for oil spill combat. For India the situation is different, as the threat perception,
however, particularly on the western coast, India warrants that Tier III facilities to combat
large oil spills be created at a suitable location on the west coast as soon as practicable.
7.2 Existing Response Capability in India
The Oil Co-ordination Committee (OCC) Apex body, in its meeting held on 26th June, 1996,
reviewed the Environment Agenda for the Petroleum Sector. It was felt necessary to re-
examine the approach to environment issues and to strengthen the environmental
management role of the oil companies with clearly identified goals. Oil spill management
was one of the key identified areas. Based on this, and decisions in the subsequent meeting
held in 1997 of the industry with the Oil Industry Safety Directorate (OISD) as Co-ordinator,
the following have taken shape:
7.2.1 Tier I Oil Spill Response Centres (OSRCs)
Tier I facilities for oil spill upto 100 tonnes are to be established at the following twenty one
locations by the oil companies.
! Indian Oil Corporation Ltd. (IOC) at eight locations, that is, Chennai, Port Blair,
Paradeep, Haldia, Budge Budge, Tuticorin, Okha and Vadinar
! ONGC in western offshore areas
! Reliance Industries Ltd. (RIL) at Vadinar
! Chennai Petroleum Corporation Ltd. (CPCL) at Chennai
! Bharat Petroleum Corporation Ltd. (BPCL) at Mumbai and Kandla
! Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Ltd. (HPCL) at Vasco, Mangalore and Vizag
! B.G. Exploration & Production Inc. at Western Offshore in their area of operation
! Kochi Refinery Limited (KRL) at Kochi
! BORL at the Gulf of Kutch
! Cairn Energy Ltd. (CRL) at Ravva Offshore

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7.2.2 Tier II Oil Spill Response Centres (OSRCs)
OSRCs with Tier II facilities for oil spills of upto 1000 tonnes are to be set up at the following
two locations:
! ONGC at Kakinada.
! IOC at Vadinar.
7.2.3 Tier III Oil Spill Response Centres (OSRCs)
OSRCs with Tier III facilities for oil spills of more than 1000 tonnes are to be set up at the
following three locations:
! ONGC in Western Offshore.
! RIL at Vadinar.
! IOC at Chennai.
This was subsequently modified by OISD in 2002 to the extent that the Coast Guard will co-
ordinate Tier II and Tier III facilities.
7.2.4 Time Frame for OSRCs
The following time frame for setting up the OSRCs was decided upon (January 1999 meeting
held at the OISD)
Tier I:
! IOC April 2000 for seven locations, May 1999 for

Vadinar
! BPCL/HPCL April 2000
! RIL March 1999
! Enron (now British Gas Exploration In place
and Production Inc.)
! BORL June 1999
! Essar End of 1999
! ONGC (western offshore) In place
! KRL/CPCL No schedule given

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Tier II:
! ONGC - Kakinada April 2001
! IOC - Haldia February 2002
Tier III:
! ONGC - Western Offshore April 2001
! RIL - Vadinar September 2000
! IOC - Chennai February 2002
7.2.5 Current Status
The progress achieved so far is as under:
Tier I facilities for handling oil spills of upto 100 tonnes have been created at seven locations:
IOC Vadinar; RIL Sikka; Cairn Energy Ltd. Ravva Oil field; BG Exploration and Production
Inc. Western Offshore; ONGC Western Offshore; Kochi Refineries; and Ravva Offshore by
Hardy Exploration and Production Ltd. The Indian Coast Guard has vetted their contingency
plans. Mock drills are being carried out by these operators.
The present time frame for Tier I facilities at other locations is as follows :
1. IOC, Haldia by March 2004
2. IOC, Chennai/CPCL by March 2004
3. IOC, Port Blair - Budge-Budge, Paradeep, Tuticorin - by December 2004
4. BPCL, Mumbai by December 2003
5. BPCL, Kandla by March 2004
6. HPCL, Mangalore would use New Mangalore Port Trust facilities
7. HPCL, Goa by March 2004
8. HPCL, Vizag by November 2004
9. ESSAR & BORL. The facilities will come up with the commissioning of the project
10. IOC Okha facilities are dropped as informed by IOC due to its closure of operations

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In view of the clarifications from the Indian Coast Guard on Tier II and Tier III response,
the industry is not setting-up any independent facilities of its own for large spills. The ONGC,
however, has obtained membership of the OSRL, U.K., for backup support for larger spills.
Similar tie-ups have been made by Reliance Industries Limited, Cairn Energy Ltd. and BG
Exploration and Production Inc. with EARL, Singapore. Once the Entity starts functioning
all upstream oil companies which are currently members of OSRL, UK; EARL, Singapore
and similar agencies will give up that membership as the corresponding responsibilities will
be shouldered by the Entity to ensure the swift unified response to a major oil spill.
Fig 7.1. Production Platform in Mumbai High, ONGC
7.3 National Oil Spill Disaster Contingency Plan (NOS-DCP) and the Indian
Coast Guard
The functional responsibilities of various Ministries and Departments for Oil Spill Response
in maritime zones have been defined in the NOS-DCP approved in November 1993. In this
plan, the Director General, Indian Coast Guard, is designated the Central Co-ordinating
Authority (CCA) to implement the plan to pool resources in the event of an oil spill. The
Indian Coast Guard has set up three major OSRCs - one each at Port Blair, Mumbai and
Chennai. Individual oil companies are also stakeholders in this plan, which will provide
assistance to the Indian Coast Guard to preserve and protect the marine environment.
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As per the NOS-DCP, the Oil and Petroleum Exploration and Production agencies will be
totally responsible for:
! Instituting preventive, precautionary and other measures for monitoring, controlling

and combating oil spill contingencies in their areas of operation.
! Indian flag ships, oil handling facilities in ports, coastal oil refineries and offshore oil
platforms operating in the maritime zones of India will have on board the Indian Coast
guard approved, oil pollution emergency plan.
Currently the Indian Coast Guard periodically reviews the NOS-DCP provisions with the
industry, Port Authorities, Central and State Pollution Control Boards, and the National
Institute of Oceanography, and occasionally issues updated plans. The last updated plan
was issued in August 2002.
At its meeting held on 15th September 2000, the Indian Coast Guard informed members
that it would co-ordinate Tier II and Tier III responses.
The Indian Coast Guard has further clarified that the contingency plan of every operator at
each location needs to be vetted. The plan, interalia, covers the list of equipment, trained
Fig 7.2. A Glimpse of the Indian Coast Guard Spill Combat in action
Source: www.indiancoastguard.org

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manpower and contact addresses and telephone numbers, of key personnel from the industry,
which will be used by the On Site Commander of the Indian Coast Guard in the event of an
oil spill.
7.3.1 Present facilities of the Indian Coast Guard
The Indian Coast Guard is the leading maritime agency and will continue to be so, for total
marine environment security in India as per statute, section 14(2) and 14(c) of the Coast
Guard Act.
As such, the Coast Guard will continue to be accountable for marine environment security
in the Maritime Zone of India.
Coast Guard pollution response teams are located at Mumbai, Chennai and Port Blair to
cover oil spill response operations on the Western seaboard, Eastern seaboard and Andaman
and Nicobar waters respectively. There is dedicated pre-positioned oil spill response
equipment at these centres, the details of which are listed at appendix 'G' of NOS-DCP. In
case of a major Tier II level, oil spill the Coast Guard, after due assessment, responds to the
Fig 7.3. A Glimpse of the Indian Coast Guard Surveillance Facilities

Source: www.indiancoastguard.org

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oil spill using its own resources and through pooling of resources of other agencies covered
in the national and regional plans.
7.3.2 Future Plans of the Indian Coast Guard
The Indian Coast Guard, in its future plan to augment oil spill response capabilities, is in
the process of acquiring three dedicated pollution control vessels. These vessels will be
equipped for monitoring, containment and recovery of a medium size oil spill. For large
operations with several vessels involved, the pollution control vessel would be capable of
operational planning and act as the command centre. The primary function of these vessels
will be to prevent offshore oil spill from reaching the shoreline. The secondary function is to
assist and organize the cleaning of shorelines and beaches if an oil spill reaches them.
7.4 Gaps Observed
! Tier I facilities to combat up to 700 tonnes of oil spills as per revised IMO guidelines
have to be created at identified locations without further loss of time.
Already existing Tier I facilities for handling up to 100 tonnes, created at seven
locations, should also be upgraded to handle up to 700 tonnes (based on Risk
analysis). The industry should develop firm time-bound schedules and ensure
adherence to them.
! Location-wise contingency plans are to be developed, vetted by the Indian Coast
Guard.
! All ships touching Indian ports should have an oil spill contingency plan. Tanker
owners are to have means of transfering and storing recovered oil. They are also
required to have a contract with approved response agencies, for readiness against
any oil spill.
! Mutual Aid arrangements are to be instituted between industry members, port trusts
and any other connected or concerned agencies.
! Manpower needs to be identified, trained and positioned to fulfil the plan.

! Mock Drills are to be conducted at each location, with the participation of mutual
aid partners, prefrebly twice in a year at local level, once a year at regional level
and once a every three years at national level.
! System effectiveness is to be checked through the proposed entity biennially and
by an accredited third party once every five years.

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The continued dependence of the country on imported oil / petroleum products, coupled
with the accelerated efforts in indigenous production to meet the growing demand as
envisaged in the tenth Five Year Plan Document, only add to the probability of an
accidental spill from tankers or indigenous exploration and production, or port operations.
Hence, it is essential that the country organizes appropriate Tier II response centres. The
entry of new oil exploration companies under the New Exploration Licensing Policy (NELP)
makes it necessary to formalize the facilities and arrangements needed under the different
Tier levels. It is also necessary to ensure that each operating company contributes to the
effort and is liable for compensation for the setting up of cleaning facilities.
7.4.1 Near Coastline Exploration and Production facilities
It is recognized that where oil exploration and production is being carried out near the
shoreline, for example, Ravva (Andhra Pradesh) and Tapti (Gujarat), permanent protection
of the shoreline using high pressure booms and scrubbers should be provided to save the
fragile coastline. This is also essential in view of fire hazards, particularly since little time
is taken for oil spill to reach the shore, and the lighter component still present in oil
may cause instant fires on shore. Figure 7.4 shows one of such facilities near the coast.
Fig 7.4. Uran Plant, ONGC, Uran

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7.4.2 Tanker Wash and Ballast
Oil tankers, after unloading, are normally washed, unmonitored, on the high seas. The
residual oil approaches the shoreline in the form of tar balls, which are required to be cleared
up periodically. It is proposed that oil tankers should be doped with recognizable doping
chemicals, or an oil assay, or any other means of identification may be established so that
the culprit could be easily identified and penalized for causing pollution.
7.5 Setting up of Tier II and Beyond Capabilities
Gulf countries near the Indian west coast do not own oil spill response centres. The Indian
Coast Guard has limited oil spill combat facilities on the west coast. They have proposed to
build the capability upto eventually combat oil spillage up to 2000 tonnes and that, too, by
2007-08. Similar Coast Guard facilities to combat oil spill up to 2000 tonnes would also come
up on the east coast at Chennai and Port Blair by 2007-08. While efforts should be made to
get these facilities upgraded to combat a total spillage of 10,000 tonnes or more, the fact
remains that the west coast of India, which is most prone to oil spill, remains vulnerable in
the absence of adequate facilities. It might, therefore, be desirable to establish a major oil
spill response centre on the west coast on the lines of EARL or OSRL in co-operation
with Gulf countries or others.
Location
Tier II facilities of 2500 tonnes may be set up at the following locations:
a. West Coast
b. East Coast
c. Southern Coast
d. Andaman and Nicobar
All the above facilities, if pooled together should be able to cater to a Tier II spill up to
10,000 tonnes.

CHAPTER 8
Le
Le gisla
Legisla
gisla
Legisla tion,
gislation, Monitoring and
tion, Monitoring
gislation, ol
Control
and Contr
8.1 Introduction
Environmental concern and the consequent changes is a dynamic process. On one hand,
the environmental requirements are becoming more stringent by the day, but, on the other
hand, ever-increasing maritime activities are putting pressure on the regulating authorities.
In India, the multiplicity of enforcement agencies with rules and regulations governing
one or other dimension of an oil spill, sometimes creates a problem in fixing
responsibility on the polluter, and even in the recovery of costs. The problem gets
compounded since these part regulations are neither inter-related nor a complete answer
to all aspects of an oil spill. It may, therefore, be desirable to enact comprehensive legislation
for oil spill management with a defined authority which has commensurate powers to enforce
compliance and to punish the polluter.
8.2 International Protocols and Conventions
Under the provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS),
the International Maritime Organization (IMO) has brought out several conventions dealing
with various aspects of ship safety, marine environment and standards of training, and
certification of personnel sailing with merchant ships. The primary conventions are
a. International Convention for the safety of life at Sea, 1974 (SOLAS 74)
b. International Convention for the prevention of pollution from ships, 1973 as modified
by the protocol of 1978 relating thereto (MARPOL 73/78)
c. International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watch keeping

for Seafarers, 1978 as amended in 1995 (STCW 95)
It is mandatory for ships to follow the conventions as adopted and amended from time to
time by the IMO. A list of such conventions acceded to by the Government of India is given
below:
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S.No Name of Convention Date of Entry Date of ratification Entry into force
/Protocol into force /accession by by India
Internationally India
1 SOLAS 1974 25.05.1980 16.06.1976 25.05.1980
2 SOLAS PROT 1978 01.05.1981 03.04.1986 03.07.1989
3 SOLAS PROT 1988 03.02.2000 22.08.2000 22.11.2000
4 MARPOL (ANNEX 02.10.1983 24.09.1989 24.12.1986

I & II) PROT 1978
5 INTERVENTION 1969 06.05.1975 16.06.2000 14.09.2000
6 CLC 1969 19.06.1975 01.05.1987 13.07.1987
7 CLC PROT 1976 08.04.1981 01.95.1987 13.07.1987
8 CLC PROT 1992 30.05.1996 15.11.1999 15.11.2000
9 FUND 1971 16.10.1978 10.07.1990 08.10.1990
10 FUND PROT 1976 22.11.1994 10.07.1990 22.11.1994
11 FUND PROT 1992 30.05.1996 08.06.2000 21.06.2001
12 SALVAGE 1989 14.07.1996 18.10.1995 18.10.1996
13 OPRC 1990 13.05.1995 17.11.1997 17.02.1998
The IMO Conventions and its protocols are totally applicable to all merchant ships and to
Mobile Offshore Drilling Units (MODU) in a very limited way. Yet at this stage there is no
international regulatory regime which specifically governs the safety and pollution aspects
from fixed structures involved in oil exploration. Some internationally reputed organizations,
however, have issued guidelines for the above.
8.3 Indian Legislation
India actively participates in International Conventions and has ratified most of them. To
give teeth to these conventions and protocols, however, subsidiary legislations require to be
framed. Framing of rules and guide lines is a time consuming exercise, and most cases are
yet to be finalised and put into operation.

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Under the above conventions and protocols detailed in the previous paragraph, the
Government of India has promulgated laws and regulations and is taking all other steps
necessary to give these instruments full effect on the safety of life at sea, protection of the
marine environment and whether a ship is fit for the service for which it is intended. Based
on these principles, the Government, through the Merchant Shipping Act 1958, has
incorporated the provisions of SOLAS 74. It is under revision to incorporate the provisions
of MARPOL 73/78 as well.
Fig 8.1. Parliament of India, New Delhi
The Merchant Shipping Act incorporates pollution aspects from offshore installations in Part
XI A of the Merchant Shipping Act. In accordance with the provisions of the Merchant
Shipping Act (M.S. Act) and SOLAS, any ship entering or calling at Indian ports can be
inspected for compliance with the IMO Conventions through a mechanism known as "Port
State Control". Besides the above, every vessel is also required to have shipboard marine
pollution emergency plans to meet any contingency arising out of any eventuality. Ships
registered under the Merchant Shipping Act are monitored for their compliance with the
above convention on a yearly basis. Indian ships are inspected in accordance with the above
conventions at regular annual intervals and issued IOPP certificates in accordance with the
provisions of the M.S. Act. In accordance with Chapter XI of SOLAS, under the provisions
of Port State Control, foreign ships coming to Indian waters are inspected for compliance
with IMO conventions including conventions relating to oil, and if any ship does not comply
with the standards, it can be detained in port until rectification. It is the responsibility of the
port to ensure that ships not complying with the international convention requirements are
refused grant of port clearance in accordance with Section 356 of the M.S. Act.
The Government of India ratified the international convention on oil pollution preparedness,
response and co-operation (OPRC) in 1997. It entered into force in February 1998. In
accordance with the provisions of OPRC, a National Oil Spill Disaster Contingency Plan

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(NOS-DCP) has been prepared. Several publications on this subject were also prepared by
the marine environment protection committee of the IMO. The manual on Oil Pollution
(Section II) dealing with contingency planning, prescribes guidelines for the preparation of
the contingency plan. Considering the international nature of oil trade, it is strongly
recommended that the M.S. Act dealing with all aspects of the carriage of oil, that is,
Part X B, Part XI A, and connected provisions be suitably amended so as to comply with
the IMO convention now in force. It is also recommended that necessary legislation be
made to include offshore structures engaged in oil exploration and production within
the regulatory framework, for the greater safety and protection of the marine environment.
Combating oil pollution is an enormous task and an incredibly expensive proposition. In order
to generate the necessary funds for creating infrastructure an Oil Pollution Cess is levied on
ships carrying persistent oil cargo. The Cess rules are covered in the M.S. Act under section
356M. The M.S. Act and the Cess Rule 1988 are limited to the collection of Cess from ships
which import oil into India through both major and minor ports. The rule does not cover
transport of oil from one Indian port to another.
8.4 Compensation and Recovery Regime
Part X B of the Merchant Shipping Act deals with civil liability for oil pollution damage,
and applies to every Indian ship, wherever it is and to every foreign ship, while it is in port
or anywhere within the territorial waters of India, including EEZ and other areas under the
Maritime Zones Act 1976. Though the Part X B of the Merchant Shipping Act broadly covers
the liability of the owner, limitation of liability, constitution of the limitation fund, and the
claim. Distribution of funds can be instituted only after necessary judicial procedures have
gone through the High Court. There is a compelling need to put these judicial procedures
on fast track to ensure a quicker and more effective recovery of claims, particularly from
foreign flag ships involved in pollution incidents.
India ratified the CLC 1969, including its protocol of 1992, in November 2000. Part X B of
the Merchant Shipping Act however, does not reflect the principles of the protocol of 1992.
It is also noted that there is no legislation governing compensation and recovery with respect
to damage arising out of oil pollution in case it takes place from any other source than ships.
At present, the claims, compensation and recovery regime is totally ineffectual.

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The international experience in claims recovery is that the Protection & Indemnity (P&I) clubs
and fund administrators are generally co-operative in prompt settlement, provided that the
real costs of dealing with pollution are appropriate to the situation and are reasonable. The
procedures for processing the claim are also well structured and adequately supported by
documented backup. This calls for considerable knowledge, expertise and experience on the
part of the organisation responsible for the pollution control operations (in our case the Coast
Guard) and the claims recovery facilitator (office of D.G. Shipping). Statistical records of the
ITOPF reveal that, when professional agencies such as OSRL or EARL are involved in the
operations, the claims recovery ratio can be as high as ninety percent.
Keeping the above in perspective, the following is suggested:
! Part X-B of the Merchant Shipping Act be extended to encompass all the activities
that may cause marine pollution, and to include offshore exploration and production
or a separate legislation be prepared to give a similar effect to the principles
envisaged in this Part of the M.S. Act.
! In order to monitor movement of tankers in and around the Indian coast effectively,
it is suggested that every tanker carrying an oil cargo should report to a central
agency before it enters the EEZ of India. This will help in monitoring and taking
any contingency step required.
! A mechanism of tribunal arbitration or equivalent be set up to expedite the proc-

ess of compensation and recovery.
! A uniform procedure be established for presenting and processing claims within

reasonable time, and in conformity with internationally accepted conventions that
is, the CLC and the Fund.
! A structured interactive workshop of three to five days be held for nominees from
pollution control agencies, DG Shipping, oil industry interests and others directly
involved in the claims recovery and compensation processes. The faculty may
comprise experienced international specialists in these areas and will include
representatives from reputed oil spill response agencies, P&I Clubs, and legal
professionals. The objectives of such a workshop would be to hone the practical
skills of the people involved towards a more effective claims recovery regime.

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8.5 Need for changes in legislation
Regarding prevention of marine pollution, the following major Acts of the Government of
India give the necessary power to the concerned departments for enactment of their
provisions. These acts are
1. The Merchant Shipping Act 1958
2. The Coast Guard Act 1978
3. The Environment Protection Act 1986
4. The Indian Ports Act 1908
5. The Major Port Trusts Act 1963
The Merchant Shipping Act 1958
The Merchant Shipping Act 1958 of the Government of India is made to foster the
development and ensure the efficient maintenance of Divisions Indian Mercantile Marine,
in a manner best suited to serve the national interests, to provide for the registration of Indian
ships and generally to amend and consolidate the laws relating to merchant shipping. The
Directorate General of Shipping, on behalf of the Central Government (Ministry of Shipping),
enacts the provisions under the Merchant Shipping Act. The said act governs all aspects of
merchant shipping, including prevention and containment of pollution of the sea by oil, in
Part XI A of the act.
It is important to note that, though the purview of the M. S. Act broadly relates to ships
registered under the M.S. Act for the purpose of prevention and containment of pollution of
the sea by oil, the provisions under Part XI A are also applicable to offshore installations.
The said act defines an offshore installation as "means and installation" whether mobile or
fixed, which is used or is intended to be used for under-water exploration or exploitation of
crude oil, petroleum or other similar mineral oils, under lease, license or any other form of
contractual arrangement and includes
! Any installation which could be moved from place to place under its own motive power
or otherwise
! Pipelines

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By a Gazette notification, all aspects concerning marine pollution and control, under the
provisions of Section 69, 356 G and K (i) have been delegated to the Indian Coast Guard. So
far as other powers with regard to oil pollution matters, it is for the Directorate General of
Shipping to ensure compliance.
The Coast Guard Act 1978
The Coast Guard Act 1978 deals mainly with constitution of the Coast Guard, service
conditions, offences, and punishment. Chapter III - 14.2 (c) under the title of duties of the
Indian Coast Guard, however, mentions the preservation of the marine environment and
prevention and control of marine pollution. The said provision lists, "Taking such measures
as are necessary to preserve and protect the maritime environment and to prevent and control
marine pollution". Similarly Chapter III - 14.3 states, "The Indian Coast Guard shall perform
under this section in accordance with, and subject to, such rules as may be prescribed and
such rules may, in particular, make provisions for ensuring that the Indian Coast Guard
functions in close liaison with Union Agencies, institutions and authorities so as to avoid
duplication of effort".
In order to implement the above provision, a National Oil Spill Disaster Contingency Plan
(NOS-DCP), to combat oil spill disaster was formulated and the Indian Coast Guard was
made co-ordinating agency in view of its operational capability. To facilitate the above process
D. G. Shipping and the Ministry of Surface Transport delegated limited powers under Section
69, 356 G and 356 K (i) of the Merchant Shipping Act to the Indian Coast Guard.
The Environment Protection Act 1986
The Environment Protection Act (EP Act) 1986 is an umbrella legislation on environment
protection. The act has vested substantial powers in the Central Government with wide
ranging aspects of environment protection including protection of the marine environment.
Under the act, notifications and rules have been issued to regulate and control the pollution
aspects of all industrial activities including offshore exploration and production activities.
The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) however, while according clearance for
industrial activities including offshore E&P activities in the country including the EEZ,
makes stipulations on Environment Impact Assessment (EIA), Risk Analysis, Hazop
Analysis, and Disaster Management Plan (DMP) for adherence, and monitors them for
compliance.

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Major Port Trusts Act 1963
The Major Port Trusts Act is one under which major ports carry out their functions within
their portlimits. The above Act enforces the responsibility for taking all necessary action,
including pollution prevention within the conservancy limit of the port, on the conservator
of the port.
Taking into consideration the provisions under the aforesaid Acts and realizing the fact that
the International Maritime Organization (IMO), is the only agency for promulgation of
international conventions with respect to marine environment, it is essential that national
legislation incorporates the international conventions and makes amendments to the Acts
concerned. The following amendments may be given attention until such time a
comprehensive legislation is put in place by the proposed entity:
1. Directorate General of Shipping
a. To amend the provisions of the M. S. Act to incorporate MARPOL Convention,

OPRC Convention, CLC Convention and Fund Convention along with Protocols
immediately (it is understood that the necessary bills have already been tabled
in parliament).
b. To amend and prepare secondary legislation / rules based on the above

amendments.
c. To make secondary legislation to give effect to Section 356 (a) of the M. S. Act
which covers "Offshore Installations".
d. To make necessary rules / secondary legislation to facilitate "private

participation" of specialized agencies in oil spill management, as prevalent in other
countries, such as Singapore, and Malaysia.
e. To make secondary legislation for initiating a compensation regime in view of

India's ratification of the CLC and Fund Conventions.
f. To make secondary legislation for guidance and co-operation between central and
state agencies in the case of oil pollution exigencies.
g. To install a legal instrument on the same lines as the U.S. legislation of "Oil
Pollution Act 1990" to facilitate the participation of private agencies, and enforce
responsibility.

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h. To create the necessary infrastructure and Marine Mercantile Divisions (MMD)

at every major port for monitoring, inspection, certification of all sea-going ships,
and to create a separate section to inspect and certify offshore installations in
and around the Indian coasts. (It is understood that the Director General of
Shipping has already forwarded a proposal to the Ministry of Shipping for the
creation of necessary additional infrastructure. It must be put in place swiftly).
2. The Coast Guard to:
a. To define, by way of secondary legislation, the duties and functions as mentioned

in Chapter III - 14 (2) (c) keeping in mind the provisions under Chapter III - 14(3)
of the Coast Guard Act.
b. To amend the NOS-DCP in line with the IMO guidelines on contingency planning,
that is, as the manual on oil pollution Section II - Contingency Planning.
c. To make a new legislation to give the NOS-DCP a legal status.
3. Coastal States
a. To incorporate necessary legislation for the protection of their coast based on the
provisions of the M. S. Act.
b. To ensure compliance of M. S. Act and State Acts in the minor ports by the
respective Maritime Boards of the coastal states.
4. Major Ports
a. To amend the act, keeping in mind the provisions of the CLC, and the Fund
Convention, to facilitate the claims and compensation process and route the
process through the Directorate General of Shipping. Necessary changes in the
Port Trust Acts may be required, too.
The proposed entity would take a holistic view of the total legislative provisions and come
up with a comprehensive and enforcable legislation to ensure that adequate care is taken
so that the Principle of Polluter Pays is enforced.

CHAPTER 9
For ma
orma tion of the Entity
mation
9.1 Introduction
The possibility of oil spill with its consequent environmental impact, including pollution of
the coastline, and the limitations in readiness in the present system in the country has been
adequately brought out in the previous chapters. The activities in the maritime zone, both
for transport and exploitation of natural sea resources, including hydrocarbons, are
continuously increasing. Over 100,000 of all types and classes of ships and tankers are
passing through Indian waters annually. With the dismantling of APM, exploration and
exploitation in Indian waters have increased tremendously. The chances of oil spill due to
movement in the narrow lanes and the threat perception, particularly in the west coast area,
is high, and can create a deliberate man-made major oil spill. Environmental laws are
becoming more stringent and combat equipment and strategies are changing fast. Any
developed system and contingency plan with the use of chemicals and equipment for
combating spills, therefore, needs continuous study and periodic update. The response and
combat facilities in this country are well below the required level; the different legislations
are also fragmented and distributed. Moreover, all aspects of oil spill management have not
been addressed together in an holistic manner by a single agency. It is also felt that the present
legislations, monitoring and control systems need improvement to make legislation effective.
Considering all the above related aspects and the importance of oil spill response management
to the maritime zone of India, the Office of the Principal Scientific Adviser to the Government
of India and the ONGC joined together to organise a two-day workshop on Oil Spill
Management which was held in Goa during 19 and 20 July 2002. This workshop, among
others, was graced by the Principal Scientific Adviser to the Government of India, the
Chairman and Managing Director of the ONGC, the Director (Onshore) ONGC, and
representatives from upstream and downstream oil industries, including major joint venture
partners, the Indian Coast Guard, OIDB, OISD and EARL Singapore.
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Among other things, the workshop resolved that an Entity with autonomous powers must
be formed to deal with all aspects of oil spill management in the country (Appendix III).
As a sequel to the above, the Office of the Principal Scientific Adviser to the Government of
India constituted a Project Review and Monitoring Committee (PRMC), to study the total
gamut of oil spill management and the facilities to be established at different locations on
the coastline of the country. The PRMC was also required to work out the structure of the
proposed Entity, detailing the functions and responsibilities of different departments and
prepare a Road Map for the urgently needed action plan to achieve the above objectives
(Appendix IV).
9.2 Criteria and Factors considered for the Formation of the Entity
The PRMC held its first meeting in New Delhi on Ninth October 2002, wherein the total
issue of oil spill management for India was discussed in detail. The PRMC constituted specialist
groups to provide specific inputs and scientific data on oil spills (Appendix II). Then the
PRMC held a series of meetings and deliberated at length all aspects and issues related to oil
spill management, the present arrangements, gaps in resources and systems including
legislation and cost recovery mechanism.
After considering the above, and international practices, the PRMC recommended the
formation of an independent and fully empowered apex body (Entity) under the overall
control of the Government of India through a high-powered Governing Council, having
an efficiently organized setup to take up the full responsibility for oil spill management.
The proposed Entity must formulate a comprehensive and coherent national policy with
clearly defined objectives, identifying the emerging strategies, answer the present and likely
future issues for oil spill management in the country, and encourage pooling of skills and
experience of the industry members through effective multi-company teams. It should exercise
control over different agencies such as tankers, ports, installations and exploration and
production facilities. It should also co-operate with all concerned Ministries in resolving
disputes of technical, legal and financial nature and work out a fool-proof cost recovery
mechanism. The Entity should also collaborate with suitable Tier III Oil Spill Response Centres,
of international repute, to have the best technology support in a major oil spill. The entity
should establish a major oil spill response centre for handling oil spills beyond 10,000 tonnes,
initially in the Western Coast of India and organise the requisite facilities for training
manpower to international standard for the OSRCs.
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The PRMC recognizes that environment standards and techniques to combat oil spill
continuously undergo changes and, therefore, it is necessary for India, too, to be at par with
the global standards. The proposed Entity should scan the international scene, the changes
in environmental standards and legislation and act on them as required for the country.
9.3 Basic Role and Functions of the proposed Entity
The Entity will assume full responsibility for oil spill management. It will also ensure
compliance with international standards and practices. To achieve the above objectives, the
proposed Entity should be an independent, autonomous body with commensurate powers
to adjudicate but working under the overall control of the Government of India, through a
high-powered Governing Council. The Entity should be entrusted with the following roles,
functions and responsibilities:
1. To scan global developments in oil spill strategy including legislation, and formulate a
comprehensive national policy with clearly defined objectives to answer the present
and likely future issues for oil spill management in the country.
2. To suggest modifications in existing legislation and regulations of the country relating

to marine oil spill, particularly in view of the changing environmental requirements
and the increase in maritime activities related to transportation, handling, loading and
unloading as well as exploitation of natural resources (mainly hydrocarbons) and also
to act as a regulating and monitoring authority. The Entity should organize
comprehensive legislation covering all the aspects, including the compensation and
recovery mechanism, and monitor and control them. Legislation should also cover
foreign flag vessels, distressed vessels in Indian waters, as well as fugitive and
unknown spillers.
3. To enter into strategic alliance with suitable Tier III oil spill response centres of
international repute, for the best technology support in case of a major oil spill, and
consider establishing a major oil spill response centre for handling oil spills above 10,000
tonnes, initially in the western coast of India as soon as possible.
4. To organize facilities for training, retraining and development programmes to

international standard, to man the OSRCs with the assistance of Indian Coast Guard
and collaboration of internationally reputed organisations, and also to ensure that Mock
Drills are carried out at regular intervals preferably twice in a year at local level, once
a year at regional level and once every three years at national level.

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5. To seek national and international co-operation, especially with countries around the
rim of the Indian Ocean, the Bay of Bengal and the Atlantic Ocean for a consortium
for quick response to major oil spills.
6. To co-ordinate, organise and prepare the required documentation for ensuring claim
recovery and compensation from the polluter.
7. To co-ordinate with industries in making a joint effort to understand the new social
and environmental requirements of oil companies, particularly regarding oil spill
management, and act as a forum for the exchange of experiences and knowledge.
8. To assist and co-operate with all concerned Ministries, in the resolution of technical,
legal and financial disputes.
9. To undertake detailed studies of 32 locations identified as environmentally sensitive

areas to be protected against damage caused by an oil spill and share the database
information with all concerned departments.
10. To develop a response system model (Mathematical Model) for each oil exploration,
producing, loading and unloading site and to update it continuously.
11. To devise a format for EIA and risk analysis for each existing and new facility with an
objective to arrive at a revised Tier I committment, and enforce compliance.
12. To monitor installations, both offshore and in ports periodically, to ensure safety and
oil spill management readiness for efficient plan implementation and to develop the
following three-level monitoring system in installations:
a. Internal monitoring to be done once a quarter by the installation staff.
b. Biennial monitoring to be done by a team of the Entity and outside experts on

safety, environment and oil spill management.
c. Once every five years monitoring to be done by an internationally accredited

agency.
In each case, the report from the monitoring group should be examined by the Entity. The
Entity will ensure swift correction of deficiencies. Non-compliance should attract penalty,
the amount of which increases with each repetition of the offence.
13. To ensure top quality standard of technology and chemicals to combat oil spills, and
test for toxicity and effectiveness.

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14. To develop, in collaboration with Indian institutions and agencies, cheaper chemicals
and environment friendly technology, and to monitor the disposal of recovered oil and
out-dated chemicals.
15. To organise national and international workshops and seminars to exchange information
and experience contributing to international environmental issues.
16. To develop a strong communication and public relations centre, and to publish
educational material for the general public and NGOs.
17. To act as a spokesperson and manage the media should any oil spill happen.
If a concerned department and/or polluter does not act swiftly in an oil spill situation, the
Entity should organise the cleaning and containing of oil spill using its own resources, with
or without involving any outside agency, and recover the cost from the polluter. To be able
to act quickly in such a situation the Entity should be provided with sufficient funds to defray
the initial payment to the combat agency.
Two teams were deputed by the PRMC to get first-hand ideas and experience from the
various international oil spill response organisations. They visited the U.S.A., U.K. and
Singapore to study the practices and organisation for oil spill management in those
countries. The team has also confirmed that the setting up of the proposed Entity for oil
spill management for India, and the suggested organisation practically conforms to
international practice.
9.4 Proposed Names
The following names are suggested for the Entity.
Oil Spill Management and Regulatory Authority (OSRA)

Oil Spill Authority of India (OSA)
Oil Spill Management Authority of India (OSMA)
9.5 Organisation of the Entity
The proposed organisation takes into account various functional concerns and balanced
mutual co-operation to generate synergy, especially in a crisis. This may be expanded as
necessary. The Entity should be empowered to enforce compliance with various

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regulations, and to monitor and control activities in the Indian maritime zone. This calls
for a supportive umbrella authority from which the Entity will draw authority. A high-
powered Governing Council is, therefore, proposed to whom the Entity will report. This
is elaborated in Paragraph 9.6.
The organisation of the proposed Entity is given in Figure 9.1.
Fig. 9.1. Organisation of the Proposed Entity

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9.6 Governing Council
To strengthen the role and authority of the Entity, it should have a high-powered Governing
Council, which will guide the Entity in its programmes, policies and functioning. The Director
General of the Entity will, therefore, be responsible and accountable to the Governing Council.
Oil spill management requires a multi-dimensional approach needing the co-operation and
involvement of many agencies and Government Departments, including the Indian Coast
Guard and the polluter. The response time in oil spill combat is crucial and, if immediate
steps are taken, the damage to the environment and economic activities along the coast is
greatly minimized, notwithstanding the savings in the cost of combating of the oil spill. To
ensure co-operation and co-ordination at the highest level it is proposed that the Governing
Council be chaired by either:
1. The Deputy Prime Minister of India
2. The Principal Scientific Adviser to the Government of India
3. The Cabinet Secretary to the Government of India
The Governing Council may have the following as members:
1. Secretary, Ministry of Home Affairs.
2. Secretary, Ministry of Defence
3. Secretary, Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas
4. Secretary, Ministry of Environment and Forests
5. Secretary, Ministry of Shipping
6. Secretary, Ministry of Road Transport and Highways
7. Secretary, Department of Ocean Development
8. Secretary, Department of Science and Technology
9. Scientific Secretary, Office of the Principal Scientific Adviser
10. Director General of Shipping

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11. Director General, Indian Coast Guard
12. Director General of the Entity
The Director General of the Entity will be the Member Secretary of the Governing Council.
The Council may, if considered necessary, co-opt members with expertise on Oil Spill
Management to assist the council. If the Government of India deems fit, other organisations,
such as the Confederation of Indian Industries (CII) and Petrofed could also be represented
on the Governing council.
9.7 Oil Spill Crisis Management
In case of a major oil spill, it is proposed that the Governing Council assumes the role of
crisis management authority. This senior level representation from all concerned Ministries,
Government Departments, with assistance from the Entity and the Coast Guard, would
ensure the desired co-ordination and quick response arrangements to combat any major oil
spill.
If need be, the above proposed authority will dovetail its activities with the National Crisis
Management Committee which is already functioning under the Cabinet Secretary to the
Government of India for any National disaster or calamity.
9.8 Manpower
Proposed staff for the Entity may be arranged on deputation for a period from three to five
years. Initial staffing pattern for the Entity is given in Table 9.1.
The establishment of laboratories will require huge expenditure on equipment and building,
and their management will need additional manpower. The quantity of work may not be
enough to optimize the use of the equipment. It is, therefore, proposed that the laboratory
work should be done on a contract basis, through universities and research and development
institutions. The laboratory facilities of the member organisations may also be suitably used.
All services, such as housekeeping, transport and others should be on a contract basis. A
minimal support staff is, therefore, proposed.

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Table 9.1 Proposed Staff for the Entity
S. Title Functional areas Number Equivalent Level in

No. Government of India
(Executive level)
1. Head of the Entity Director General 1

2. Head of the Development Chief Scientist 1 Scientist-F (E6)
Division
i) Oil Spill Audit & Follow-up Sr. Expert 2 Scientist-E (E5)
(Two teams) Experts 4 Scientist-C (E3)
ii) Training & Development Senior Expert 1 Scientist-E (E5)
Seminars & Workshops Experts 2 Scientist-C (E3)
iii) R&D, Chemicals, Equipment & Senior Expert 1 Scientist-E (E5)
Academic interaction Experts 2 Scientist-C (E3)
iv) Corporate communication Sr. Expert 1 Scientist-E (E5)
and Media Management Experts 2 Scientist-C (E3)
3. Head of the Operational Division Chief Expert 1 Scientist-F (E6)
i) Planning, Monitoring & Sr. Expert 1 Scientist-E (E5)
Control Experts 2 Scientist-C (E3)
ii) Policy Formulation, Law officer 1
Legal Dispute resolution & (Legal expert) Scientist-E (E5)
Cost Recovery Assistant Law officers 2 Scientist-C (E3)
iii) National and International Sr. Expert 1 Scientist-E (E5)
co-operation Experts Scientist-C (E3)
(iv) Tier III OSR centre Sr Expert 1 Scientist-E (E5)
4 Support Services
Administration, Finance Finance officer 1 Scientist-C (E3)
and Material Management. Admn officer 1 Scientist-C (E3)
Stores & Purchase
Officer 1 Scientist-C (E3)
Accountant 2 Scientist-B2 (E2)
Admn. Asstt 2 Scientist-B2 (E2)
Store keeper 2 STA/JTA (E0)
Stenographer 3 STA/JTA (E0)
(One for
Director General,
and one each for
head of Division).
Initially the staffing for the Entity can be done in a phased manner as per the
requirement. As the work and responsibilities grow, additional manpower will be
provided as necessary.

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9.9 Scientific Advisory Council
It is proposed to have a Scientific Advisory Council with representatives of users, co-operative

R&D institutions and recognized scientists with knowledge of oil spill research & development
and management to advise on scientific programmes for the Entity. The Director General of
the Entity will be the chairman of the council. Heads of Development and Operation Divisions
will also be members of the council. Head of the Development Division will be the member
secretary. The council should meet atleast every quarter.
9.10 Funding
The committee deliberated in detail various options, and proposed the following alternatives
for the funding of the Entity and supplementing the facilities of the Indian Coast Guard (in
addition to the provisions made by the Ministry of Defence) to update requirements to combat
oil spills of at least 10000 tonnes effectively :
a. Levying an Oil Pollution Cess of two paise per litre on the sale of Petrol, Diesel
and Aviation Fuel.
b. Fully funded by the Oil Industry Development Board (OIDB).
c. Any other suitable mode of funding as decided by the Government of India.
9.11 Membership of the Entity
All organisations active in the Indian maritime zone and ports must be members of the Entity
as a token of their participation. The membership fee will be fixed by the Entity. Once the
Entity starts functioning all the upstream and downstream oil companies which are currently
members of OSRL, UK; EARL, Singapore, and similar agencies will give up that membership
as the corresponding responsibilities will be shouldered by the Entity to ensure the swift
unified response to a major oil spill.
9.12 Budget
The initial provisional budget indicated for the Entity is estimated at Rupees forty crores as
detailed in Table 9.2.
In the first year, a very small amount is earmarked for capital equipment as assessing
requirements, firming up specifications, and the tendering process, all take time. So the

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amount of Rupees twelve crores is only towards meeting any advance payments which may
be necessary, as some equipment may not be readily available and will have to be ordered.
To kick start the Entity, initial funding may be from the OIDB or the Government of
India. As the Entity takes shape, the yearly budget is expected to increase in proportion.
Table 9.2 Budget Indicated for the First Year
S.No Description of Item Provision

Rs (In Crores)
A. Capital Expenditure
1 Land and Building 5.0
2 Furniture and Fixtures including Office appliances, computers,
printers, Fax machines and Xerox machines 2.0
3 Supplementary equipment and supplies to the Indian Coast Guard
for combating Tier II and Tier III spills 12.0
Total 19.0
B. Recurring Expenditure
1 Rental of the Building, and Housekeeping including Office assistance,
and Telephones 2.5
2 Salary and Allowances 5.0
3 Travelling and Daily allowances 1.0
4 Foreign Travel 1.0
5 Payment of Membership Fee to Tier III organisations,
such as OSRL and EARL 1.0
6 Studies, R&D
Contract work 2.0
7 Conference & Workshops 1.0
8 Office Stationery, Printing and Publications 1.0
9 Contingency for Oil Spill Combat operations in Emergency 3.5
10 Miscellaneous Expenditure 3.0
Total 21.0
Total Expenditure 40.0

CHAPTER 10
R
Recommenda
ecommendations
ecommendations
tions
10.1 Introduction
The need for a holistic approach to oil spill management and forming of an Entity is most
urgent particularly when considering India's. proximity to major oil traffic routes and her
growing oil-handling facilities. At present oil spill combat facilities in India are inadequate,
having fragmented, legislation, monitoring and control systems. The role of the Entity has
been elaborated in Chapter 9. It has been made clear that adequate preparations are needed
for responding to any oil spill that might occur along the Indian coast. Inadequate
preparation will lead to increased cost of response or totally inadequate response due to lack
of organization leading to increased environmental despoiling. Preparation of the road map
jointly through Government and Industry partnership, for Oil Spill Management for India
envisages a comprehensive plan so that oil spill prevention, readiness and response
management is instantly available for action to avoid worse risks or threats.
In order to achieve the above objective, a Road Map has been developed, detailing actions
required, the time frame and the responsible authority. This has been put in diagrammatic
form in Figures 10.1 and 10.2.
The recommended actions should be completed within the time frame suggested so that the
Entity is established. All related actions to position Tier I facilities with the owner of the
installations and ports should be taken in a time bound manner. Similarly, all ships and tankers
calling at Indian ports must have an oil spill response facility on board as per OPRC 90 and
international practices. The Indian Coast Guard is also required to upgrade their Tier II
facilities to combat an oil spill of at least 10,000 tonnes at the earliest. The possibility of
creating Tier III facility in the west coast of India also needs serious consideration. Effective
mechanisms are to be developed for the integration of local and regional response facilities
into a national response, when the need arises to combat an enormous oil spill beyond the
capability of regional response.
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10.2 Recommendations
10.2.1 Organisation of the Entity
a. The urgent need for a holistic approach to managing oil spills in the Indian maritine
zone (including EEZ) is recognized. It is also realized that the present facilities to combat
oil spills in the country are inadequate. It is, therefore, essential that the proposed Entity
should be formed as quickly as possible for a comprehensive approach to oil spill
management for India. The Entity will assume full responsibility and control for all
oil spill response activities. It will also ensure compliance with international standards,
regulations and practice. To achieve the above objectives, the proposed Entity should
be an independent, autonomous body with powers to adjudicate, and should work
under the overall control of the Government of India, through a high-powered
Governing Council.
b. The proposed Entity should formulate a comprehensive and coherent national policy,
including legislation, with clearly defined objectives. It should identify the
emerging strategies, answer the present and likely future issues for oil spill
management in the country and encourage the pooling of skills and experience of
the industry members and Coast Guard through effective multi-organisation teams.
It should ensure that oil spill combat facilities are available on tankers, ports,
installations, and E&P facilities and monitor their efficacy. It should also assist and
co-operate with all concerned Ministries to resolve disputes of technical, legal and
financial nature and to ensure a fool-proof cost-recovery mechanism.
c. The Entity should also ensure alliance, joint venture, or collaboration with suitable Tier
III oil spill response centres, of international repute, to give the best technology support
in case of a major oil spill. It should develop effective mechanisms for pooling all local
and regional resources to combat larger oil spills and organize the training to
international standard for manning the OSRCs. The Entity should ensure establishing
a major oil spill response centre for handling spills over 10,000 tonnes, initially in the
western coast of India.
d. The basic role and functions of the proposed Entity is given in Chapter 9 para 9.3.
This Entity may be given a suitable name. The following names are suggested :
! Oil Spill Management and Regulatory Authority (OSRA)

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! Oil Spill Authority of India (OSA)
! Oil Spill Management Authority of India (OSMA)
In view of the fact that oil spill management will require co-ordination and co-operative action
from different Ministries and Departments of the Government of India, the Governing Council
to whom the Entity will be responsible, may be headed by:
! The Deputy Prime Minister of India, or
! The Principal Scientific Adviser to the Government of India, or
! The Cabinet Secretary to the Government of India
Members suggested for the Governing Council are given in Chapter 9.
10.2.2 Funding of the Entity
a. The following alternatives for funding the operations of the Entity, and supplementing
the facilities for the Coast Guard (in addition to the provisions made by the Ministry of
Defence) to update the requirements for effective oil spill combat to a minimum of 10,000
tonnes, are suggested:
! Levying of an Oil Pollution Cess of two paise per litre on the sale of Petrol,
Diesel and Aviation Fuel.
! Fully funded by the Oil Industry Development Board (OIDB).
! Any other suitable mode of funding as decided by the Government of India
b. The indicated budget for the first year of the Entity is estimated at Rupees forty crores.
To kick start the Entity, initial funding may be done either by the OIDB or by the
Government.
c. As the activities of the Entity increase, the yearly budget requirement is expected to
increase in proportion. Structure and initial manpower requirement of the Entity, its
roles and responsibilities, budget and management strategy are given in chapter 9.
10.2.3 Oil Spill Combat Facilities
a. Tier I Facilities to combat up to 700 tonnes of oil spills (capacity based on Risk Analysis)
as per revised International Maritime Organisation guidelines have to be created at 21

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identified locations by December, 2003. Already existing Tier-I facilities for handling
up to 100 tonnes created at 7 locations should also be suitably upgraded. For the above,
the industry should develop firm time bound schedules and ensure adherence to the
time schedule.
b. Tier II Facilities are to be set up under the Indian Coast Guard to be supported by
the Entity. At present the Indian Coast Guard have minimal Tier II facilities at Mumbai,
Chennai and Port Blair. They have plans to upgrade these to 2000 tonnes each and
also to introduce Pollution Control Vessels by the year 2007-08. It is necessary that
these facilities are further upgraded to handle spills up to 2500 tonnes, and one more
such facility be created in the East Coast so that the indigenous capacity to combat
spills is at least 10,000 tonnes.
c. Tier III spills, larger than 10000 tonnes, will involve national and international
resources, supported by the Entity and concerned authorities. Major Indian Oil
Companies such as the ONGC and the Reliance Industries Limited are already
members of OSRL and EARL respectively, to ensure quick preferential response
in case of a major oil spill. The proposed Entity would keep the above aspects in
view and should facilitate establishment of a Tier III OSRC initially in the west
coast of India to combat major oil spills and work out inter-links, control and
monitoring systems. Once the Entity starts functioning all the upstream and
downstream oil companies who are currently members of OSRL, UK, EARL,
Singapore and similar agencies, will give up that membership, as the corresponding
responsibilities will be taken on by the Entity. This will ensure a rapid unified
response to a major oil spill.
d. The current National Oil Spill Disaster Contingency Plan (NOS-DCP) of the Indian Coast
Guard is to be modified and upgraded for approval by the Government of India.
e. All organisations active in the Indian maritime zone and ports must take membership
of the Entity by paying the fee which will be fixed by the Entity.
10.2.4 Other Important Aspects
a. A uniform procedure is to be established by the Entity for presenting and processing

claims in good time in conformity with internationally accepted conventions, for
example, the International Convention on Civil Liability on Pollution Damage (CLC)
and the International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for

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Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage, to fix responsibility and ensure quick cost
recovery.
b. There is a compelling need to put all judicial procedures on fast track to ensure swift,
effective recovery of claims, particularly from foreign flagships involved in pollution
incidents.
c. A mechanism of tribunal/arbitration or the equivalent is to be set up to expedite

compensation and recovery.
d. There is a need to modify and update the existing maritime laws of the country relating
to marine oil spill, periodically particularly regarding changing environmental
requirements and the increase in maritime transportation, handling, loading and
unloading as well as exploiting natural resources, mainly hydrocarbons. The Entity
should organize comprehensive legislation covering all the aspects, including the
compensation and recovery mechanism, and monitor and control them. Legislation
should also cover foreign flag vessels, distressed vessels in Indian waters, as well
as fugitive and unknown spillers.
e. A structured interactive workshop of three to five days should be organised for

nominees from pollution control agencies, DG Shipping, the oil industry, and others
directly involved in claims recovery and compensation. The faculty may comprise
experienced international specialists in these areas, and will include representatives from
reputed oil spill response agencies, P&I Clubs and legal professionals. The object of such
a workshop is to hone the practical skills of the people involved towards more effective
claims recovery.
f. It is recognized that where oil exploration and production is being carried out near
the shoreline, such as Ravva (Andhra Pradesh) and Tapti (Gujarat), permanent
protection of the shoreline with high pressure booms and scrubbers should be provided
to save the fragile coastline.
g. It is proposed for oil tankers to be doped with recognizable doping chemicals, or an oil
assay taken for imported oils, or any other means for identification, should be established
so that the polluter can easily be identified and penalized. Finger printing of oil handled
in Indian ports should be carried out and the record should be maintained by the
concerned Port Authority for at least thirty days from the date of the departure of the
ship from the port.
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h. In order to monitor the movement of tankers effectively in and around the Indian coast,
every tanker carrying an oil cargo should report to the concerned central agency and
inform the Indian Coast Guard before it enters the EEZ of India. This will help in
monitoring and taking any contingency step if required. All ships and tankers touching
Indian ports should have an oil spill contingency plan. Tanker owners are to have
means of transfering and storing recovered oil. They are also required to have a contract
with approved response agency, for readiness against any oil spill.
i. The Entity should undertake a detailed study of the 32 locations identified as

environmentally sensitive areas to be protected against damage by oil spills and suggest
suitable means.
j. Manpower should be identified, trained and positioned, the training should include
Mock Drills preferably twice in a year at local level, once a year at regional level and
once every three years at national level.
k. To field test the latest technological advances of dispersants and adsorbents for use in
oil spill combat particularly non-toxic materials, such as recently developed exfoliated
carbon powder, for cleaning operations in sea, on beaches and coastlines. The
technology is indigenously developed by a Government of India Laboratory and is
commercially available.
Some of the committee members visited USA, UK and Singapore to study at first-hand
and experience international practice and organisation for oil spill management. The team
has also confirmed that the setting up of the proposed `Entity for oil spill management
for India and its suggested organisation, prescribed functions, roles and responsibilities,
more or less conform to international practice.
10.3 Road Map for Implementation - Action Plan
The following table (Table 10.1) gives a brief activity plan with time frame and the authority
responsible for implementing the activity. A bar chart of different activities is shown in Figure
10.1, and a pictorial representation of the road map for implementing the action plan is given
in Figure 10.2.
Until such time the Director General of the Entity is appointed, it is suggested that a suitable
interim arrangement may be made to head the Entity to implement the accepted

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recommendations effectively. The Director General designate, plus a small core group, and
the Office of the Principal Scientific Adviser to the Government of India may do everything
necessary to start the Entity's functioning immediately. This would include the hiring of office
accommodation, the establishment of the Office, hiring the requisite staff on deputation,
organising the scientific and other programmes as per the charter of the Entity.
Table 10.1 Road Map for Implementation Action Plan
No Activity Time Frame Action Authority
1 Submission of the Report May 2003 Chairman PRMC

2 Acceptance of the Report August 2003 Office of the PSA to the GOI
3 Initial Funding for Entity Formation August 2003 Office of the PSA to the GOI
4 Institutionalisation of Mutual Aid October 2003 Installation Owners / Port
arrangements between industry authorities
members, port trusts
5 Location wise Contingency Plans October 2003 Installation Owners / Port
to be approved and vetted by the authorities
Indian Coast Guard at all
installations / ports
6 Appointment of the Director General of November 2003 Office of the PSA to the GOI
the Entity
7 Positioning of Officers and Staff December 2003 Director General of the Entity
of the Entity
8 Manpower Identification, December 2003 Installation Owners / Port
Training and Positioning authorities
9 Tier I facilities at Installations/Ports December 2003 Installation Owners / Port
authorities
10 Tier III facilities Centralised tie-up January 2004 Director General of Entity
with international response
organisations
11 Feasibility Study for indigenous February 2004 Director General of the Entity
Tier III facilities in the West Coast
(at the level of EARL, Singapore)
12 Tier II facilities at four locations, December 2004 Indian Coast Guard
each with a capacity to manage a spill
of 2500 tonnes.
A bar chart and pictorial representation of the Road Map to implement the action plan
is in Figure 10.1 and 10.2.

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Fig. 10.1. Bar Chart of Action Plan

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Fig. 10.2. Road Map implementation Action Plan

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Acr on
Acron yms and Ab
onyms br
Abbr
breevia tions121
viations121
1 ADEC The Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation

2 API American Petroleum Institute
3 AMOSC The Australian Marine Oil Spill Centre
4 AMPD Average Most Probable Discharge
5 APM Administered Price Mechanism
6 ASEAN-OSRAP Asean Oil Spill Response Action Plan
7 BHN Bombay High - North Platform
8 BORL Bharat Oman Refinery Limited
9 BPCL Bharat Petroleum Corporation Ltd
10 CCC Clean Caribbean Co-operative
11 CLC International Convention on Civil Liability on Pollution Damage
12 Concawe Conservation of Clean Air and Water - Europe
13 CPCL Chennai Petroleum Corporation Ltd.
14 CRL Cairn Energy Ltd.
15 DGS Director General of Shipping
16 DMP Disaster Management Plan
17 DOD Department of Ocean Development
18 E&P Exploration and Production
19 EARL East Asia Response Private Limited
20 EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone
21 EIA Environment Impact Assessment
22 EP Act 1986 The Environment Protection Act 1986
23 EPA Environment Public Authority
24 FPSO Floating Production Storage Offshore
25 GDP Gross Domestic Product
26 GIS Geographical Information System
27 HKRL Hong Kong Response Ltd

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28 HPCL Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Ltd.

29 IMO International Maritime Organization
30 IOC Indian Oil Corporation Ltd.
31 IOPC fund The International Oil Pollution Compensation Funds 1971 and 1992
32 IPIECA International Petroleum Industry Environmental Conservation
Association
33 ITOPF International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation Ltd.
34 KMPRC Korean Marine Pollution Response Corporation
35 KOC Kuwait Oil Company
36 KPA Kuwait Ports Authority
37 KPT Kochi Port Trust
38 KRL Kochi Refinery Limited
39 M.S. Act Merchant Shipping Act
40 MARPOL International Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from
Ships Convention 1973, as modified by the Protocol of 1978
41 MEMAC Marine Emergencies Mutual Aid Centre
42 MMPD Maximum Most Probable Discharge
43 MMTPA Million Metric Tonnes per Annum
44 MODU Mobile Offshore Drilling Units
45 MoEF Ministry of Environment and Forests
46 MoS Ministry of Shipping
47 MPA The Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore
48 MSRC Marine Spill Response Corporation
49 NCP The National Contingency Plan
50 NELP National Exploration Licensing Policy
51 NGO Non Government Organisations
52 NIO National Institute of Oceanography
53 NOFO Norsk Oljevernforening for Operatorselskap
54 NOSCC National Oil Spill Control Committee
55 NOS-DCP National Oil Spill Disaster Contingency Plan
56 NRC National Response Corporation, U.S.A.

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57 OCIMF Oil Companies International Marine Forum

58 OISD Oil Industry Safety Directorate
59 OPRC Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation Convention
60 OSA Oil Spill Authority of India
61 OSMA Oil Spill Management Authority of India
62 OSRA Oil Spill Management and Regulatory Authority of India
63 OSRCs Oil Spill Response Centres
64 OSRL Oil Spill Response Ltd, U.K.
65 OSRM Oil Spill Response Management
66 OSRO Private Oil Spill Response Organisations
67 PAJ Petroleum Association of Japan
68 PHC Petroleum Hydrocarbon Residue
69 PIMMAG Petroleum Industry of Malaysia Mutual Aid Group
70 POLREP Pollution Reporting Form
71 PRMC Project Review and Monitoring Committee
72 RECSO Regional Clean Sea Organization
73 RIL Reliance Industries Ltd.
74 SACEP The South Asia Co-operative Environment Programme
75 SAT Saudi Arabian Texaco
76 SCI The Shipping Corporation of India
77 SOLAS 74 Safety Of Life At Sea, 1974
78 SPMs Single Point Mooring systems
79 STCW 95 Standards of Training, Certification and Watch keeping for Seafarers,
1978, as amended in 1995
80 STS Ship to Ship operations
81 UNCLOS United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
82 UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
83 VLCCs Very Large Crude Carriers
84 WCD Worst Case Discharge
85 WISE Waterborne Industry Spill Equipment
86 WTO World Trade Organization

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APPENDIX I
EXPL ORA
EXPLORA TION BL
ORATION OCKS A W ARDED UNDER FIRST
BLOCKS
ROUND OF NELP (NELP-I)
SL BASIN BLOCK REF. NO. CONSORTIUM DATE OF APPROX
NO NAME ON MAP (PARTICIPATING SIGNING AREA
INTEREST) CONTRACT (SQ. KM)
DEEP WATER
1. KRISHNA - GODAVARI KG-DWN-98/1 D1 RIL (90) & NIKO (10) 12.4.2000 10,810
2. KG-DWN-98/2 D2 CAIRN (100) 12.4.2000 9,757
3. KG-DWN-98/3 D3 RIL (90) & NIKO (10) 12.4.2000 7,645
4. KG-DWN-98/4 D4 ONGC (85) & OIL (15) 12.4.2000 9,940
5. KG-DWN-98/5 D5 ONGC (100) 12.4.2000 8,980
6. MAHANADI MN/DWN-98/2 D6 RIL (90) & NIKO (10) 12.4.2000 9,605
7. MN/DWN-98/3 D7 ONGC (100) 12.4.2000 10,005
TOTAL AREA 66,742
SHALLOW OFFSHORE
8 GUJARAT-KUTCH GK-OSN-97/1 N-1 RIL (90) & NIKO (10) 12.4.2000 1,465
9. SAURASHTRA SR-OSN-97/1 N-2 RIL (90) & NIKO (10) 12.4.2000 5,040
10 MUMBAI MB-OSN-97/2 N-3 RIL (90) & NIKO (10) 12.4.2000 5,270
11. MB-OSN-97/3 N-4 RIL (90) & NIKO (10) 12.4.2000 5,740
12 MB-OSN-97/4 N-5 ONGC (70) & IOC (30) 12.4.2000 18,870
13 KERALA- KONKAN KK-OSN-97/2 N-6 RIL (90) & NIKO (10) 12.4.2000 19,450
14 KK-OSN-97/3 N-7 ONGC (100) 12.4.2000 15,910
15 CAUVERY CY-OSN-97/2 N-8 OIL (100) 12.4.2000 5,215
16 CY-OSN-97/1 N-9 HOEC (30), MIL (35) 08.1.2001 4,940
& EEIPL(35)
17 KRISHNA-GODAVARI KG-OSN-97/4 N-10 RIL (90) & NIKO (10) 12.4.2000 4,020
18 KG-OSN-97/3 N-11 RIL (90) & NIKO (10) 12.4.2000 2,460
19 KG-OSN-97/2 N-12 RIL (90) & NIKO (10) 12.4.2000 4,790
20 KG-OSN-97/1 N-13 ONGC (100) 12.4.2000 2,785
21 MAHANADI MN-OSN-97/3 N-14 ONGC (85) & GAIL(15) 12.4.2000 4,065
22 BENGAL NEC-OSN-97/2 N-15 RIL (90) & NIKO (10) 12.4.2000 14,535
23 NEC-OSN-97/1 N-16 OAO GAZPROM (50) 03.10.2000 10,425
& GAIL (50)
TOTAL AREA 124,980
ONLAND
24 GANGA VALLEY GV-ONN-97/1 N-17 ONGC (100) 12.4.2000 36,750
TOTAL AREA 36,750
GRAND TOTAL 228,472
Source : DGH INDIA - Petroleum Exploration and Production 2002-03

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EXPL ORA
EXPLORA TION BL
BLOCKS
ROUND OF NELP (NELP-
(NELP-II I)
DEEP WATER
1 GUJARAT SAURASHTRA GS-DWN-2000/1 D8 ONGC (100) 17.07.2001 13,937
2 GS-DWN-2000/2 D9 ONGC (85) & GAIL (15) 17.07.2001 14,825
3 MUMBAI MB-DWN-2000/1 D10 ONGC (85) & GAIL (15) 17.07.2001 11,239
4 MB-DWN-2000/2 D11 ONGC (50), IOC (15), 17.07.2001 19,106
GAIL (15), OIL (10) &
GSPC(10)
5 KERALA KONKAN KK-DWN-2000/1 D12 RIL (90) & HEPI (10) 17.07.2001 18,113
6 KK-DWN-2000/2 D13 ONGC (85) & GAIL (15) 17.07.2001 20,998
7 KK-DWN-2000/3 D14 RIL (90) & HEPI (10) 17.07.2001 14,889
8 KK-DWN-2000/4 D15 ONGC (100) 17.07.2001 26,149
TOTAL AREA 139,256
SHALLOW OFFSHORE
9 GUJARAT- SAURASHTRA GS-OSN-2000/1 N18 RIL (90) & HEPI (10) 17.07.2001 8,841
10 MUMBAI MB-OSN-2000/1 N19 ONGC (75), IOC (15) 17.07.2001 18,414
& GSPC (10)
11 KERALA-KONKAN KK-OSN-2000/1 N20 ONGC (100) 17.07.2001 16,125
12 CAUVERY CY-OSN-2000/1 N21 ONGC (100) 17.07.2001 5,920
13 CY-OSN-2000/2 N22 ONGC (100) 17.07.2001 3,530
14 MAHANADI MN-OSN-2000/1 N23 ONGC (100) 17.07.2001 6,730
15 MN-OSN-2000/2 N24 ONGC (40), IOC (20), 17.07.2001 8,330
GAIL (20) & OIL (10)
16 BENGAL WB-OSN-2000/1 N25 ONGC (85) & IOC (15) 17.07.2001 6,700
TOTAL AREA 74,590
ON LAND
17 BENGAL WB-ONN-2000/1 N26 ONGC (85) & IOC (15) 17.07.2001 12,505
18 GANGA VALLEY GV-ONN-2000/1 N27 ONGC (85) & IOC (15) 17.07.2001 23,500
19 RAJASTHAN RJ-ONN-2000/1 N28 OIL (100) 17.07.2001 2,535
20 CAMBAY CB-ONN-2000/1 N29 GSPC (40), GAIL (40) 17.07.2001 1,424
& JTI (20)
21 CB-ONN-2000/2 N30 NIKO (100) 17.07.2001 419
22 MAHANADI MN-ONN-2000/1 N31 OIL (40), ONGC (20), 17.07.2001 7,900
IOC (20) & GAIL (20)
23 UPPER ASSAM AS-ONN-2000/1 N32 RIL (90) & HEPI (10) 17.07.2001 6,215
TOTAL AREA 54,498
GRAND TOTAL 268,344

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EXPL ORA
EXPLORA TION BL
BLOCKS
ROUND OF NELP (NELP- II
(NELP-II I)
III)
DEEP WATER
1 KERALA - KONKAN KK-DWN-2001/1 D16 RIL (90) & HEPI (10) 04.02.2003 27,315
2 KK-DWN-2001/2 D17 RIL (90) & HEPI (10) 04.02.2003 31,515
3 KK-DWN-2001/3 D18 ONGC (100) 04.02.2003 21,775
4 CAUVERY CY-DWN-2001/1 D19 ONGC (80), OIL (20) 04.02.2003 12,425
5 CY-DWN-2001/2 D20 RIL (90) & HEPI (10) 04.02.2003 14,325
6 CAUVERY - PALAR CY-DWN-2001/3 D21 RIL (90) & HEPI (10) 04.02.2003 8,600
7 CY-DWN/2001/4 D22 RIL (90) & HEPI (10) 04.02.2003 10,590
8 PALAR PR-DWN-2001/1 D23 RIL (90) & HEPI (10) 04.02.2003 8,255
9 KRISHNA- GODAVARI KG-DWN/2001/1 D24 RIL (90) & HEPI (10) 04.02.2003 11,605
TOTAL AREA 146,405
SHALLOW OFFSHORE
10 GUJARAT-SAURASHTRA GS-OSN-2001/1 N33 ONGC (100) 04.02.2003 9,468
11 KERALA-KONKAN KK-OSN-2001/2 N34 ONGC (100) 04.02.2003 14,120
12 KK-OSN-2001/3 N35 ONGC (100) 04.02.2003 8,595
13 KRISHNA GODAVARI KG-OSN-2001/1 N36 RIL (90) & HEPI (10) 04.02.2003 1,100
14 KG-OSN-2001/2 N37 RIL (90) & HEPI (10) 04.02.2003 210
15 KG-OSN-2001/3 N38 GSPC (80), GEO (10) 04.02.2003 1,850
& JEL (10)
TOTAL AREA 35,343
ONLAND
16 ASSAM - ARAKAN AA-ONN-2001/1 N39 ONGC (100) 04.02.2003 3,010
17 AA-ONN-2001/2 N40 ONGC (80) & IOC (20) 04.02.2003 5,340
18 AA-ONN-2001/3 N41 ONGC (85) & OIL (15) 04.02.2003 110
19 AA-ONN-2001/4 N42 ONGC (100) 04.02.2003 645
20 HIMALYAN FORELAND HF-ONN-2001/1 N43 ONGC (100) 04.02.2003 3,175
21 RAJASTHAN RJ-ONN-2001/1 N44 OIL (70) & ONGC (30) 04.02.2003 3,425
22 CAMBAY CB-ONN-2001/1 N45 ONGC (100) 04.02.2003 215
23 PRANHITA-GODAVARI PG-ONN-2001/1 N46 ONGC (100) 04.02.2003 6,920
TOTAL AREA 22,840
GRAND TOTAL 204,588
ONGC - Oil And Natural Gas Corpn. Ltd CEC - Cairn Energy Cambay B.V JTI - Joshi Technologies
MIL - Mafatlal Industries Ltd. OKLAND - Okland Offshore Holdings Ltd SIL - Shell India Ltd.
IOC - Indian Oil Corpn. Ltd. CEG - Cairn Energy Gujarat B.V EEIPL - Energy Equity India
BGEPIL - British Gas Exp&Prod. India Ltd. TPL - Tata Petrodyne Ltd. Petroleum Pty Ltd
OIL - Oil India Ltd. PONEI - Premier Oil North East India NIKO - Niko Resources Ltd.
TIOL - Tullow India Opn. Ltd. POL - Phoenix Overseas Ltd. JEL - Jubilant Enpro Ltd.
GSPC - Gujarat State Petroleum Corpn. Ltd. POGC - Polish Oil & Gas Company GEO - Geo Global Resources India
CAIRN - Cairn Energy India Pty. Ltd. VPL - Videocon Petroleum Ltd. Inc.
RIL - Reliance Industries Ltd. HOEC - Hindustan Oil Exp. Co. Ltd.
CEIW - Cairn Energy India West B.V HEPI - Hardy Expl. & Prod. (India) Inc.
EOL - Essor Oil Ltd. GAIL - Gas Authority of India Ltd.

OSM
PRMC
APPENDIX II
Pr oject R
Project evie
Re w and Monitoring Committee
view
for Oil Spill Management : Specialist Groups
Specialist Group A
1. Pai, R.L., Group Senior Vice-President, Reliance Industries Limited
2. Gaur, S.R., Director (MM), Ministry of Shipping
3. Panda, Captain L.K., Deputy Nautical Adviser to the Government of India, Directorate
General of Shipping
4. Hazra, Dr. U.S., General Manager, Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited
5. Chakravorty, A.B., Dy. General Manger, Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited
Specialist Group B
1. Subramanian, Dr. B.R., Adviser, Department of Ocean Development
2. Gangan Prathap, Dr., Scientist-in-Charge, CSIR Centre for Mathematical Modelling and
3. Deb, Dr. P. C., Director, Naval Materials Research Laboratory
4. Khan, K.L.A., Dy. General Manger, Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited
Specialist Group C
1. Guha, A.K., General Manager (Technical), Indian Oil Corporation Limited
2. Hosabettu, Dr. N.H., Director, Hazardous Substances Management Division, Ministry of Envi-
ronment and Forests
3. Kumar, T.K., Chief Manager (S&EP), Indian Oil Corporation Limited
Specialist Group D
1. Jagati, K.K., Executive Director and Chief Safety, Health and Environment, Oil and Natural
Gas Corporation Limited
2. Chafekar, Commandant V.D., Joint Director (Operations), Indian Coast Guard
3. Sinha, Neeraj, Scientist E, Office of the Principal Scientific Adviser to the Government of
India
Specialist Group E
1. Gourh, R.C., Director (Onshore), Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited

OSM
PRMC
APPENDIX III
Declar
Declar ation of the Goa Wor
lara kshop
orkshop
All the delegates, special invitees and dignitaries of this workshop brainstormed, deliberated and
declared that:
! For upholding the National concern for environment protection and to prevent and remediate
the oil spills in the country.
! An entity with autonomous powers to be formed comprising of all oil companies in the
Government sector, Private sector and International Oil companies/consortium operating
in India.
! Consequently this entity to be expanded with appropriate participation with Governmental

organs such as:
" Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas

" Ministry of Shipping
" Ministry of Environment
" Department of Ocean Development
" Department of Science and Technology
" Defence Research and Development Organisations
" Office of Principal Scientific Adviser to the Govt. of India
! This entity to establish close co-ordination and interaction with the Indian Coast Guard
! The new entity to act as proactive partner in Tier I incidents and compile and disseminate
all relevant information to the user and the Coast Guard
! In case of a Tier II eventuality this entity is to carry out the action plan of the Coast Guard
for control and remediation either alone or with the help of the Coast Guard
! In the event of major oil spills in the Tier III category, this entity will help the Coast Guard
to identify, plan and execute control and remedial response action
! This entity to be technologically empowered through backward and forward links with
academics, R&D institutions and Government bodies in proactive and reactive modes

OSM
PRMC
! A steering committee to be formed on the lines of constituents of the entity under the
Chairmanship of the ONGC to nucleate the formation of the entity and propel upto readily
! The steering committee to suggest a time frame for meeting the requirements under Tier I
and Tier II infrastructures. It will also submit comprehensive draft legislation with regard to
National Oil Spill Management
! To enhance this impetus into a national movement for the noble causes of Safety, Health
and Environment in our country, this workshop to be made an annual feature/event for
catalyzing, cross fertilization of views, ideas and experience across the country.
Sd/- Sd/-
Dr. R. Chidambaram R.C. Gourh
Principal Scientific Adviser to the Director (Onshore)
Government of India Oil and Natural Gas
Corporation Ltd.
Sd/- Sd/- Sd/-

C.R. Prasad Vandana Singhal P.V.R. Ayyar
Chairman Secretary, OIDB Executive Director
British Gas India (P) Ltd. Oil Industry Safety
Directorate
Sd/- Sd/- Sd/-

Comdt. S.K. Chaudhary R.L. Pai K..K. Jagati,
Indian Coast Guard Sr. Vice President Executive Director-
Coast Guard Headquarters Reliance Industries Ltd. Chief SHE
Oil and Natural Gas Corp Ltd..
Sd/- Sd/-
Dr. M.S. Vijayaraghavan Dr. Anil K. Garg,
Adviser Convenor
Office of Principal Scientific Workshop on Oil Spill
Adviser to the Government of India Management

OSM
PRMC
APPENDIX IV
BY SPEED POST
F.No.: Prn.SA/ADV/IMM/OSM/2002
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
OFFICE OF THE PRINCIPAL SCIENTIFIC ADVISER
TO THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
323, Vigyan Bhawan Annexe

Maulana Azad Road
New Delhi-110011
Tel. No. :011-3022091, 3022008
Fax No. : 011-3022009
Dated : 16th September, 2002
OFFICE MEMORANDUM
Subject : Project on the preparation of a Road Map for Oil Spill Management for India
constitution of a Project Review and Monitoring Committee reg.
The undersigned has been directed to convey the decision of the Government of India to
constitute a Project Review and Monitoring Committee (PRMC) for Oil Spill Management that shall,
besides performing other tasks as listed in paragraph 3 below, also periodically review and monitor
the progress of the above-mentioned project being implemented jointly by this Office and the Oil and
Natural Gas Corporation Ltd. (ONGC). A copy each of the project proposal submitted by the ONGC
to this Office, and the corresponding sanction letter issued by this Office on the 30th of March, 2002,
are enclosed.
2. Since the subject of Oil Spill Management is multi-disciplinary and involves multiple organizations,
it was felt prudent to include, in the PRMC, a representative of each of the stakeholder
organizations. The following shall, therefore, be the composition of the PRMC:-
Composition
S.No. Name, Designation & Organization Status
1. Shri R.C. Gourh
Director (Onshore)
Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Ltd.
Jeevan Bharti Building
Tower-II,124, Indira Chowk
New Delhi 110 001 Chairman

OSM
PRMC
2. Shri B.R. Subramanian Member

Adviser
Department of Ocean Development
Mahasagar Bhavan
Block 12, C.G.O. Complex
Lodi Road
New Delhi 110 003
3. Shri R.L. Pai Member

Senior Vice-President
Reliance Group of Industries
R.P.L. House
15, Walchand Hirachand Marg
Ballard Estate
Mumbai 400 001
4. Dr. Gangan Prathap Member

Scientist-in-Charge
CSIR Centre for Mathematical Modelling and
Bangalore- 560 037
5. Dr. P.C. Deb Member

Director
Naval Materials Research Laboratory
Shil-Badlapur Road, MIDC Area
Ambernath 421 506
Thane, Maharashtra
6. Shri K.K. Jagati Member

Executive Director and Chief (Safety, Health
and Environment)
Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Ltd.
Bengal Chemical Bhawan
502, Veer Savarkar Marg
Mumbai 400 045
7. Dr. N.H. Hosabettu Member

Director, Hazardous Substances Management
Division
Ministry of Environment and Forests
Paryavaran Bhawan
C.G.O Complex, Lodi Road
New Delhi 110 003

OSM
PRMC

8. Shri K.K. Saberwal Member
Director (MD)
Department of Expenditure
Ministry of Finance
Room No.70-B, North Block
New Delhi 110 001
9. Shri A.K. Guha Member

General Manager (Technical)
Indian Oil Corporation Limited
Pipeline Division, Indian Oil Bhawan
A-1, Udyog Marg, Sector-1
Noida 201 301
10. Commandant V.D. Chafekar Member

Joint Director (Operations)
Indian Coast Guard
Coast Guard Headquarters
National Stadium Complex
New Delhi 110 001
11. Shri S.R. Gaur Member

Deputy Secretary (MM)
Ministry of Shipping
Room No. 413, Transport Bhawan
1, Parliament Street
New Delhi 110 001
12. Captain L.K. Panda Member

Deputy Nautical Adviser to the Government
Of India
Directorate General of Shipping
Jahaz Bhawan, Walchand Hirachand Marg
Ballard Estate
Mumbai 400 001
13. Er. Neeraj Sinha Member-

Scientist E Secretary
Office of the Principal Scientific Adviser
to the Government of India
Vigyan Bhavan Annexe
Maulana Azad Road
New Delhi 110 011.

OSM
PRMC
3. The terms of reference of the PRMC shall be as follows:
Terms of Reference
i) The PRMC will ensure that the terms and conditions for the sanction and release of the
grants-in-aid by this Office, as given in the sanction letter number Prn SA/ADV/IMM/
OSM/2002 dated the 30th of March, 2002 (copy enclosed), are met. In addition, the PRMC
will facilitate the formation of an entity, as described in the Declaration (copy enclosed)
of the Workshop on Oil Spill Management, convened jointly by this Office and the ONGC
in Goa during July 19 - 20, 2002.
ii) The PRMC will facilitate the establishment of state-of-the-art oil spill response centres
for and effective control and management of oil spill incidents, including sensitivity
analysis, modelling & contingency planning.
iii) The PRMC will facilitate the preparation of a project report for the said entity at the
national level, in consultation with internationally renowned institutions/expertise, latest
by the 31st of March, 2003. As part of the project report work, the PRMC will co-opt
specialist members from the industry to form task groups to collect, collate and compile
information in the relevant fields through discussions, visits and using other
communication channels within the specified time frame.
iv) The PRMC would co-opt members or identify agencies to establish and manage the
response centres.
v) The PRMC would co-ordinate with the Indian Coast Guard to ensure that the oil spill
response efforts are supplemented appropriately.
vi) The PRMC would co-ordinate with the regulatory authorities and international
organizations in the concerned area.
vii) The PRMC would periodically review and monitor the implementation of the project on
the Preparation of a Road Map for Oil Spill Management for India by conducting meetings
at least once in every two months until the projects completion.
viii) The PRMC will recommend, modify, or reject, any deviation from the project proposal
(copy enclosed) submitted to this Office by the ONGC, vide its letter no. Dir (On)/
ONGC/05/2002 dated the 20th of March, 2002 after due examination and analysis.

OSM
PRMC
ix) Although the said project on the Preparation of a Road Map for Oil Spill Management
for India would complete its sanctioned tenure on the 29th of March, 2003, the tenure of
the PRMC shall be up to the 31st of March, 2005, for satisfying some of the terms of
reference mentioned above.
x) The Chairman shall have the authority to take action, as appropriate, for steering the
work of the PRMC, to its logical conclusion.
xi) The PRMC shall facilitate
! Formation of specialist groups by September, 2002.
! Establishment of the said oil spill response centres by October, 2005.
xii) The PRMC will conduct any other task/duty assigned by this Office from time-to-time.
4. The Method of functioning of the PRMC, and the said specialist groups, shall be as follows:
Method
i) A leader would head each specialist group having 2 to 3 members. Necessary support
would be provided, to the specialist groups, by the PRMC.
ii) The specialist group leaders would attend the meetings of the PRMC.
iii) The Office of the Principal Scientific Adviser to the Government of India would function
as the Secretariat to the PRMC.
5. The Chairman of the PRMC shall have the authority to co-opt members as and when required,
and shall also have the authority to call for emergency meetings of the PRMC, even when
they are not due.
6. With the approval of the Chairman, special invitees, who may, amongst others, be experts in
the area of Oil Spill Management (for eg. Inspector General Prabhakaran Paleri, Deputy
Director General, Indian Coast Guard) could be invited to attend the meetings of the PRMC.
7. The travelling and daily allowances will be payable, as per the existing rules of the Government
of India, to the non-official constituents of the PRMC.

OSM
PRMC
8. This issues with the approval of the Scientific Secretary to the Principal Scientific Adviser to
the Government of India.
Sd/-
(NEERAJ SINHA)
SCIENTIST E
& MEMBER SECRETARY TO THE PRMC
Encl.: A/a
To
1. Shri R.C. Gourh, Director (Onshore), Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Ltd.
Jeevan Bharti Building, Tower-II, 124, Indira Chowk,New Delhi 110 001
2. Shri B.R. Subramanian, Adviser, Department of Ocean Development,

Mahasagar Bhavan, Block 12, C.G.O. Complex, Lodi Road, New Delhi 110 003
3. Shri R.L. Pai, Senior Vice-President, Reliance Group of Industries, R.P.L. House
15, Walchand Hirachand Marg, Ballard Estate, Mumbai 400 001
4. Dr. Gangan Prathap, Scientist-in-Charge, CSIR Centre for Mathematical

Modelling and Computer Simulation (C-MMACS), Bangalore- 560 037
5. Dr. P.C. Deb, Director, Naval Materials Research Laboratory, Shil-Badlapur Road,
MIDC Area, Ambernath 421 506, Thane, Maharashtra
6. Shri K.K. Jagati, Executive Director and Chief (Safety, Health and Environment)
Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Ltd., Bengal Chemical Bhawan,
502, Veer Savarkar Marg, Mumbai 400 045
7. Dr. N.H. Hosabettu, Director, Hazardous Substances Management Division,

Ministry of Environment and Forests, Paryavaran Bhawan, C.G.O Complex,
Lodi Road, New Delhi 110 003
8. Shri K.K. Saberwal, Director (MD), Department of Expenditure, Ministry of

Finance, Room No.70-B, North Block, New Delhi 110 001
9. Shri A.K. Guha, General Manager (Technical), Indian Oil Corporation Limited,
Pipeline Division, Indian Oil Bhawan, A-1, Udyog Marg, Sector-1, Noida 201 301
10. Commandant V.D. Chafekar, Joint Director (Operations), Indian Coast Guard,
Coast Guard Headquarters, National Stadium Complex, New Delhi 110 001

OSM
PRMC
11. Shri S.R. Gaur, Deputy Secretary (MM), Ministry of Shipping, Room
No. 413, Transport Bhawan, 1, Parliament Street, New Delhi 110 001
12. Captain L.K. Panda, Deputy Nautical Adviser to the Government of India
Directorate General of Shipping, Jahaz Bhawan, Walchand Hirachand Marg,
Ballard Estate, Mumbai 400 001
Copy, without the enclosures, to:
1. Shri Y.S. Rajan, Scientific Secretary, Office of the Principal Scientific Adviser to the
Government of India, Room No.324-A, Vigyan Bhavan Annexe, Maulana Azad Road, New
Delhi- 110 011.
2. Dr. V.K. Aatre, Secretary, Department of Defence Research & Development and Director
General, Defence Research & Development Organization, South Block, New Delhi 110
011.
3. Shri D.T. Joseph, Director General of Shipping, Jahaz Bhawan, Walchand Hirachand Marg,
Ballard Estate, Mumbai 400 001.
4. Inspector General Prabhakaran Paleri, Deputy Director General, Indian Coast Guard, Coast
Guard Headquarters, National Stadium Complex, New Delhi 110 001.
5. Dr. V. Rajgopalan, Joint Secretary, Ministry of Environment and Forests, C.G.O. Complex,
Lodi Road, New Delhi 110 003.
6. Shri M. Ramachandran, Joint Secretary, Ministry of Shipping, Room No.406, Transport

Bhawan, Parliament. Street, New Delhi- 110 001.
7. Shri A.M. Uplenchwar, Director (Pipeline, Planning and Business Development), Indian Oil
Corporation Limited, Core 2, Scope Complex, Lodi Road, New Delhi -110 003.
Sd/-
(NEERAJ SINHA)

OSM
PRMC
APPENDIX V
A Typical Oil Spill Response Organogram

OSM
PRMC
APPENDIX VI
National Oil Spill Disaster Contingency

Or
Orggano
anogg r am as per the NOS-DCP

OSM
PRMC
APPENDIX VII
Decision Tree for Oil Spill Response

OSM
PRMC
APPENDIX VII
Equipment with the OSRL, UK and the EARL, Singapore
S.No Item Description Quantity Available

OSRL EARL
1 Recovery Booms 4 -
2 Offshore Booms 19 15
3 Inshore Booms 586 61
4 Inshore Ancillaries 88 18
5 Support Vessels UK 5 -
6 Support Vessels Singapore - 7
7 Dispersant Application Sets 30 10
8 Recovery Skimmers 86 41
9 Heavy Oil Recovery Equipment 10 9
10 Aircrafts systems 7 8
11 Surveillance Aircrafts 2 -
12 Surveillance Equipment 2 -
13 Transference Pumps 40 9
Manpower with OSRL, UK and EARL, Singapore
S.No Position OSRL EARL

1 Chairman 1
2 CEO 1 1
3 Technical Director 1
4 GM/Company Secretary 1
5 Operations Manager 1 1
6 Team Leader, Response 1
7 Oil Spill Specialist 1
8 Team Leader, Logistics 1 13
9 UKR Team Leader 1
10 Senior Technician 5
11 Technicians 20
12 Training & Consultancy Manager 1
13 Training & Consultancy (Trainer, consultants etc) 12 3
14 Support duty administrators (Administrator, training,
Business coordinator, coordinators, finance,
accounts, security, stores etc) 17 4
Total 52 24

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Road Map for Oil Spill

Prepared and Submitted by

Under the auspices of

ii Road Map for Oil Spill Management for India

Road Map implementation Action Plan

Gulf of Oman Karachi

One & Half deg. Chan.

Cargados Carajos Shoals

iv Road Map for Oil Spill Management for India

Mk- vkj- fpnEcje~ foKku Hkou ,usDlh

Correspondence address in Mumbai

Road Map for Oil Spill Management for India v

Place : New Delhi

vi Road Map for Oil Spill Management for India

Road Map for Oil Spill Management for India vii

At present, the immediate response capability available is limited to handling a spill of

viii Road Map for Oil Spill Management for India

Road Map for Oil Spill Management for India ix

x Road Map for Oil Spill Management for India

! Ayyar, P.V.R., Executive Director, Oil Industry Safety Directorate

! Chafekar, Commandant V.D., Joint Director (Operations), Indian Coast Guard

! Deb, Dr. P. C., Director, Naval Materials Research Laboratory

! Gaur, S.R., Director (MM), Ministry of Shipping

! Guha, A.K., General Manager (Technical), Indian Oil Corporation Limited

! Hosabettu, Dr. N.H., Director, Hazardous Substances Management Division, Ministry of

! Pai, R.L., Group Senior Vice-President, Reliance Industries Limited

! Subramanian, Dr. B.R., Adviser, Department of Ocean Development

Road Map for Oil Spill Management for India xi

It gives me immense pleasure to put on record my most respectful gratitude to Dr. R.

xii Road Map for Oil Spill Management for India

Road Map for Oil Spill Management for India xiii

xiv Road Map for Oil Spill Management for India

Oil Spill Management and Regulatory Authority (OSRA)

Oil Spill Authority of India (OSA)

Oil Spill Management Authority of India (OSMA)

! Fully funded by the Oil Industry Development Board (OIDB).

! Any other suitable mode of funding decided by the Government.

Road Map for Oil Spill Management for India xv

In consonance with international practice, it should be a statutory requirement that all

Place : New Delhi

xvi Road Map for Oil Spill Management for India

Executive Summary xiii,

Acronyms and Abbreviations 121

Chapter 1 Sources of Oil Spill and Environmental Impact 1

Chapter 2 Oil Spill Incidents and Related Responses 13

Chapter 3 Indian Coastlines and Ecological Threats 35

3.1 Indian Coastlines and Eco sensitivity 35

Road Map for Oil Spill Management for India xvii

3.2.3 Oil Spill from Offshore Pipelines 40

Chapter 4 Oil Spill Modelling and its Applications 47

4.1 Significance of Oil Spill Modelling 47

Chapter 5 Oil Spill Management - Contingency Plann ing 57

Chapter 6 Oil Spill Response (OSR) Management - International Scene 69

xviii Road Map for Oil Spill Management for India

Chapter 7 Oil Spill Response (OSR) Readiness - National Scene 79

Chapter 8 Legislation, Monitoring and Control 89

Chapter 9 Formation of the Entity 99

Road Map for Oil Spill Management for India xix

9.10 Funding 108

Chapter 10 Recommendations and Road Map 111

10.1 Introduction 111