JOURNAL OF RENEWABLE AND SUSTAINABLE ENERGY 6, 053127 (2014)

Determinants of energy-saving behavioral intention among

residents in Beijing: Extending the theory of planned
behavior
Zhaohua Wang,1,2,a) Bin Zhang,1,2,a) and Guo Li1
1
School of Management and Economics, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081,
China
2
Center for Energy and Environmental Policy Research, Beijing Institute of Technology,
Beijing 100081, China
(Received 6 August 2013; accepted 30 September 2014; published online 21 October 2014)

Given the rapid increase of residential energy consumption in Beijing, the question
of how to promote residential energy-saving behavior is an emerging topic that is
increasingly engaging the attention of scholars. To address this issue, this paper
provides an empirical analysis that identifies and explores the determinants of an
energy-saving behavioral intention among residents from the perspective of the
theory of planned behavior (TPB). A theoretical model was constructed by refining
and extending the classic TPB model according to the scope and requirements of
this study and the existing situation in China. Survey data collected from 276 resi-
dents in Beijing were analyzed, and hypothesized relationships in the model were
then verified using a structural equation model. The results show that subjective
norms, environmental attitudes, information publicity, lifestyles, and perceived be-
havioral control significantly influence residents energy-saving behavior, while de-
mographic factors, such as educational background, household income, and age,
had no obvious effects on behavioral intentions. Although knowledge regarding
energy did not exert a direct influence on residents energy-saving behavioral inten-
tions, it did exert an indirect influence via environmental attitudes. Our results indi-
cate that the role of households in saving energy expenditure should be
emphasized, and financial incentives could be adopted to help promote environ-
mental awareness among Beijings residents. In addition, environment-friendly and
energy-saving habits should also be inculcated. V C 2014 AIP Publishing LLC.

[http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.4898363]

I. INTRODUCTION
Chinas exorbitant energy production and consumption has resulted in energy problems
that have long been the focus of global attention. In recent years, with the rapid development
of the Chinese economy and improvements in residents living standards, energy consumption
has increased considerably. In 2011, Chinas energy consumption had reached 3.48  109 tons
of standard coal, which was 5.08 times more than its energy consumption in 1978, according to
China Statistical Yearbook of 2012. By 2020, the countrys energy demand could reach 6.91 
109 standard tons of coal equivalent (TCE) (Yu et al., 2012). Energy problems and correspond-
ing policy preferences have always been predominantly in the area of industrial production.
However, because China is a developing country with the largest population in the world,
industry is not the only sector that extensively consumes energy. Energy consumption by the
residential sector is another major factor. During the last 20 years, the Chinese residential sec-
tors energy consumption structure and overall energy efficiency have greatly improved.

a)
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed. Electronic addresses: wangzhaohua@bit.edu.cn (Z. Wang) and
binzhang8706@gmail.com (B. Zhang). Tel.: 86 01068912866. Fax: 86 01068912483.

1941-7012/2014/6(5)/053127/17/$30.00 6, 053127-1 C 2014 AIP Publishing LLC

V
053127-2 Wang, Zhang, and Li J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 6, 053127 (2014)

However, further improvements are still required compared with some developed countries.
Taking Beijing as an example, the ratio of thermal energy conversion of a local familys heater
is only 22%, while fuel consumption per 100 km of automobiles in Beijing is 25% higher than
the equivalent fuel consumption of automobiles in European countries (Tan and Chen, 2008).
Therefore, there is still much scope for energy saving within local families.
As the political and economic center of China, Beijing plays an important role in the coun-
trys sustainable development. With the citys rapid development, energy consumption has been
gradually increasing, as depicted in Fig. 1. By 2012, Beijings energy consumption had reached
71.78  106 tons of standard coal, making it the second biggest city in terms of energy con-
sumption after Shanghai, according to Beijing Statistical Yearbook (2013). However, Beijing
lacks energy resources and requires considerable energy imports. For example, whereas about
67.5  109 kW h of electricity were consumed in Beijing in 2007, the city generated only 22.4
 109 kW h, with more than 65% of electricity being imported from adjacent provinces (Wang
et al., 2011). This imbalance of increasing energy demand and insufficient energy supply
requires more efforts to reduce energy consumption in Beijing.
Residential energy consumption accounts for nearly 20% of Beijings total energy con-
sumption. Moreover, in recent years, this ratio has shown an upward trend as depicted in Fig.
1. Increasing residential energy consumption is a consequence of population growth and
improved living conditions. According to Beijing Statistical Yearbook (2013), Beijings popula-
tion stood at 20.69  106 residents by the end of 2012. The residential energy consumption per
capita in 2009 was 642.6 TCE, which was 2.7 times greater than the average per capita con-
sumption of the whole country. Therefore, the problem of residential energy consumption in
Beijing requires attention.
Energy conservation in the residential sector to address energy consumption problems has
attracted considerable attention. Electricity and fuel demands are expected to increase by an
estimated 100% and 23%, respectively, within 10 yr if no effective conservative measures are
implemented in this sector (Al-Ghandoor et al., 2009). Several technological measures for
energy conservation have been implemented in residential buildings, such as installation of air
renewal systems and insulation windows and facades. However, these measures cannot be
effective in the absence of residents willingness to save energy (Banfi et al., 2008). Similarly,
the participation of residents plays an important role in household renewable energy use
(Scarpa and Willis, 2010). Promoting individual energy-saving behavior, particularly in the
Chinese context of a large population, provides an option for reducing energy consumption.
Besides being motivated by the urgent situation of residential energy conservation in
Beijing, this study also aims to impart theoretical value. An increasing number of studies on
residential energy-saving behaviors is evident from across the world (e.g., Farahbakhsh et al.,
1998; Houri and Ibrahim-Korfali, 2005; Lu, 2006; and Andrews-Speed, 2009). However, few of

FIG. 1. Energy use and Proportion of residential energy use in Beijing. Data source: Statistical Yearbook of Beijing, 2013.
053127-3 Wang, Zhang, and Li J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 6, 053127 (2014)

these have explored residents energy-saving behavior in China using a psychological theoreti-
cal framework. This study empirically analyzes residents energy-saving behavior in Beijing
based on the theory of planned behavior (TPB), which is a classical psychological theory.
Moreover, we further improved the classic TPB model in line with the characteristics of
energy-saving behavior in Beijings residential sector.
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Section II provides a broad literature
review and introduces the theoretical hypotheses. Section III presents the methodology for the
study, followed by the results and discussion in Secs. IV and V, respectively. Finally, we offer
our conclusions in Sec. VI.

II. RESEARCH MODEL AND HYPOTHESES

A. Theoretical model for energy-saving behavior based on extended TPB
TPB, which was first put forward by Ajzen (1991), is one of the classic theoretical models
for studying individual behavior. The theory suggests that an individuals behavioral intention
(BI) is affected by behavioral attitudes, subjective norms (SN), and perceived behavioral control
(PBC), as shown in Fig. 2.
TPB has been used to explain a wide array of environmentally relevant behaviors
(Abrahamse and Steg, 2009). By enabling a detailed consideration of the factors affecting be-
havioral intention, TPB can provide us with a valuable framework when studying residents
energy-saving behavior. Moreover, there have been several improvements and constructs added
to the basic TPB model within subsequent studies. This study introduces some improvements to
the model as well, in the context of with energy-saving behavior.
First, according to the TPB model (Ajzen, 1991), behavior is proposed as a function of
willingness to perform a behavior. However, it is often difficult within surveys to distinguish
between actual behavior and a behavioral intention. Many respondents during our survey were
confused by questions differentiating energy behavior and behavioral intent. Their perception
was that: If I have conducted a certain energy-saving behavior, I am certainly willing to par-
ticipate in it. There was some misunderstanding regarding the difference between a behavioral
intention and self-reported behavior. Further, the relationship between an intention and behavior
is sometimes weak (Bamberg, 2003 and Davis et al., 2008). Therefore, we only employed be-
havioral intention in our analysis without further considering the relationship between behavior
and a behavioral intention. Other studies have also improved the basic TPB model by applying
a similar approach for identifying environmental behavioral intentions (e.g., Chen and Tung,
2014).
Second, the basic TPB model only considers the relationship between attitudes and behav-
ioral intention, but ignores external determinants that influence an individuals attitude and be-
havioral intention. Chan and Bishop (2013) have discussed this limitation of the model, and
have employed moral norms as another intrinsic source of motivation for a waste recycling be-
havioral intention and an individuals attitude. Kaiser (2006) reports similar findings, noting
that a conservation behavioral intention may be positively related to the moral dimension.
According to the characteristics of energy-saving behavior in China, we also included additional

FIG. 2. Theory of Planned Behaviour model.

053127-4 Wang, Zhang, and Li J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 6, 053127 (2014)

constructs in the TPB model. Information publicity (IP) could be considered as an exogenetic
factor that influences both individuals attitude and behavioral intention relating to energy con-
servation. Residents with more energy-saving information would be more likely to participate
in energy-saving activities (Zografakis et al., 2010). Moreover, publicizing information related
to energy saving could enhance the environmental awareness of residents (Steg, 2008), as this
provides a platform to connect social and environmental norms to residential attitudes.
Moreover, energy-related knowledge could also change residents environmental attitudes (EAs)
and help to promote energy-saving behavior (Wang et al., 2011). Therefore, we incorporated
energy knowledge (EK) into our theoretical model.
Third, residual effect is often added to the basic TPB model to reflect the fact that past
behavior or experience may affect the intention to perform a particular behavior (Wang et al.,
2011). Extending this effect to energy-saving behavior, living habits (LH) could be considered
as a determinant that influences residents energy-saving behavior.
In addition, the basic TPB model ignores the effects of demographic factors on behavioral
intentions. Although there is a view that energy savings are not related to socio-demographics
(Brandon and Lewis, 1999), some previous studies do not concur. It has been found that demo-
graphic variables (including household income (IN), age (AG), and educational background)
impact differently on residential energy consumption behaviors (e.g., Sardianou, 2005 and John
and Alice, 2010). Al-Ghandoor et al. (2009) have noted that people with lower income levels
are more likely to participate in energy-saving measures. Evidence from the literature indicates
that housing area is also a vital determinant for decision-making regarding household energy-
saving behavior (e.g., Zografakis et al., 2010). In this study, demographic variables are also,
therefore, included as control variables.
Based on the above analysis, the theoretical model and corresponding hypotheses are
depicted in Fig. 3.

B. Research hypotheses
1. Environmental attitude
According to the TPB, attitude is the view that people take of certain events (Ajzen, 1991).
Residents concepts of energy consumption are important subjective factors impacting house-
hold energy consumption, the principal aspects of which are awareness of energy saving and
environmental protection. The more positive the attitude of residents toward energy-saving, the

FIG. 3. Theoretical model for resident energy-saving behaviour.

053127-5 Wang, Zhang, and Li J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 6, 053127 (2014)

more effectively they are able to reduce their energy consumption (Oikonomou et al., 2009).
Most studies show that a positive attitude towards the environment can significantly promote
energy-saving behaviors. Steg (2008) found that economic factors have short-term impacts in
stimulating residential energy-saving behaviors. However, if residents behaviors stem from
concern about energy issues and a positive attitude, they would react less significantly to the
external impact. Ek and Soderholm (2010) found that the attitude of residents toward the envi-
ronment was an important factor affecting energy-saving behavior. Zografakis et al. (2010) con-
cluded that people with access to more energy-saving information and a stronger cognition of
climate change would be more willing to buy energy-saving products and participate in energy-
saving activities. Therefore, our first hypothesis is
H1: Environmental attitude is significantly and positively correlated with residents inten-
tion of energy-saving behavior.

2. Subjective norms
A subjective norm is the social pressure that exerts an influence on the implementer of a
certain behavior. Ajzen (1991) postulated that there were two important factors behind whether
or not a person committed an act, namely, a behavioral intention and the degree of recognition
given by other people to a certain kind of behavior. Several studies have confirmed this view.
Midden and Ritsema (1983), who surveyed Dutch residents, found that social norms and perso-
nal ethical standpoints were important influencing factors regarding household energy-saving
behavior. Supporting their view, Black (1985) argued that households energy-saving behaviors
were largely affected by norms. This point of view was further verified by Webb et al. (2013)
who considered subjective norms to be a significant predictor of intentions of household
energy-saving behavior. However, personal and social relations with family, friends, and col-
leagues are also important factors affecting residential energy consumption behaviors. John and
Alice (2010) found that family members influenced each other regarding their energy-saving
efforts. Subjective norms had a significant impact on household energy-saving behavior.
Disseminating electricity-saving achievements is thus an effective way of improving household
energy saving and affecting residential expectations. Ek and Soderholm (2010) found that the
attitudes and behavior toward the environment of people who had strong social relations with
residents significantly impacted on residential energy-saving behaviors. Consequently, the sec-
ond hypothesis is as follows:
H2: Subjective norms are significantly and positively correlated with residents intention of
energy-saving behavior.

3. Perceived behavioral control

Perceived behavioral control is an important variable affecting behavioral intentions. Many
scholars use this variable to predict environmental behavior. Perceived behavioral control is the
degree of difficulty experienced by an individual in maintaining rationality when perceiving a
certain event (John and Alice, 2010). This concept entails two meanings: the perceived ability
to control (whether or not people believe that they have the ability to control a certain behav-
ior); and the perceived degree of difficulty (whether or not it is difficult to perform a particular
behavior). Convenience, time duration, and economic condition are the main restrictions affect-
ing perceived behavioral control. The higher the level of the perceived behavioral control relat-
ing to energy-saving is, the better the response of residents to saving energy (Oikonomou et al.,
2009). Darby (1999), who conducted research on residential energy-saving behavior in the UK,
found that cost-saving and improving comfort for residents significantly improved their behav-
ior in this area. Anker-Nilssen (2003) confirmed the decisive role of time-saving, convenience,
comfort, and mobility in an individuals energy-saving decisions. Studies also indicate that eco-
nomic incentives have important influences on energy-saving behaviors (Banfi and Farsi, 2008;
Abrahamse and Steg, 2009; and Scarpa and Willis, 2010). Thus, our third hypothesis is
H3: Perceived behavioral control is significantly and positively correlated with the energy-
saving behavior intention of residents.
053127-6 Wang, Zhang, and Li J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 6, 053127 (2014)

4. Energy knowledge
A positive correlation is thought to exist between knowledge and behavior (Wang et al.,
2011). The influence of cognitive variables on environmental behaviors is based on the psycho-
logical framework of cognitionattitudebehavior. This means that knowledge affects envi-
ronmental behavior through attitude. However, some scholars believe that environmental knowl-
edge could directly affect environmental behavior (Zsoka et al., 2013). Vicente-Molina et al.
(2013) noted that for a person who has a positive environmental attitude, a lack of related
knowledge can substantially obstruct his or her performance of environmentally friendly behav-
ior. Therefore, this study examines knowledge variables from two aspects: on the one hand, a
knowledge variable directly affects an individuals environmental behavior. On the other hand,
an energy knowledge variable first affects an environmental attitude and then drives an individ-
uals energy-saving behavior. Therefore, the following two hypotheses are proposed:
H4: Residents energy knowledge is significantly and positively correlated with their inten-
tion of energy-saving behavior.
H5: Residents energy knowledge is significantly and positively correlated with their envi-
ronmental attitude.

5. Information publicity
The main obstacles to the performance of energy-saving behavior by residents are their
lack of sufficient skills and knowledge, which requires more information publicizing and edu-
cating. Many scholars believe that information publicity positively and significantly influences
residents awareness and behavior. Steg (2008) has argued that compared with some regulatory
policies, it is more effective to persuade people to save energy through information publicity by
increasing residents energy knowledge and influencing their attitudes and cognition. Ouyang
and Hokao (2009), who surveyed residents of Hangzhou in China, showed that 10% of the av-
erage electricity use could be saved as a result of energy-saving education to improve residents
behaviors. Therefore, the following two hypotheses were tested in this study:
H6: Information publicity is significantly and positively correlated with residents intention
of energy-saving behavior.
H7: Information publicity is significantly and positively correlated with residents environ-
mental attitudes.

6. Habits and customs

People are likely to choose the behavioral intention associated with a residential habit.
Lifestyle and habit are two of the most important factors that determine residential energy con-
sumption behavior. Ma et al. (2007) have contended that to a great extent, a persons power
consumption is determined by their living habits and entertainment styles. As there are many
governmental subsidies available for residential energy in China, the price of electricity for
households is relatively low (Wang et al., 2012). This has supported an energy-intensive life-
style that is hardly likely to change in the near future. Therefore, we propose the following
hypothesis:
H8: Residential habit is significantly and negatively correlated with the intention of
energy-saving behavior.

III. METHODOLOGY
A. Questionnaire design
The data for this study were obtained from a questionnaire survey conducted in Beijing. The
questionnaire design was based on the theoretical model and hypotheses shown in Fig. 3. It
included three sections, namely, the willingness of residents to engage in energy-saving behavior,
the determinants of residents energy-saving behavior, and the respondents demographic informa-
tion. As shown in the Appendix, there were 22 measuring items in the questionnaire. Each
053127-7 Wang, Zhang, and Li J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 6, 053127 (2014)

variable was measured using three or four items to objectively verify the model. The responses
were designed using a five-point Likert scale (1 strongly disagree, 2 disagree, 3 neutral,
4 agree, and 5 strongly agree). The measurement items are shown in the Appendix.
We developed four items for measuring residents energy-saving BI. Based on their litera-
ture review, Stewart et al. (2005) categorized behavioral intentions as habit-related and
purchase-related. Habit-related behavioral intentions, such as thermostat setting and turning off
extra lights, are related to habits as well as personal lifestyles. Purchase-related behavioral
intentions are generally associated with the choice of improving energy efficiency by paying
for technology upgradation to reduce energy use and promote energy efficiency. Regarding
purchase-related behavioral intentions, we developed the following two measurement items: I
am more inclined to buy energy-saving and environment-friendly products (BI2), and I will
pay more attention and accumulate energy-saving knowledge and tips in the future (BI1).
From the habit-related perspective, another two measurement items were included: I intend to
engage in energy-saving activities in the future (BI4) and I am willing to share my energy-
saving experiences with friends and family in the future (BI3).
Three items for EA were derived from Kim and Choi (2005) who used residents anxiety
and attitudes toward environmental problems to measure environmental concern. Following this
structure, we changed the subject to energy crisis and problems, and measured environmental
attitudes based on residents concern about these problems.
SN were measured using three items (SN1, SN2, and SN3) based on the measurement
structure developed by Han et al. (2010), who used the opinions and attitudes of people who
were important to the respondent to measure subjective norms. We followed this structure,
changing the target behavior to energy-saving activities.
Perceived behavioral control (PBC) has often been measured by the degree of difficulty
that respondents would experience in conducting the target behavior if they had a particular be-
havioral intention (Han et al., 2010). This difficulty is to a large extent related to the resource
endowments held by respondents such as money and time. It has been suggested that economic
incentive is one of the key determinants of energy-saving behaviors (Banfi and Farsi, 2008), as
are time saving and convenience (Anker-Nilssen, 2003). Based on the above analysis, three
items (PBC1, PBC2, and PBC3) were employed.
We also developed three items (EK1, EK2, and EK3) for measuring EK. These were
derived from Wang et al. (2011) who used knowledge of electricity-saving methods and com-
prehension of energy efficiency labels to measure information related to electricity saving.
Extending this structure to energy-saving behavior, we also identified measurements for energy
knowledge from these perspectives.
Since LH and IP are new additions to the TPB model, there are few previous studies that can
be referred to for the measurement design. Therefore, we developed these items in accordance
with the actual situation of energy-saving behavior. Living habits are often related to ease and
comfort behaviors that individuals are reluctant to change. As a result, the following three items
were developed: Compared with the energy issue, I pay more attention to the comforts of life
(LH1); I do not want to change my living habits for energy saving (LH2); and Engaging in
energy-saving activities has a great impact on my life and disrupts my living habits (LH3). These
were designed to measure whether or not energy-saving behaviors were based on personal living
habits. In addition, the key to information publicity is residents free access to energy-related in-
formation. From this point of view, we employed three items (IP1, IP2, and IP3) to measure IP.

B. Sample collection
To ensure that the questionnaire was reasonable, a pilot test was conducted within the com-
munity of the Beijing Institute of Technology. Based on suggestions from the respondents, the
questionnaire was modified. The formal questionnaire survey was conducted in eight urban dis-
tricts and nine suburban counties of Beijing from May 2011 to July 2011 through a spot survey
and an internet-based survey. The spot survey was carried out in densely populated areas such
as communities, enterprises, parks, and markets, and 238 out of 300 distributed questionnaires
053127-8 Wang, Zhang, and Li J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 6, 053127 (2014)

TABLE I. Distribution of questionnaires.

Channel Distributed Responded Effective Effective responding rate (%)

Spot 300 238 184 61.3

Internet 100 100 92 92
Total 400 338 276 69

were retrieved. The internet-based survey was performed using current internet tools, such as a
professional questionnaire website, communication software, and email, and a total of 100 ques-
tionnaires were retrieved. Statistically, responses were obtained for 338 out of 400 question-
naires, resulting in a retrieval rate of 84.5%. After dropping 21 responses with incomplete data
and 41 with unreasonable answers, 276 responses remained for analysis. Thus, the effective
responding rate was 69%. A T-test was carried out to see if there were any differences between
the spot and internet-based surveys. The results of the test indicated that there was no differ-
ence (at a significance level of 95%) between the two survey distribution methods. The sample
description is shown in Table I.
The demographic information of respondents was representative based on age, individual
income, and education level. As shown in Table II, no single group was dominant for each of
the three demographic items. Generally, the sample had acceptable representation of Beijings
residents, although there were a few biases compared with the actual situation of the overall
population. For individual income, the majority of respondents fell into the middle income
group categorized as earning between 770 and 1540 USD/month, which accounted for 39.9%
of respondents. The second largest group (29.7%) earned an income of between 310 and 770
USD/month. This is close to the actual situation in Beijing. According to the statistical data
from Beijing Statistical Yearbook (2012), the average annual household disposable income for
one family member was USD 5085 in 2011. Excluding children without income from the statis-
tical data, the income level of the sample would somewhat fit the situation in Beijing.

TABLE II. Profile of the respondents participating in the survey.

Characteristics of respondents Number Percentage (%) Cumulative percentage (%)

Individual income (US dollar/month)

<310 34 12.3 12.3
310770 82 29.7 42.0
7701540 110 39.9 81.9
15404630 45 16.3 98.2
>4630 5 1.8 100
Total 276 100
Age
<18 7 2.5 2.5
1830 135 48.9 51.4
3145 97 35.1 86.6
4560 30 10.9 97.5
>60 7 2.5 100
Total 276 100
Education level
Junior high school and below 7 2.5 2.5
High school 18 6.5 9.1
Junior college 38 13.8 22.8
Bachelor 115 41.7 64.5
Postgraduate 98 35.5 100
Total 276 100
053127-9 Wang, Zhang, and Li J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 6, 053127 (2014)

Most respondents in our survey were residents aged from 20 to 60 yr, accounting for 95%
of the sample, while older residents above 60 yr constituted only 2.5% of the sample. There
were some biases compared with the actual situation in Beijing, as the population above 60 yr
accounts for 13.3% according to Beijing Statistical Yearbook (2012). However, this did not
appear to influence the representativeness of the sample. Because our study largely targeted
household energy-saving behavior, many older people were taken care of by their children, and
young people below 18 yr generally lived with their parents. Moreover, most respondents held
bachelor degrees. This reflected the high education level in Beijing.

C. Methods
Because of the large quantity and high complexity of latent variables, a Structural Equation
Model (SEM) was adopted to address the research problem. SEM can be described using either
mathematical equations or path graphs. For this study, the latter were adopted. The path graph
is illustrated in Fig. 4 according to the theoretical model and hypotheses that have been dis-
cussed in detail in Sec. II B. The AMOS program was used to process the model.
As shown in Fig. 4, oval shapes indicate latent variables and the rectangles represent
observed variables. Circles labeled with the letter e represent the error terms, and arrows indi-
cate causal relationships between two variables. Details of the variables are as follows:
There were five exogenous latent variables: EK, SN, PBC, LH, and IP. In addition, there were
two endogenous latent variables: EA and BI. In our model, EA was directly affected by EK and IP,
while BI was directly affected by other endogenous and exogenous latent variables. Moreover, fam-
ily IN, education degree (ED), and AG were all hypothesized to exert an influence on BI.

IV. RESULTS
A. Verification of the SEM premise
SEM is based on a rigid premise. In general, this entails three prerequisites, namely, a large
sample size, normal-distributive data, and reliability and validity (Hou et al., 2004). In this
study, the sample size, which was 276, met the stipulation of a large sample. By analyzing the
kurtosis and skewness with SPSS 13.0, we found that the results were all close to 0, with mini-
mum and maximum values of 1.439 and 1.409, respectively. This implied that the data was
approximately normal-distributive. In reliability analysis (shown in Table III), Cronbachs a

FIG. 4. The path graph of the model.

053127-10 Wang, Zhang, and Li J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 6, 053127 (2014)

TABLE III. The result of reliability analysis. Note: EA Environmental attitude, EK energy knowledge,
IP information publicity, SN subjective norm, PBC perceived behavioural control, LH living habits,
BI behavioural intention, and KMO refers to the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin test.

variable Number of items Cronbachs a value KMO Bartlett test

EA 3 0.807 0.712 269.716

EK 3 0.860 0.717 400.238
IP 3 0.858 0.719 385.678
SN 3 0.852 0.720 365.126
PBC 3 0.849 0.706 365.122.
LH 3 0.836 0.722 323.310
BI 4 0.891 0.841 618.478

values for each of the variables were above 0.7, which generally means that the measurement
was reasonably designed (Nunnally and Bernstein, 1994). In validity analysis (as shown in
Table III), the KMO values of each variable were all above 0.7, and Bartletts test of sphericity
were all significant at a 99% confidence level. In addition, the factor loadings of all measuring
variables were above 0.5, which were significant at a confidence level of 95%. Thus, the results
showed that all the variables were valid, as shown in Table IV.

B. Verification of the SEM

Before modifying the model, four indexesGoodness of Fit Index (GFI), Adjusted Goodness
of Fit Index (AGFI), Normed Fit Index (NFI), and Relative Fit Index (RFI)failed to meet criti-
cal values. Moreover, the significances of four paths: BI EK, BI Household income, BI
Educational background, and BI Age were all less than 0.95. Therefore, the model had to be
modified and insignificant paths dropped. The final results are shown in Table V.

TABLE IV. The orthogonal rotation factor loading matrix of influence elements. Note: The boldfaced values in the table
refer to the highest loading for each item.

Variable BI IP PBC EK LH EA SN

BI1 0.693 0.236 0.261 0.197 0.096 0.212 .274

BI2 0.690 0.205 0.367 0.166 0.182 0.189 .221
BI3 0.662 0.339 0.132 0.112 0.065 0.143 .372
IP1 0.144 0.850 0.153 0.039 0.005 0.082 .160
IP2 0.255 0.798 0.235 0.075 0.011 0.118 .201
IP3 0.323 0.748 0.229 0.098 0.062 0.210 .171
PBC1 0.200 0.225 0.802 0.168 0.016 0.030 .207
PBC2 0.157 0.146 0.784 0.101 0.050 0.062 .225
PBC3 0.282 0.207 0.719 0.029 0.046 0.165 .161
EK1 0.064 0.082 0.049 0.891 0.047 0.173 .073
EK2 0.127 0.009 0.090 0.842 0.150 0.009 .111
EK3 0.175 0.111 0.087 0.837 0.033 0.115 .123
LH1 0.083 0.115 0.026 0.011 0.876 0.094 .065
LH2 0.091 0.021 0.134 0.036 0.854 0.133 .063
LH3 0.045 0.072 0.107 0.111 0.837 0.030 .149
EA1 0.038 0.146 0.079 0.135 0.054 0.832 .021
EA2 0.136 0.150 0.094 0.148 0.076 0.801 .163
EA3 0.250 0.028 0.058 0.012 0.147 0.799 .074
SN1 0.117 0.247 0.266 0.162 0.142 0.099 .786
SN2 0.323 0.219 0.245 0.144 0.013 0.137 .751
SN3 0.429 0.165 0.345 0.146 0.051 0.116 .611
053127-11 Wang, Zhang, and Li J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 6, 053127 (2014)

TABLE V. The results of modified model. Note: RSMEA Root Mean Square Error of Approximation, RMR Root
Mean Square Residual, CFI Comparative Fit Index, IFI Incremental Fit Index, PGFI Parsimony Goodness of Fit
Index, PNFI Parsimony Normed Fit Index, and PCFI Parsimony Comparative Fit Index.

v2 =df RMSEA RMR GFI NFI CFI IFI PGFI PNFI PCFI

Criteria <3 <0.1 <0.5 >0.9 >0.9 >0.9 >0.9 >0.5 >0.5 >0.5
Parameter 1.172 0.025 0.042 0.938 0.944 0.991 0.991 0.066 0.728 0.764

TABLE VI. The fitting results of path coefficient of modified model. Note: *** p < 0.01; ** p < 0.05.

Path Regression path P value Test results

EA EK 0.298 *** Significant

EA IP 0.357 *** Significant
BI EA 0.193 *** Significant
BI SN 0.494 *** Significant
BI PBC 0.176 0.012** Significant
BI LH 0.132 0.002*** Significant
BI IP 0.221 *** Significant

We can conclude from Table V that the indexes that previously failed to pass the fitting
test now matched the criteria of the fitting test. Moreover, the fitting results of path coefficients
showed that all parameters of the model met the significant level of 0.95, as depicted in Table
VI, including the standardized values of the parameters. Fig. 5 visually depicts the path coeffi-
cients shown in Table VI.

C. Analysis of the model effect

The causalities between latent variables in the SEM consisted of a direct effect, an indirect
effect, and a total effect. Of the three effects, the direct effect weighed the direct links between the
items in the model. The above analysis has verified the settings of the paths EA EK, EA IP,
BI EA, BI SN, BI PBC, BI LH, and BI IP. There is also indirect effect shown in
our model. The sum of both effects made up the total effect. All details are shown in Table VII.

FIG. 5. Modified model.

053127-12 Wang, Zhang, and Li J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 6, 053127 (2014)

TABLE VII. The details of total effect.

Path name Direct effect Indirect effect Total effect

BI SN 0.494 0.494
BI IP 0.221 0.357  0.193 0.069 0.290
BI EA 0.193 0.193
BI PBC 0.176 0.176
BI LH 0.132 0.132
BI EK 0.298  0.193 0.058 0.058

The absolute or total effect reflects the extent of influence between the variables and the
behavioral intention, and the symbol indicates the direction. We can surmise that a subjective
norm mostly affects the behavioral intention. The total effect coefficient was 0.494. Information
publicity took second place with a total effect coefficient of 0.290. This was followed by envi-
ronmental attitude, perceived behavioral control, living habits, and energy knowledge, for which
the total effect coefficients were 0.193, 0.176, 0.132, and 0.058, respectively.

V. DISCUSSION AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS

Overall, as expected, the extension of the basic TPB model was verified for energy-saving
behavior within the Chinese context. In the basic TPB model, attitude was the exogenous deter-
minant of behavioral intention (Ajzen, 1991). However, attitude can also be endogenous as
there would be other sources of motivation for the attitude that would indirectly influence the
behavioral intention. This has been discussed by Chan and Bishop (2013) in their exploration
of recycling behavioral intentions. We further improved the model by introducing two more
exogenous determinants of environmental attitudes: energy knowledge and information public-
ity. There was a significant positive relationship between energy knowledge and individuals
attitudes. Other studies too have shown similar results verifying that subjective knowledge
influences the attitude of respondents (e.g., Phillips et al., 2013). Therefore, obtaining enough
knowledge could change individual attitudes toward the environment. Since environmental atti-
tudes are positively related to an energy-saving behavioral intention, energy knowledge could
influence behavioral intention through its positive effect on environmental attitudes. Although
some of the previous studies have identified the positive effects of knowledge on environmental
behavior (e.g., Wang et al., 2011), few of these have found that the effects were mainly indirect
via the intermediary of environmental attitudes.
Information publicity has both direct and indirect positive effects on an energy-saving be-
havioral intention. The direct effect has been verified by previous studies (e.g., Steg, 2008).
Residents are more likely to take up energy-saving activities if they have easier access to more
information related to energy saving. However, few studies have focused on the indirect effect
derived from the intermediary of environmental attitude. A high level of information availabil-
ity could foster a favorable attitude (Sicilia and Ruiz, 2010), and that positive attitude could be
further transferable for influencing the behavioral intention. According to the results of our sur-
vey, 61.9% as opposed to 11.6% of residents thought that information publicity helped to
spread energy-saving behavior. However, information publicity on energy-saving is not suffi-
cient in China. Many people lack necessary energy-saving information and skills (Wang et al.,
2011), resulting in indifferent attitudes toward energy-saving and environmental protection.
Although there have been many policy regulations on energy conservation in the sphere of
industrial production (Liu et al., 2012), the Chinese government pays relatively less attention to
information publicity for guiding residents energy use. Taking the environmental education
system as an example, many institutions in China have failed to establish a comprehensive
environmental education framework (Xiong et al., 2013). Education is an important channel for
connecting related information to individual attitudes. As a result, energy-saving education
should be brought within the ambit of school curricula to provide more information relating to
053127-13 Wang, Zhang, and Li J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 6, 053127 (2014)

energy saving that can foster energy-saving attitudes in children. Moreover, widespread dissem-
ination of energy-saving information through adult education should also be part of effective
policy to stimulate a significant reduction in household energy consumption.
Another improvement of the basic TPB model was the verification of the relationship
between living habits and an energy-saving behavioral intention. The result was consistent with
some studies that considered the residue effect in the TPB model (e.g., Forward, 2009). The
residents were unwilling to perform energy-saving behavior if that behavior would change their
enduring living habits. Feelings of discomfort and inconvenience are barriers to converting to
energy-saving behavior (Wang et al., 2011). Therefore, saving energy without reducing peoples
living quality is an important challenge for policy makers. There would need to be more con-
sideration of residents convenience when the government is promoting energy-saving activities.
Moreover, the government should place emphasis on how to guide and foster proper energy-
saving habits across the whole of society. This is important for mitigating resistance from resi-
dents when promoting household energy-saving activities in the long run.
Subjective norms, according to our results, were the most important factor affecting resi-
dents energy-saving behaviors in Beijing (b 0.494, P 0.000). This indicates that the pres-
sure caused by social norms significantly affects residential energy-saving behaviors. To draw a
comparison with similar studies conducted in other countries (e.g., Webb et al., 2013), social
norms play a more significant role in household energy-saving in the Chinese context.
Although the effect of a subjective norm is also significant, it is often second to attitude or per-
ceived behavioral control in the studies carried out in other countries (e.g., Webb et al., 2013).
This difference is because of the influence of the national culture on Chinese residents, who are
more susceptible to being influenced by social groups. People who are important to the
respondents, such as friends and family members, exert a vital influence on respondents behav-
ior. Therefore, it would be easier to promote energy-saving behavior by strengthening the social
norm of energy conservation in China. Energy-saving propaganda needs to be emphasized to
construct a social atmosphere of energy conservation.
Perceived behavioral control is another factor affecting the energy-saving behavior of resi-
dents (b 0.176, P 0.012). This result is consistent with related studies (e.g., Wang et al.,
2011 and Webb et al., 2013). Economic pressure can be considered as an important perceived
behavioral control of energy-saving behaviors. According to our survey, the proportion of
respondents who considered the cost of saving energy accounted for 53%. There have been
some incentive policies to provide subsidies for household energy-saving behavior in some
European countries (McGilligan et al., 2010), whereas in China there are fewer policies of this
kind. Therefore, the Beijing Government could also implement some incentive policies to subsi-
dize families who consume less energy. For instance, subsidies could be given to those who
use less electricity in the summer, and less tax could be levied on energy-saving products. To
facilitate advocacy efforts to save electricity, the National Development and Reform Committee
has promulgated a new guideline to establish a ladder pricing system for residential electricity
consumption. In addition, time-saving is often considered as a perceived behavioral control
(Greaves et al., 2013). According to our survey, about 86.2% respondents considered time costs
when planning to participate in energy-saving activities and 52.9% respondents felt that there
was some inconvenience caused by energy-saving behavior. Therefore, energy-saving policies
should be formulated giving high consideration to time and convenience during the implemen-
tation of energy-saving activities.
Although we added demographic variables to our analysis model, not all of these variables
were significantly related to the energy-saving behavioral intention as expected. Our hypotheses
on the relationship between demographic variables and energy-saving behaviors were not verified.
The results differed from those of related studies (e.g., Sardianou, 2005 and John and Alice,
2010). First, for residents with different income levels, there appeared to be no significant differ-
ences in their energy-saving behaviors. Possible reasons may stem from several aspects. Some of
the previous studies have suggested that residents with higher incomes would consume more resi-
dential energy to satisfy their comfortable living conditions (e.g., Al-Ghandoor et al., 2009).
Comparatively, other studies found that there was more willingness on the part of residents with
053127-14 Wang, Zhang, and Li J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 6, 053127 (2014)

high family income to participate in energy-saving activities such as sustainable energy invest-
ments (Zografakis et al., 2010). There might be some offsetting effects for income level from the
two perspectives. In addition, the income levels in our survey were estimated according to the sal-
aries of respondents. There might have been some bias in reflecting the actual disposable income.
For instance, many of Beijings residents work for state-owned firms and governmental sectors.
Their salaries might be relatively lower, but they can often access relatively large amounts of gov-
ernment subsidies to cover their energy consumption such as heating bills in winter. This might
have influenced actual income levels in our survey.
Second, for residents with different educational backgrounds, there seemed to be no signifi-
cant differences in their energy-saving behavioral intentions. This might be because there is a
lack of courses on environmental protection in Chinas current education system (Xiong et al.,
2013). Residents with higher education levels do not always have better awareness of energy
saving and environmental protection. As a result, it is necessary to upgrade the education sys-
tem to strengthen environmental protection education.
Finally, our results showed that the age of residents is not a determinant of energy-saving
behavior. Mainly older people have more interpersonal interactions regarding energy conserva-
tion with others, but lack energy-saving knowledge and education (Yue et al., 2013). The com-
munication with others could help them find more ways to conduct energy conservation, but
the lack of knowledge and education might impede their behavioral intentions of energy-saving.
As a result, the total effects of age are not significant.
Above all, there could be some policy implications for residential energy-saving behavior.
An education system for energy conservation and related information should be constructed to
strengthen the social norms of low-carbon footprints and energy-saving. Incorporating energy-
saving in the curriculum could improve awareness about energy conservation and related prac-
tices (Chen et al., 2013). Education related to energy conservation should not only be provided
by colleges or universities but also be included in primary and social education. The education
content could focus on both energy-saving skills and other related information to raise peoples
understanding and concerns regarding the energy crisis and environmental issues. Moreover, on
the power demand side, a management system could be gradually introduced regarding the
household electricity supply, since our results show that economic pressure is the perceived be-
havioral control for household energy-saving activities. There have been many policies relating
to the management of power demand in European countries (Warren, 2014). When there is a
peak in electricity demand, the price is correspondingly high. The management of power
demand could also be applied in the context of household electricity in China to raise the
energy consumption cost when there is a large demand. This might be helpful in promoting res-
idential energy-saving behavior.

VI. CONCLUSIONS
This study has focused on the relationship between the energy-saving intention of residents
and its corresponding determinants from the perspective of social psychology and environmen-
tal behavior. Based on TPB, we developed a theoretical model for the determinants of residen-
tial energy-saving behavior. By implementing a questionnaire survey in Beijing, we verified the
hypotheses of the model through the application of SEM.
The results indicate that subjective norms, environmental attitude, information publicity,
lifestyle, and perceived behavioral control have obvious effects on residential energy-saving
behavior, while educational background and household income have insignificant effects on the
behavioral intention. Though energy knowledge has no direct effect on behavioral intention, it
exerts an indirect effect via environmental attitude.
However, the results also indicate that the attitude of residents toward an energy crisis and
environmental issues still indicate insufficient concern. There are still some barriers for the resi-
dents with positive environmental attitudes to actually conduct energy saving behaviour.
Moreover, the effects of educational background and household income are not significant,
which may be attributed to a lack of education related to environmental protection in China.
053127-15 Wang, Zhang, and Li J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 6, 053127 (2014)

Energy saving and environmental protection should, therefore, be promoted within the school
curricula. The role of households in saving energy expenditure should be emphasized.
Environment-friendly and energy-saving habits should also be inculcated. Financial incentives
could be adopted to help promote environmental awareness among Beijings residents.
The study reveals the addition of new determinants to the basic TPB framework that have
been empirically verified. The results indicate that this theoretical improvement of the basic
TPB model for examining energy-saving behavior in China is reasonable and could broadly
reflect the actual situation in Beijing. In future studies, however, the research could be further
improved. The concept of energy applied in this study is macroscopic, but influencing factors
may differ with the variation of energy types. Certain kinds of energy, e.g., electricity or gaso-
line, can be specifically analyzed in the future.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study is supported by the National Nature Science Foundation of China (Reference Nos.
71173017 and 71172106) and State Key Development Program of Basic Research of China
(Reference No. 2012CB95570003). The authors also want to thank Professor Yiming Wei for his
comment and suggestion.

APPENDIX: SURVEY ITEMS

Variables Items

IP Related information publicities promote my energy-saving behaviour (IP1).

The information learned from the newspapers, television and other media, will affect me
to take energy-saving behaviour (IP2).
The longer the publicity is, the more my attention and awareness on energy issues is (IP3).

EA I am concerned about media coverage of energy issues (EA1).

I would be worried or nervous while hearing or seeing the energy-related issues (EA2).
The energy problem is of the whole society, every person and every family has responsibility
to save energy (EA3).

SN My family, friends, and neighbors think I should take energy-saving behaviour (SN1).
If I were engaged in energy-saving behaviour, people who are important to me would approve (SN2).
Most people who are important to me think that engaging in energy-saving activities is undesirable (SN3).

PBC Whether saving money is an important factor for me to engage in energy-saving activities (PBC1).
Whether saving time is an important factor for me to engage in energy-saving activities (PBC2).
Whether convenient is an important factor for me to engage in energy-saving activities (PBC3).

LH Compared with the energy issue, I pay more attention to the comforts of life (LH1).
I do not want to change my living habits for energy saving (LH2).
Engaging in energy-saving activities has a great impact on my life, and disrupts my living habits (LH3).

EK I know the meaning of the labels affixed on the energy-efficient devices (EK1).
I know energy-saving methods well (EK2).
I know much about the energy-saving tips of daily life (EK3).

BIs I will pay more attention and accumulate energy-saving knowledge and tips in the future (BI1).
I will be more inclined to buy energy-saving and environment-friendly products (BI2).
I am willing to share my energy-saving experiences with friends and family in the future (BI3).
I intend to engage in energy-saving activities in the future (BI4).
053127-16 Wang, Zhang, and Li J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 6, 053127 (2014)

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