LSHSS
The Effects of a Sound-Field
Amplification System on Managerial
Time in Middle School Physical
Education Settings
Stu Ryan
University of West Florida, Pensacola
P hysical educators are very familiar with the chal-
lenges presented by their teaching settings relating to
sound and acoustics. Poorly designed gymnasiums
and sometimes loud outside teaching environments can frustrate
even the most veteran teacher. Physical education teachers often
rely on shouting instructions over noise, hoping that their students
hear and understand. Regardless, physical education teachers, just
like any other subject area teacher, need to teach with the goal of
student learning. Classroom research has shown that an acceptable
strategy for maximizing the learning environment is use of a sound-
field amplification system (Bennetts & Flynn, 2002; Flexer, 2002;
Mendel, Roberts, & Walton, 2003; Ross & Levitt, 2002). Unfortu-
nately, physical education teachers may be missing a helpful teaching
strategy due to the lack of sound-field amplification research in their
discipline (Ryan, Ormond, Imwold, & Rotunda, 2002).
Vast amounts of educational research have been conducted to
create and add more effective teaching strategies to solve classroom
management issues. Recent research in classroom management
shows that there is a departure from the concept of trying to con-
trol behavior. Instead, the focus is on creating supportive learning
ABSTRACT: Purpose: The focus of this research effort was to
examine the effect of a sound-field amplification system on
managerial time in the beginning of class in a physical education
setting.
Method: A multiple baseline design across participants was used
to measure change in the managerial time of 2 middle school
female physical education teachers using a portable sound-field
amplification system. Managerial time is defined as the cumulative
amount of time that students spend on organizational, transitional,
and nonsubject matter tasks in a lesson.
LANGUAGE, SPEECH, AND HEARING SERVICES IN SCHOOLS Vol. 40 131137 April 2009 * American Speech-Language-Hearing Association
0161-1461/09/4002-0131
environments in schools that face changing and complex needs
(Beighle & Pangrazi, 2002). Research evidence accumulated in the
last 20 years suggests that successful classroom management in-
volves not merely responding effectively when problems occur, but
also preventing problems from occurring by focusing on teacher
effectiveness strategies and creating environments that encourage
learning and appropriate behavior (Beighle & Pangrazi, 2002;
Schultz, 2006).
In an attempt to simplify teacher effectiveness, Goldberger
and Gerney (1990) suggested that for students to learn more, they
have to be engaged at a high level and successful at an appropriate
task for a sufficient amount of time to produce learning. A major
thrust of teacher effectiveness research has been the relationship
between instructional practice ( process) and student achievement
(product). Physical education processproduct research suggests
that engaged skill learning time (student time-on-task or practice
time) is the single most important criterion in the determination
of effective teachers (Banville & Rikard, 2001; McLeish, 1981;
Phillips & Carlisle, 1983). The results of McLeishs investigation
indicated that the teachers who were categorized as most effective
Results: The findings showed that the amount of managerial time
at the beginning of class clearly decreased when the teacher used
sound-field amplification feedback to physical education students.
Conclusion: Findings indicate an immediate need for administrators
to determine the most appropriate, cost-effective procedure to
support sound-field amplification systems in existing physical
education settings.
KEY WORDS: physical education, sound-field amplification
system, managerial time
131
provided more practice time than did their less effective counter-
parts. McLeish also concluded that time-on-task, academic learn-
ing time, and opportunities to learn, are the vital components of
effective teaching in general (p. 49). Silverman, Tyson, and Morford
(1988) found that time spent in practice with feedback, which is
defined as information about a response that is used to modify the
next response, was positively related to student achievement.
Academic learning time (ALT), which is defined as the amount
of time that students spend appropriately engaged with subject
matter, is a powerful variable related to student achievement (Fisher
et al., 1981). Managerial time has been defined as the cumulative
amount of time that students spend on organizational, transitional,
and nonsubject matter tasks in a lesson (Siedentop & Tannehill,
2000), and less effective teachers spend too much time accomplish-
ing these managerial tasks. Taking roll, getting equipment out, and
organizing teams all contribute to managerial time. Research has
shown that opportunities for students to be engaged in academic
activities can be increased by reducing managerial time (Evertson &
Harris, 1992; Siedentop, 2002).
Although educators know extensively about how reduced man-
agerial time can create a higher quality and quantity of practice time
(Siedentop & Tannehill, 2000; Silverman et al., 1988), the problem
of getting increased levels of practice time in physical education
settings can be difficult due to high noise levels both inside and
outside of a gymnasium and greater teacherstudent distance as
compared to typical classroom teachers. The effects of noise and
distance have shown a deleterious outcome on learning behaviors in
typical classroom environments (Crandell, 1991; Finitzo-Hieber &
Tillman, 1978; Pekkarinen & Viljanen, 1991). The complexity of
the physical education environment, classroom management prob-
lems, and the findings from sound-field amplification research in
classrooms strongly suggest the need to identify new management
techniques for physical education teachers. Among the possible
solutions available for improving classroom management and en-
hancing teacher effectiveness is to use a sound-field amplification
device.
Berg (1993) suggested that possibly the most cost-effective, ap-
propriate, and acceptable strategy for maximizing the learning en-
vironment is through the use of sound-field amplification systems.
Research has shown that sound-field amplification systems allow
teachers to control, stabilize, and equalize the acoustic environment
so their voices can be heard above the background noise at all
locations in the learning environment (Flexer, 2002; Mainstream
Amplification, 2005; Ross & Levitt, 2002). Sound-field amplifica-
tion systems have also been found to have a positive effect on
students word and sentence recognition, speech intelligibility, and
attending behaviors (Bennetts & Flynn, 2002; Flexer, Millin, &
Brown, 1990; Massie, Theodoros, McPherson, & Smaldino, 2004;
Mendel, Roberts, & Walton, 2003; Ryan et al., 2002). There is also
a growing body of research relating to improved levels of academic
achievement when using sound-field amplification in the classroom
(Long & Flexer, 2001; Loven, Fisk, & Johnson, 2003; McCarty
& Gertel, 2003). This type of equipment is already in use in many
schools in the United States (Crandell, 1993) and has been shown
to be cost effective (Rosenberg, 1998; Rosenberg et al., 1999).
Despite evidence supporting the effectiveness of using a sound-
field amplification system in a classroom environment, little re-
search to date has attempted to focus on physical education behaviors
associated with use of a sound-field amplification system (Ryan
et al., 2002). With a large amount of managerial time devoted to the
132 LANGUAGE, SPEECH, AND HEARING SERVICES IN SCHOOLS Vol. 40 131137 April 2009
beginning of physical education classes (Randell, 1992), investi-
gating methods for reducing this time would help increase ALT in
physical education (ALT-PE) and teacher effectiveness. Therefore,
the focus of this research effort was to examine the effect of a sound-
field amplification system on managerial time in the beginning
of class in a physical education setting.
METHOD
Participants and Settings
The participants were 2 female European American middle
school physical education teachers located at two different schools
and their students. One school was located in an inner city and the
other was in an area that was considered rural. Before data collec-
tion, human participant consent was obtained from all participants.
Each teacher taught three classes of sixth-, seventh-, and eighth-
grade students, and the classes contained between 25 and 37 co-
educational physical education students. Both teachers were observed
during a 2-month period in which the activities of volleyball, soccer,
and tennis were held outside on the activity areas of both schools.
For both schools, the volleyball courts had a total dimension of
80 80 ft, soccer 300 150 ft, and tennis courts 160 120 ft.
Measurements were also taken in the locker rooms of both schools.
The inner-city schools locker room was 70 40 ft; the rural schools
locker room was 35 95 ft. Both locker rooms had metal lockers
on the outside and in the middle of the rooms. The classes met daily
for 50 min.
Environment
The racial makeup of the inner-city school was approximately
98% African American. The remaining students were of European
American, Asian, and Hispanic descent, and the socioeconomic
status was primarily lower income families. The racial makeup
of the rural school was approximately 65% European American.
The remaining students were of African American, Asian, and
Hispanic descent. The socioeconomic status was primarily middle
(or lower) income families.
Research Design and Intervention
The experimental design used in this investigation was a multi-
ple baseline design across participants (Barlow & Hersen, 1984).
In this design, the start of the intervention with each participant is
staggered over time. Experimental control is demonstrated when the
changes in each participants behavior pattern occur only after an
intervention has been introduced. The dependent variable, man-
agerial time measured in minutes, was measured repeatedly through-
out the phases of experimentation. The treatment intervention was
changed when the dependent measure reached stability (Tawney &
Gast, 1984).
During baseline conditions, teachers were instructed to conduct
class activities as per their typical methods (e.g., set induction, skill
development, teacher movement, teacher feedback) without the
use of sound-field amplification. The distance from teacher to
student (s) receiving feedback would vary depending on the activity
(how much space students needed to perform activity safely) and
the level of teacher movement. At the intervention phases, the
treatment variable of teacher providing feedback using sound-field
amplification was in effect, and changes in managerial time were
noted. Teacher feedback is defined as information about a response
that is used to modify the next response (Siedentop & Tannehill,
2000). To reduce the possibility of the activity influencing the re-
sults, the teachers never changed the activities during the introduc-
tion of an intervention. Also, at no time before or during the study
were the teachers informed of the dependent measure of mana-
gerial time.
Procedure
Data were collected from live recording sessions of the 2 teachers.
To measure managerial time at the beginning of class, an observer
started a stopwatch when the school bell rang to start the physical
education class. The time the bell rang was consistent for all of the
classes and throughout the study. After starting the stopwatch, the
observer would follow the teacher until ALT-PE started. ALT-PE
was defined as the time when more than 50% of the students became
motor engaged in purposeful movement (Randell, 1992). After the
students dressed and received any management feedback from the
teacher in the locker room, they would go out to the activity area.
When the teacher was finished giving instructions and the students
were engaged in ALT-PE, the observer would stop the stopwatch
and record the time.
The intervention consisted of having the teachers wear a headset
microphone placed 1 in. from the mouth that amplified their feed-
back using a portable sound-field amplification system that was
worn around their waist (LightSpeed, Model PA-3) while continu-
ing their typical teaching methods. The headset was connected to
the portable sound-field system by a wire, and the volume, which
was located on the portable waist pack, was adjusted to fit the
physical settings and the number of students. Typically, the teacher
would lower the volume while students were in the locker room and
increase it once they were outside. While outside, the teacher did
increase the volume if background noise increased (e.g., planes
overhead, another class, air conditioners). The teachers were given
instructions before each daily observation to use the same mana-
gerial and instructional methods as they typically used, but with
sound-field amplification feedback, and to use it as soon as the bell
rang for class to begin. Typical beginning-of-class managerial jobs
included greeting the students, supervising the locker room, an-
swering questions, giving directions, organizing equipment, and
taking roll. The teachers were instructed to switch off the micro-
phone if they needed to give personal feedback, instruction, or
discipline that could cause embarrassment for the student(s) if it
was broadcast for all students to hear.
Observer Reliability
Two graduate students coded the data collection. Before the ob-
servation assessment, the guidelines for identifying when ALT-PE
started were presented and learned. Practice observations were
conducted during three sessions of a field test. To measure the
number of students who were engaged in ALT-PE, observers used
placheck (Dodds, 1989), which is an all-inclusive 15-s scan of
the whole class. Plachecks were done every 20 s with a 5-s period
for recording scores. The beginning of ALT-PE marked the end of
managerial time. The coders were ready to record once a predetermined
criterion of 80% agreement between the coders had been reached
on identifying the beginning of ALT-PE. Three baseline phase and
three intervention phase class periods for each grade were randomly
selected to determine interobserver agreement. The variable of
identifying ALT-PE was compared by observers using the interval-
by-interval method (van der Mars, 1989) and produced percentages
ranging from 79% to 92%, with a mean of 86%.
Analysis of Data
Visual analysis of the graphically plotted data was used to an-
alyze the functional relationships between the independent and
dependent variables (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 1987). Both trend
direction of the data and the extent of variability in data point values
were considered in analyzing the data. Confidence in the effec-
tiveness of the intervention was strengthened when there was repli-
cation of the effect and minimal overlap between data paths. At the
completion of the interventions, the data were evaluated via the
multiple baseline design to determine the relative effectiveness of
the sound-field amplification feedback delivery interventions. With
this design, according to Barlow and Hersen (1984), differences
in the behavior (managerial time) can be attributed to the treatment.
RESULTS
Data of mean managerial time in minutes for all periods can be
found in Table 1. The amount of managerial time at the beginning
of class clearly decreased when the physical education teachers
used sound-field amplification feedback to their students.
Examining the data for each individual class provided a chrono-
logical level of managerial time under the replications of unampli-
fied and amplified feedback given by the teachers (see Figures 1
and 2). The trends that emerge are consistent with the group means
and individual class group means. The graphs of each class period
in Figures 1 and 2 show some variability from session to session
of managerial time but support the overall pattern of reduction in
managerial time in the beginning of physical education class under
the condition of amplified feedback. The point of activity change
during all periods is also displayed. The effectiveness of the inter-
ventions can be found in the changes in the level between unam-
plified and amplified interventions (see Table 1). Managerial time
decreased in all classes with the intervention of amplified feedback
except for the seventh-grade class by Teacher 1. Two-tailed paired-
samples t tests were used to compare the mean managerial time
Table 1. Data for mean managerial time in minutes for Teacher 1 (inner
city) and Teacher 2 (rural) using unamplified and amplified feedback.
Descriptive statistic Unamplified Amplified
Teacher 1
Grade 6 7 8 6 7 8
Mean time 18.2 16.7 18.2 14.0 16.5 12.9
Teacher 2
Grade 6 7 8 6 7 8
Mean time 18.9 17.6 18.1 13.0 12.7 12.4
Ryan: Effects of a Sound-Field Amplification System 133
 Figure 1. Teacher 1 (inner city) managerial time over sessions.

between unamplified and amplified interventions. There was no

statistically significant difference between conditions for Teacher 1,
t(2) = 2.08, p > 0.05, but there was a statistically significant dif-
ference for Teacher 2, t(2) = 18.00, p < 0.05.
The results of the sound-field amplification feedback interven-
tion for all grades clearly show a consistent reduction in the mean
managerial time, with the exception of the seventh-grade class
for Teacher 1. The type of activities appears to have little effect
on the results regardless if the activity changed from a noninva-
sive game (volleyball and tennis) to a possession/invasion game
(soccer).
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of a sound-
field amplification system on managerial time in middle school
physical education settings. The results indicated consistency in the
decline of managerial time for all classes when amplified feedback
was implemented, with the exception of one class, which suggests
that the treatment was effective. These findings are also supported by
Ryan and Yerg (2001), who looked at the effects of proximal and
distal teacher feedback. Their study suggested that when students

134 LANGUAGE, SPEECH, AND HEARING SERVICES IN SCHOOLS Vol. 40 131137 April 2009
 Figure 2. Teacher 2 (rural) managerial time over sessions.
received feedback from a greater distance from the teacher (distal),
on-task behavior rates were higher, which may reduce managerial
time. Studies have also shown that in amplified conditions, ele-
mentary students were more attentive, less distracted (Allen &
Patton, 1990), and more on-task (Loven et al., 2003; Mendel et al.,
2003; Ryan et al., 2002), which may also reduce managerial time.
In all but one case, managerial time changed markedly at the
point when the intervention of sound-field amplification feedback
was introduced. Although the intervention of sound-field ampli-
fication feedback in the seventh-grade class of Teacher 1 did not
markedly change managerial time, the overall mean managerial
time using sound-field amplification feedback was still less than
the overall mean managerial time with unamplified feedback. The
seventh-grade class for Teacher 1 consisted largely of students with
learning disabilities, and the teacher commented that the class was
a constant challenge. The challenges of that class likely resulted in
the consistently high managerial time regardless of the implemen-
tation of a sound-field amplification system. This may also explain
why Teacher 1 results were nonsignificant in comparing the means
between unamplified and amplified groups.
There was variability in managerial time between classes and
teachers. These results may be due to differing sizes of classes, if
the class before the physical education class let the students out late,
and /or if the teachers set induction (directions) took longer. It
Ryan: Effects of a Sound-Field Amplification System 135
should be noted that the sixth-grade students of Teacher 1 arrived to
class late on two occasions. The students did make an attempt to
dress quickly, and it appears that this did not influence the results for
Teacher 1. Regardless, the observers consistently started and stopped
the stopwatch by the set procedures. Even though the type of feed-
back was not measured, the type of feedback may have affected
managerial time. The use of distal feedback was shown to reduce
management feedback (Ryan & Yerg, 2001), and reduced mana-
gerial time was also noted by Darst (1975) in a similar study where
elementary student teachers were the participants.
This research further extends the use of behavioral technologies
in a school setting outside the classroom and suggests that the use of
sound-field amplification provides an effective tool for reducing
managerial time at the beginning of class in a physical education
setting. Teachers may also use sound-field amplification feedback
for informal or formal action research projects for their own profes-
sional development.
The present study is limited due to the absence of data on the
type of teacher feedback across conditions and teacher movement
levels, the use of two teachers, and only measuring managerial time
at the beginning of class. Additional limits include lack of sound
measurements such as background noise and signal-to-noise ratio.
Also, even though the teachers were not informed of the dependent
measure of managerial time, just being a part of the study may have
influenced their behaviors to some extent.
Future efforts to examine the effects of sound-field amplification
feedback in the area of student work involvement and skill acqui-
sition may provide added insight into effective teaching components.
Measuring managerial time levels of teachers using sound-field
amplification feedback during the entire class period and at different
grade levels may help support these findings.
These findings indicate an immediate need for administrators to
determine the most appropriate, cost-effective procedure to sup-
port the use of sound-field amplification systems in existing physi-
cal education settings. Educational audiologists, speech-language
pathologists, and physical education teachers need to collaborate
to make school administrators aware of the potential benefits of
these systems and other strategies that may help physical educa-
tion students hear better.
Outdoor physical education settings are often subjected to noise
from road traffic, airplanes, area construction, lawn maintenance,
school air conditioners, other physical education classes, recess
classes, and wind. Although some of the sources of outside noise
are difficult to overcome, others can be modified to reduce their
impact (e.g., scheduling other physical education classes so that
distance between classes is considered, locating recess in areas void
of physical education classes, and coordinating lawn maintenance
and physical education classes so teachers are not raising their
voices over the engine noise). These modifications are likely to help
decrease noise levels, and with the aid of sound-field amplification
systems, may help with vocal fatigue, which has been shown to
trouble teachers (Gotass & Starr, 1993; Masuda, Ikeda, Manako, &
Komiyamas, 1993). Physical education teachers often have acoustic
challenges that no other teacher has to face; using sound-field
amplification technology, new teaching strategies, and additional
research in physical education settings can only enhance the
learning environment.
Hopefully, organizations like the American Speech-Language-
Hearing Association (ASHA) and the American National Standards
Institute (ANSI), which are leaders in research for establishing
136 LANGUAGE, SPEECH, AND HEARING SERVICES IN SCHOOLS Vol. 40 131137 April 2009
acoustic policy, will seek cross-discipline research that includes
physical education teachers. This type of collaboration will hope-
fully start the process needed to better understand methodologies
and philosophies of all groups with the goal of improving acoustics
and learning in physical education settings.
Teachers who are frustrated with high managerial time and low
ALT will always search for new and better ways to be more ef-
fective. Although no single teaching strategy will completely solve
the issue of high managerial time that still plagues many teaching
settings, sound-field amplification feedback may be one addi-
tional tool to add to teachers repertoire of effective instructional
strategies.
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Received April 9, 2008
Revision received May 5, 2008
Accepted August 5, 2008
DOI: 10.1044/0161-1461(2008/08-0038)
Contact author: Stu Ryan, University of West Florida, 11000 University
Parkway, #72-259, Pensacola, FL 32514. E-mail: sryan@uwf.edu.
Ryan: Effects of a Sound-Field Amplification System 137