Professional Documents
Culture Documents
An Introduction to Photography
George M. Craven
What is the difference between
taking a picture and making
an artistic photograph?
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7
/)
Object and Image
Object and Image
An Introduction to Photography
GEORGE M. CRAVEN
De Anza College
Craven, George M
Object and image.
Bibliography: p.
1. Photography. I. Title.
TR145.C89 770 74-9739
ISBN 0-13-628925-8
10 9 8 7 6 5 4
Preface vii
Bibliography 271
Index 275
Preface
Photography is by all odds our most for exploring photography, your in- Color photography is much too com-
common picture making process. troduction to it should be a stimulat- plex for adequate treatment in one or
When its effect on the way we see ing personal adventure. two chapters and is therefore not in-
things is considered, it is also quite The first two chapters provide a cluded; it deserves a book of its own.
likely bur least understood one. This context for learning and a basis for Motion pictures and how they are
introductory book is therefore con- discussing pictures in verbal terms. made are omitted for similar reasons.
cerned with both the process and the They briefly consider what a photo- \V^hat we have, then, is an introduc-
product: it explores how we make graph is, and how it has evolved to its tion to the experience of seeing and
black-and-white photographs, how we present importance. thinking photographically.
use them, and how we respond to Chapters 3 through 6 explain Any such experience must begin
them. how black-and-white photographs are with pictures, for they appeal to our
The text is organized around visual made. Here the text serves as a guide senses more directly than words can
themes because photography is pri- for a studio or laboratory experience do. Each photograph in this book has
marily a visual experience. As such, it that can be provided by a college or been selected not only to make a spe-
is perhaps best learned by actually university class, or that you can devise point
cific at a specific place,but also
making pictures. The sequence of top- yourself athome. because it is an outstanding example
ics is therefore designed to help you Chapters 7 through 10 define funda- of a particular photographer's work,
make good photographs quickly, with mental styles or approaches to contem- or of a superb historical collection.
visual insight as well as technical skill. porary photographic work. These sec- The pictures here may thus be re-
My aim throughout the book has been tions can be used to guide discussion garded as a guide to many other simi-
to develop each topic just enough to of picture ideas. Other chapters cover lar images in books and exhibitions.
help you progress steadily and con- new pho-
topics of frequent interest to All can offer us visual experiences that
fidently toward more advanced skills tographers, and the chapter deals
final and rewarding.
are equally rich
and ideas, without sidetracking you in with us as viewers how we look at There's more than a grain of truth
nonessentials. Whatever your reasons and respond to photographs. in the observation that an author
viii Preface
Why does man make pictures? diverse ways, and language reflects the middle years of the nineteenth
A reasonable question, and a decep- this rich variety. The symbols we call century, that evolution became a rev-
tively simple one. Yet to examine it words and pictures form only two olution.
seriously is to consider the very nature kinds of language; there are many Wliat is photography? Reduced to
of man himself. From the beginning, others, and man uses all
a sensitive its simplest dimensions, photography
man has been a symbol-making and a languages at his command to express is a means of producing images by the
tool-making animal, using these de- his ideasand to externalize his action of light on a substance that is
vices to perpetuate his existence and thoughts and feelings. W^ords and pic- sensitive to that light. But this is a
to understand his very being. His pri- tures, however, are fundamental to skeletal description that only iden-
mary tool, of course, has been lan- man's existence: through them he pro- tifies the tip of the iceberg. It does
guage, without a doubt his greatest duces a kind of thinking which can not begin to describe either the pho-
invention. Each of his many lan- be re-experienced and interchanged tographic experience or the tremen-
guages is a system of symbols that with other human beings. Pictures dous impact these pictures have had
conveys ideas from one person to an- form bridges between cultures; com- on nearly every aspect of our life. For
other through the senses. Symbols munication and learning depend on it is hardly an exaggeration to suggest
help man to simplify his existence by them. that what we know about the world,
standing for other, more complex Photography is a relatively recent and the way we have come to under-
ideas and experiences. They make form of picture making devised by stand it, are due in no small measure
known; they signify. Woven into lan- man on his long journey from the to the eye of the camera. We know
guage, they explain complicated
life's cave to the moon. The origin of pic- how shaped, for example,
the earth is
reality and form a matrix for man's tures is deeply rooted in prehistoric because we have seen photographs of
culture. time and remains obscure, but there it from outer space, and from those
Different cultures within the family is no doubt that these symbols have same pictures we have also learned
of man have addressed themselves to evolved into a universal language. how delicately beautiful our environ-
the problems of human existence in With the advent of photography in ment is. On a different scale, but no
4 Object and image: what photography is
less remarkable, the Swedish photog- sionally charming in their simple di-
rapher, Lennart Nilsson, has revealed rectness, but too often, like our
to us the mysterious beginnings of neighbor's vacation mementos, simply
human life in an incredible series of a bore. Photography's inherent sim-
photographs which includes a view plicity, it appears, is also its inherent
of a living embryo in its mother's weakness.
womb. As
in any other visual art, both
No mere tool of science, however, sightand insight are called for in
picture making by photography has making a photograph that is anything
fascinated people by the millions for more than a snapshot. Hence some
more than a century. Today it is a definitions are in order. First, seeing.
folk art practiced in every country Seeing is not merely looking at the
of the world. Photographs had been world, or moving about it without
around for more than sixty years when crashing into walls. Seeing involves
George Eastman introduced the Kodak looking with some effort on our part
in 1888 and made it possible for any- to understand what we observe. It
one to take them. So it wasn't their involves some degree of empathy, of
novelty that made them so popular. feeling our way into whatever we ex-
Rather it was the innate realism of perience, we recognize and
so that
the pictures themselves. Here was comprehend more effectively. At
it
something that each individual could the very least, it demands an aware-
identify with. Recognition and re- ness of what we view. In its rarest and
sponse were instantaneous. fullest sense it may carry us to revela-
tion and enlightenment. To whatever
degree we perform it, seeing requires
Human Vision and Camera Vision us to set aside our personal, usually
trivial concerns, and concentrate on
A photograph, however strong its re- what actually there. Such an effort
is
semblance to actual objects or events, through our various senses we call per-
does not accurately mirror the world. ception. From it we can make some
Nor does it show things as we see judgments about what we see.
them. These differences between the Let's consider for a moment how
way things appear to us and to the we and how a camera im-
see things,
camera are not imaginary: they are age is formed. Although the human
very real, and any serious considera- eye and the camera are both con-
tion of picture making by photog- structed on the same principle, they
raphy must take them into account. have different purposes. The retinal
But because almost anyone can pick image in our eye is not intended to
up a camera, make an exposure, and be seen, but to produce a pattern of
produce a recognizable image, the vast nervous stimulation in the brain.
majority of people are led to assume Cameras used in photography, how-
that there is "nothing to" photog- ever, are designed to produce visible
raphy. Today millions of people use images. Our vision is binocular, which
the camera, and the vast number of enables us to see in three dimensions:
resulting photographic images are we can perceive depth. Most cameras,
snapshots; unpretentious and occa- on the other hand, have only one pic-
VVynn Bullock: Child in Forest, 1954.
What a Photograph Is
Lenses have long been used to form feature of the photographic image
camera images, making possible acute which makes itan efficient conveyor of
definition which results in the incisive information. Such clarity, however,
rendering of detail. This aspect of can exaggerate the importance of
photographs is felt far beyond the trivia; overwhelming detail can imply
medium itself, for it has contributed authenticity, or that some new, hidden I
a term to our verbal language. When meaning may await only our patient
we speak of certain drawings or paint- exploration of the picture. A pho-
ings having a "photographic" appear- tographer must use this power wisely
ance, for example, or of someone and responsibly.
having a "photographic" mind, what Another far-reaching characteristic
we mean is an impression of limitless of the photographic image which de-
detail. This, of course, is a valuable rives from the nature of the process
i
Object and image: what photography is 9
is its capacity for endless duplication. Graphic Revolution. The Image (see
Most forms of the photographic image bibliography) is his brilliant essay on
are produced first as a negative (with the art of self-deception in America.
tones reversed from^ their usual order) In that book Boorstin explains how
and, from that negative, as an un- photography has been a major force
limited number of positives. We may in fostering the rapid growth of
make one positive or any number of pseudo-events to replace real ones, and
exact duplicates without diminishing copies of objects and experiences to
or destroying the original image. We replace originals. Even more alarm-
may also change the size: reproduc- ing is his keen observation that we
tions can be larger or smaller than the have come to value the reproduction
original. And even in those few pro- more than the original. Evidence of
cesses which produce no negative (and this abounds, for example, in our
are therefore called direct positive modern techniques of mass-merchan-
processes), the image can be repho- dising goods and services; from net-
tographed and virtual duplication work television, everywhere the same,
continued. Office copy devices, now a to the nationwide proliferation of
staple tool of modern business, are franchised restaurants, each serving
built around this principle. Likewise identical, undistinguished food. Un-
the printing craft, for which photog- fortunately such rampant duplication
raphy has become its virtual lifeblood. is not limited to postcards and art
This capacity for duplication in- reproductions it permeates our cul-
herent in photography has revolution- ture.
ized communication and education Briefly, then, let us review the most
in fact, our entire culture. For in- common characteristics of the pho-
stance, Andre Malraux, the eminent tographic image:
French scholar and historian, claims
that the study of art history is the 1 It is a two-dimensional image and
study of art that can be photographed. it is seen from a single point of
Few students have access to many view.
original works of art; we usually study 2 It requires light and a substance
them, like so many other things, or surface that is light-sensitive.
through photographic reproductions. 3 It usually is produced instantly,
But until improvements in
recent and all parts of a single image are
color photography became available, produced simultaneously: it is
the subtle hues and intensities of many bom whole.
originals such as stained glass windows 4 It usually possesses a wealth of de-
and some Byzantine mosaics could not tail and is often distinguished by
be adequately reproduced. Much of continuous tone.
their message was therefore lost to 5 It has the capacity for unlimited
scholars who knew them only through duplication: it can, in effect, repro-
misleading reproductions or written duce itself.
accounts.
Historian Daniel Boorstin has writ- Taken together, these characteristics
ten lucidly on this substitution of suggest photograph
that the is a
image for object, which he calls the unique kind of picture. Indeed it is.
10 Object and image: what photography is
Creating the Illusion the other hand, faces a different prob- to give the objects form and impor-
lem: his image is drawn, in effect, by tance, to distill out of
significance
Because of this interchange of func- his point of view and his lens; choos- chaos in bring order and
short, to
tions, then, it isn't hard for the pho- ing them defines his picture. From structure to his picture. His method
tographer to fill his picture with that point his task is not how to in- is analytic rather than synthetic: it
illusory truth. For one thing, his clude enough detail but rather how eliminates the less important so that
camera can record in an instant more to eliminate all that is not needed. For only the essence of his visual idea
than he can perceive. For another, he the painter builds his image, element remains. The photographer's initial
has all the richness of detail that we by element, adding, revising, elabo- approach, then, is exactly opposite
associate with the photographic im- rating his theme toward its final state. that of the painter, even when both of
age going for him. The photographer, however, usually them have the same end a representa-
When a painter strives to create an begins with his image whole, and tional image in mind. Indeed, the
illusion of realityhe must draft his determines it by selective elimination. common man sums it up uncommonly
image in a precise spatial arrange- He limits his view by imposing a frame well when he notes that paintings
ment and enrich it by rendering suf- on reality, then further selects within are made, and that photographs are
ficient detail. The photographer, on that frame by using light and shadow taken.
14 Object and image: what photography is
cause it can free him from any need no attempt to illustrate, and the iden-
to make his image a picture of some- tity of what was before the camera
thing; like any other artist, he may is unimportant. Instead, the photo-
make his image simply a picture. By graph is presented as an experience
recognizing that his image is based in itself; it invites the viewer to bring
on reality but does not reconstruct it, his own intuition to it and expand
a photographer opens the door to an upon the image through his own imag-
enormous range of picture-making ination. What he sees in it, then, may
possibilities and enjoys virtually all reflect his own feelings as strongly as
v^
r:vy.n3i
Weston meant was the entire process the other through the eye of the pho-
by which we concentrate on an object tographer. 15
C. R. Monroe: Pholugrap/ien' IVagaiis, [n.d.]. State Historical Society of Wisconsin.
16
Our photographic heritage
on our culture, then, we must go back have served two clear functions from
beyond the events which made pho- the outset: as playing cards and
tography possible and take a brief religious symbols. The former appli-
look at those pictures that preceded cation required duplicated images be-
it not to belabor the past, but to put cause cards quickly wore out; the latter
the origin of the photograph in its met a demand from simple worship-
proper perspective. pers. Since the church was the center
18 Our photographic heritage
Meisler Ingolt: Card Players. Woodcut from Das goldene Spiel. [Augsburg]
GiXnther Zainer, 1 Aug. (an dem 8. Tag S. Jacobs) 1472. Rosenwald Collec-
tion, The Library of Congress.
of artistic activity, just as it was the fifteenth century, then, the collective great Florentine architects, gave their
focus of most other aspects of daily thinking or faith of the middle ages people the concept of linear perspec-
crudely made reproducible prints
life, gave way to individual opinion, which tive, a mathematical basis for render-
enabled the faithful to have common needed facts for comparison and judg- ing space in art. This is important to
religious symbols athome. Soon there- ment. Artists and writers helped to our story for two reasons. First, be-
appeared in books,
after these pictures supply them. They studied the world cause it laid the foundation for a
which up to that time had been il- around them, portrayed man as a dig- natural realism in pictures, a standard
lustrated ("illuminated," as it was nified human being, and placed him of resemblance to nature, if you'd like
called) the same way they had been at the center of their universe. The to call it that. Second, as more and
written by hand. knowledge that developed from this more unskilled people responded to
With the decline of feudalism, life humanistic concern was not catego- nature and caught the urge to paint
shifted from the countryside to cities. rized: art, mathematics, and nature and draw it, a need for mechanical
Growth in the cities led to trade, were all considered as one, and it drawing aids grew. Many such con-
which in turn fostered a rising middle probably was no accident that the trivances were invented during the
class of merchants, especially in Italy. greatest scientist of the fifteenth cen- sixteenth century, but one of the most
A rapid expansion of universities ac- tury was a painter, Leonardo da Vinci. successful and widely used ones was
companied this and books
trend, At this same time, Filippo Brunel- a much older device, the camera ob-
quickly multiplied. Throughout the leschi and Leon Battista Alberti, the scura.
Our photographic heritage 19
The Camera Obscura 1550 a lens was added to the open- remain substantially vmchanged for
ing,making the image brighter and nearly two hundred years.
A camera obscura (literally a dark- clearer. The continuing growth of the mid-
ened room) was described as early as All descriptions of it prior to 1572 dle class in the eighteenth century
the tenth century by the Arabian indicate that the camera obscura was, created a demand for cheap pictures
scholar, Alhazen, using a principle in fact, a room, but early in the seven- of all kinds, but especially original
known to Aristotle in the fourth cen- teenth century we find mention of a portraits. Before that time portraiture
tury B.C. for observing eclipses of the portable device first a wooden hut, had largely been available only to the
sun. Leonardo discussed it in his note- next a tent, then a covered sedan most distinguished public and reli-
books in considerable detail (leading chair, and finally a small box such as gious figures, or to those who could
many people to think he had invented Canaletto undoubtedly used to paint afford to commission an artist. About
it), and Albrecht Diirer, the German his sweeping views of Venice in the 1786 a French court musician, Gilles-
artist, knew of it in the early sixteenth early eighteenth century. There is Louis Chretien, invented the physi-
century. A tiny hole in one side of a evidence that Antonio Guardi, Jan onotrace, an adaptation of the panto-
room admitted rays of light in such Vermeer, and other artists used it, but graph to transcribe outlines of the
a way that an inverted image of what more important is the observation human head to copper plates. It made
was outside the room appeared on the that by 1685 the camera obscura had producing such drawings a quick and
inner wall opposite the hole. About been developed to a form that was to relatively easy process which people of
20 Our photographic heritage
Fevret de Saint-Memin: Profile of Tliomas Johann Zahn: Reflex Camera Obscura, 1685. Gernsheim Collection, Humanities Research
Engraving with physionotrace, 180-1.
Jefferson. Center, The University of Texas at Austin.
Actual size. Collection: The Metropolitan
Museum of Art, Bequest of Charles Allen
Munn, 1924.
moderate means could afford. One years later, had already become the
master of the device who brought it message, in a subtle manner that went
to America charged $33, we are told, unnoticed by many people in the
for the original drawing, the copper same way that we blindly accept the
plate, and twelve impressions. "truth" of a photograph today. Con-
Throughout the seventeenth and sider that all visual information avail-
eighteenth centuries, book illustra- able to the common man in the form
tion was dominated by woodcuts and of reproducible and therefore inex-
copper engravings. The former were pensive pictures came to him second
useful for cheap copies but could not or even thirdhand. Master artists
convey shading very well. Engravings prepared the originals, but reproduc-
gave satisfactory reproduction but, be- tion in prints was left to other crafts-
cause copper is a soft metal, wore out men who translated those images into
quickly and were used primarily for the peculiar linear construction of the
more costly and limited editions. engraver's medium. What came out
Moreover, the visual medium, as in an engraved print, then, often was
Marshall McLuhan was to put it 200 the result of several nameless people
Our photographic heritage 21
rather than a single mind or hand. At chloride was soluble in ammonia, dis-
The next attempt was made by a where the exposure was held back by
French Joseph Nicephore
inventor, a superimposed image in contact with
Niepce, of Chalon-sur-Saone, who ap- it (he used an engraved print) or by
ity,Niepce in 1828 had switched from drawing and does not depend on any
pewter to silver-plated copper sheets, manual dexterity." The popular
and found he could strengthen the French painter, Paul Delaroche, re-
contrast of his image by fuming the acted more directly: "From today," he
silvered plate with iodine vapor. Da- exclaimed, "painting is dead!"
guerre now tried this, but the resulting Well, not quite. But it never was
silver iodide was still too low in sensi- the same again. The public was abso-
tivity for reasonably short exposures. lutely fascinated with the new pic-
Shortly thereafter, in 1835, he acciden- tures; "daguerreotypomania" swept
tally discovered that by subjecting his Paris. Daguerreotypes were favorably
underexposed plates to the vapor of compared to Rembrandt's etchings; in
Our photographic heritage 25
L. J. AI. Daguerre: The Artist's Studio. The earliest surviving daguerreotype, J 837. Collec-
tion: Societe Frangaise de Photographic. Paris.
their revelation of light and shade and The chief value of the new process
in their absence of color, the compari- was for portraits. Realistic likenesses
son seems justified even if naively satisfied most people, and their incred-
overstated.As a means of recording in- ibly beautiful tonal scale rendered the
formation, nothing so accurate had subtle modeling of faces by light with
ever been seen before. But the pictures amazing delicacy.
had a ghostly quality about them too, The daguerreotype process was a
especially when made outdoors. While complex one. To start, the silver side
every detail of streets and buildings of a silver-plated copper sheet was pol-
was clearly etched, no sign of life was ished as smooth and bright as possible,
apparent. Exposures were too long to and then was inverted over a box con-
record moving objects, but revealed taining iodine. This vaporized onto
every cobblestone over which they had the plate, creating silver iodide which
traveled. was sensitive to light. Transferred to
26 Our photographic heritage
Richard Beard: Portrait of an unknown man, Lon- [Photographer unknowji]: Margaret Aurelia Dewing,
don, c. 1842. Daguerreotype. Author's collection. 1848. Daguerreotype. Collection: Richard Rudisilt,
Santa Fe, New Mexico.
the camera in a lightproof container, opened the first portrait studio in wich. Andof course the image was
the plate was exposed, again covered, London in 1841, overcame
prob- this unique: could not be duplicated.
it
and removed to a darkened room. lem by making the plates smaller to None of these limitations, however,
There it was inverted over a vessel take advantage of better camera lenses, delayed the spread of this marvelous
containing heated mercury, which de- and by using chemical accelerators. French discovery to otlier countries,
posited a white amalgam on those Being a direct image, the picture was particularly England (in spite of the
parts of the plate that had received laterally reversed. This was soon cor- patent) and America, where Oliver
light from the exposure in the camera. rected by using a prism lens on the Wendell Holmes called it a "mirror
The not exposed was dis-
silver iodide camera, as Niepce had done many with a memory." Daguerre's instruc-
solved with common salt or sodium years before. Since the mercury ad- tion manual, according to the Gern-
thiosulfate, and rinsed away with hered only lightly to the plate, the sheims, went through 29 editions in
water. Then the plate was gently dried pictine was easily damaged if anyone six languages. He was made an officer
over an alcohol lamp. touched it. Protective cases were of the Legion of Honor, and in 1840,
At first the daguerreotype was not Cjuickly introduced; each contained a at the age of 52, L. J. M. Daguerre re-
sensitive enough for portraiture; expo- paper matte as a spacer and a cover tired from national public life, leav-
sures were simply too long. Early op- glass to protect the image, all bound ing to others the task of perfecting his
erators like Richard Beard, who up with the plate itself like a sand- discovery.
Our photographic heritage 27
John Moffat: William Henry Fox Talbot, [n.d.]. Carbon Talbot's experimental cameras, 1835-1839. Crown Copyright. Science
print. Photo. Science Museum, London. Museum.
.4<^^v/ yVJS~
William Henry Fox Talbot: Latticed Window, 1835. The earliest existing negative. Actual
size. Science Museum, London.
small cameras "mousetraps," his wife within that report was a recognition of inch square simply failed to capture
calledthem that were made for him great importance: the imagination of a public clamoring
by a local carpenter. One of these for the daguerreotype abroad and in-
camera nes^atives is now preserved in different to new pictorial develop-
the Science Museum in London. It is If the picture so obtained is first preserved ments at home. Daguerreotypes were
a view through the central oriel win- so as to bear sunshine, it may be after- larger (up to 61/2 by 814 in.), direct
dow of the south gallery at Laycock wards employed as an object to be
itself positives (as normally viewed), and
Abbey, the Talbot family home near copied, and by means of this second much more brilliant and detailed.
Chippenham in Wiltshire. Only about process the lights and shadows are Meanwhile, Sir John Herschel, the
an inch square, it is the earliest exist- brought back to their original disposi- eminent scientist, had independently
ing negative, and the second oldest tion." conducted his own experiments. He
surviving photograph in the world. found that hyposulfite of soda was a
Over the next four years Talbot suitable preserving agent, and in just
turned to other interests, and until With this statement Talbot intro- a few days succeeded in covering the
the news of Arago's announcement duced the negative-positive principle same ground as Daguerre and Talbot,
reached him in January, 1839, these that lias been the basis for most photo- When the latter visited him on Feb-
early photographic experiments had graphic processes ever since. ruary Herschel "explained to him
1,
been all but forgotten. Quickly realiz- Talbot's paper to the Royal Society all my Talbot did not re-
processes."
ing what was at stake, however, Talbot was widely reported by the press in ciprocate, and when Herschel sug-
rushed to claim priority for his dis- February, but his photogenic drawings gested that they collaborate their
covery before the end of that eventful coarse paper negatives about one investigations, Talbot refused. On
month. He dispatched brief letters to August 19 the Daguerre's
secret of
Arago and others in the French Acad- process was revealed by the French.
* W. H. F. Talbot, Some Account of the
emy, and a lengthy report to the Royal Talbot saw it as a challenge, but con-
Art of Photogenic Drawing (London:
Society, its English equivalent. Buried privately printed, 1839), Sec. 11. tinued his work alone.
Our photographic heritage 29
exposed much like a photogenic draw- the world. Here in 1844 a thousand
ing. But then it was developed by prints were made for Talbot's Pencil
reapplying a solution of gallic acid of Nature, the world's first photo-
and silver nitrate to the sensitive sur- graphically illustrated book.
face of the paper, and heating the Another source of excellent calo-
sheet to bring out the image. The pic- types was the studio of David Octavius
ture appeared when the reapplied so- Hill, a painter, and Robert Adamson,
lution deposited additional silver on a chemist, in Edinburgh. Talbot's pro-
the latent image, a now obsolete pro- cess was free from patent restrictions
cess known as physical development. in Scotland, and Hill was one of the
(It has since been replaced by chem- first people to realize the artistic po-
ical development, in which silver is tential of the material. For five years
produced by a reaction within the from 1843, Hill and .\damson pro-
latent image rather than by an ex- duced a remarkable collection of early
ternal deposit.) Once developed, Tal- Victorian portraits before Adamson's
bot's calotypes were preserved by death ended the association.
Herschel's method hypo which Tal- Calotypes were also made in France,
bot cavalierly patented along with his where Talbot had taken out a patent
own discoveries. but failed to enforce it. In 1851, Louis
30 Our photographic heritage
Southworth and Hawes: Lemuel Shaw, 1851. Daguerreotype, actual size. Col-
lection: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of Edxrard S. Hawes, Alice
Mary Hawes, and Marion A. Hawes, 1938.
Mathew Brady
was still wet, before its sensitivity di- American daguerreotypists, too,
minished. Development was by pyro- were quick to adopt the wet process.
gallic acid with subsequent processing Archer's invention was patented here
by conventional means. in 1854 by James Ambrose Cutting
Collodion was easier to work than of Boston. It was a weak collodion
the daguerreotype, and much more negative on glass; when placed on a
sensitive than the calotype. It yielded black cloth it appeared to be a posi-
a negative image on glass, from which tive, and in this form it thus became
unlimited numbers of high quality a cheaper substitute for the daguerreo-
paper prints could be made. Photog- type. Most were no larger than 814 by
raphers everywhere eagerly adopted 414 in. (8.3 by 10.8 cm) and were
the collodion process, or wet plate, as matted and cased just as daguerreo-
it was popularly known. It became types were. In America these small
the universal negative material from collodion positives were called amhro-
about 1855 to 1880, and was printed types. The portrait by C. R. Moffett,
on albiunen paper. Francis Bedford's of Mineral Point, Wisconsin, shows
view of Torquay, an English holiday the negative-positive effect (here the
town, shows the excellent tonal qual- left half is seen by transmitted light;
ity possible with this process. In 1857, the right half is backed by black
Archer died prematurely, unrewarded paper).
and virtually unrecognized for his dis- The immensely popular tintype was
covery and his generosity. a modification of the same process.
36 Our photographic heritage
Frances Benjamin Johnston: Her Tintype Gallery and "Studio" at a County Fair in Virginia,
1903. The Library of Congress.
with the collodion poured over a piece France patented the carte-de-visite, or
of metal that first had been lacquered visiting card photograph, so named
with a dark-colored varnish. Tintypes because the print was pasted on a
were not as fragile as glass and could card mount 4 by 21/2 in. (10. 1 by 6.4
easily be mailed. They could not be cm) similar to what we now call a
reproduced, though, so were similar business card. Multi-lens cameras
to daguerreotypes in their appeal, but equipped with devices to reposition
much cheaper to produce. Most were the 61/2 by 81/2 in. (16.5 by 21.6 cm)
portraits, casually and quickly made. collodion plate between exposures en-
Tens of thousands of them still sur- abled studio operators to quickly take
vive. eight and process them as
pictures
It was another form of the
still one. The albumen print was
resulting
collodion image, however, that finally cut up and mounted.
rendered the daguerreotype obsolete. Most of the early card photographs
In 1854, Adolphe-Eugene Disd^ri in were full-length portraits, and the
Our photographic heritage 37
T. Partridge: Unknown Girl, South Devon, Adolphe-Eugene Disderi: Uncut print from carte-de-visite negative, c. 1860. Collection:
England, [n.d.]. Carte-de-visite. Author's col- The International Museum of Photography.
lection.
Augustus Schuffert: Group of eight men, Turku, Finland, [n.d.]. Cabinet photograph. Author's
collection.
Take Mathew Brady and his Wash- gutted Gallego Mills at Richmond,
ington studio manager, Alexander burned by retreating Confederate
Gardner, for example. Between them troops in April, 1865, speaks simply
they photographed nearly every Presi- and directly of the ultimate futility of
dent and other government officer of ^\ ar. There are few more eloquent pic-
cabinet rank or above, from John torial expressions of this theme from
Quincy Adams to William McKinley.* any conflict, before or since.
This sense of history, mentioned ear- Brady and his staff, incidentally,
lier, also compelled Brady to photo- were not the first cameramen to photo-
graph the preparation for battle and graph warfare. A few daguerreotypes
its inevitable aftermath dming the survive from the Mexican War (c.
Civil War. Brady's photograph of the 1847) but they show no combat. Roger
Fenton, sent to the Crimean W^ar in
1855 by an English publisher, returned
to London with more than 300 photo-
William Henry Harrison died in 1841, graphs of military encampments and
a month after his election and before
other details, but his pictures are not
Brady had established his business.
Many notables were photographed after combat views either, although some
their terms of oflBcehad expired. probably were made under fire.
40 Our photographic heritage
Andrew J. Russell: Meeting of the Rails at Promontory, Utah, 1869. The Oakland Museum,
Arldrew J. Russell Collection.
42 Our photographic heritage
across the great basin of Nevada and zona and New Mexico; this trip
Idaho. In 1871, after a few months in yielded him some of the most strik-
Panama with a survey team seeking ingly beautiful images of the Ameri-
routes for a canal, O'Sullivan joined can West. Cafion de Chelly represents
Lt. George M. Wheeler's expedition O'Sullivan at his best.
in the Southwest. The party crossed Tliere were dozens of other terri-
Death Valley and tried to explore the torial and frontier photographers
Grand Canyon of the Colorado by whose work survives. J. C. H. Grabill
boat (O'SuIIivan's tiny darkroom is of Deadwood, Dakota Territory, for
seen here aboard one of the craft). instance,made remarkable views of
Two years later, O'Sullivan again the Plains Indians. The Sioux en-
accompanied Wheeler through Ari- campment near Brule, reproduced
I
T. H. O'Sullivan: Canon de Chelly Cliff Dwellings, 1873. The Library of Congress.
44 Our photographic heritage
^..t^\'-H^
J. C. H. Grabill: Sioux Encampment near Brule, Dakota Territory, 1891. The Tibrary of
Congress.
here from Grabill's print, was prob- 1875, Jackson, headquartered in Den-
ably photographed soon after the ver, photographed the Rocky Moun-
Battle of Wounded Knee. tain region. Occasionally he used a 20
But the best known of all the fron- by 24 in. (50.8 by 61 cm) wet plate
tier cameramen was William Henry camera, enduring the trials of working
Jackson, who worked his way west with such messy and cumbersome ap-
from Omaha and was the official pho- paratus to produce a collection of
tographer to the Hayden Surveys from superb views. After 1860, however,
1870 to 1879. The 1871 trek explored most western photographers made
the natural wonders of the Yellow- paired stereoscopic negatives, since the
stone region, and Jackson's photo- three-dimensional pictures were the
graphs, displayed to the Congress in height of fashion in more settled areas
Washington, were instrumental the of the country, and an important
next year in creating Yellowstone Na- source of income for cameramen on
tional Park. For several years after the frontier.
William Henry Jackson: Ouray, Colorado, c. 1885. Collection: The International Museum
of Photography.
415
46 Our photographic heritage
pictures also were redefined, but for make pictures. They will readily adapt integral part of our photographic heri-
the most part these changes continued a long-obsolete material or process to tage. In recent years there has been a
to lag behind technical improve- their needs where the new technology sporadic renewal of interest in using
ments, usually occurring as belated does not keep pace with their vision, them, especially by students. The
responses to them. and their restless search is already de- daguerreotype and collodion pro-
Since 1960, however, rapid and manding some fundamental redefini- cesses, in particular, employ chemicals
numerous improvements in the tech- tion of the photographic language. that are dangerous to human health
nology of photography have given im- The more significant developments in (mercury), highly flammable (collo-
age makers the means to explore many contemporary photography, and their dion), ordeadly poison (potassium
new directions and to cover more importance to us as image makers, cyanide). They should not be casually
familiar territory with unparalleled will be considered in other chapters handled under any circumstances,
ease. Photographers themselves have of this book. and attempts to recreate these obsolete
not been complacent; more than ever One final note of caution about the materials are therefore not recom-
before, they are seeking new ways to various vintage processes that are an mended.
Astronaut Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. on the Moon. Apollo 11, 1969. NASA.
48
Cameras and exposure
Every camera, no matter how simple pensive cameras are built better than
or complex it may be, has four vital cheaper ones are. They may therefore
parts. The most important of these are be expected to give longer, more de-
the lens, which forms the image, and pendable service for their added cost.
the film, which records it. A third But they will not, by themselves, pro-
part, the shutter, times the passage of duce better pictures; that is largely up
light to the film,and a fourth essen- to the photographer who uses them.
tial the lightproof chamber or
part, Beyond this,most camera differences
box, connects the other three. relate to theirfundamental design.
To be sure, most cameras have more Basically, all cameras are one of three
parts than these. Their number, de- types: view cameras, rangefinder cam-
sign, and complexity have a direct eras, or reflex cameras. Recognizing
bearing on a camera's usefulness and these types is the key to understanding
are unavoidably reflected in its cost. them.
Most of these additional parts relate
to things we must do when we make a
picture with a camera. Usually there View Cameras
are three operations: framing, focus-
ing, and exposing; they are fundamen- The view camera is directly descended
tal to all camerawork. from the camera obscura of Renais-
What makes one camera preferable sance times, and its modern form is a
to another? If they all are essentially flexible yet precise photogiaphic tool.
similar, what accounts for the vast It requires a stand or tripod for rigid
differences in cost which are obvious support, and an opaque cloth to cover
to the beginner and veteran photog- the adjustable chamber, or bellows, to-
rapher alike? Generally speaking, ex- gether with the photographer's head,
50 Cameras and exposure
Calumet 4x5 View Camera. Courtesy Calu- Leica M5 Rangefinder Camera. Courtesy E.
met Photographic, Inc. Leitz, Inc.
Left Rangefinder
Beam
Right Rangefinder
View-finder Beam
Beam
Transparent Mirror
Prism
Focusing Adjustment
lens is moved to focus it, resulting in unless expensive accessories are added.
two images of the subject which coin- Most rangefinder cameras today are
cide to form one when the lens is designed around the popular 35 mm
focused on that distance (see diagram). and 16 mm formats. They are com-
Without a rangefinder in this type of pact, lightweight, rapid working, and
camera, the distance to the subject relatively quiet. Many have
automatic
must be estimated and the lens then exposure systems built into them.
set accordingly. With a rangefinder,
however, focusing is quick and ac- Reflex Cameras
curate, although the added number
of moving parts and any adjustment Reflex cameras combine many of the
required by them are usually reflected best features of view and rangefinder
in the camera's cost and reliability. cameras and are therefore a popular
The rangefinder often is conveniently compromise between these other basic
incorporated within the frame of the types. There are two kinds: the twin-
viewfinder. lens reflex (TLR) and the single-lens
Therangefinder camera, nonethe- reflex (SLR).
less, has one serious flaw: its view- Twin-lens reflexes have separate
finder and its taking lens, being in lenses of identical focal length for
different places, do not frame exactly viewing and recording, placed one
the same area of the subject. This above the other and mounted so that
discrepancy, known as parallax, is they focus together. Most yield 12 pic-
working distances (less
serious at close tures, 214 in. square (6 by 6 cm), on
than three feet from the subject). a roll of 120 film. The Rolleiflex is the
Such cameras are unsuited to copying most famous; many others are pat-
and similar close-order applications, terned after it.
52 Cameras and exposure
Hasselblad Single-lens Reflex Camera. Cour- Single-lens Reflex Camera, cutaway view
tesy Hasselblad I Paillard. showing light path to eyepiece. Courtesy
Nikon, Inc.
Like the view camera, the pro- TLR viewing and taking, thus eliminating
duces a viewing image the same size parallax, but this combination of func-
as the one projected on the film a dis- tions in one optical system requires a
tinct advantage but Hke the range- movable mirror behind the lens. In
finder type, it from parallax:
suffers such cameras the shutter usually is lo-
the viewing lens and taking lens are in cated at the rear of the chamber, near
different places and frame slightly dif- the film. Since the shutter is not lo-
ferent areas of the subject. In some cated within the lens, as with most
models, parallax is reduced by a mask other types heretofore described, dif-
on the ground glass which moves with ferent types of lenses can be inter-
the focusing mechanism or by a similar changed on the same camera body
movement built into the reflecting without the necessity of a separate
mirror under the ground glass. Never- shutter in each. A through-the-lens ex-
theless, the twin-lens reflex camera is posure metering system, the most ac-
small enough to be managed easily in curate in principle, can readily be built
the hands, yet it produces an image into the SLR design, and an erecting
large enough to be studied with the prism above the mirror is generally
unaided eye and to be useful for most used to revert the viewing image to its
applications. It is a good choice for correct lateral and vertical orientation.
general work where neither the great- Some models also incorporate a system
est precision nor the most rapid-acting of small reversed prisms or microprism
tool is required. The TLR is an excel- grids to assist in focusing. These de-
lent "first camera" for the student. vices work like a rangefinder, but since
Single-lens reflex cameras eliminate they utilize peripheral light rays from
many drawbacks of the twin-lens ver- the lens, rather than central ones, they
sion. The same lens is used for both are not critically accurate: they tend
Cameras and exposure 53
\\J^^ ''
Nikkormat Single-lens Reflex Camera. Cour- Kodak Pocket Instamatic 40 Camera. Cour-
tesy Nikon, Inc. tesy Eastman Kodak Company.
Exposure The most dependable tool for this eight times faster (eight times more
purpose, once its use is mastered, is a sensitive to light) than the film rated
Once we have framed and focused our good photoelectric exposure meter. As 50 is. Most black-and-white snapshot
image, we must retain it. Photog- we'll explain later in this chapter, a films are rated 125, but a few are rated
raphy's name is derived from two meter is a complex device, and is eas- 400. The film rated ASA 125 is there-
Greek terms meaning, literally, "to ily not essential
misinterpreted. It is fore about one-third as sensitive to
write with light." In the camera, light for general photography outdoors by light as the other type. Stated con-
"writes," of course, by striking the film. daylight, where most of our pictures versely, the ASA 400 film is about
Controlling this is a matter of correct probably will be made. On a typical, three times more sensitive to light
exposure. clear, sunny day, the intensity of day- than the ASA 125 film is. Again, the
Every photographic exposure must light will not vary much from place essential point here is that all films are
deal with four variable elements. to place; nor will it change much from not the same, and their response to
These are: one such day to the next. Thus it light must be known. The ASA rating,
should be possible to estimate this in- or film speed, is supplied by the manu-
1 The intensity of light on the sub- tensity under various weather condi- facturer and usually can be found on
ject, or the brightness of that sub- tions with some degree of accuracy, and the film carton. Incidentally, there are
ject's reflection to the camera. to do it closely enough to be useful other rating systems used in other
2 The sensitivity of the film to this for exposure calculations, yet arbi- countries, but all film of foreign manu-
light. trarily enough to be simple. The essen- facture sold in America will contain
3 The length of time light reaches tial point to grasp here is that daylight the ASA rating.
the film. varies in intensity according to a num-
4 The amount of light that reaches ber of factors, but that many of these Shutter Time
the film. factors are common enough to be eas-
ily quantified. Whether we use a meter Once we know the intensity of light
Let's consider each of these elements to measure the light or depend on a on the subject and the film sensitivity,
in turn. simple, empirical method, we have to only two questions remain: how much
judge the intensity of that light be- light should reach the film, and for
Light Intensity cause it affects our exposure. how long. Let's consider the latter
element next: the question of time.
In the early days of photography, cal- Film Sensitivity We control the length of time we
culating an exposure was a simple expose tlie film by the camera's shut-
matter. Exposure times were long be- Films differ from one another in many ter. Most shutters are located either
cause plates were not very sensitive. ways, the most important of which is within the lens of a camera or just in
Most photographs were therefore their sensitivity to light. When pho- front of the film. The former generally
made only in bright daylight, and it tographers want to describe how sensi- are known as leaf shutters (or between-
was considered a mark of superior tive to light a film is, they generally the-lens shutters); the latter are focal-
craftsmanship and ability if, as many use the term film speed. In the United plane shutters. Each name is descrip-
a tintype studio claimed on their States this speed or sensitivity is ex- tive of its general location within the
mattes, "good pictures can be made in pressed as a designation on a rating camera. On modern cameras, the shut-
cloudy and rainy weather." Today, of scale approved by the American Na- ter may be a very complex mechanism,
course, we make photographs in a tre- tional Standards formerly
Institute, but its function is a simple one. By
mendous variety of light conditions, known as the American Standards As- opening and closing, it permits light
and a more precise means to measure sociation. The film speed, therefore, is to reach the film and record the image
the intensity of that light, or how known as an ASA rating. One film may on it. Thus it exposes the picture.
much of it is reflected to the camera by be rated 50 and another film rated Single-lens reflex cameras usually
the subject, is needed. 400; this means that the 400 film is contain a focal-plane shutter. This
56 Cameras and exposure
consists of a two-section or slotted cur- older cameras may have slightly dif- multiplied by time. Time, as we have
tain moving across the plane of the ferent markings, but the idea is the seen, is controlled by the shutter; liglit
film.The width of the slot, or the dis- same: each setting provides half or is controlled by the lens aperture.
tance between the two sections, can be double the time of adjacent ones. The aperture (also known as the
varied, as can the speed of their travel. Stated another way, moving the shutter diaphragm, stop, or // stop) is an open-
These variations result in different one setting will change the expo- ing formed by a series of pivoting
times of exposure to the film. sure time by a factor of two. Remem- metal leaves in or near the lens. These
Leaf shutters consist essentially of a ber, however, that we are dealing with leaves change the size of that opening
set of overlapping metal blades or fractions of one second: thus, changing as they move; they form a mechanical
leaves, arranged to open in a few from 125 to 250 cuts the exposure time imitation, and quite a remarkable one,
thousandths of a second when actuated in half; changing from 60 to 15 in- of the iris diaphragm in our own eye.
by the release button. Usually a rather creases the exposure four times. The The camera aperture performs the
intricate gear train is set in motion to important concept here is the factor of same function: by opening getting
control the length of time the leaves two. It's the key to understanding how larger it admits more light to the
stay open, variable from one second to exposure times are set on the camera. camera. By closing getting smaller-
a mere y^oo or even %ooo ^^ ^ second The shutter scale may also include itreduces the amount of light reach-
before the blades close. The more time B and T settings. When set at B the ing the film. The aperture leaves are
settings a shutter provides, the more shutter will remain open as long as mechanically independent from the
complex (and expensive) it will be. the release button is held down.* shutter blades, although they often are
On some newer cameras intended Thus the B setting is useful for expo- similar in appearance and are located
for snapshots and containing auto- sures lasting longer than one second. close to each other.
matic exposure systems, the shutter The T
setting (time) is similarly used, Apertures are marked in // num-
may be electronic. The action of this but requires two actions of the expo-
it bers, those mysterious figuresfound on
type is similar to that described above, sure release one to open the shutter lenses which undoubtedly are the most
except that the leaves are held open and another to close it. A flexible cable confusing element of basic photog-
by an electronic light-sensing device release is strongly recommended to raphy. To understand f/ numbers
rather than a gear train. When the avoid jarring the camera while the clearly, we must first have an acquain-
sensor has absorbed enough light for shutter is open. Screw one end of the tance with another term: focal length.
proper exposure, the circuit releases cable into the shutter release on Let's see what the term focal length
the blades and the shutter closes. With the camera, and press the plunger on means. \Vhen parallel rays of light,
an electronic shutter, it is important to the other end to make the exposure. which come from very far away, pass
hold the camera very still during ex- through a camera lens, they are bent
posures in dim light, for the shutter The Aperture inward and come to a point, or focus,
may automatically remain open as long some distance behind the lens. The
as ten seconds. Exposures in bright To review for a moment, once the in- focal length of a lens is the distance
light, of course, are relatively in- tensity of light on the subject and the from its optical center to this point
stantaneous. film sensitivity are known, the expo- (see diagram). More simply stated, fo-
The scale of times for which the sure is simply a matter of the bright- cal length is the distance from the lens
shutter may be set is marked in frac- ness of light reaching the film to the film when that lens is focused on
tions of one second. The most common infinity, that is, on a very distant ob-
designations are 1, 2, 4, 8, 15, 30, 60, ject. This focal length is characteristic
125, 250, 500, and occasionally 1000. The initial B
stands for bulb and is a of each particular lens and is constant;
Remember: these numbers represent throwback to the days when nearly all it does not change even though the
camera shutters were operated by
fractions. 1 is one second, 2 is a half lens may be moved farther away from
squeezing a rubber bulb at the end of a
second, 4 is a fourth of a second, 500 is long air tube. The name survives to desig- the film to focus on objects closer to
Vsoo of '^ second, and so forth. Some nate a similar action on modern cameras. the camera. We'll explain focal length
Cameras and exposure 57
Lens Focused
Object at
on Infinity
Infinity
I
The focal length of a lens.
Focal Length
more fully in Chapter 11, but for now actually measuring the diameter of the amount of light passing through
let's return to the aperture. the lens opening, we must remember the lens in half; as we move to each
Most cameras use what is known as that we're really concerned with how lower number, we double the amount
the ratio system to designate relative much light comes through the open- of light that can pass through. This is
aperture settings. The symbol for this ing, not merely how wide it is. because each if number is a fraction
is the // number, and it expresses the ^Vhen light enters a window, it comes of the focal length; smaller aperture
diameter of the opening as a fraction through the entire window, not just diameters are smaller fractions, which
of the focal length. For example, an the width. So it is that light comes have larger denominators. Hence f/ 8
f/4 lens has an opening whose diam- through the entire opening of the lens: is a smaller opening than f/5.6, and
eter is one-fourth its focal length; an it comes through the area of the aper- admits half as much light; f/11 passes
f/2 lens has an opening whose diam- ture rather than its diameter. one-fourth the light of t/ 5.6 (1/2 X 1/2)
eter is half its focal length; an f/16 If we set a lens at f/4 (diameter one- and f, 16 passes one-eighth the light of
lens, a diameter one-sixteenth its fourth its focal length), a certain f/5.6 (14 X 1/2 X 1/2). All other aper-
focal length. \Vhile the focal length of amount of light will come through the tures are similarly related.
a remains constant does not
lens rather large opening provided. Now As a rule, only a portion of the f/
change the diameter or size of the let's close down the aperture setting stop progression is found on any single
aperture can be easily changed by the to f/5.6. The diameter is now smaller camera. The lens may not close down
adjustable diaphragm. We can take an (it will divide into the focal length 5.6 all the way to f/32, nor open as far as
f/4 lens and move its aperture control times), but if we compute the area of f 2. The maximum aperture of any
to f '5.6, or f/8, or f/11, or even to this smaller circle (using the formula lens depends on its design,and some-
positions in between these numbers. A = TT)--, we'll discover that this area times that maximum falls in between
All we dochange the diameter of
is ishalf that of the f/4 opening. Stated the more familiarnumbers. Hence
the lens opening in relation to its again, by moving the aperture setting many reflex camera lenses have a max-
constant focal length. from f/4 to f '5.6, we've cut the area imum aperture of f/3.5; maximum
The f/ numbers usually found on of the opening in half. And by cutting apertures of f/4. 5, 4.7, and 6.3 are also
modern lenses read like this: 2, 2.8, 4, the area in half, of course, we've also found occasionally on older lenses.*
5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22, 32, etc. Obviously cut in half the amount of light that
this is not a simple progression, so let's can enter. Make the window only half " of a lens is designated by
The "speed"
consider it a moment. Each f/ number as large and only half as much light
itsma.vimum aperture: this and its focal
(or f/ stop) in this series represents a can get in it's as simple as that. length usually are marked on the lens
diameter of the aperture as a fraction Now, back to our f/ number pro- mount. Thus a lens designated f=l:2.8/
of the focal length. From our earlier gression we looked at a few moments 80mm is described as an eighty milli-
meter, f/2.8 lens. Note, however, that
discussion we, will recall that at f/2, ago. The usual sequence found on
lens speed is different from shutter speed:
for example, the diameter is half the cameras is: 2, 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22, the speed of a lens refers only to its larg-
focal length; one-eighth the
at f/8, 32. As we move the diaphragm to each est aperture, which admits the most
focal length, and so on. Wliile we are higher number in this series, we cut light.
5
^JL_ML.'^
i
John T. Daniels: Wright Brothers' First Flight from Kitty Hawk, N. C, 1903. The Library of Congress.
Relating the Shutter and Aperture time, and a correct exposure for a sit- one of these combinations of settings,
uation is second at f/16, 14 q at
142.5 say i/jon at f/8, however, will not be
We can now see that the normal aper- f/11 would also be correct, as would the same as the image created by an-
ture scale, like the shutter scale, varies %o This rela-
at f/22 or 1/500 at f/8- other across the scale, say, I/30 at f/32.
by a factor of two. Moving the aper- tionship between equivalent exposure ^V'^hilethe exposure given the film is
ture setting one number (one position) combinations may be more apparent the same, the lens affects light rays dif-
halves or doubles the amount of light when they are arranged like this: ferently at smaller apertures than at
reaching the film; moving the shutter
setting one position halves or doubles
the length of time light reaches the Mooo VoOO yoso yi25 Veo Vso
film. Earlier we noted that once the etc.
intensity of light on the subject and f/5.6 f/8 f/11 f/16 f/22 f/32
tlie sensitivity of the film were known,
Exposures for Average Subjects The table below relates these four enough that its main features can be
in Daylight elements over a wide range of daylight memorized.
conditions that are fairly predictable.
Now we can construct a workable Most mistakes in exposure are due Bracketing
system for average exposures in day- to ignoring one of its four basic ele-
light, based on the idea that every ments, rather than from miscalculat- If still uncertain about the cor-
you're
exposure calculation contains four ele- ing. The exposure given in the table, rect exposure to give a situation, try
ments. To repeat, these are: of course, is only one of several correct bracketing. This requires three expo-
choices available for any given situa- sures of the subject on separate frames.
1 The intensity of light on the sub- tion. Once a combination of shutter Give the first frame the exposure indi-
ject (light conditions); time and // stop is chosen from the cated by the table, the other frames
2 The sensitivity of the film to light table, any equivalent combination may half and double the first. For instance,
(ASA rating); be used. Applied in this manner with if an exposure of ^25 ^^ f/8 is indi-
3 The length of time light reaches reasonable care, the exposure table is cated, expose one frame at those set-
the film (shutter setting); a workable guide which should serve tings. Expose a second frame for ^125
4 The amount of light which reaches you well until you master a photoelec- at f 11, and a third for 1425 ^t f/5.6.
the film (aperture). tric exposure meter. And it's simple (Alternatively, the aperture may be
Set the shutter time equal to 1/ASA rating (example: for ASA 125 film, set
the shutter at 1425 second). Then use the following apertures for the light
conditions described.
This table usable from aboiu an hour after sunrise until about an hour
is
before sunset, and is only a guide: it must be modified for subjects that are
darker or lighter than average, for backlighted subjects (where light comes
directly toward the camera from behind the subject), and for extreme North
and South latitudes. For example:
For average subjects in light sand or snow, use one f/ stop smaller.
For light-colored subjects, use one f/ stop smaller.
For darker-than-average subjects, use one f/ stop larger.
For backlighted subjects, use two f/ stops larger.
For extreme North and South latitudes, use one f/ stop larger.
60 Cameras and exposure
held constant and the shutter time selenium cell, which generates a tiny sitivity; accidental exposure to direct
similarly varied.) Choose the resulting flow of electricity in proportion to the sunlight usually will desensitize the
negative that has the best range of intensity of the light. This current is meter for several hours. "When first
tones; avoid using bracketed frames measured by a highly sensitive gal- turned on, readings from these meters
that have clear shadows (caused by too vanometer, or electric meter, which is tend to be erratic; a few minutes are
little exposure) or very dense, gray connected to a pointer or scale. The needed for them to "settle down."
highlights (caused by too much). scale converts light intensities mea- Cadmium sulfide (CdS) meters gener-
sured by the meter into exposure in- ally are much more sensitive than se-
formation that can be applied directly lenium types to low levels of illumina-
Exposure Meters to the camera. tion (some may be used in moonlight),
The selenium cell used in these but they cost more than selenium
One of the best investments a serious meters may be as large as a silver meters with similar features.
photographer can make is the pur- dollar, making them more suitable for In spite of these problems, meters
chase of his own photoelectric expo- hand-held designs than for building small enough to be built into cameras
sure meter. A good meter can be a into cameras. Because this type of have obvious advantages, especially for
photogiapher's most trusted tool. It is meter generates its own electrical en- routine work. But they have limita-
more accurate than the daylight table ergy, it is simple, and can be made tions too, particularly if wide-angle or
given in these pages and is useful in a reliable. Selenium meters, however, are telephoto lenses are used. In these
much greater variety of photographic limited by their relative insensitivity cases the instruction manual for the
situations. A reliable exposure meter at low levels of illumination. They are specificcamera should be consulted.
can help make your technique syste- moderate in cost. And if a built-in meter breaks down,
matic and your results repeatable. Photoconductive meters generally the entire camera must be taken out
Some meters can even be used directly use a photoresistive element that re- of service to get it repaired.
to help visualize the final print. But quires a separate source of electrical Meters are designed to measure light
an exposure meter is very fragile. It energy, and that acts as a valve to con- in two ways. Most read light reflected
can easily be abused and rendered in- trol the flow of current in a circuit. to them from the subject, just as it is
accurate, and for most people a good Increased light striking the element reflected to the lens of a camera. Some,
one represents a considerable invest- increases the flow of current, which however, are made to measure the in-
ment. Perhaps the ideal time to turn again is measured by a sensitive gal- tensity of incident light light coming
to one is when a new camera is ac- vanometer as in the other type. Photo- from its source as it falls on the sub-
quired for your own use; many new conductive elements usually are made ject. Incident light meters are popular
cameras, in fact, have meters built in. of cadmium sulfide and tend to be with motion-picture filmmakers and
In any case, using a meter that must smaller than selenium cells. Therefore with others in studio situations where
circulate among many people, such they lend themselves well to meters the ratio of highlight brightness to
as a student sometimes finds in school that are built into cameras, but are shadow brightness can be controlled.
situations, should be avoided in the also available in hand-held models. Indoors or out, however, most still
interest of reliability as well as con- The photoconductive meter requires photographers work more with light as
venience. You're better off having a power source or battery, often a they find it, and the reflected light
your own. dime-sized mercury cell that has a long meter is therefore more useful to them.
working life, but the cell must periodi- Each electrical type selenium and
Meter Types cally be checked for strength or read- CdS is made in each measuring mode
ings will be unreliable. These meters incident and reflected; all four com-
Photoelectric exposure meters avail- are prone to other problems too: binations are available. Furthermore,
able today are of two types: photo- lengthy storage in total darkness or most reflected meters that are not built
generative and photoconductive. In brief exposure to very bright light into cameras can be converted to read
the first type, light is focused on a change the cadmium sulfide cell's sen- incident light by a simple attachment
Cameras and exposure 61
usually supplied -vvith them. To make They can't tell what they're pointed
a choice, then,perhaps the most useful at. Meters are designed to "see" every-
and reliable meter for a beginning still thing as medium gray. Most problems
photographer is the selenium cell with their use are caused by our fail-
type designed for reflected light. There ure to realize this fact. For any value
are a number of these on the market, other than medium gray, meter read-
but the Weston Master exposure ings must be interpreted by the pho-
meter, illustrated here, is one of the tographer. If the meter is aimed at a
best and over the years has been ex- white wall, for example, it will yield
tremely popular. It is highly recom- exposure information that will result
mended. in a medium gray wall in the print. If
the meter pointed at a dull, black
is
other hand, will determine how clearly meters to measure the same angle of
the light gray tones in the print are view as the camera lens does. There-
produced. Of the two steps, exposure fore they usually should be aimed at
is the more critical because it records the subject from the camera position.
the image on the film; what isn't re- Some newer meters have optical view-
corded can't be developed. Exposure, ing frames built into them to help
therefore, more than any other single make aiming more accurate. Meters
factor, determines the technical qual- differ considerably in this respect, how-
ity of the photographic image. ever, and the manufacturer's instruc-
Meters seem so sophisticated that it tions for each type should be carefully
is easy to forget that they cannot think. followed.
62 Cameras and exposure
66
Light: the designing element
black-and-white work the actual color yellowish if the direct rays of the sun
68 of the exposing light is much less are dominant. Our eyes adapt them-
Light: the designing element 69
72
Light: the designing element 73
Texture
same way. Light must come from one that requires a reasonably correct ex-
direction, preferably the side or rear posure.
(in relation to the subject), and must Strong, directional light, so neces-
rake or skim across the surface rather sary to fully reveal textured surfaces,
than strike it directly. Focus, of course, can emphasize other qualities for the
must be needle sharp. That all-im- photographer. Ed Cismondi's study
portant sense of being able to visibly from Greece, for example, shows how
"feel" the textured surface is lost in light can impart a feeling of presence
an unsharp image because the bits of to an otherwise monotoned image. Or
light and shadow that make up texture it can eloquently dramatize landscape,
are very small. And finally there is the as Ansel Adams shows us in his classic
tonal scale that shades the surface to Refugio Beach. Additional similar
complete the illusion of reality. This uses, including the effect of soft, dif-
tone must be properly recorded, and fused light, are discussed in Chapter 7.
Ansel Adams: Refugio Beach, California, 1947. Collection: International Museum of Photography.
75
Ldszlo Moholy-Nagy: Photogram, c. 1926. Shadowgraph, 13- by 101/2 in. (34 by 26.7
cm). Collection: The Museum of Modern Art, New York.
The Photogram can painter Man Ray pursued the will selectively absorb some of it be-
technique for its non-representational fore it strikes the sensitive 'film or
When we consider how light may be image possibilities. Many others have paper. Anything will do: the range
used to shape the impression of a since experimented with it. Moholy- of creative possibilities is endless.
photograph, we must not overlook the Nagy named his pictures photograms, Henry Holmes Smith's Giant, for in-
most fundamental way and that, of and the term generally has been ap- stance, demonstrates that the process
course, involves its own mark-making plied ever since to describe similar can be photographic, even
purely
potential. Talbot was the first to ex- cameraless images. though the may appear to be
result
periment with this. In 1835 he pro- The photogram requires nothing closer to painting than to traditional
duced tonally reversed reproductions more than those two indispensable camera imagery. Photograms, now
of botanical specimens and lace, call- photograpliic elements: light and a often combined with other types of
ing them "photogenic drawings." In substance sensitive to it. Customarily, images, are enjoying renewed pop-
tlie early 1920s, the Hungarian painter though, we place in the path of the ularity (see the section on negative
Laszlo Moholy-Nagy and the Ameri- light various objects or substances that images in Chapter 10).
Man Ray: Rayograph, 1943. Collection: The Oakland Museum.
TJ
Henry Holmes Smith: Giant, 1949. Refraction print in positive. From Portfolio II, 1973,
Center for Photographic Studies, Louisville, Kentucky.
78
Light: the designing element 79
Wave motion.
Light
We perceive various wavelengths The wave theory can explain these ac-
within the narrow band of liglit as tions of light, and demonstrate most
different colors. The shortest wave- of its properties.
lengths we call violet, the longest ones we spoke of energy detec-
Earlier
red; all other colors of light lie be- tors such as television and radio re-
tween these two on the spectrum. ceivers and, of course, our own eyes.
When all wavelengths of light are Photographic film provides yet an-
mixed together in sufficient intensity, other group of sensors of special in-
we see the result as white light. At terest to us. What happens when a
lesser intensities the same mixture ap- ray of light, traveling as wave,
a
pears gray. When the intensity is too strikes the film in our camera? It
low for the eye to detect, when all of causes a small but significant change
the light falling on a surface is ab- in the light-sensitive coating, a change
sorbed and none reflected, or when that cannot be satisfactorily explained
light is not present, we see nothing: as a wave effect.
that, of course, we call black. If we think of light as a stream of
Photography as we will practice it particles, however, its action in film
makes use of five basic physical prop- is much easier to understand. Our
erties of light. We've mentioned some basis for this idea comes from Max
of them before, but let's review them: Planck, the German physicist, who
proposed a quantum, or particle the-
1 Light radiates from a luminous ory to explain the movement of
point-source in straight lines, spread- energy, and from Albert Einstein, who
ing outward in all directions. adapted that theory to the behavior
2 Light can be reflected. A mat, of light. Light particles or photons,
white surface reflects most wave- as Einstein called them, act more like
lengths striking it, but scatters those matter than like waves of energy.
reflections in many directions. A mir- When a photon of light (which, inci-
ror reflects light the same way but dentally, is an incredibly small
does not scatter it. amount) strikes sensitive molecules in
3 Light falling on a black surface photographic film, it begins a complex
will be absorbed. Because almost none chain of events that only recently has
is reflected to our eye, that surface begun to yield its secrets to scientists
appears black. through the probing eye of the elec-
4 When light passes from one ma- tron microscope. This basic phe-
terial such as air, to another such as nomenon, in fact, is still being in-
a triangular piece of glass (a prism), vestigated. From what is known,
its waves are bent. This bending is though, appears that light behaves
it
called refraction, and is the basis for like a series of waves to form the image
designing and using lenses. in a camera, but like a stream of
5 Light can be filtered. In any mix- particles to record it on film. But be-
ture of two or more wavelengths such fore we can explain how light affects
as white light, certain waves can be film to produce a picture, we need to
absorbed by a substance while others consider the film itself. Let's do that
are allowed to pass freely through it. next.
Barbara Morgan: Samadhi, 1940. Light Drawing.
81
\ rrr'-T
^E^#!iy-i
Gerhard Gesell: Darn Raising near Alma, Wisconsin, c. 1895. State Historical Society of
Wisconsin.
82
Film and its processing
"You press the button,we do the rest." not completely known, until just a
With that famous advertising slogan, few years ago. Results, of course, were
George Eastman introduced the roll- thoroughly studied, but how they were
film camera to the world nearly a cen- produced remained to some extent a
tury ago. Today, simple, reliable cam- mystery.
eras and the convenience of automated Modern photographic film, like the
exposure systems have made it easy reaction that light produces within it,
Topcoat Layer
Light-Sensitive
Emulsion
Film Base
Anti-Halation
Layer
Enlarged cross-section of a typical photographic film.
The Sensitive Emulsion holds these crystals and the image that
results from them firmly in place. In
Many compounds of silver are photo- cold water gelatin swells but does not
sensitive. They tend to break down or dissolve, thereby permitting other dis-
decompose under the influence of solved chemicals, such as developers,
light, and virtually all photographic to pass through it and get to deeply
processes depend on this effect. The situated crystals as well as those near
most useful of these compounds are the surface. Since 1878 gelatin has
the hali descombina.tions of
silver been a universal emulsion material.
silver with chlorine, iodine, or bro- Gelatin is also used for the thin,
mine. The last mentioned, silver topcoat layer that protects the emul-
bromide, is the most important. Silver sion from mechanical damage such as
bromide crystals are extremely small scratching in the camera. Another ap-
about 500 to 4000 nanometers (.0005 plication for it is found in a thin,
to .004 mm) wide. For this use they colored, anti-halation layer on the
are held in a suspension of gelatin, back of the film base. When a bright
which keeps them separated from one source of light is included in the pic-
another and disperses them evenly ture area, rays from that source strik-
across the film surface. ing the film at an angle (as they will
Gelatin, in fact, plays a very special everywhere except in the center of
role in the manufacture of modern the frame) might travel through the
photographic materials. Made from base and reflect off its far side, re-
the hides^ hooves, and bones of calves exposing the emulsion in a wider area
and cows, gelatin is a remarkable ma- than a direct ray would. This effect
terial. Liquid when hot, it cools and is called halation; it produces fuzzy
cause of their higher sensitivity they tivity can be extended to green and
T. H. O'Sullivan: Steamboat Springs, Nevada, 1868. The Library of Congress.
red wavelengths of light. Orthochro- all colors, with gray tones closely cor-
matic emulsions are sensitive to violet, responding to the value of similar
blue, and green light. They are not colors seen by the eye. Most of our
sensitive to red, however, and thus films are panchromatic, and therefore
can be handled and developed under must be handled and developed in
red safelights. Like the color-blind total darkness.
type, orthochromatic emulsions (called This same sensitizing process can
simply ortho) are used in printing extend the spectral response of film
papers and special-purpose films. beyond light wavelengths into the in-
When an emulsion is sensitized to frared region of the electromagnetic
red as well as green light, it is desig- spectrum up to about 1350 nano-
nated panchromatic (or simply pan). meters, making photography by in-
86 This gives it a balanced response to visible infrared radiation possible.
-'-^-
-h4-^^i-^
V^^=UskJ.ra.i^^
^^
^.
^^,,i:^^r
M
.^^'l'
and security measures now employed are cumulative; multiple screening in-
at airports have made this sensitivity creases the hazard.
a major concern for photographers. The way to minimize this risk
best
The human body can tolerate X-ray is your film with you when
to carry
doses that would ruin photographic traveling by air. Avoid shipping film
film, so any screening unit that is in baggage or suitcases that will be
considered safe for humans should not checked, and if more than five X-ray
be so regarded for undeveloped films. inspections must be tolerated, place
Fogging (non-image exposure) from X the film in protective, X-ray shielding
rays is most noticeable on color films bags.
Film and its processing
Topcoat
Emulsion
Anti-Halation
Layer
Film Base
Thin-Emulsion Films base but under the emulsion, where it pensating developers are required
any halation from
effectively prevents with some of them to realize their in-
Some low-speed films are not typical occurring in either the emulsion or herent advantage. Some manufacturers
of the type diagramed but have
earlier the base. This dye becomes transparent specify particular developers, and
emulsions thinner than normal. The and colorless during development. If those recommendations should be
main advantage of such films is their fine-quality lenses are used on the carefully followed.
ability to record a sharper image with camera and enlarger, and other as-
greater capacity to resolve fine detail. pects of technique are directed to Polaroid Materials
Such an image can withstand a higher produce a high-quality image, the ad-
degree of enlargement before it be- vantage to a photographer can be One other family of films should be
comes noticeably fuzzy. dramatic. mentioned here, and that is the line
This greater sharpness is obtained These films, however, have their of Polaroid-Land materials that pro-
in two ways. First, the thinner emul- drawbacks. Thinner emulsions con- duce their images in 10 to 20 seconds.
sion produces an image with less ac- tain fewer silver halide crystals, re- Because they are fundamentally dif-
tual depth than regular film can do. sulting in lower film speed and very ferent from other black-and-white pho-
Second, the anti-halation layer often little tolerance for error in either ex- tographic materials, they are discussed
is a dye coated on top of the film posure or development. Special com- briefly in Appendix B.
90 Film and its processing
Choosing Your Films layer of gelatin in which are scattered which describes this silver pattern per-
millions of silver bromide crystals. fectly. Subsequent development of the
Which film, then, is the best? Most of Each of these crystals, if greatly magni- picture will begin in this same pat-
us would be well-advised to use medi- fied, would appear to be a cubic ar- tern, for that small but significant
um-speed, general-purpose pan films rangement of alternate silver and change made in silver bromide crystals
for all of our work unless we have a bromine particles called ?or?.5 electri- by light permits the developer to am-
good reason to try something else. cally charged atoms and the whole plify that change many times, form-
Let's get to know what one type of crystal structure would look some- ing a visible image.
film will do experimenting
before thing like a jungle gym.
with others. High-speed films, as a When a photon of light strikes one
rule, should be used only when their of these crystals, sequence
it sets off a
extra sensitivity is needed; medium- of events that results in the forma- Film Processing
speed films will most often give better tion of tiny particles of silver metal.
results in general use. Slow films are These silver particles, invisible even Our exposed film contains the pictures
useful when extreme enlargement is in an optical microscope, do not form we recorded earlier in the camera, but
planned, when maximum tonal qual- everywhere in the crystal but appar- if we were to look at it now, we would
ity in the print is wanted, and when ently only at certain locations called see nothing. Our next step, then, is
the inherent ad\antages of such films sensitivity specks. to make those images visible and per-
can be exploited. To realize their The wliole sequence may be roughly manent: that's what processing does.
benefits thev require more careful ex- visualized if we compare the silver This involves some elementary chem-
posure and development than medi- bromide crystal to a billiard table istry, so let's first consider xuhat hap-
um-speed films do. where we find ourselves behind the pens during processing and xchy, then
"With practice, however, many pho- eight ball. Let the black eight ball how it can easily be done.
tographers find that they can bridge represent a silver ion, the white cue It may be helpful to think of the
the medium-speed group altogether, ball a charge of energy from a bro- film at this point as having two kinds
using a slow film for general work and mine ion, and our cue the exposing of areas, namely, the parts which con-
a fast film only when its extra speed light particle. We
shoot: our cue (pho- tain a latent image that can be de-
is needed. Such a working method re- ton of light) taps the white cue ball veloped (we'll call these the exposed
quires care and skill in all aspects of (energy charge) into the black eight areas), and those parts which have
film and camera handling. It is par- Both balls together
ball (silver ion). not received sufficient light to be de-
ticularly useful to the .85 camera-mm roll into a pocket, where they are veloped, or no light at all (the un-
man, who may find it advantageous to trapped. Now extend your imagina- exposed areas). The former parts will
travel lightly, but there's no reason tion to allow the cue ball and the be the main image areas on the film,
why you can't use the same rationale eight ball to fuse together into a single representing all highlights and mid-
with other formats. still trapped in the pocket.
gray one, dle tones of our pictures. The latter
This would represent an atom of unexposed areas will include the deep-
silver metal held in place at a sensitiv- est shadows of our subject (that will
ity speck.Repeat the preceding se- be black in the finished pictiue) and
The Latent Image quence many times within the same those parts of the film which never
crystal (by additional photons of were exposed in the camera: the bor-
We noted earlier that when light light), and you form an invisible silver ders, spaces between pictures, and an
strikes aphotographic film it behaves pattern. inch or two at each end of the roll.
more like a stream of particles than a This formation of submicroscopic We shall refer, then, to these two parts
wave. With that in mind, now, let's exposed crystals is
silver particles in exposed and unexposed areas as we
look at the film emulsion. From a known as the latent image. Latent describe what takes place in the film
microscopic viewpoint, it is a deep means lying hidden and undeveloped. during each step of the process.
Film and its processing 91
image).* The dissolved silver halides sion will cause the image to ultimately
can then be removed by washing the break down into other silver com-
film with water. pounds, discolor, and fade.
The gelatin by now has become Washing removes fixer and dissolved
quite soft and fragile. It has freely per- silver compounds, leaving only the
mitted water and developer to flow in pure silver image in clean gelatin. The
and out of and this swells and soft-
it, rate at which effectivewashing takes
ens it, normal temperatures.
even at place depends to some extent on the
Touching it at this point might dam- temperature, but is largely governed
age the film surface and with it, the by the molecular structure of the gela-
picture, so we harden the gelatin to tin emulsion. As long as fresh, clean
make our image tough enough to be water is supplied to the film surface
handled with reasonable care. at a steady rate, washing proceeds un-
Hardening the gelatin emulsion is a til the concentration of fixer and dis-
two-step process. The first stage is a solved silver salts is virtually nil.
chemical action by potassium alum Increasing the flow faster than the
that occurs in the fixer. The second gelatin can absorb clean water will not
stage is a hardening that
physical improve the washing or reduce the
takes place as the emulsion dries, and time required for it. Certain chemical
film is not tough enough to endure washing aids may be used to speed up
casual handling until it has dried the process, but these are more val-
completely. uable for washing paper prints, for
which times are much longer. These
Washing washing aids will be discussed in the
next chapter. Completely washing the
After fixing is completed, our film is gelatin emulsion requires only a few
transparent except for its image, which minutes in running water. Then the
is more or less opaque according to the film is dried.
amount of silver produced at any
given point. It contains dissolved silver
compounds produced by the fixer, How to Process Rollfilm
however, and also the residual fixer it-
self. All of these dissolved chemicals Now let's outline a working procedure
must be completely removed from the to do all this. A darkroom is needed
fixed emulsion in order to make only to load the developing tank. It
the image permanent. Any substantial must be totally dark. A small, window-
traces of them remaining in the emul- less room or closet usually will meet
this requirement, especially at night.
The remaining operationsmay be
" Sodium thiosulfate was used to dissolve done normal room light; at home,
in
silver salts as early as 1819 by Sir John a kitchen sink or bathroom basin is
Herschel, who called it, inaccurately, convenient and adequate.
"hyposulphite of soda" (see Chapter 2). Once the process has begun it goes
Today pnotographers still refer to it as rather quickly, so it is important to
"hypo." Correctly speaking, "hypo" is
sodium thiosulfate, but the term is loosely get together everything you will need
applied to any fixing solution. before you begin. That will include:
Film and its processing 93
Your exposed film. Loading the Tank the Paterson tank is designed as a
A suitable developing tank. The modular system, making it possible to
ones pictured here are available The developing tank must be loaded stack several rolls of the same type
from most photo dealers and are in total darkness. Once this accom-
is film in one tank for simulta-
large
highly recommended. plished, the rest of the operation may neous processing. In smaller sizes it
A plastic funnel. be done in normal room light. Let's costs about the same as similar steel
A graduated measuring cylinder or look at the tank. tanks.
cup as large as the tank. Most serious photographers prefer The Kodak plastic tank is the easiest
A thermometer made for photo- a stainless-steel, spiral-reel tank like for the beginner to load, and since
graphic use. that illustrated here for developing proper loading is essential for good
A timer (your watch will do roll and 35 mm film. This type fills, results, this is a real advantage. It has
nicely). empties, and transfers heat quickly; it no reel but uses a crinkly-edged plastic
Two wooden spring-type clothes- cleans easily, dries rapidly, and per- apron or separator instead. This tank
pins. mits smooth, even development. The cannot be inverted, however, and
A bottle of developer solution. tank has only two shortcomings: its smooth development requires very
A bottle of fixer solution. spiral reels are difficult for the unini- careful agitation. Only one roll of
10 Concentrated wetting agent. tiated person to load, and it is mod- 120 film can be loaded in this tank,
erately expensive, especially in larger but it is popular and inexpensive.*
If you are developing 35 mm film, sizes.
you'll also need a pair of scissors and The Paterson plastic tank has most
a cassette opener (a bottle opener will of the advantages of the steel type. It,
**
With an additional apron and weight,
do). A plastic dishpan may also be may be
inverted for smooth, even
too,
two rolls of 35 mm film can be loaded,
helpful if the temperature in your development, and its reel is not too one on top of the other, in the Kodak
work area is not about 70 F (21 C). difficult to load. Like the steel type. plastic tank.
94 Film and its processing
darkness at their female end, as illus- With the Kodak plastic tank, be
trated, and the film trimmed squarely certain the plastic separator is clean
with scissors to remove its narrow and exactly the same width as your
tongue and the first inch or two before film.A 127 size separator is supplied
loading the reel. Instamatic cartridges with some of these tanks; it is too
(110 and 126) can be opened in the wide for 35 mm
film and will ruin that
dark by holding their two chambers, size.
one in each hand, with your thumbs When you have everything in your
on the cartridge label. Then bend the work area organized, turn out all
cartridge back over your thumbs until lights and load the tank. After the
it breaks, remove the roll of film from film is completely in the tank and the
one end, and separate it from its paper lid secured on it, the light may be
Careful attention to tliese three points the sink to dislodge air bubbles that
will insure predictable results. Don't may stick to the film and prevent even
be casual about them. Start timing, for development.
example, as you fill the tank. Wlien Thereafter, at regular intervals, agi-
time is up, empty the tank as quickly tate the developing tank. Capped steel
as possible. Be consistent about this tanks with spiral reels should be
from roll to roll. slowly inverted, as shown in the dia-
The temperature of the developer gram, then returned to their former
and all other solutions, including the Uncapped tanks like the
position.
running wafer wash, should be as close Kodak one must be handled differ-
to 68 F (20 C) as possible, preferably ently: a slow, lazy, figure-eight move-
2 F (1 C). Use a good thermom- ment has been found provide goodto
eter, and check it periodically against agitation. Points to watch: avoid vig-
a more accurate one if possible. If you orous agitation that might knock the
accidentally drop yours, check it be- film out of its position in the tank.
fore you use it again. Most developers \Vhatever agitation pattern you use,
may be used at temperatures other it is important to be as consistent as
than 68 F (20 C), but those above possible from one roll to the next.
78 F (25.5 C) should be avoided Many photographers prefer a specific
since they might cause reticulation, pattern such as 5 seconds every half
which is a rippled, uneven, permanent minute, or 10 seconds each minute.
swelling of the gelatin emulsion. At Neither is better than the other; con-
temperatures below 65 F (18 C), sistency is what matters.
some developing chemicals become in- 2 Rinsing. When the developing
active and cannot give proper results. time is up, pour the developer quickly
Avoid this situation, too. out of the tank without removing the
From here on, specific instructions lid. The used developer should be dis-
will \ar) somewhat according to the carded unless you have been specifi-
kind of film, tank, developer, and cally instructed otherwise. The tank
fixer you use. Development times and must remain closed, of course, since
similar instructions should be ob- the film is still light-sensitive. Rinse
tained locally for your particular situa- the film by immediately filling the
tion. Most of this information is sup- tank with water, gently agitating for
plied with the products you will use; about a minute, and then discarding
follow it with care. A general working the rinse water. Again, keep the tank
sequence is outlined here. closed.
$ Fixing. Next measured
pour a
1 Developing. Prepare your devel- amount of fixer into and
the tank,
oper, check its temperature, and de- treat the film for about 5 minutes
termine the proper developing time. with the same agitation as before. This
Now start the timer and pour the pre- step is not as sensitive to temperature
measured quantity of developer into as development is, but the precautions
the tank with one, smooth, continuous outlined earlier shoidd be observed.
pour. Do not pause, and try not to Film should be fixed for twice the time
96 Film and its processing
How to agitate steel developing tanks (left). How to agitate the Kodak plastic developing
tank (right).
required to clear the milky appearance film in the tank, on the reel or apron,
(undissolved silver bromide) from its to wash it, and adjust the stream of
emulsion. This also will insure ade- water so that it flows completely
quate hardening. Any trace of milki- through the tank. With most tanks,
ness remaining indicates inadequate the flow should be directed straight
fixing. down the center of the reel (remove
Most fixers are recyclable; usually the weight from the Kodak plastic
they may be reused for many rolls tank).At recommended temperatures,
of film (as many as 100 rolls per gallon 10 minutes will provide adequate
over a two-month period) and so washing for most purposes, but 20
should not be discarded after each use. minutes will assure greater perma-
Furthermore, fixer is ecologically nence.
harmful, in large quantities, to dis- 5 Wetting Agent. Washed film
posal systems, but it can be processed must be can
dried, but at this point it
to remove its toxic ingredients and easilybe damaged and must be han-
recover valuable silver before its re- dled with great care. A wetting agent
lease. In any case, don't discard used used between washing and drying will
fixer down the drain if a recycling minimize waterspotting on the film
system is in use; it is wasteful and and hasten the drying process. It is
ecologically unwise. particularly useful in areas where the
4 Washing. After fixing is com- water is "hard," that is, where it nor-
pleted, the film must be washed. Now mally has a high content of dissolved
remove the tank cover, since the film minerals. The Kodak brand, Photo-
is no longer light-sensitive. Leave the Flo 200 Solution, is convenient and
Film and its processing 97
gelatin is now hardening and any con- ible effect can have several causes, in-
tactwith another substance will mark cluding those related to exposure in
itpermanently. While the film is dry- the camera. Most can be easily identi-
ing it might curl, but when it has fied, but only by checking several as-
dried completely it will flatten out pects of the processed film and by
again. going back over your procedures. In a
When the film is flat and the bottom school situation, your instructor or lab
feels dry to the touch, take it down assistant can point out what to look
and cut it into convenient strips to fit for and how to interpret it.
negative protectors. These inexpensive For easy reference, the main steps
glassine wrappers, available from of film processing are summarized in
photo dealers, are a convenient way the following table.
98
Printing and enlarging 6
be an art, and the exposure and de- only one print is intended, the capac-
velopment of film a science, nowhere ity for duplicates is there.
in photography do these disciplines Furthermore, the rich variety of con-
come together more directly than in temporary work has served to blur
making the print. The experience of boundaries between traditional print-
making a fine photographic print is making processes. In particular, the
both a sensitive visual exploration and silk-screen process and lithography are
a highly disciplined scientific process. freely combined with the photo-
In the former sense, it involves some graphic process. This chapter, how-
of the same creative questions posed ever, concerns itself with a contem-
to the photographer by camerawork. porary approach to traditional silver
And in the latter respect, printing is print making. Other processes of cur-
much like processing film; similar rent interest that are not too complex
steps have similar reasons. are discussed in Chapter 10.
Most important, perhaps, photo- In photographic printing we cus-
graphic printing has all the attraction tomarily take a negative, whose light
of traditional print making by other and dark values are reversed from
means, such as silk-screening, lithogra- their original order, and make an-
phy, and engraving. All of our creative other negative image by passing light
effort can be applied to make an indi- through the first. A negative of a nega-
vidual statement, yet once arrived at, tive, of course, is a positive; both
that statement can easily be dupli- terms, in fact, were given us by Sir
cated.This principle has been funda- John Herschel in 1840 and we still use
mental to photography since Talbot them today.
100 Printing and enlarging
Vivitar E 34, Omega D2V, and Durst M 601 Enlargers. CouUesy Ponder & Best, Inc., Simmon Omega, Inc., and Durst USA.
The Enlarger Because modern cameras increasingly 3 It must be sturdy, and free from
rely on small formats (16 mm cartridge vibration or slippage of its adjust-
The cornerstone of virtually all con- cameras are a good example), the en- able parts.
temporary photographic printing pro- larger has become an important link
cesses is the enlarger. A good one can in the sequence of tools we use to The types illustrated here are a few
be a remarkably versatile tool, serving move from our original impression of of several excellent ones available at
numerous functions in addition to its the object to the final expression of reasonable prices. Some come apart for
more obvious ones. A poor enlarger, its image. compact storage and travel, and many
on the other hand, will only serve to The enlarger, then, is a vertically have features to make routine work
limit the photographer's vision in the oriented projector, with the same es- efficient. The enlarger lens has an ad-
same way that any shoddy tool affects sential parts that a camera or any justable aperture with f/ stops just
the work done with it. Equally impor- other projector has: a lens to form and like thoseon the camera. Its quality is
tant, a poor enlarger can negate all the project the image, a frame to hold the very important; an excellent enlarging
effort and fine craftsmanship ex- negative in the correct position, and lens can cost as much as the enlarger
pended earlier to visualize the picture a bellows or cone to connect them. In itself, but such a lens is necessary to
and obtain a good negative. addition, it has another key part not complement similarly high-quality op-
The enlarger works like a camera found in cameras: a source of light. tics on a camera. As with cameras,
in reverse. Instead of reducing the Any good enlarger has three essen- used enlargers are available from
larger dimensions of the real world to tial characteristics: many photographic dealers, and a
a few square inches of film as the cam- simple test can be devised to clieck for
era does, the enlarger expands the im- 1 It must project a clear, sharp im- the three characteristics listed above.
age produced by the camera so the age of all parts of the frame. Most enlargers contain a milky-
resulting picture can be more easily 2 It must distribute light evenly over white light bulb as the illumination
seen, physically and psychologically. the entire projected area. source. This scatters and softens the
Printing and enlarging 101
Lamphouse
Filter Holder
Condenser Lenses
Negative Stage
L
, p i Enlarging Lens
light before it is directed through a general work, but the acetate form
set of condensor lenses spread to be colors the raw it reaches
light before
evenly over the negative frame below. the negative; does not interrupt the
it
Add a good enlarging lens under the projected image and thus cannot
negative holder, and you have an op- soften or distort the latter. Either
tical system that can project an image type, of course, must be kept clean.
of excellent contrastand definition. In addition to the enlarger, a few
Most modern enlargers have a filter accessories are needed to make a work-
drawer somewhere in the housing con- able system. Most important are these:
taining the lamp and condensor
lenses. This drawer is used to hold 1 A sable brush to remove dust from
colored filters needed to work with the negative.
variable-contrast papers or different 2 A set of variable-contrast printing
filters required if the enlarger is also filters.
used for making color prints. Variable- 3 A timer. One that switches the en-
contrast printing filters are supplied larger on and
off is most efficient,
in two forms: as thin, dyed, acetate but any clock with a second hand
squares which must be cut to fit the that can be read in very dim light
enlarger's filter drawer, or as flat, will do.
plastic frames which usually fasten 4 A proofing frame for making con-
under the lens instead. Acetate filters tact sheets.
are inexpensive but easily soiled; the 5 An easel to hold the photographic
other form is more durable but more paper flat while enlargements are
costly. Either kind is satisfactory for exposed.
102 Printing and enlarging
quality, paper for photographic pur- are made in others such as cream,
poses can withstand long immersion ivory, and buff.
in chemicals and water without disin- 3 Water resistance. Most paper base
tegrating as ordinary paper would. It absorbs water and chemical solutions
generally has a coating of barium sul- readily, requiring considerable wash-
fate (baryta) to improve its smooth- ing to remove the latter. Recently,
ness and provide a whiter reflective however, resin-coated paper has been
surface for the emulsion that is coated introduced for general use. This new
on it. type is highly resistant to saturation
Paper emulsions contain crystals of and therefore washes very quickly, but
silver bromide and silver chloride, or this "RC" paper, as it is designated,
chloride crystals alone. Silver chloride must be air-dried. It cannot be han-
emulsions are very slow and produce dled on conventional drying equip-
a neutral black tone; they are used ment.
almost entirely for contact printing, 4 Processing mode. Most photo-
where the print and negative are the graphic papers are intended for wet
same size and are exposed together to processing by conventional developing
a bright, direct light source without an and fixing methods. A few types, how-
enlarger. Enlarging papers contain ever, are designed for stabilization
both silver chloride and silver bro- processing, which produces a damp-
mide. If chloride crystals dominate the dry print in 10 to 15 seconds. The
mixture, the paper is moderately slow image is stabilized rather than fixed;
and produces a brownish tone, but it will last long enough for many uses,
6 Tone, the color of the developed methods are widely employed, but the
image. This varies from a warm latter is advantageous to the beginner
brown-black through neutral to cold as well as the skilled photographer,
blue-black. Slightly warm-to-neutral and its use is strongly recommended.
blacks are typical.
7 Surface texture. This affects reflec- Graded Paper
tive characteristics of the paper and
therefore its depth of tone and image Graded paper is made in several con-
contrast. Glossy finish is the most com- trasts numbered from 1 through 6, or
mon and versatile. It can be dried to very soft through extremely hard,
a high gloss or a lustrous, brilliant respectively.Lower-numbered grades
finish, and for that reason is the first have long exposure scales; this means
choice of many workers. Other sur- that they require much longer ex-
faces such as mat and luster are widely posures to produce a black tone than
used, and special textures (silk, tweed, to yield a very light gray, and are best
canvas) are available on a few papers suited to negatives with a great range
used mainly in the portrait trade. of gray tones in them. Higher-num-
8 Contrast, or exposure scale. This is bered grades, on the other hand, have
one of the most important character- shorter exposure scales; they produce
istics of photographic paper, and the their black tones with relatively
most difficult to understand. We have smaller increases in exposure than the
listed it last in order to give it a closer other types do from a normal neg-
look. ative, and are therefore suited to
negatives whose tones are likewise
closer to one another in value. Stated
Paper Contrast another way, low-number grades are
for high-contrast negatives (those with
In the preceding chapter we discussed clear shadows and dense highlights);
how to process film to a strip of nega- high-number grades are for low-con-
tives. If your negatives are typical, trastnegatives (which appear rather
some will appear generally darker uniformly gray). Intermediate grades,
than others, and within each negative of course, are for negatives of average
some areas will look thin or trans- contrast, and these usually contain a
parent, while others appear dark or few weak shadows, a few dense high-
opaque. The range, or difference be- lights, and many shades of gray in
tween these lightest and darkest areas between. Graded paper, then, solves
within each negative is what we call the problem of contrast, but requires
contrast. the user to keep several grades (there-
All negatives, then, do not have the fore several packages) on hand.
same tonal range, so we need a
method to adapt their different ranges Variable-Contrast Paper
to the exposure scale of photographic
paper. There are two ways to do this: A more convenient way to deal with
by using different grades of paper, negatives of varying contrast is to print
each with its own exposure scale, or them on variable-contrast paper. This
by using variable contrast paper. Both remarkable material combines the ex-
104 Printing and enlarging
give identical results with every type. lights, as a rule, are not absolutely
Because one kind of paper can thus safe; most will expose enlarging paper
be adapted to widely differing neg- left under them too long or placed
atives, variable-contrast materials are too close to the lamp. Those in gen-
suited to both single-sheet and con- eral use are safe for about 5 minutes
tinuous-roll processing. In the latter if the paper is no closer than four
system, individual prints are made in feet. Paper not being used should be
Printing and enlarging 105
tray, paper developer will quickly " 28% acetic acid is first prepared from
stabilize at the temperature of the glacial (99.5%) acetic acid. Dilute 3 parts
room. As with film, about 68 F of glacial acid with 8 parts of water to
(20C) is best for all solutions. make a 28% solution. Glacial acetic acid
is poisonous and highly irritating; ob-
Powerful developers such as these all precautions on the label and
serve
require an efficient means to stop de- always pour the acid into the water,
velopment when it has fully revealed never the opposite.
106 Printing and enlarging
1 Place the empty negative carrier in to make sure it is evenly wet. Rubber- onds, and develop as before. Try to
the enlarger and focus a rectangle of tipped print tongs are convenient for and exposure time that
find the f/ stop
white light about 10 by 12 in. on the this purpose; handle the print gently will give you a good contact sheet
baseboard. Center the contact proofing with them, since it is fragile and easily (showing both highlight and shadow
frame or foam pad in this lighted area. damaged. Rock the tray slowly and detail) with 3 minutes development.
Stop the enlarger lens down about continuously during development by Make a note of those settings for fu-
halfway and insert a No. 2 or 21/2 filter repeatedly lifting one corner of the ture reference.
in its holder. A typical setup is shown tray an inch or so to keep the devel- 5 Now transfer the print to the fix-
in the photograph here. Turn off the oper in continuous motion. You'll no- ing bath. Agitate it for about a min-
enlarger light. tice that as development progresses, ute, and occasionally thereafter, by
2 Now remove a sheet of photo- shadow areas appear first, then middle gently rocking the tray. Fix the print
graphic paper from its package. Note tones, and finally highlight details can for the minimum time recommended
that one side is shiny and usually curls be seen. Develop with continuous agi- for the type of fixer used; usually this
inward; this is the sensitive side, and tation for 3 full minutes, or for the will be about 10 minutes. Be sure to
it must always face toward the en- maximum time recommended by the agitate the print occasionally with
larger light. Place it face up in the paper manufacturer.* tongs while it is in the fixing bath.
proofing frame (or on the foam pad). 4 Stop development by transferring Norm.ally we fix many prints simul-
Next, carefully lay your negative strips your print to the stop bath tray, and taneously in the same tray; if you work
face doion on the enlarging paper. The agitate it there for 13 seconds. If the this way, be sure they do not stick
face, or emulsion side of the negative print is too dark, expose a new sheet together, or incomplete and uneven
also curls slightly inward as a rule, and of paper under the enlarger as before, fixing will result. After each print has
it is always the duller of the two sides. using a smaller f/ stop or less time. fixed for the required time, transfer it
Let the safelight reflect off each side If your first print is too light, repeat to the tray of water.
for a moment, and you'll be able to the procedure using a larger f/ stop 6 You may now remove the print
identify them. Then with all negatives or more time. Another way do this
to from the darkroom and inspect it in
in place on the paper, lower the plate is to cut several trial strips about 2i/^ white light. This can actually be done
glass over them, and give a trial ex- in. wide from a sheet of photographic after just a few minutes' immersion in
posure by switching on the enlarger paper, and expose them one at a time the fixer, but in that case the print
light for exactly 10 seconds. Finally, under a single strip of negatives. Ex- must be returned to the fixing bath
remove the exposed paper from the pose the strips for 5, 10, and 20 sec- after inspection for the full 10 minute
proofing frame; it is now ready for cycle. Whenever you remove a print
processing. Subsequent references to print develop-
from the sink for inspection elsewhere,
3 Slide the exposed print face up ing time will be stated as 3 minutes, and always carry it in a tray; avoid drip-
into the developer tray, and use care this alternative should be understood. ping chemicals on floors.
Examine the wet contact sheet for even in its small form on a contact to print successfully, and the fun and
those frames most likely to produce sheet, although you may have to ex- confidence you'll get from making a
good enlargements. Look for the amine the sheet in white light to see good enlargement are rewarding in-
frames that convey the strongest im- all details. Additionally, look for a deed. When you have made your
pression you have about the subject of sharply focused frame with a good bal- choice, the contact sheet may be left in
your picture. An image with these ance between highlight and shadow the water tray for continued process-
visual qualities will usually be evident tones; at first, these will be the easiest ing with the enlargements later on.
108 Printing and enlarging
Test Strips
1 Turn off the enlarger light and cut gression of exposure times in 2-second too light, make another with a larger
a sheet of enlarging paper into strips increments. Be careful not to move the f/ stop or longer times; if it's all too
about 2 in.wide, returning all strips test strip during exposure. dark, of course, repeat with a smaller
but one to the paper package. Place 3 Develop the strip just as you did aperture. Determine the time your
that strip on the easel so that it will the contact sheet earlier, for 3 minutes chosen segment received by counting
lie through middle-toned and lighter- with continuous agitation. Don't be doion from the darker end of the strip.
toned areas of the image when the en- casual about developing time! You are Reset the timer for that interval and
larger light is turned on again later. seeking accurate information now, you're ready to enlarge.
Avoid clear negative areas that will and sloppy procedures will give you 5 Place a full-sized piece of enlarging
print as dark values (and won't be unrepeatable results. Maximum depth paper carefully in the easel and expose
affected much by small exposure of tone in your prints requires full it for the time determined from your
changes). Set the timer for about 12 development. test strip. Remove it from the easel
or 14 seconds, and be sure the No. 4 When time is up, transfer the strip and process the sheet of paper exactly
21/2 filter used earlier for contact to the stop bath and examine it care- as you did the contact print earlier.
printing is still in position. Now fully under the safelight. Choose the Again, slide the print into the devel-
cover most of the strip with a piece of time indicated by the segment that oper face up and be sure it is com-
cardboard (anything opaque will do) looks just slightly darker than you feel pletely immersed. Agitate the tray con-
so that only one end of it is exposed. the print should be. This is to allow tinuously for 3 minutes as the print
Hold the cardboard slightly above the for the difference between the colored develops. If it darkens too quickly in
test strip. safelight and white light; experience the developer, reduce the exposure in
2 Start the timer, expose the paper, will tell you how the print should the enlarger; don't pull the print out
and every 2 seconds quickly shift the appear in your darkroom, but you may of the developer early. When the full
cardboard to uncover about another want to make your critical judgment developing time has elapsed, drain the
inch of the paper strip. The idea is to in white light. (If so, fix the strip for print for a few seconds over the tray
make a strip that will contain a pro- a minute first.) If the entire strip is and transfer it to the stop bath.
110 Printing and enlarging
second bath, and a new second bath so-called eliminators and clearing
(with full capacity) is prepared. With agents actually remove nothing. They
this arrangement, the total fixing time simply make the remaining hypo or
is divided between the two baths, and fixer more soluble, thereby permitting
about twice the usual number of itto be washed out more easily in the
next step. In practice, a 3-minute im-
" A simple chemical test for fixing bath mersion in clearing bath can reduce
exhaustion is available from several print washing time by 60 to 80 percent
manufacturers. while producing a chemically cleaner
Printing and enlarging 111
result. Both time and water are utes, double weight about 30. If single
thereby saved. and double weight papers are washed
The next step, of course, is to wash together, the entire batch must be
out all remaining salts from the emul- washed 30 minutes, as if it were all
sion and paper base. Converted by the double weight. // a clearing bath is
clearing agent, these salts now dissolve not used prior to luashing, the above
out readily, as does the clearing agent times should be doubled.*
itseli. A continuous change of water Once a batch of prints has begun
in the washing tray is important. This to wash, no unwashed prints may be
can be achieved by a simple device added to it without recycling the en-
like the tray siphon pictured here, or tire batch for the full washing time.
by more efficient means lor larger Temperature is important, too. Re-
quantities of pictures. Whatever the lease of fixer is impeded by tempera-
setup, it is remove some
desirable to tures much below 65 F (18 C) and
of the contaminated water from the additional washing time should be
bottom of the vessel, as hypo released allowed; temperatures above 80 F
from the paper tends to sink if the (27 C), on the other hand, permit
flow of water through the container is efficient washing of paper but risk
not sufficient to remove it. The tray damaging the gelatin emulsion. The
siphon, which attaches to any print 65 F to 75 F (18 C to 24 C) tem-
tray and faucet, does an excellent job perature range is best.
and is inexpensive.
The kind of paper being processed " Resin-coated "RC" papers should be
determines the washing time. If clear- fixed only 2 minutes, then quickly rinsed
ing bath has been used, single weight and washed 4 minutes. No clearing bath
paper should be washed about 15 min- is needed for them.
112 Printing and enlarging
Ferrotyping
2 Stop bath I1/2 oz 28% acetic acid in 32 oz water (47 ml/liter) 15 sec *
3 Fixer As instructed on label for prints minimum
recommended }
4 Rinse Still or slowly running water as needed
5 X Hypo clearing bath As directed on label for prints 3 min f
6 Wash Running water (double time if step 5 is omitted) 15 to 30 min
7 X Pririt conditioner Pakosol prepared as directed on label 3 min f
8 Drying See text
way in photography. Take any photo- in the center of each set's range and No. 214 filter (from which you can
graphic print at hand and look for reproduce the exposure scale of a neg- move up or down as indicated) unless
two things in it. First, find the lightest ative generally as it is, without in- you feel sure from viewing the nega-
area in tlie picture that is important creasing or decreasing the contrast. tive that a different filter is needed.
with respect to the subject and its Lower number filters always produce With a little practice you will be able
meaning. 1 liis may be a large or small less contrast in the print than there is to see these tonal differences in the
area, it may be white or very Hglit in its negative; higher number filters negative before you enlarge it, or on
gray, but it must be important to tlie produce more. the enlarger easel, and make your ini-
picture, not some insignificant back- A simple demonstration will show tial exposure test strip with the appro-
ground detail or patch of sky. Next us what this looks like. Select an aver- priate filter.
locate the darkest area in tlie print age negative (one that is neither too Here's a tip: time your exposure of
that is similarly important. Again, transparent nor too opaque), and the paper to produce a faintly detailed
ignore tiny dark shadows unless they using the method previously outlined, white in the highlights of the picture
are subjectively important. The differ- make a satisfactory enlargement from with full development. Having done
ence between these lightest and dark- it using a No. 21/9 filter. Then make that, if the shadows are too gray, re-
est important areas is the contrast of an identical print (same exposure and print with a higher number filter; if
that print. enlarger setup) but with a No. 1 filter the shadows are too black and too
Now, if this difference is great, that instead of the No. 214. Also make a many details seem
be lost in them,
to
is, ranges from pure white to jet
if it third print, but this time use the No. 4 reprint with a lower number filter.
black, we
call the contrast high or filter and triple the former exposure Exposure times with different filters
hard. High-contrast prints seem to be time (the No. 4 filter absorbs much are approximately equal, except when
dominated by black and white tones. light and requires more exposure time the higher number ones are used.
If this same tonal difference, however, to compensate for this loss). After each These require longer times; the Kodak
includes only a few shades of gray, w'e exposure, mark the filter number on filter setcontains a simple calculator
say the contrast of that print is low the back of the print with a soft pencil for this purpose.
or soft. Low-contrast prints appear to (never use a ball-point pen because
have an overall gray cast. They may this may transfer to dryer belts and Graded Paper
be generally light or generally dark, other prints).
but in either case you will notice an Process the three prints together so Graded paper printed without filters
is
absence of white and black together in that they develop for identical times, in the enlarger, that is, with white
the same print. The print we usually and after they have fixed, examine light. Again, different brands are not
try to make lies at neither of these them in white light. If your negative identical, so it is best to stick with one
extremes but is somewhere between has average contrast, the No. 1 print type. The grades of Kodabromide and
them. All three tones, blacks, whites, will appear too gray, the No. 4 Medalist paper, two popular types,
and grays, are present in and usually print too contrasty, and the No. 21/9 closely match Polycontrast printed
important to a medium or normal- print about riglit, as described above. with the filter of the same number.
contrast print. Since three prints were made from
all Grade 1 paper always low in con-
is
Once we have determined the the same negative, the difference you trast: it has a long exposure scale and
proper exposure for our print (by see represents the range of expressive produces many sliades of gray. Grade 2
making a test strip), we can still adjust variation available to you solely by is considered normal, grade 3 hard or
the contrast to produce a more ex- controlling print contrast. higher in contrast, while grade 4 is
pressive result. You'll recall that ear- As you make the first print or en- very high in contrast and produces
lier we recommended the No. 2 or largement from each new negative, fewer gray tones between white and
2 1/2 contact sheet and our
filter for tlie then, look for these differences in tonal black from an average negative. A few
initial enlargement. Those filters are range. Make your first print with the papers are also made in grades 5 and 6.
116 Printing and enlarging
posure and contrast have been deter- convey your visual idea more precisely
mined; second, the hands or cardboard and effectively.
Angela Rizzuto: Sidewalk Fishing, New York, 1959. Rizzuto Collection, The Library of Congress.
117
liigeln Rizzuto: Third Avenue and East 41st Street, New York, 1956. Rizzuto Collection, J ii
Library of Congress.
118
Printing and enlarging 119
the center only, sticking a spot about above procedure for the other three
the size of a half dollar. corners.
3 Next, trim the photograph and 5 Place the preheated cover sheet
tissue taking care
together, face up, (kraft wrapping paper) over the photo-
that the tissue does not overlap or ex- graph and mount, and insert the en-
tend beyond the edges of the print. tire sandwich into the mounting press,
A straightedge or ruler laid over the face up. Close the press completely for
print close and parallel to the edge about 30 seconds, then open it and
you are trimming will help hold the remove your work. Flex the mount
print flat for a true cut. gently as it cools; this will help it re-
prints. These should be removed by is best to place a cover sheet over the
spotting. The best way to do this is face of each photograph. Any clean,
with Spotone retouching dyes, which soft paper will do; newsprint (un-
come in a set of three colors; by mix- printed newspaper) is inexpensive and
ing them, the tone of any photographic satisfactory for short-term storage. For
paper can be matched. You'll also long-term storage of fine work, how-
need a fine, tapered tip, sable brush, ever, pure white tissue will give better
size 00. protection. If possible, store mounted
The easiest way to use these dyes is phonograph rec-
prints vertically like
to shake the bottle and work with the ords, and never allow them to slide
residue left in the cap, but if colors against one another.
must be blended match the tone of
to Unmounted prints may be stored
your paper, this can be done in a conveniently in empty photographic
saucer with a drop or two of water. paper packages. Don't mix sizes, for
Set the open bottle well aside so it this permits small prints to slide
won't spill on your print. Moisten against others when the box is placed
the tip of your brush with saliva, pick on edge. And never fasten photo-
up a bit of dye, and fill the white spot graphs to other things, such as letters,
on the print with color. Use the dye with paper clips they leave their own
very sparingly; build the color up impression in the picture.
Edward Weston: Eroded Rock, Point Lobes, 1934. Collection: The Inttrnational Mtaeuiii of
Photography.
122
The direct approach
The direct approach to making a pho- strong that the presence of a camera,
tograph encourages us to discover the and sometimes even that of the pho-
most important aspects of a subject, tographer who directed it, can go un-
visualize them as simply and directly noticed: we can bring to the viewer of
as possible, and present them in a our pictures an extraordinary sense of
photograph as forcefully as we can. being there. In effect, our photograph
This approach to the image employs says to its viewer, "You are here. You
methods that we identify more (rather than the photographer) are
strongly with photography than with witness: you are seeing this object or
any other means of making pictures. event. And since seeing is believing,
These methods include forming a what you see must be Photo-
true."
clear, incisive image with a lens, re- graphs made like this create a feeling
cording that image directly on film of presence; our willingness to equate
without manipulation, and printing seeing with believing reinforces it.
the negative to produce the strongest We can observe this phenomenon
visual impression possible. in any popular magazine or TV com-
Photographs made in this manner mercial. Photographs document facts;
usually are rich in continuous tone they convince those who doubt. Pho-
and detail. They make the most of tographs in advertising and package
element to reveal
light as a designing design persuade people to buy goods
form and texture, to define
significant and services by vividly describing
space, and to unify the image as a those commodities and by making
picture. The work of Edward Weston them attractive and desirable. In other
and Ansel Adams contains many ex- words, photographs help to create a
amples. want or need by staling facts and argu-
Using this direct approach, then, we ments more convincingly than mere
can create an illusion of reality so words can do. Business and advertising
124 The direct approach
125
126 The direct approach
with the middle of the sheet, the photog- seem more important. Moving the
rapher starts with the frame." frame to arm's length has the same
effect as increasing the focal length of
We can demonstrate this by over- the lens or further enlarging the nega-
lapping two L-shaped pieces of card- tive. Now fewer things, at a greater
board to form an adjustable frame. compete for our attention.
distance,
Move this cutout slowly around in Framing objects apart from their
front of one eye, and notice the effect. surroundings causes other things to
Things that become isolated together happen. By surrounding two objects
within this frame, like Alma Laven- as we have noted, and eliminating
son's Indians, take on a stronger rela- everything else, the frame establishes
tionship to each other. Holding the a new relationship between them. It
frame close to the eye will show the shapes the space around objects, too,
effect of a wide-angle lens. Objects as Aaron Siskind shows us in Martha's
close at hand occupy a large part of Vineyard 108. And then there is that
the space; larger in scale, they may "line of decision" the picture's edge.
The edge cuts objects in two and dis-
cards one segment; the part may be
*From The Photographer's Eye by John
Copyright 1966 The
used to suggest the whole, or the pic-
Szarkowski.
Museum of Modern Art, New York. Re- ture may simply show an uncommon
printed by permission of the publisher. section of a common object. Paul
128 The direct approach
Paul Strand: The White Fence, 1916. Collection: The International Museum of Photography.
Strand's classic White Fence led the its structure and geometry. Ignoring
way here. Nothing
completely re-
is these edges weakens snapshots, where
vealed in this picture; everything the effort too often seems uncon-
here is a fragment. sciously directed to centering people
Fragments tend to extend a viewer's or objects within the frame. We
perception beyond the confines of the should take care, then, when compos-
picture itself; things that are visible ing a view witli the camera, and again
in the photographic image allude to when cropping the negative in the en-
others which are not. Because of their larger for final printing, to use the
cut-off feature, then, the picture's framed space of the picture format
edges become important elements in fully.
Brett Weiton: Aspen Tree, 1972.
Edward Weston: Nude on Sand, 1936. Collection: The International Museum of Photography.
131
Don Worth: Rocks near Lone Pine, California, 1968.
132
The direct approach 133
Light can contribute to a direct pho- On the other hand, soft, diffuse
tograph in other ways. In Harry Cal- light, typical of overcast or foggy days,
lahan's image of grasses and water, usually has a flattening effect that min-
reflections hamed with the objects imizes other contrasts within a scene.
themselves reinforce and extend the Thus closely visualized portraits and
vitalrhythms of this scene. The mood objects such as Brett Weston's tree de-
of a photograph can be struck by tail will take on a subtle but vital
yet another aspect of light. Harsh feeling more in tune, as a rule, with
lighting can intensify differences be- the photographer's actual impression
tween things that are held together of them. Landscapes made in such
by the frame. Ansel Adams's dramatic light, however, may look dull and
photograph of the Sierra Nevada from dreary because without shadows to
Lone Pine evokes the magic of a spec- vary the brightness range and
tacular mountain landscape on a cold strengthen the impression of depth,
winter morning. Long a master of us- only a formless, gray scene is recorded.
ing natural light, Adams has often em- This monotonous gray tone, though,
ployed it to dramatize the more com- can be relieved by other factors such
monplace as well. as snow or water to reflect light within
Ansel Adams: Sierra Nevada from Lone Pine, California, 1944. Collection: The International
Museum of Photography.
134
The direct approach 135
the scene and add life and tonal vari- It appears, then, that there are nu-
ety to the picture. "Water, in fact, has merous ways to use light in photog-
always drawn photographers to it be- raphy, quite apart from its physical
cause it is a natural reflector of light role in the recording process. WTien-
and is symbolic of life itself. Fog, inci- ever light will help reveal the essential
dentally, imparts a sense of mvstery to qualities of a subject, or convey the
a photograph just as it does to nature. significance of an event or idea, it
Including the light source itself in the should be used vigorously and imagi-
picture, as Wynn Bullock has done, natively. Light, that infinitely variable
can have a similar effect; it also tends element of photographic design, is
Peter Henry Emerson: Gathering Water Lilies, 1886. Collection: The International Museum of Photography.
simple, empirical procedure or a me- In Retrospect new nor revolutionary. The work of
thodical one like the Zone System, is many early photographers appears to
only a means to an end. So, too, is the Usually there are some familiar ele- be consonant with this idea. Never-
approach, the way we use photog- ments in everything new that we see theless, an English physician and ama-
raphy. For when these procedures be- and do. Ideas and their symbols in art teur photographer, Peter Henry Emer-
come ends in themselves, our work and communication evolve. They de- son, seems to have been the first to
becomes sterile, impersonal, and ulti- velop by example, and by the inter- submit that this direct way of seeing
mately of little meaning. Experiment- action of people who test them. In the and working was especially suited to
ing with many approaches, including brief but lively history of photography photography. His 1889 book, Xatural-
a direct one, can help us define our we can find enough examples, and istic Photography, a broadly based,
personal objectives in using the photo- their challengers, to see how a pure, theoretical discourse, tried to present
graphic medium. This is the first direct approach evolved. a reasoned approach tothe camera
step toward developing an individual As we have already noted, the con- that argued for clarity and directness
stvle. cept of a direct approach is neither rather than an imitation of prevailing.
140 The direct approach
Alfred Stieglitz: The Terminal, 1893. Collection: The International Museum of Photography.
New York, reaffirmed the esthetic in Paul Strand, whose work was direct
1902. Over the next eight years, Stieg- and intense.
The direct approach 141
142
The reportorial approach 8
If the direct approach is concerned and a photographer approaching his thereafter. Consider, for example,
with the essence of an object or idea, subject must take this into account. \Valker Evans's photographs of the
the reportorial approach is concerned He may think of space as the arrange- American South. Are they documents
with its context as well. Not only with ment of everything (including the pri- of particular places at certain mo-
the irreducible fact of the matter, but mary object) within his view, an area ments of time, or are they symbols of
also where it occurred, and when. Rep- he will later reduce to concrete di- an era? Once it is removed by a
ortorial photography considers how mensions by his camera frame. Or he camera, a moment becomes suspended
an object is related to others around may be more selective and limit his in the present tense. If Lee Harvey
it: it places an object in space. It also perception to a single plane that his Oswald's final minute (Chapter 1) is
considers how an event is connected lens can isolate. now only a memory, it is nonetheless
to what preceded the moment of ex- Similarly, he must understand what fixed forever in its photograph.
posure and what follows it: it acknowl- surrounds his subject in time, for every A camera shutter, then, like its view-
edges a continuum of time. exposure, long or short, is only a mo- finder frame, is a selector, to be used
ment plucked by his camera from an by the pliotographer with judgment
irreversible sequence of events. If this based on his awareness and perception
Space and Time context of time is inevitable, the of space and time. Henri Cartier-Bres-
meaning it gives his picture, however, son has suggested that in the real
Photography does not transcribe space is not. A photograph may suggest that world of objects and events there is
or time but alters them in subtle what is momentarily pictured actually rarely a second chance; we photog-
ways. A camera image has its own has been that way for some time, or raphers deal in things that are con-
structure imparted to it by the lens, that the view may continue unchanged tinually vanishing.
cherokeeMrt^^turet
GARAGE WORK
Walker Evans: Cherokee Parts Store, Atlanta, Georgia, 1936. The Library of Congress.
144
The reportorial approach 145
George A. Tice: Lackawana Station, Paterson, New Jersey, 1968. From Paterson, Rutgers Uni-
versity Press.
Photographers often face a different its economy stagnating and its identity
problem: how to get most or all of the slipping away. Yet in those freshly
image sharp. While documenting the painted houses beyond the street we
city of Paterson, New Jersey for a can perhaps detect a few small voices
book of that title, George Tice photo- of protest; not everyone has given up.
graphed an abandoned railway sta- If Tice had focused selectively on
tion. He took care to get everything either the station or the houses, he
from the nearest crosstie to the distant would not have been able to com-
horizon sharp and clear. No single municate this delicate balance of frus-
object here was more important than tration and hope. Tice, then, conveys
any other, so he unified the space by meaning through the context of ob-
focusing it sharply throughout. The jects in his picture. The photograph
picture as a whole evokes a feeling of speaks of a place and a time: it simul-
sadness and perhaps nostalgia. We
can taneously echoes the past and alludes
sense the weariness of a citv that found to the future.
^
Hyperfocal Focusing
Focus Here
Since he couldn't select a single im-
portant object to focus on, Tice chose
a plane about one-third of the way
into the frame of his picture. Why
fA
one-third? Focus your camera lens on
any moderate distance and it will pro-
duce a depth of field in your image.
This depth of field might be shallow ^ l/3-t^
--l/3->4-< 2/3
Out of Focus Out of Focus
and select, or extensive and obvious, Depth of Field-
but it will be there. However great (in Focus)
it one-third of this depth of field
is, Depth of field.
itself. Thus a near limit of that depth Depth of field at infinity focus.
of field can be visually established by
focusing on infinity and selecting the
nearest object whose image is accept-
ably sharp. The distance from the lens
to this nearestsharp object, when the
Focus Here Infinity
lens focused on infinity, is called the
is
hyperfocal distance.
But, as we have just noted, when a
lens is focused at infinity only one- fA
third of depth of field is actually
its
time, however, the far limit of that obtainable at that aperture. At smaller
depth of field touches infinity and thus apertures it will be even greater.
extends its sharp focus instead of over-
lapping it. At the same time, the Hyperfocal focusing is not tlie only
near limit of our depth of field has useful way depth of field.
to increase
now reached a point halfway between In Bernard Freemesser's photograph
the lens and
hyperfocal distance.
its of Telluride, Colorado, nearby build-
The total depth of
field thus extends ings and distant mountain peaks ap-
from half the hyperfocal distance all pear with equal clarity because a very
the ivay to infinity, and is the maxi- small aperture was used and because
mum depth of field that can be ob- nothing in the view is very close to
tained for a given focal length and the camera. The resulting richness of
aperture setting. detail provides a counterpoint to the
Hyperfocal focusing can be used stroi)g pattern of light and shadow.
with any adjustable camera, and is A similar effect of depth can be pro-
entirely a visual method; no charts or duced by substituting a lens of shorter
actual distance measurements are focal length if your equipment will
necessary. Let's review its main points permit this. The smaller image thus
again to see how easy it is to use. produced will appear to have more
There are three steps, and their se- depth of field.
that nearest acceptably sharp object. ing that image in the camera and get-
This is the hyperfocal point. ting sufficient depth of field should be
3 Your depth of field now extends very carefully done. The photograph
from half that distance to infinity, by Brett Weston in the preceding
and is the maximum depth of field chapter is a case in point; it is en-
larged from a 214 in. square (6 by 6
* Remember that stopping down the lens cm) negative to an 11 by I21/2 in. (28
reduces the amount of light for exposure by 32 cm) print. On the other hand,
and requires a longer shutter time to
Review Relat- the photographs by Freemesser and
compensate this light loss.
ing the Shutter and Aperture in Chapter Tice were printed by contact from
3 if necessary. much larger negatives. When little or
Bernard Freemesser: Telluride, Colorado, 1970
150
Marion Patterson: Leaves, Yaxchilan, 1965.
parent, we would find the view quite " Ernst Haas, "Beautv in a Brutal Art,"
disturbing. Life, July 29, 1957, pp. 56-65.
154 The reportorial approach
^m-^
Robert Capa: Death of a Loyalist Soldier, Spain, 1936. Courtesy Magnum.
Fanning raphy, and can capture both the fact film (ASA 400 or above) may be use-
and feeling of a rapidly moving event. ful, especially if the light is not ideal
Although motion is clearly suggested Sports Illustrated and similar maga- for brief exposures.
by the preceding technique, the mov- zines provide many examples of this All this concern for time and move-
ing object itself may be difficult to device. ment does not mean that space can
identify. Reversing the relationship If the moving object and the space be neglected, for it is inseparable from
between still and moving elements, around it are both important to the time. A running figure, for instance,
however, usually clarifies tlie situation. picture idea, it may be necessary to needs space to move in. Simple
For example, panning the camera "freeze" the action by using a very enough, it seems. But framing that
(tracking a moving object so that its short exposure, perhaps the shortest space ahead of the figure leads him
image is held still in the viewfinder) time that shutter settings will permit. onward it gives him someplace to go;
renders the object more clearly than A great deal of action can be stopped framing it behind the figure, as Car-
the background, which blurs. Panned momentarily at ^/^qq or ^y^ooo ^^^' tier-Bresson did at Hyers, suggests that
pictures contain an unmistakable feel- ond. But shorter exposures require the figure is running away from some-
ing of movement, yet the object larger aperture settings; less time must thing. Thus the way we include space
usually remains identifiable. The tech- be balanced by more light for proper around a moving figure can affect the
nique is often used in sports photog- exposure of the film. A high-speed meaning of our picture.
Henri Cartier-Bresson: Hyers, France, 1932. Courteiy Magnum.
155
156 The reportorial approach
Henri Cartier-Bresson: Children Playing in the Ruins, Spain, 1933. Courtesy Magnum.
157
158 The reportorial approach
Eadweard Mu\bridge: Abe Edgington Trottmg at 2:24 Gait, Palo Alto, 1878. Muybridge
Collection, Stanford University Museum of Art.
Thomas Eakins: The Pole Vaulter, c. 1884-1885. Collection: Philadelphia Museum of Art.
fully expose the background, and and recapping the lens, a simple
thereby permitted each momentary method that was satisfactory until Marcel Duchamp: Nude Descending a Stair-
case, No. 2, 1912. Oil on Canvas. Philadelphia
position of the subject to be ade- small cameras using fast collodion Museum of Art: The Louise and IValter
quately recorded. Other painters used plates required sliorter exposure times. Arensberg Collection.
the technique to define their images; In 1869 Muybridge invented one of
Marcel Duchamp painted his famous the first camera shutters, and by 1878
Nude Descending a Staircase from lie had devised a means to make ex-
such a photographic study. This same posures as brief as 1/1000 second. His
method today lets us reveal a choreo- zoopraxiscope, a projection machine
graphy of movement with the simplest that resynthesized motion from still
camera; a shutter that can be re- photographs, led directly to develop-
peatedly cocked and released without ment of the cinema, and he is therefore
advancing the film is necessary, and regarded by many as the father of mo-
the camera should be on a steady tion pictures.
tripod, but no more complicated Additional significant experiments
equipment is needed. with time and motion occmred after
Many of Muybridge's images, on 1931, when the invention of the re- [
the other hand, were possible only peating stroboscopic lamp made ex-
with equipment of his own design. posures of extremely short dination
Early cameras rarely had shutters. possible. Examples will be discussed
Exposures were made by uncapping in Chapter 12.
'^je^a^:
earlier chapter, was perhaps the first phy can impart more strongly than any
to realize the importance of the photo- other picture making."
graphic record. He and his operators
recorded situations as they saw them, * From TheHistory of Photography from
1839 the present day by Beaumont
to
and occasionally, as at Richmond in
Xewhall. Fourth edition 1964, second
1865, their statements became potent printing 1971. All rights reser\ecl by The
revelations of universal truths. We can Museum of Modern Art, New York. Be-
also sense this quality in Alexander printed by permission of the publisher.
162 The reportorial approach
\ffj^ \:
George D. Wakely: Cherry Creek Flood, Denver, Colorado, 1S64. The Library of Congress.
After the war, photographers con- camera occasionally was blessed with a
tinued to exploit this dramatic record- perceptive eye under the darkcloth, it
ing power of the camera. Gardner, was still a tool for the hands of a
Hke his associate T. H. O'SuUivan, skilled specialist. The territorial pho-
accompanied raihoad survey parties tographer was a special breed.
through Kansas and the New Mexico While these cameramen were re-
Territory. Other frontier photograph- cording frontier life in the American
ers such as L. A. Huffman in the Mon- \Vest, others were examining the hu-
tana Territory and George D. W^akely man condition in our urban East.
in Denver were among tlie early set- Failure of the Irish potato crop in the
tlers in their regions. They missed 1840s and European revolutions had
little was significant in an ex-
that given impetus to a rising wave of im-
panding and rapidly developing area, migration to America in the decades
and were important members of their tliat followed. Photographs sent to the
pioneer communities. For while the old country by newly settled Amer-
The reportorial approach 163
Alexander Gardner: Crossing of the Line at Tecolote Creek, New Mexico Territory, Jacob A. Riis: Bandit's Roost. 391/2 Mulberry Street,
1867. Collection: The International Museum of Photography. Xeu' York, 1888. Collection: Museum of the City of
New York.
icans shoAved them to be well fed and Lives, published in 1890, he cam-
relatively prosperous, and so the im- paigned effectively for housing reform.
migrants came. Many of them settled His photographs, crudely reproduced
in Xeiv York City, their port of entr>, by an early photomechanical process,
jobless, often destitute, forced to live were revealing and compassionate.
like animals in unbelievably squalid Lewis \\\ Hine, a photographer who
housing where crime was rampant. was also trained as a sociologist, had
All this seemed unnecessary and in- a similar concern for human welfare.
tolerable to Jacob Riis, a police re- In 1908 he undertook a crusade with
porter for the New York evening Sun, his camera to expose the exploitation
who covered the tenements and their of children by American industry.
misery. Riis knew these ghettoes well Hine's determined effort aided the
since he had come as an immigrant passage of child labor legislation.
himself in 1870. In a now classic il- Later he photographed extensively
lustrated book. How the Other Half for the American National Red Cross.
i
Leifis \V. Hine: Boy Breakers, South Pittston, Pennsylvania, 1911. The Library of Congress.
164
The reportorial approacli 165
^4|W%iiPt|iatPjiji, |i4ijiiiffiirJikiib^
Walker Ei>at)s: Country Store, Selma, Alabama, 1936. The Library of Congress.
need for soil conservation, later be- mediacy of the constantly talking and
came director of photography for moving television image. And today,
Look magazine. The nomadic people of course, we're more mobile: we've
that Dorothea Lange so compassion- seen more of our world and under-
ately photographed in California were stand it much better. Riis photo-
the source of John Steinbeck's great graphed a community of squalor just
novel, The Grapes
of Wrath. But for a few miles across town and it was a
all power and conviction of their
the revelation. The plight of Walker
images, Steinbeck and Lange only de- Evans's southern sharecroppers and
fined the problem and pointed the Dorothea Lange's migrant farm labor-
way. Mechanically, great strides have ers in California and the West must
been made, but the farm boycotts and have seemed equally unreal to eastern
strikes of the sixties and early seven- city dwellers. In our modern world of
ties attest that in human terms the instant commiuiication, we've become
solution has been slow to mature. inured to "eyewitness" accounts, but
Today we see these documentary this does not diminish the value of
photographs in a different light. They these pictures in their own time. They
166 cannot withstand the pervasive im- were forceful then, and are exemplary
Dorothea Laiige: Refugees from Oklahoma Camping by the Road, Blythe, California, 1936.
The Library of Congress.
now, because they represent a compas- point of view. Whether that perspec-
and dignified point of view.
sionate tive is sympathetic or antagonistic has
These same qualities again guided nothing to do with photography. That
Stryker when he recently selected outlook depends, rather, on what the
nearly 200 of these pictures for a re- photographer himself brings to his
markable book, In This Proud Land. subject, on his basic intelligence, his
The idea behind such pictures has education, and on his ability to per-
again been revived by the United ceive and interpret the situation be-
States government, this time to docu- fore him. A documentary photogra-
ment the environment that we are pher seeks understanding, not art;
rapidly polluting. More than 40,000 honesty, not objectivity. Photographs
color photographs have been collected have always looked believable, l)ut an
by the Environmental Protection honest photographer can try to en-
Agency and assembled into a com- hance them with the dignity of truth,
puterized picture library for public and a dedicated one can imbue them
use. with a sense of piupose. This is a chal-
The documentary photographer, lenge and a responsibility of the
then, is first of all a realist with a highest order.
G('o?ge S;//;; Nagasaki, J9-t5. LlfE Magazine '^ Time Inc
documentary work of the thirties, the script, usually researched and pre-
picture story was brought to a focus pared by the editors before assign-
by the editorial direction of two great ment of the story. It keeps the photog-
168 magazines, Lije and Look, which ap- rapher close to the story line and
The reportorial approach 169
thus helps establish a series of related Other Printed Media Electronic Media
images. It also helps insure adequate
material for a cohesive unit with a Consumer magazines such as Life and In recent years the printed picture has
beginning, a middle, and an end. Look are gone, victims of a fundamen- been seriously challenged by the elec-
Actual shooting may involve dozens tal change that television and shorter tronic one. Television, for example,
or even hundreds of exposures as the working hours have produced in our has shown itself to be the ideal visual
photographer interprets the story line buying and reading habits. The photo- medium for quickly responding to
and searches for those elusive mo- graphic essay, however, is still very news events: it can be immediately
ments that lay out yet bring the
it much alive. Today it appears in hun- transmitted to its audience. And the
story together.After processing to dreds of special-interest and limited- TV image is a moving image; it is
contact sheets, the pictures are edited circulation publications, each tailored super-realism, conveniently packaged
to select the most important images to a more select and responsive audi- and delivered to the home. W^hen com-
from the lot, and to sequence them for ence. Each of us is familiar with some petently presented it compels atten-
effective presentation. The result is a of these: Playboy, Xational Geo- tion.
photographic essay, or picture story. graphic Magazine, Sunset, Yachting, TV is a superb delivery system,
and
Perhaps there are no innately finer Woman's Day, to name just a few of its market goods and to en-
ability to
examples of the photographic essay the more successful ones devoted to tertain has been amply demonstrated.
than the three classic stories for which leisure time, regional, and special in- But the T\^ image, as customarily
W. Eugene Smith has become justly terests. The list hundreds
also includes broadcast, is fleeting; it must be
famed. First of these to appear in Life of corporatenews publications (house grasped in an instant, and except for
was "Country Doctor," published on organs, annual reports, and customer commercials which are deliberately re-
September 20, 1948. The photogra- relations pieces) such as TWA Am- peated, cannot as a rule be restudied
pher depicted a typical day for Dr. bassador, Small World (Volkswagen), until its meaning becomes clear. There
Ernest Ceriani, a general practitioner and We (Western Electric Co.). simply isn't time.
in a small Colorado mountain village. Reportorial photography is much in Television'sability to quickly re-
On April 9, 1951 came "Spanish Vil- demand by other printed media too. spond, however, does not have to be its
lage," one of Smith's finest achieve- Greeting cards, posters, and record Achilles' heel. Electronic media can
ments. After long preparation and jackets represent a market that is ac- not only keep their images moving but
study, he traveled dusty Spanish roads cessible to the beginning photographer can also store and recall them on de-
for a month and a half in search of a as well as the established professional. mand. Such flexibility has tremendous
balance between the medieval and the The basic believability of direct and implications for the educational pro-
modern, individual aspirations and reportorial photography has accounted cess, and television journalism fre-
political realities, and the riches of a for an increasing use of these ap- quently uses this feature to explain
simple people in the midst of poverty. proaches in advertising illustration. In complex or rapidly breaking news
Smith's own favorite essay w-as his the studio, of course, the photographer events. The instant replay has become
sensitive and moving portrayal of still can arrange all the elements of a part of our language.
Maude Callen, a black midwife in the his picture, but once outside that stu- Television is rediscovering the still
backwoods of North Carolina. "Nurse dio he is generally inclined to work photograph, too. TVs technolog) usu-
Midwife" was published on December Avith the world as he finds it. Thus the ally makes its presence obvious, and
3, 1951. This essay, says Smith, "was difference between editorial and ad- thereby exerts an influence on the
the most rewarding experience pho- vertising photography, once readily event it reports merely b> being there.
tography has allowed me." Like apparent in the pictures themselves, Still i)hotography is less intrusive; its
"Country Doctor," "Nurse Midwife" today can best be discerned from how technolog> often allows the photog-
is a warm, intensely human statement. those images are used. rapher to blend into the scene, or to
Dorothea Lange: Japanese Americans Awaiting
Relocation, Hayward, California, 1942. War
Relocation Authority Records in the National
Archives.
Maisie and Richard Conrat from the There seems to be little doubt that
records of an earlier war to retell a future dissemination of printed media
long-hushed story of injustice and fear. will increasingly be by electronic
Executive Order 9066, which resulted means, but that does not mean that
in the internment of 110,000 Japanese- paper is obsolete. Is there any form of
Americans in 1942, was an affront to printed communication more conven-
the Constitution and an outrage to ient than a book or magazine? It gives
the people it victimized. It will forever us a permanent rather than a transi-
be a blemish on the conscience of this tory impression, and we don't need
country. Two exhibitions made from electricity or a machine to look at it:
172
The symbolistic approach 9
the photograph this dual role. This the picture becomes a symbol of some-
approach communicates a visual im- thing unrelated to it.
shared his original experiences were Alfred Stieglitz: The Steerage, 1907. Collection: The International Museum of Photography.
able to get a similar feeling from those
photographs, Stieglitz knew he had
succeeded.
With photographs of clouds,
his
then, demonstrated what
Stieglitz
many others have subsequently redis-
covered: that if we can respond as
176 The symbolistic approach
photographers to the objects and ex- teaching, has suggested that there are
periences we bring before our camera, various levels or degrees of equiva-
and transform what they mean to us lence at which photographic images
through equivalency, then we can also can function. His photograph of a
respond as viewers to a photograph sandblaster at work in a street excava-
and transform its meaning in the same tion is not only a factual statement
way. Moreover, almost anything we arecord but simultaneously and spon-
find can be used to make a photo- taneously is an arrangement of visual
Emmet Gowiu: \anc\, Danville, J'irginia, 1969. Courtesy Light Gallery, Xew York.
does the arrow point to? All these rapher whose images often function on
elements and others the dark pave- several levels. His photograph here,
ment, our focus on the helmet, the for example, evokes not only a child's
camera's tight framing that only inten- playful innocence but also a deep
sifies our enigmatic response contrib- reverence for life. Gowin is able to
ute to the unquestioned ability of this combine the spontaneity of a snapshot
image to function as an equivalent. with an intensity of feeling that can
Here is a photograph made of a only come from a deep and honest in-
moment, perhaps to fill an emotional volvement with the people in his pic-
need arising from the chance encoun- tures. If we can recognize a parallel
ter of an object and an image in the experience in our own life, then we
mind of a photographer. can easily get emotionally involved
Emmet Gowin is another photog- with his images.
178 The symbolistic approach
t : ^
iii i
j ^
179
This points up another vakie of the
equivalent to the expressive photog-
rapher: its power to evoke a response
about something that cannot be pho-
tographed through another tiling that
can. Many contemporary photogra-
phers whose work appears in these
pages have demonstrated this capacity
ot the photographic image. Miciiael
Bishop, or instance, brings together
unrelated objects with dillerent visual
characteristics and functions. His pho-
tographs give us a fresh viewpoint on
the human dimension of mans in-
creasing dependence on a complex
technological world.
Jerry Uelsmann, on the other hand,
combines symbolic images to construct
a world of fantasy all his own. Uels-
mann is no apologist for photogra-
phy's insistence on a foundation of
realism. Instead he not only acknowl-
edges this base but also employs its
suggestion of authenticity to intensify
our involvement with his fantastic
world. Even if we feel like strangers in
his world, we cannot ignore it. Uels-
mann's way of working is briefly out-
lined in Chapter 10.
Sometimes a photographic image is
unrecognizable, perhaps presenting us
with something that we have not ex-
perienced in our own life. It may seem
a bit adventurous, but can we not find
it possible to get involved with such
183
Henry Holmes Smith: Meeting, 1972. Refraction print in negative. From Portfolio II. 1973,
Center for Photographic Studies, Louisville, Kentucky.
184
Variations on a theme: the divergence from realism 10
In the preceding chapters we dis- with care (some call this "reading" a Away from Realism
cussed several attitudes about making photograph) before the photogiapher's
photographs that have become funda- idea comes across. Nonetheless, such a Given this reasoning, then, it is not
mental to contemporary work. All in- photograph remains a factual state- surprising that photographers have
volve visualizing subject matter that ment, in other words, a picture of sought opportunities to move away
is broadly based on a personal yet something, whatever its more compel- from grip of realism and find
this
realistic view of the world, and all ling message may be. And even that other modes of expression that are less
make general use of the conventional most common photographic image, the stringent yet still photographic. The
silver bromide print. The direct ap- snapshot, essentially is a momentary images created are less representa-
proach, for example, is concerned with record of a relentlessly factual world. tional but are still made by the action
interpreting the essence of subjects, Increasingly in recent years, photog- of light on a surface that is sensitive
the heart of the matter, as intensely as raphers have refused to be bound to to it.
ject matter, but more importantly reality we see occurs, at most, only to imagination.
they also stand for other subject mat- a degree, and that in any case, a photo- Another general trend leans toward
ter or ideas at the same time. And they graph does not recreate the real world eliminating the detail and familiar
may require a viewer to study them at all. tonal scale tliat are the conventional
4
.5f=
the simplicity of black-and-white pro- cesses are freely combined with each
cesses. Screen printing lends itself to other. This makes possible a bewilder-
bold colors, while gum printing per- ing variety of contemporary methods,
mits a softer, more pastel palette en- and from this mixture of photographic
compassing an entire spectrum. And media anyone can select a means of
whereas conventional photography is image making that appeals to his own
pretty much restricted to paper and subjective and technical interests. In
film-base materials, the non-silver pro- tliis chapter, then, we'll discuss those
^HH^m.fliM. m I mm 1 'wmr-^rim I
^-OiiJ
^^^L-^'~'*^'"'*^^^^^tP^Bb^ "C "^ ^^ ^^.^1- -
' --^^
^B^^SB^^^*"^^^^^. ^ ^^^^^^^^^Mi -^^^i^^^^^^^^^f^j^^^^^^^^i
<i \
Sr^ ^" ^
191
192 Variations on a theme: the divergence from realism
tomontage functions on a less complex sources and gives them stronger iden-
graphiclevel, but it is equally a bit tities.Heinecken refuses to take seri-
of fantasy. The worldly, yet other- ously any definition of photography
worldly appearance of images like that erects limitations on the medium,
these demonstrates that photogiaphy preferring instead an open-ended ra-
can, indeed, move beyond the confines tionale and the wider area for con-
of realism to include the surrealistic tinuous exploration and discovery
as well. that it gives him.
Robert Heinecken, whose work and Ray K. Metzker uses yet another
teaching have influenced a great num- combining method to assemble his
ber of younger photographers, has large images from carefidly related
demonstrated the visual possibilities smaller ones. His composite photo-
of found objects used as "negatives" graph of a nude, measuring 75 by 38
to expose the final image. For exam- in. (190 by 96.5 cm), creates a dynamic
ple, he has discovered a new order in design by bringing together numerous
superimposed, unrelated images that high-contrast images. The resulting
occur back to back on magazine pages. photograph contains only three tones:
Their positive-to-negative tone rever- black, white, and a single shade of gray
sal removes them farther from their where the others overlap.
Ray K. Metzker: \ude, 1966. Collection: Dr. and Mrs. Harold Schwartz. 193
194 Variations on a theme: the divergence from realism
colors of light and must be loaded exactly as you would for making con-
into its developing tank like other pan tact sheets (review Chapter 6 if neces-
films, in total darkness. Its ASA rating sary) but use no printing filter, only
is should be processed according
64. It
white light. With the lens stopped
to the instructions supplied with it;
down about halfway, make a series of
test exposures of 1, 2, 4, and 8 seconds
Kodak D-19 developer is recom-
mended. by the familiar test-strip method.
With other types of rollfilm cameras, Kodalith and similar films may be
the photograph should be taken on processed in a tray like photographic
any ordinary panchromatic film and paper. Any of several Kodalith devel-
developed in the usual manner. It can opers will produce excellent results
then be transferred to a high-contrast when mixed and used as directed on
sheet film known as Kodalith. The their packages. Note that these devel-
trademark Kodalith designates a spe- opers are prepared as two separate
cial family of films that yield images of solutions; parts A and B must be
extremely high contrast. Although in- stored separately because they deteri-
tended primarily for the printing trade orate in a few hours when combined.
and similar photomechanical work,* Mix together enough of each part to
several of these lithographic films are fill the developing tray about i/^ in.
deep. Like other film developers, it
should be about 68 F (20 C).
View cameras and
others accepting A second tray should contain a stop
sheet film can use these films directly. bath like you make for print process-
Try an ASA rating of 5 or 6 in daylight.
ing, while a third tray is needed for a
Kodalith is also available from some
dealers in 35 mm
bulk rolls, 100 ft. similar quantity of any standard film
(30.5 m) long. fixer.
Barbara Crane: Figure No. 1, 1965.
195
196 Variations on a theme: the divergence from realism
Slide the exposed film into the de- should look correct. Clear areas that
veloper face up, then lift it and tap are too large indicate underexposure;
its edge sharply against the tray to black areas that seem "puffy" indicate
dislodge any bubbles of air that may overexposure.
be clinging to it. From this point on,
agitate the film constantly by rocking This visual checklist may be helpful
the tray. Handle it as little as possible because exposure of lithographic film
until development is completed. The israther critical: as its threshold point
exact developing time depends on the is approached, small increases in ex-
type of developer used, but will usu- posure rapidly make the image darker.
ally be about 3 minutes. Stop develop- Make a note of the enlarger setting,
ment and fix as you would a paper f/ stop,and time that give best results.
print (lithographic films fix quickly; Small negatives (such as 35 mm)
twice the time required to clear the may be enlarged onto litho film in-
unexposed emulsion is sufficient). stead of being printed by contact.
Then wash the film for about 5 min- Either way, of course, litho-film im-
utes in running water (a tray siphon ages printed from ordinary camera
works well), bathe it in Photo-Flo, and negatives will be high-contrast posi-
hang it up to dry. tives.If a high-contrast negative is
A correctly exposed
Kodalith or needed, simply transfer the image
High Contrast Copy Film image- again by the same process, exposing a
negative or positive will look differ- new piece of lithographic film through
ent from an ordinary negative or the positive you just made. Wait until
print. Hold your litho film image up the first litho film has dried (don't try
to the light and look for these points: to print from it wet), and keep the
two emulsions face to face for sharp
1 Black areas should be even-toned results. The final negative can always
and so dense that virtually no light be placed in the enlarger upside down
gets through them. Weak, gray tones to give a correctly reading image.
here indicate too little exposure; On
any litho film image, pinholes
streaks signal uneven development. in solid black areasmay be removed
2 Blacks should be free from pin- by painting them with photographic
holes. These are caused by dust parti- opaque. This is a thick watercolor
cles and are most numerous in under- paint, available in red or black, that
exposed images. is applied with a sable brush to the
3 Clear areas should be clean-edged; emulsion. The red is easier to see
any veiling indicates too much ex- when you apply it. When touched up,
posure. the negative may be printed like any
4 Examine the width of any lines in other.
the image. If black lines are too thick Polaroid Type 51 material can also
and clear lines are broken or poorly be used for high-contrast images (see
defined, the image is overexposed. If Appendix B). Weston Andrews pro-
thin, clear lines appear too wide, and duced his picture here by rephoto-
thin, black lines are broken, the image graphing two high-contrast images that
is underexposed. were made earlier from a regular pho-
5 The shape of small image areas tograph.
Weston M. Andrews: Portrait, 1972.
197
198 Variations on a theme: the divergence from realism
4 ft.
4 ft.
y /
^ /
Printing ^ /
Frame y /
/
v^: Turntable
^=^=T
Tone-line or spin-out setup.
f i
^- '
>tt^
:^0-s,
c."^-^:
^
aVj^-.-j.;
<I5'
5
\^\^ ^/
i^
b^*?
%^!^
^^ i^'^^
George M. Craven: High contrast image and tone-line variation.
since each lithographic image masks a sheet of unexposed litho film in the
out the clear areas of the other. contact frame so that its emulsion
This sandwich will permit a thin faces the sandwich taped there. Close
band of light to pass through it along the frame, start it spinning, and ex-
the tone edges of the two images, but pose the film for several seconds. A
only if that light strikes it at an few trials may be necessary to establish
oblique angle. Perpendicular rays, as the correct time, but it must never be
you can easily see, are virtually less than one complete revolution of
blocked. Since the tone edges in the the frame.
image lie in all directions on the pic- Process the exposed film by the
ture plane, the exposing light must usual Kodalith method. Thin, weak
strike the sandwich from all sides but lines mean a longer exposure is
always at an oblique angle to the film needed, but if thick, bleeding lines
itself.
result, shorten the exposure time or
The easiest way to do this is to place use a weaker light bulb. The resulting
the printing frame on a turntable in image, of course, can be tonally re-
the darkroom. A phonograph set for versed by contacting again on litho
331/3 rpm works well, or a kitchen film. This will yield a negative that
turntable or "lazy susan" may be used. will produce dark lines on a white
The exposing be a bare bulb
light can ground in the print. The final image
in the ceiling. It must be situated at may resemble a detailed ink drawing,
about a 45 angle from the turntable but it is thoroughly photographic and
(see diagram). can be directly combined with other
With only a red safelight on, place photographic images.
Van Deren Coke: Homage to Richard Hamilton, 1970. Collection: The International Museum of Photography.
Negative Images
Enlarged Negatives and Positives most others in that it does not reverse tact-printed negative in Dektol diluted
image tones; exposing an original 1:8 (one part stock solution to eight
Today we generally think of a nega- negative onto this material will there- parts water) for about 60 to 90 seconds.
tive as a small image from which we fore produce another negative rather The dilution ratio can be varied some-
enlarge a positive, since the prevailing than a positive. what; more dilution will produce
trend in camera design is toward The film should be handled under lower image contrast.
smaller rather than larger formats. a red safelight similar to that used 3 Paper Negatives and Diapositives.
But many of the photographic images with most lithographic materials. Regular, single weight paper prints
being made today are possible only Complete instructions for exposure in can be used to make intermediate
with larger negatives. There are three an enlarger accompany the product. negatives by contact on a sheet of
reasons for this. First,the manual al- Times are similar to those for slower Kodalith or similar film. Some brands
teration, masking, and retouching that enlarging papers, but, with a direct of paper have the manufacturer's
some photographs require are virtu- film such as this, increasing the ex- name lightly printed on the back, and
ally impossible on small negatives; posure produces a lighter duplicate these should be avoided, but other
there simply isn't space to work cleanly image, while decreasing the exposure brands of smooth, glossy paper are
and accurately. Second, large negatives makes the duplicate darker. It's ex- useful. This procedure offers a some-
are used as intermediate, step-up im- actly the reverse of an ordinary film's what less expensive route to larger
ages to produce extremely large prints response. Develop the exposed dupli- size Kodalith negatives, since size for
such as photomurals. Third, some of cating film in a tray of Dektol devel- size, paper is cheaper than film.
the photographic processes that are oper, diluted 1:1 (one part stock solu- Paper prints (positives) may also be
being re-explored today do not rely on tion,one part water), for 2 minutes at used to make paper negatives by con-
silver bromide chemistry but instead 70 F (21 C). Rinse, fix, wash, and dry tact. To insure good image definition,
use other salts that are less sensitive to the film as you would any other. The uniform contact is important, and this
light. These emulsions require intense development time may be adjusted a is easily obtained if both sheets of
light sources for exposure and must be bit to get the best contrast in the en- paper are wet.
printed by contact; this, in turn, re- larged negative. In the darkroom, under a safelight,
quires film negatives or positives as 2 Kodalith Diapositives. Kodaliih soak the positive print and a sheet
large as the final print. Ortho film, described earlier in this of unexposed enlarging paper in water
1 here are several practical ways to chapter, can be used to get an en- until they are limp. Drain them and
make enlarged negatives and positives, larged positive image, from which a press them together with a roller in a
and the simpler ones are briefly out- negative can then be made by contact clean, flat-bottomed tray so that they
lined in the following list for those printing. Litho film diapositives and are emulsion to emulsion with the
readers who
wish to work processes re- the negatives made from them will positive print on top. Next expose this
quiring them. luivemore contrast than will similar wet sandwich imder the enlarger to
images made on the direct duplicating white light as you would a contact
film just described. The diapositive print (a larger aperture miglit be nec-
1 Duplicating Film. 1 his
Direct method, with films like Kodalith, is essary). Then separate the two prints
method employs a special film to pro- therefore useful to enlarge small, orig- and process the undeveloped one. If
duce an enlarged negative directly inal negatives of very low contrast. your enlarger has a wooden baselioard,
from a smaller one. Kodak Profes- Refer to the section. Using Litho- be sure to protect it from getting wet.
sional Direct Duplicating Film SO- graphic Films in the Darkroom, page It can easily be covered with a plastic
015, available in standard sheet film 194, for working procedures. In this dropcloth, saran wrap, or butcher
sizes up to 8 by 10 in. (20.3 by 25.4 application, however, try developing paper, and this will prevent the base-
cm), is used. This film differs from Ijoth the enlarged positive and its con- board from warping.
Variations on a theme: the divergence from realism 203
Gum Bichromate tion of gum printing to contemporary Both the gum emulsion and the
photographers lies in its capacity to paper or cloth on which it is coated
Here is a non-silver process that has blend textures and colors with a mono- must be prepared by the photogra-
had a remarkable revival by contem- chromatic photographic image. pher. It is a slow process, not well
porary artists. Gum bichromate uses Light hardens the sensitized gum suited to making multiple editions,
a colloid, gum arable, which is made arable, making it less soluble; un- but ideal for combining multiple ex-
light-sensitive by potassium bichro- exposed areas are then carefully re- posures of different colors in a single
mate. The gum carries a pigment moved with water, leaving the harder image. The process was patented in
watercolor or poster paint; it can be image on the support. A print may be 1858 and it first became popular
manipulated to produce varied color recoated and locally reprinted in a dif- around the turn of the century. Like
combinations. Although using black ferent color several times, adding to the iron processes, gum printing re-
pigment can yield a print similar to a the creative opportunity of the pro- quires a negative large enough to
conventional photograph, the attrac- cess. make a contact print.
Gayle Smalley: Starset over Bodyscape (wuli dead planet), 1971. Gumprint.
205
206 Variations on a theme: the divergence from realism
Photo Screen Printing works. A film positive is used to ex- printed material we use today, includ-
pose a negative gelatin image on a ing this book. Direct photolithogra-
This process is well suited to making temporary plastic support called phy, although not so widely used com-
large prints with bold colors. The final screen process film. This material is mercially, is more feasible for the
image is in ink and can be printed available either unsensitized or pre- artist-printmaker since it does not re-
on almost any kind of surface to which sensitizedand ready to use, but the quire elaborate printing equipment.
it will adhere: T-shirts, glass bottles, two types must be exposed and de- In photolithography a flat plate of
wood, metal, and plastic objects have veloped in different ways. With either zinc, aluminum, or other suitable ma-
been used. No light-sensitive materials type, the negative image on screen terial is sensitized, usually with a com-
are used in the final stage. process film then imbedded in a
is mercially available resist. The photo-
Photographic screen prints require fine, screen-like material (traditionally graphic image is contact printed onto
a positive image as a starting point; silk but now more commonly nylon, the plate from a litho-type (high-con-
as with other methods described here, polyester, or other material) that has trast) negative, and the plate prepared
it must be as large as the desired final been stretched over a wood frame. for printing by various means accord-
print. Any photograph that can be Then the temporary support is ing to its type. A litho plate is essen-
reduced to a black-and-white, high- stripped away, leaving a negative tially a flat surface composed of print-
contrast image by the previously de- image in gelatin on the screen. ing areas that accept ink but repel
scribed litho film method may be Ink made specially for this process water, and nonprinting areas that re-
printed by the screen process. How- is placed above the screen within the tain water but repel ink.
ever, if the photograph contains gray frame. Finally, the paper or other The prepared plate is positioned on
tones that are important to its image, material on which the image is to be a press, wet, and then inked. Paper is
these tones must first be changed to printed is placed under the screen then placed in contact with the inked
black through a halftone process. and the ink forced through its mesh. plate, and both are drawn under a
Halftone refers to a procedure by The open areas, of course, are situated pressure roller that helps insure an
which gray tones are converted to a wherever there is no gelatin, and thus even contact between them. In this
pattern of tiny dots that vary in size a positive final image is obtained. manner the ink impression is trans-
but are uniform in tone. In a half- Screen inks come in brilliant, even ferred directly to the paper.
tone litho film, for example, all dots fluorescent colors, and since no special Charles Swedlund's photolithograph
are solid black, but their varied size preparation of the paper (or other was made from two such impressions.
permits differing amounts of clear film final material) is necessary, a large Most of the image was printed from a
between them, allowing the eye to edition of identical prints can be pro- single plate using gray ink, but a
blend the two values into shades of duced. Illustrated, step-by-step direc- second Kodalith negative containing
gray. Examine any reproduced photo- tions for photo screen printing are in only the deepest shadow areas was
graph in this book through an 8X the Time-Life book, Frontiers of Pho- made from the original photograph,
magnifier, and you'll see this halftone tography; additional instructions are and a plate made from this negative
pattern. Halftone conversion is not included in the Gassan Handbook (see was printed in black. images
Botli
difficult with modern materials. For bibliography). were carefully registered, that is, posi-
screen printing, original photographs tioned with respect to each other; the
on sharp, small-camera negatives such paper, of course, was run through the
as 35 mmcan be directly used as Photolithography press a second time to receive the
source material because they can be black image. Other colors of ink and
enlarged in this preliminary opera- This is another ink-on-paper process, paper may be used, and the process is
tion. and an important one: in its offset well suited to editions of moderate
Here is how photo screen printing form it accounts for most of the quantity.
m ^
no dye at all but alter the hardness of charged image areas on the drum. At
a resist, change the wetting properties a later point in the operating se-
of a lithographic surface, or form a quence, a piece of paper or other ma-
latent image for some other subse- terial is given an electrical charge op-
quent purpose. posite that of the particles on the
drum, and when this paper is brought
into contact with that surface it picks
Electrostatic Systems up image from it. The paper
the resin
is then briefly heated and pressed to
These systems depend on the fact that fuse the resin and bond it to the sheet.
light will increase the electrical con- A positive copy of the original results.
ductivity of amorphous (non-crystal- Since its public announcement in
line) selenium or zinc oxide. Such 1948, the Xerox process has been de-
materials, when properly charged elec- veloped into a widely used, high-qual-
trically and exposed to liglit through ity document reproduction system.
an image, can retain an electrical Packaged into a variety of convenient,
charge pattern corresponding to the automatic machines, it has become a
image that was printed on them. standard, dry, office-copy process ca-
The best known of these processes pable of reproducing its image on al-
is Xerography. For this process, an most any kind of surface. These
Max J. A. Fallon: [untitled], 1968. Xero.K ^,
unusual properties have led some pho- even tone in such areas seems to be
tographers to explore its reproduction typical of a Xerox image. Some ma-
capabilities with material other than chines that operate with cut sheets of
tlie printed matter for which it is paper (rather than a continuous roll)
ideally suited. permit the operator to introduce col-
Max J. A. Fallon has demonstrated ored paper and other materials in
this capacity of the process to re- place of the typical white sheets. This
produce high-contrast photographic is what Fallon has done to reproduce
material. But some peculiar character- his images. Like other non-silver sys-
istics are quickly evident. The electro- tems. Xerography represents a viable
staticcharge does not seem to distrib- alternative conventional photo-
to
ute itself evenly over large areas of copying methods, and improved ren-
uniform tone. Tone edges (between dering of intermediate tones on the
light and dark) become charged more black-to-white scale is one aim of con-
strongly than the central areas; an un- tinuing research. 209
210 Variations on a theme: the divergence from realism
Photosculpture
O
Jerry McMillan is another artist who
demonstrates that photography cannot
be limited to its traditional image
forms. A few years ago he astounded
the photographic community by ex-
hibiting photographs mounted on the
inner walls of small paper bags. These
photographs usually presented an out-
ward expanse of space; they were
made all the more enigmatic by their
arrangement to form an inner space or
environment.
More recently, McMillan has used
the photographic image as a stencil to
create natural forms in metal. By coat-
ing brass or copper sheets and coils
with a photo-sensitive resist that
hardens on exposure to ultraviolet
light, he can transfer his image photo-
graphically to the metal surface. After
the resist is printed, its unhardened
(unprinted) areas are removed and the
metal then etched through with an
acid. An outline of the photographic
image in the metal, from which the
remaining resist is then dissolved,
forms a sculptural relief.
Ever since the daguerreotype, im-
provements in technology have re-
sulted in new kinds of photographic
images. Commercially available light-
no longer lim-
sensitive materials are
ited to filmand paper, although other
Jerry McMillan: [untitled], 1972. Brass and cop-
forms are not usually obtainable in
per landscape (willi bolts).
units convenient for the student or
amateur experimenter. One solution
to this problem lies with liquid emul-
sions that can be coated by the pho-
tograplier himself on various mate-
rials, but these materials must then
be able to withstand any required wet
jjrocessing.
Another solution has been demon-
strated by the painter. Chuck Close,
Variations on a theme: the divergence from realism 211
Richard Hamilton: Towards a Definitive Statement on the Coming Trends in Men's Wear
and Accessories, (a): Together let us explore the stars, 1962. Oil and collage on panel. The
Tate Gallery, London.
who uses precise photography as both a scale and on a material where we do ample, consistently has utilized paint-
source and process to prepare his over- not ordinarily look for one. His pic- ing, photography, and sculpture to
size (84 by 108 in.) canvases. Using a tures are dramatically ambivalent as assesscontemporary life. He often
grid pattern for accurate projection, real as a photograph and as unreal as combines these media in unexpected
Close typically translates a tightly a painting, and vice versa. ways to increase the intensity of his
framed, sharply focused photograph of In this chapter, then, we have noted statements. The quantity of inventive
a person'shead to his large canvas. some of the more familiar photo- work this artist has produced 170
Then, with an airbrush and acrylic graphic processes separately, but we items in a recent retrospective show-
paint, he builds a continuous tonal have also pointed out that many of suggests that he will likely be a major
scale that is virtually photographic. them, in their contemporary forms, influence on
photographers every-
His careful rendering of detail com- may be combined with one another where as they continue to pursue their
pletes thegrand illusion. Close thereby and with other media. Richard Hamil- muse through endless variations on
produces a "photographic" image in ton in the United Kingdom, for ex- photographic themes.
George M. Craven: Santa Clara Valley and San Francisco Bay from Mount Hamilton,
California, 1968. Infrared photograph.
212
Lenses and filters: choosing and using them 11
If yours is a simple camera, you prob- snapshot variety is the interchangeable chapteris to shed some light (if you'll
ably haven't given much thought to lens. Being able to remove one lens pardon the pun) on the mystique of
its lens or how that lens forms an from the camera and substitute an- photographic lenses; another is to ex-
image. There's little to be concerned other that will form a different image plain how camera filters are used with
about. Focusing, if required, is increases the usefulness of the camera them.
straightforward and simple. The aper- by a significant factor. It also demands
ture may be have only
fixed in size or a basis for intelligent choice, particu-
you keep the
a few possible settings. If larly with camera systems that offer How a Lens Forms an Image
lens clean and hold the camera still, lenses inwide variety. Making the best
reasonably clear images are assured. use of a camera or lens, like any other The function of any camera lens is to
Every passing year, however, brings tool, requires that its fundamental form an image, and it does this by
more uses for photography, and many properties be adequately understood bending rays of light that pass through
of these applications are in highly spe- and correctly applied to the situation it. Back in Chapter 4 we noted that
cialized fields. Some uses are quite at hand. when light passes from one material
complex; others are simple. All have No other part of a fine camera is to another, its waves are bent. When
steered camera design toward more more important than its lens, nor is a ray passes from air into a denser
specialized capabilities, modular and any other part so shrouded in mystery. material such as glass, for example,
interchangeable construction, and in- The names we find on lenses today the ray is bent toward a line perpen-
creased automation of exposure, fram- Xenar, Tessar, Elmar, Symmar, Pla- dicular to the surface of that material.
ing, and focusing. This trend toward nar, Sekor, Rokkor, Takumar, Heliar, When light leaves a dense material
more sophisticated design is evident in Nikkor (and there are scores of others) and enters a less dense one, the oppo-
all types of cameras, but is most ap- are not very informative. How do site occurs: thus a ray passing from
parent in those for general use. they differ from one another? And glass into air is bent away from the
One feature that commonly sep- what kinds of images are they best perpendicular to the surface it passes
arates better cameras from the simple suited to make? One purpose of this through.
214 Lenses and filters: choosing and using them
the rays will be bent, in this case Light wave passing through air and glass.
tow^ard the base of the prism.
Now two identical prisms
visualize
base to base; passing through
rays
them are all bent toward the baseline
and ultimately cross one another, as
shown here.
If we add more surfaces to these prisms
at the correct angles, all the emerging
rays will converge and cross at the
same point. An infinite number of Light ray being bent by a prism.
to be used with it, and to do that over the image of an object at a given dis-
a range of lens-to-subject distances for tance. Focal length and image size are
which the camera is intended. therefore directly proportional: if you
Designing lenses today no longer replace a lens of 50 mm (2 in.) focal
requires the rare humanused talent it length with one of 100 mm (4 in.) focal
to. Although automated cameras are length, the latter image will be exactly
a comparatively recent development, twice the size of the former.
lens making began to take advantage With interchangeable lenses, then,
of the electronic computer many years we may vary the size of our image on
ago. Computers have dramatically the film, but not all of that image may
shortened the time required for the be usable. That depends on another
complicated calculations of optical important characteristic of a lens its
formulas. One result of using com- coverage.
puters is that lenses of superb quality
are now found on relatively inexpen-
sive, mass-produced cameras, and dis- Lens Coverage
tinctly inferior lenses for general use
have virtually been banished from the Light passing through a lens forms a
market. W^ith computer programs cur- circular image, but practically all cam-
rently available, any optical manufac- eras are designed to make rectangular
turer can produce a variety of high- pictures within that circle. Each lens
quality lenses, further encouraging is designed to cover a particular size
array of lenses to choose from, then, by the format and construction of the
how can we sort them out and make camera for which it is intended. Lenses
suitable choices? designed for a 35 mmcamera, for ex-
ample, will have fairly narrow cylin-
drical mounts since the image circle
Focal Length they must form is than 3 in. in
less
diameter. A lens to be used on a 4 by
The most fundamental characteristic 5 in. view camera, however, must form
ofany lens is its focal length. Back in a circular image at least 6 in. (150 mm)
Chapter 3, you may recall, we said wide. This is why different lenses of
that the focal length of a lens is the the same focal length cannot be inter-
distance from the center of that lens changed among all types of cameras.
to the film plane, when the lens is Although a 135 mm lens for a 35 mm
focused on infinity.* With any lens, camera and one of identical focal
the longer the focal length, the larger length for a 4 by 5 in. camera will
form images of the same magnifica-
tion, the two lenses are not inter-
**
This is an adequate but inexact e.xpla- changeable since the one designed for
nation. The measurement
properly is the 35 mm camera will not cover the
made from a point within the lens system larger film area of the other. Thus
called the emerging nodal point. All rays
which governs image size,
focal length,
that travel through the optical center of
the lens appear to leave the lens from and angle of coverage, determined by
that node. the film size that the lens is designed
216 Lenses and filters: choosing and using them
marked on its mount, as is the ratio cording to their focal length and cov- focal length is slightly greater than the
of its maximum usable aperture. Thus ering power. Those used in general diagonal of the film size being cov-
a typical lens may be marked as fol- photography fall into three broad ered. A 50 mm
(2 in.) lens, for ex-
lows: Schneider Xenar 1:3.5 f = 80mm. categories: ample, is a normal or medium focal
In this example, Schneider is the man- length for the 35 mm
format, whose
ufacturer, Xenar the trade name of 1 Medium-focal-length, normal-angle, diagonal is 44 mm.* The table below
the lens design, its largest aperture is or simply normal lenses. This is the gives the focal lengths of normal lenses
f/3.5, and its focal length is 80 mm type commonly found on most cam- for frequentlyused film formats.
(about 314 in.). Lens coverage is not eras; it is suitable for general use. The focal length and coverage of a
similarly indicated but often can be 2 Long-focal-length, narrow-angle, or normal lens are similar in proportion
inferred from the design of the mount; simply long-focus lenses. These lenses
as a rule that mount will readily per- produce larger images than normal
mit its attachment only to the type of ones do and are therefore useful over The 35 mm
designation for format and
camera for which that lens is suited. greater distances. A telephoto lens is
focal length may be
confusing. The 35
mm format uses a strip of film 35 mm
The maximum aperture of a lens a special kind of long-focus lens. wide. Allowing for the two rows of
used to be considered a key identify- 3 Short- focal length, more commonly sprocket holes, its typical image frame
ing feature along with its focal length. known as wide-angle lenses. They en- is a rectangle 24 by 36 mm
with a 44
Today's highly sensitive films, how- able the camera to record a larger mm diagonal. A 50 mm
focal length is
therefore considered normal, and a lens
ever, have made this aperture designa- area while being confined to a close
focal length of 35 mm
would indicate a
tion a less important factor when distance, as in a small room, and have short-focal-length or wide-angle lens for
selecting interchangeable lenses. other useful applications. a 35 mmformat.
1 35 mm 135 24 by 36 mm 44 mm 50 mm
2 214 in. sq 120-12 60 by 60 mm 76 mm 80 mm
3 4 by 5 in. 4x5 95 by 120 mm 152 mm 150 mm
4 Pocket
Instamatic 110 13 by 17 mm 21 mm 25 mm
5 Instamatic 126 28 by 28 mm 40 mm 45 to 50 mm
6 6 by 7 cm 120-10 60 by 70 mm 92 mm 105 mm
Lenses and filters: choosing and using them 217
to the average focal length and visual with the picture. A tripod may be
field of the human eye.* Thus the im- needed to control this. Another prob-
age produced by a normal lens has a lem is the increased distance necessary
perspective within it that we find fa- between the lens and film. This re-
miliar. Normal lenses are suitable for quires a more expansive bellows or a
most types of general photographic longer lens mount on the camera, and
work, and should be used unless there there are practical limits of space and
is a good reason for choosing a dif- weight to such apparatus.
ferent kind.
Telephoto Lenses
camera position from which the sub- it's merely a long- focus type. The pho-
ject's nose and ears appear dispropor- tograph of the Santa Clara Valley in
tionate in size. California (at the head of this chapter)
Long-focal-length lenses have their was made with a 380 mm
telephoto
problems, though, and one of them is lens on a 4 by 5 in. format.
that image movement from a shaky or
unsteady camera is magnified along Mirror Lenses
When extremely long focal lengths are
" visual field of the eye is the area it
The needed for small-camera lenses, a cata-
can see from an immobile position. Be- dioptric system may be employed. This
cause the eye moves, however, we
type of lens combines reflecting mir-
usually refer to its field of view, a greater
area describing the limits of its visual rors with refracting elements, enabling
field in all orbital positions. the light rays to be bounced back and
218 Lenses and filters: choosing and using them
forth within the lens system before phy. Anne Noggle's photograph (page
being passed on to the film. Such a 152) and Bill Owens's photographs
lens can save considerable space and (pages 172, 224) are made with wide-
weight in focal lengths beyond 400 mm angle lenses.
(for a 35 mm
format), but it has two Due to their short focal length,
troublesome features. If the view being wide-angle lenses must be placed closer
photographed has a highly reflective than normal to the camera's film
background, such as the sunlit surface plane. In some 35 mm
reflex cameras,
of a lake, the lens will produce circu- where a mirror must move up and
lar,out-of-focus highlights in the im- down in that same space, such a lens
age from uncontrolled reflections in would interfere with this movement
its mirrors. A more serious problem and render the mirror unworkable. A
with mirror optics is that they have neat solution to this problem is the
no diaphragm (aperture) because it retrofocus lens, a reverse telephoto de-
would obstruct the passage of light sign. In a retrofocus lens, the negative
through the mirror system. Exposure group of elements precedes the posi-
must therefore be controlled entirely tive group, resulting in an effective
with shutter settings or filters, and focal length shorter than the actual
depth of field cannot be varied. Never- distance required between lens and
theless, mirror optics represent a com- film to focus the image. This design
pact alternative to telephoto lenses thereby lengthens the optical path to
that are too long and difficult to make room for the reflex mirror.
handle.
Zoom Lenses
Wide-Angle Lenses
Zoom lenses are variable-focal-length
A lens is called a wide-angle lens when lenses. We're familiar with their use
its focal length is much shorter than on televisionand motion-picture cam-
the diagonal of the film size it covers. eras where they permit uninterrupted
Examples include lenses of 35 mm changes in image size from a fixed
focal length for a 35 mm
format (see camera position. This flexibility is less
footnote on page 216), and lenses of useful in still photography, where the
65 mmfocal length for a 2 14 by 2i/4 in. zoom feature more commonly is a
(6 by 6 cm) format. Wide-angle lenses convenience providing several focal
typically will have an angle of cover- lengths in one lens. It is useful in
age twice that of a normal lens. They reportorialand sequence work. Focal
are useful in confined locations where length, and thereby image size, are
a normal lens would frame too small varied by moving certain components
an area. The wide angle of coverage within the lens in relation to others,
permits a larger area to be included. which are fixed. Zoom lenses are com-
Such lenses are particularly helpful for plicated and expensive, and at any
photographing architectural interiors, given focal length cannot produce im-
and their great depth of field (com- age definition and sharpness equal to
pared to a normal lens) also makes that of a high-quality lens of fixed
them useful in reportorial photogra- focal length.
Lenses and filters: choosing and using them 219
some distance away, but an enlarger's reasonably sharp images with that
"subject" is flat and close a negative same camera as close as 12 inches. Such
located just inches away from the lens. a camera may then be used to photo-
The enlarging lens is designed to form graph small objects such as ceramic
an image from a nearby flat plane, pottery, small drawings and paintings,
and to project that image on another and anything that a close point of view
fiat plane not far away. In an enlarger will not distort beyond useful limits.
it always functions under these condi- Closeup attachments represent an eco-
tions, and need not be concerned with nomical way to vary the effective focal
any others. Enlarging lenses, therefore, length of fixed camera lenses for such
are not well suited to general camera purposes.
use. Closeup attachments for certain
twin-lens reflex cameras come in pairs:
Micro and Macro Lenses a thin element for the lower (taking)
lens, a thick one for the upper
and
These lenses are designed for closeup (viewing) lens of the camera. The
work photography at very short dis- thicker attachment contains an optical
where the image
tances to the subject, wedge or prism, and a reference mark
produced in the camera may often be on its rim. This unit must be attached
as large as the object before the lens. to the upper lens of the camera, with
Although they produce their best im- the reference mark at the top. In this
age quality at such short object dis- position the prism will aim the camera
tances, some them are also suitable
of viewing s>stem at the closer lens-to-
for general work at longer distances. subject distances involved, conve-
Most have features to make routine niently eliminating most errors due to
closeup work more efficient. Technical parallax.
220 Lenses and filters: choosing and using them
Red
Magenta Yellow
Blue Green
Cyan
ones. The basic principle applicable individual colors but also their com- a yellow filter darkens the tone of
to all is that a filter passes or transmits ponents from mixtures as they occur. blue sky in a black-and-white photo-
its own color and absorbs
its compli- Thus a green filter will absorb the graph, and make the clouds more
ment, which opposite its own color
is magenta component of any light con- visible.
on the wheel. Let's take the example taining it, and some of the adjacent Similarly, a green filter will darken
most often used in black-and-white red light and blue light as well. the rendering of magenta (reddish
photography. A yellow filter freely From this behavior, then, we may blue) objects in a black-and-white pos-
transmits yellow light, but absorbs infer another guiding principle of col- itive,and a red filter will darken the
blue (which is opposite yellow on the ored filters in black-and-white photog- tone of blue and green ones. In each
wheel). A pale or medium yellow filter raphy. When a filter absorbs a certain case, however, objects that are the
will transmit other colors adjacent to color of light, anything that reflects same color as the filter will not be
yellow, and will effectively block out that color to the camera will be re- darkened, and thus will appear lighter
only blue rays. Similarly, a red filter corded weaker on the negative and by comparison. We may therefore
will transmit red but will absorb cyan therefore darker in the positive, or more fully describe our preceding ex-
(bluish green). Intensely colored filters print. For example, when a yellow amples by noting that a yellow filter
will also absorb some colors adjacent filter is used to photograph a clear, lightens the rendering of yellow ob-
to the complimentary hue on the blue sky containing white clouds, the jects (in the print) and darkens the
wheel. Thus a deep red filter will not filter absorbs much of the blue light appearance of blue ones; a green filter
only absorb cyan but most of the blue from the sky but little of the light lightens green objects and darkens
and green light as well. reflected by the white clouds. Since reddish-blue ones; and a red filter
Filters, of cOurse, are not selective of the sky then recorded lighter than
is lightens red objects (by comparison)
subjects: they only respond to colors the clouds on the negative, it appears and darkens those that are green and
of light, and will absorb not only the darker than they do in the print. Thus blue.
222 Lenses and filters: choosing and using them
Exposure Factor in
light vibrates perpendicular to its di- We can see the effect of a polarizing ters are also inexpensive, but easily
rection in only one plane. Such light filter on already-polarized light simply soiled. Thev should be liandled with
is said to be polarized. by looking at such light through the great care, and only near their edges.
There are two common sources of filter, and rotating it until its polariz- Clean gelatin filters by whisking them
polarized light in nature. One is the ing plane is at right angles to that of lightly with a lens brush or air syringe;
light coming from a clear blue sky, the light. At that point the filter turns never rub them with anything. A
at an angle of 90 to the sun. Such dark and the polarized light is blocked. scratched or soiled gelatin filter should
light is strongly polarized, although To photograph the effect, slip the be discarded and replaced.
the only indication of it to our eyes filterover the lens so that it is oriented Glass filters are more convenient to
is that the sky may appear a little the same way. use than gelatin ones, but they are
deeper blue than usual. At other an- Small reflective objects such as glass- more expensive. Because tliey are
gles, natural skylight is less strongly covered pictures may be photographed thicker, they may soften the sharpness
affected, until at 180 and near the without troublesome reflections by of an image when used on extremely
sun itself no polarization occurs. Na- this method. Artificial light may be short or long focal length lenses. If
tural light reflected at an angle of used, but it is necessary to polarize the kept clean and properly positioned in
about 35 from non-metallic surfaces light before it reaches the shiny sur- front of the lens, though, glass filters
such as wood, plastic, glass, paint, or face. Polarizing material similar to can be useful camera accessories. Clean
water, also is polarized. Again the ef- that in the filter must be used over them as you would a fine lens.
fect is apparent at other angles,
less the light fixtures, and this can be an Some filters, like the ones used in
disappearing completely at right an- expensive procedure. Such material the enlarger with variable-contrast
gles to the surface, and parallel to it. will polarize the light falling on the papers,come as thin, plastic wafers
Polarized light appears to the eye reflective surface; a polarizing filter and as even thinner acetate sheets.
much like any other kind, but a fre- at the lens will then block the reflec- These are not intended for use on
quently seen effect of it on glass win- tion that reaches the camera. Using cameras. The plastic ones can be
dows, for example, is the glare that the camera alone will not work,
filter cleaned with a mixture of water and
obscures our vision through them. since the light reaching it will not be denatured alcohol, or with lens-clean-
We've seen this on our car windshield polarized and therefore cannot be fil- ing fluid used very sparingly. Discard
when driving toward the sun; light tered out. soiled acetate filters.
reflecting from a smooth, concrete Like other filters, the polarizer ab- Let's summarize this discussion of
roadway on a bright day can also pro- sorbs some of the light reaching it and how filters work by listing three brief
duce such glare. thus affects exposure. Most types re- rules for using them. They apply to
Polarizing filters provide a way to quire 3 times the normal exposure any light filter, with any black-and-
control such reflections when they for the full polarizing effect. white film, in any photographic situa-
would otherwise obscure something tion. Perhaps the closest we come, in
we're trying to photograph. They are this book, to a recitation of holy writ:
also useful to darken a blue sky in Filter Guidelines
outdoor photographs, without chang- 1 // you don't need a filter, don't use
ing the appearance of other colored Filters for use on camera lenses usu- one. A never adds anything
filter
objects in the view. Polarizing filters ally come as tliin squares of dyed gel- to a picture; it only takes some-
contain a material that works like a atin, lacquered on both sides; they thing away.
louver, absorbing light that is already also come as glass circles, mounted for 2 Any colored filter renders its own
polarized while polarizing any that is easy attachment to the lens. Gelatin and its
color lighter (in the print)
not. Since polarized light looks the filters are available in many colors for complement darker. Refer again to
same as unpolarized to the eye, only general and technical work. Because the color wheel.
the blocking of already polarized rays tliey are very thin, they seldom inter- 3 Increase the exposure by the ap-
is noticed. fere with image sharpness. Gelatin fil- propriate filter factor.
Hill Oweti.s: Party for Children's Home Society, 1972. From Suburbia.
224
Photography with artificial light: flood and flush 12
In Chapter 4 we defined natural light forms of electric lighting that are part filament lamp and the fluorescent
as coming from the sun. Daylight, of of our daily life. The other type is tube, are usable just as they come.
course, is its most familiar form. From intermittent, producing its light in Thanks largely to modern, high-speed
that simple definition we may argue brief pulses or flashes.We're familiar films,intense photoflood lamps on
that any light not so produced is not with two such forms, the flashbulb and which photographers so heavily relied
natural, and therefore artificial. What electronic flash lamp used by photog- not long ago are no longer essential:
matters here, however, is that light is raphers everywhere. for black-and-white still photography,
a tool, a designing element in picture Continuous light offers several ad- ordinary household lights will do. Ar-
making. A functional definition, then, vantages over the intermittent type, tificial light sources come in a variety
may be more useful to photographers and some of these are particularly val- of intensities and colors; this is no
than a physical one: photography, like uable to anyone not familiar with its problem photographers using
for
politics, is an art of the possible. use in camerawork. We'll therefore black-and-white materials, but does re-
To a photographer, artificial light consider it first, and later apply the quire special attention when using
is light that he can control at its rationale behind its use to photoflash. color films.
source.Other light, though it may not Flash may be a more convenient pho- Most uses of tend to
artificial light
come from the sun and may be pro- tographic light source, but its brief imitate its common natural
form.
duced artificially, may be functionally duration makes it difficult for an inex- That's daylight: on a clear day, a mix-
regarded as natural light by the pho- perienced photographer to study its ture of direct sunlight and diffuse
tographer he cannot control it be-
if behavior. light from the sky overhead. Overcast
fore it reaches his camera. Admittedly daylight is also familiar: the diffused
these definitions are arbitrary, but they skylight dominates, and may even ob-
are also useful. Continuous Light scure the sun's rays altogether. Since
Broadly considered, two types of ar- each has advantages for the photogra-
tificial light are of particular interest Continuous artificial light is readily pher who can use it well, let's consider
to photographers. One type emits its available anywhere that electricity is. how these two light conditions can be
rays continuously: this includes most Its most familiar forms, the tungsten duplicated indoors.
226 Photography with artificial light: flood and flash
2 Fill light A fill light illuminates tions to produce a larger, more dif-
the shadows cast by the key light, re- fused light source than a comparable
placing their inky darkness with direct light could do. This is accom-
enough light to record detail and tone. plished by aiming the light source at
Thus it functions like skylight on a a large reflecting surface such as a
clear, sunny day. must never equal
It white board, sheet, or a milky plastic
the key light in intensity on the sub- umbrella. If several such indirect
ject, for then it would be another key lights are positioned around a subject,
light and not a fill. Equally important, they will provide an aura of light that
it should cast no significant shadows is essentially directionless, and there-
of its own. fore shadowless. They effectively simu-
3 Accent light As its name implies, late diffused skylight of overcast days.
this one adds small, local highlights Shadowless light, as this is some-
to an otherwise evenly lit area. It is times called, illuminates an area
commonly used in portraiture, for ex- rather than an object within it. It is
ample, to highlight the hair, and in ideal for photographing shiny-surfaced
commercial photography to make de- objects and things that have important
tails of objects more visible. An accent black parts. It minimizes contrast be-
light may appear as bright as the key tween black and chrome, for example,
light or even brighter, but it never on small appliances and similar ob-
dominates a picture as the key light jects. Indirect lighting is also useful
does. It's strictly a local touch, never when a small object must be photo-
graphed from an extremely close view-
enough space be-
point. If there isn't
We shall
not discuss floodlights or spot-
tween the object and the camera for
lights here because these terms are more
descriptive of a light source than of its direct light placement, indirect light
function. may fill the bill.
Photography with artificial light: flood and flash 227
Once set up, shadowless or indirect lasting six hours. Two other lamps
light is easy and efficient to use, requir- preferred by photographic studios are
ing very little adjustment for various also available from many photo deal-
kinds of objects placed in it. But it is ers. These are the 250 watt EGA lamp
not well suited to render the shape of and the 500 watt ECT. Although not
objects or the texture of surfaces; di- quite as bright as the first pair men-
rect light can perform those tasks tioned, these have much longer lives
much better. and are suitable for color photography
as well as black-and-white. All four
lamps fit regular screw-base sockets but
Direct Lighting should be used with good reflectors.
Do not use more than three 500 watt
For good results with direct lighting, lamps on a single electrical circuit.
two principles overshadow all others: Some photographic lamps are avail-
keep the lighting simple, and build able with their own reflector built into
the lighting one function at a time. the bulb. They are more expensive
Check the lighting as you go, always than ordinary lamps but more con-
from the camera position. It will look venient: they need only be screwed
slightly different from any other angle, into simple, clamp-on sockets. The 500
but the way it appears at the camera, watt EAL lamp is recommended.
of course, is the way it will look in Many varieties of tungsten-halogen
your photograph. Suggested proce- lamps also are used in photographic
dures for photographing people and work. These lamps are compact and
inanimate objects are given elsewhere operate at very high temperatures.
in this chapter. They should not be They have a high, stable light output
considered rules but simply starting over a long, useful life, and do not
points for your own further experi- darken with age as regular tungsten
menting. lamps do. Tungsten-halogen lamps
must be used in equipment designed
for them; adequate ventilation is es-
Photographic Lamps sential. These lamps require extremely
careful handling: the quartz tube must
A word about continuous photo- not be touched by the skin under any
graphic lamps, usually referred to as circumstances. Mere traces of skin oils
photofioods. They are simply regular or perspiration on the lamp will cause
light bulbs whose tungsten filaments it to heat unevenly and fail.
burn at an abnormally high rate.
They give more light than regular
bulbs, but burn out much sooner. Simple Portrait Lighting
Photographic light bulbs have ASA
code designations for easy identifica- Here is a suggested procedure for
tion. The two most popular are the simple portraits. It will work equally
No. Photoflood (code BBA), a 250
1 well with floor and table lamps at
watt, lamp with about a
screw-base home, with portable floodlamps of any
three-hour life, and the No. 2 Photo- kind, or with studio lamps designed
flood (EBV), a similar 500 watt lamp for professional use. The kind of lamp
228 Photography with artificial light: flood and flash
you have is less important than how the key light, somewhat behind and
you use it. You may have to remove above the and aim it to-
subject,
the shades from home lamps or equip ward the hair. Check it very carefully
them with brighter bulbs (150 and 200 from the camera position, preferably
watt bulbs are available wherever through the viewfinder, and adjust it
housewares are sold; or the screw-base until it gives a suitable highlight. Re-
photoflood lamps described earlier member, it must not dominate the
may be used). In any case, be sure lighting on your subject; it only adds
that no part of the lampshade touches an accent.
any of these bulbs, for they get quite 4 The background light is optional;
hot. not necessary, but usually helpful.
Keep in mind that your picture is a
may be cubic or cylindrical as well. ample, if you first place the key light
Regardless of their actual structure, at two o'clock and the fill at eight (in
most such objects may be regarded as relation object being photo-
to the
having one of those three basic shapes. graphed), try moving the key to the
The major difference in lighting them two-thirty or three o'clock position.
has to do with where the key light is Other arrangements of these two
placed. lights, of course, are possible; a little
experimenting will show you the possi-
Cubes bilities. Keep the key and fill lights
more or less level with the object so
For things that fundamentally
are that the round side is evenly lit. Add
cubes, try placing the key lightbehind an accent light to the top of the cyl-
the object, high and off to one side, so inder, if needed, and perhaps place the
that it throws a shadow of the object background light as before.
toward a lower corner of the picture Lighting of spheres is much the
as you view it in the camera. The fill same. Key and fill lights at opposite
light can now be directed at the side and camera usually
sides of the object
of the object facing the camera. Use are adequate, although a background
enough illumination here so that de- light may help reveal the form. With
tails can be clearly seen, but not so both spheres and cylinders, a termi-
much that this side becomes as bright nator or "day-night" line may be vis-
as the key-lit top. A second fill light, ible on the rounded surface. As a rule,
less intense than the first, or an accent this will not call attention to itself if
light,should illuminate the third side the key and fill lights are placed so
of the object visible to the camera. that this line appears off-center and
Keep this third, side less bright than does not bisect the object. Of course,
the other two. you can easily emphasize this shadow
A background light may be added lineif you wish by centering it.
230 Photography with artificial light: flood and flash
it with the meter held on the lens axis synchronizing circuit in the camera
about a foot in front of the card. shutter. This heats a tiny filament,
thinner than a human hair, to touch
off a bit of explosive primer built into
Intermittent Light: Photoflash the bulb. The primer, in turn, ignites
the zirconium wire, which quickly oxi-
Photoflash has become a popular dizes to produce the flash of light we
source of artificial light that has made see.
Photography with artificial light: flood and flash 231
Synchronization much like a child's toy cap pistol. No cess,and as soon as another electric
electricity is used. The primer blast charge can be placed on the tube, an-
All this takes time about i%ono ^^ ignites the shredded zirconium just as other flash is possible.
^%ooo second, so the camera shutter in other flashcubes. This feature alone suffices to make
must delay itsopening that long for Because the firing system is a simple the electronic flash an attractive alter-
the firing sequence to be completed. A mechanical one, these cubes can be native to the chemical flashbulb. Al-
synchronizer, built into the shutter, used only on cameras with synchro- though its initial cost is higher than
provides that delay. If the camera is nized mechanical triggers in them. Op- that of conventional bulb equipment,
designed for only one type of flash- erating the shutter of such a camera an electronic flash unit is much less
bulb, the proper delay is automatic. momentarily pushes a small probe up expensive to operate. But the elec-
Other cameras are equipped with a into the base of the Magicube, trip- tronic unit has another advantage that
two-position switch, usually labeled ping one impact spring. An added is even more valuable: its flash has an
X-M, that controls this feature. In the dividend: a spent cube with all of its extremely short duration. Typical
X position the flash circuit is fired as springs released can signal the camera times range from i/^qo to V-^^^,,^
soon as the shutter blades open; mechanism that it needs replacement. second in modern units, short enough
switching to the M
position delays the Type X Magicubes and regular flash- to "freeze" virtually any action taking
shutter for about 20 milliseconds, al- cubes are not interchangeable. Al- place while the film is exposed.
lowing the flashbulb ignition sequence though they look very much alike, Electronic flash units need no shut-
to run its course first. neither will fit equipment designed for ter delay to synchronize their light,
The flashcube is a more convenient the other. and leaf shutters that are compatible
version of a fingernail-sized flashbulb, with them will fire the flash as soon as
the AG-1. This all-glass bulb was in- their blades are fully opened. If a
troduced in 1958 to replace a variety Electronic Flash shutter is synchronized for both elec-
of older, larger lamps. Some of these tronic and chemical flash, the "X"
older flashbulbs are still in use with Although the electronic flash lamp position of the M-X lever will give
obsolete snapshot cameras and with was invented as a scientific tool to correct electronic response. But focal-
portable lighting equipment used by analyze motion, it was soon adapted plane shutters, found on many 35 mm
commercial and industrial photog- as a repeatable source of photoflash cameras, present a special problem:
raphers in situations where other illu- illumination. Using an electric flash to the flash duration is much shorter
mination is less practical. arrestmotion so that it might be pho- than the time required for the shutter
Ordinary flashcubes and all-glass tographed was not new in the thirties: opening to travel across the film
(AG-1) bulbs, like older types, are ig- William Henry Fox Talbot, again a frame. To avoid the partial frame ex-
nited by low voltage from a battery. pioneer, was granted a patent for such posure that would result, the flash
This gives rise to the most common a device in 1851. ^Vhere Talbot had must be used only with shutter set-
cause of flashbulb failure weak bat- used an open-air spark, however, Ed- tings expose all of the frame
that
teries. Recently, however, flashbulb gerton's device substituted a charge of simultaneously. Usually this means
manufacturers have come up with an alternating current in a glass tube full times of ^^r, second or longer, and
ingenious solution to this chronic of inert gas. many shutter dials indicate the shortest
problem. A new cube designated Type In modern units, a high-voltage elec- time setting where the frame is en-
X or "Magicuhe" eliminates the bat- tric charge is applied to electrodes in tirely open.
tery problem by substitiuing a me- each end of a helical glass tube filled
chanical ignition system for the elec- with xenon gas. Triggering the unit
tric one. Each of the four lamps in a ionizes the xenon, and in this state it Exposures with Flash
Type X
cube has a percussive primer conducts the high voltage charge
in its base. That primer is fired when across it with a brilliant flash of light. Exposures with flash are affected by
struck by a small, tensioned spring. The gas is not consumed in the pro- the same factors we noted for natural
232 Photography with artificial light: flood and flash
light: intensity, film sensitivity, aper- subjectis 15 ft. away from the lamp
ture, and shutter time.* But other and the guide number is 165, set the
factors also apply: with older equip- aperture at f/11.
ment, the shape of the reflector may
alter the light output of the bulb, and
since the light source is usually used Automatic Exposure Controls
indoors, the proximity of reflecting
surfaces such as light-colored walls and Two recent developments in the evo-
ceilings must be accounted for. lution of electronic flash units have
Most important, however, is the addressed themselves to this exposure
distance from the light to the subject. problem. The first was the automatic
The inverse square law, a basic prin- electronic flash unit, a development
ciple of physics, states that as light of the mid Such units contain
1960s.
spreads out from a source, its intensity a small sensor that measures the
diminishes as the square of the dis- brightness of the flash reflected by the
tance increases. In other words, at subject in the same manner that a
twice the distance from a source of conventional exposure meter does.
light there is only one-fourth of the The sensor is connected through a
intensity. Small changes in light-to- transistorized circuit to the charge on
subject distance, then, produce
will the xenon tube, and when enough
large changes in illumination on that light has been reflected to the sensor
subject. Since this distance has a sig- (according to the ASA film rating for
nificant effect on exposure, it should which it has been preset), the remain-
237
238 Photography with artificial light: flood and flash
them with their backs to the sun. Let's tional feet (from the subject) will give
say your daylight exposure would be you the desired balance.
yi25^^ f/16, and the guide number If the light cannot be moved from
for your flash unit is 120. Dividing 16 the camera, or if you wish to keep the
into 120 gives a lamp-to-subject dis- camera in close for tighter framing,
tance of 7i/2 feet; at that distance, the try a handkerchief over the bulb or
flash would balance the sunlight. But remove its reflector. Either method
you only want the flash to fill shadows, will help preserve a proper, natural-
not be a second key light (like the looking balance between the flash unit
sun). Moving it back a couple of addi- and the sun.
Rulon E. Watson: The Whirlpool Galaxy in Canes Venatui. 19b0. Courtesy Lick Obsenatory.
University of California, Santa Cruz.
240
d
Careers and educational opportunities 13
Photography touches our lives in so too. Printing, electronics, and informa- ment, production, marketing, and
many ways that we'd be hard put to tion storage systems, for example, rely public relations areas of a corpora-
describe all of the opportunities it heavily on it for their manufacturing tion's activity. Thus he is an impor-
presents to someone seeking a career. processes, and photographic skills are tant member of a team, a communica-
In a society that makes such wide- a valuable asset to many people in tions specialist whose assignments vary
spread use of visual communication, other fields such as medicine, educa- from routine reproduction to imagina-
the opportunity for employment in tion, and engineering. But as a service tive problem-solving. Some of the
some form of photographic activity is business, photography isfundamen- photographic services he renders may
limited only by how willing we are tally oriented to people and their represent the best way to gather cer-
to seek it out. Here, as in other fields, needs; it aims to satisfy their desires to tain data; others may be the only way
new careers continue to grow from express themselves, to learn, to com- to accc aplish a particular task.
new technological developments, and municate with others, and to get more Scientists and engineers use photog-
although more people than ever before enjoyment out of life. Certain areas of raphy constantly. ^Vhen allied with
are now employed in photographic photographic work have become well the proper devices, the camera can re-
work, there's opportunity and variety defined by practice, and it may be veal things too small for tlie human
enough for all. helpful to one considering such a ca- eye to see and events too brief for it
reer to describe some of the more im- to observe. Through time-lapse tech-
portant ones here. niques, an event that occurs too
Photography as a Career slowly for humans to perceive can be
seen in its true relationship. The na-
Taken as a whole, the photographic ture of industrial and corporate pho-
career field isprimarily a service busi- Industrial Photography tography, then, is as varied as the busi-
ness, altliough an important manufac- nesses themselves are. In recent years
turing one lies at its heart and makes An photographer's work
industrial tliis has been one of the fastest-
that service possible. Photography is generally supports that of his col- growing segments of the field, sup-
the keystone of other major industries leagues in the research and develop- porting the rapid and imaginative ex-
Phototnosaic of cross-section of irradiated uranium dioxide fuel pellet for nuclear reactor,
1962. V. S. Atomic Energy Commission.
242
Careers and educational opportunities 243
Lunar breccia section, 1 to 3 microns thick, magnified 700 times, 1971. From Apollo 14.
Photograph courtesy Battelle Northwest Photography.
244
Darius Kinsey: Index, Washington, 1907. The Library of Congress.
^lL.^i
J^^^^^U^-^1'^.'
'MC^
This industry, of course, lies at the A major premise of this book is that
base of all others mentioned here. If photographic images have an unparal-
it seems less accessible than others, it leled power to convey information and
Careers and educational opportunities 249
branches in every state, has meant a only its major segments are described.
corresponding growth in this impor- Relatively few people engaged in pho-
tant field. Opportunities exist for both tographic work are photographers in
250 Careers and educational opportunities
252
Image as object: responding to photographs 14
We began this book by describing how comes on all at once, not step by step. products of those blast furnaces in the
the photographic image differs from Minor Whites photograph here, for valley beyond, and ending in the fore-
other types of pictures, and how mak- example, does not evolve before us ground to overlook the places where
ing a photograph can be quite an un- but confronts us instantly. We don't they lived and toiled. Similarly, we
common experience. Usually we create have to wait for it to appear in a de- may enjoy poring over Joseph Pen-
a photograph by perceiving what is veloper tray or unreel like a movie: nells richly detailed photograph of
before us with the help of what is it's there to be seen and appreciated the Junction City \'eterinary Hospital,
within us, and then by gradually limit- all at the same time. but perhaps we can also share some
ing our response to that entire, con- We come to know the picture, ho^\- of Doc Hopkins's admiration and ap-
stantly changing experience. ^V'^hen ever,more slowly. It contains more prehension automobile. On
for the
empathy and distillation have func- than we can grasp in a single glance, this summer day Kansas the voung
in
tioned in full measure, we select a so we need time to perceive it. The doctor shares top billing with a
moment and record the image. Post- still photograph, of course, has an ad- comely lass in a wagon, and with a
visualization, with its additional syn- vantage in this respect over the mov- motor car parked prophetically by his
thesis and selection processes, may ing one: it isn't fleeting, it doesn't go door.
follow, but at some point or other the away. Reading these rich images for the
image is cast free: begins a life of
it If the image states its theme vigor- stories they contain can be rewarding
its own. Exit now the photogra- ously, if it has sufficient impact, it will in the same way that a good literan.'
pher, the image maker. Enter here compel our attention. And if the pic- narrative is absorbing. Manv other
the viewer and the critic. ture presents itself in an expressive photographs in this book likewise have
manner, it usually will retain our in- been chosen for the quality of visual
^Valker Evans's Bethlehem experience they offer. Not all of these
How We Look at Photographs
terest.
scene has these qualities. \\'e can imag- photographs tell a storv, but each has
We make a photograph one way, but ine the lives of people within the walls something to say to us if only we can
we look at it another. The image of these houses, lives sustained by the see it.
The Library of Congress
Walker Evans: Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, 1935.
254
Joseph J Pennell: Veterinary Hospital, Junction City, Kansas,
1909. J. J. Pennell Collection,
Kansas Collection, University of Kansas Libraries.
255
256 Image as object: responding to photographs
Douglas Prince: Calf in Enclosure, 1972. Courtesy Light Gallery, New York. Ifwe approach a photographer's state-
ment fairly, we will try to be receptive
to his message. Such awareness does
not come easily: too many things get
Image as object: responding to photographs 257
in the way. A tew of these obstacles are pared to do this on occasion if we are
familiar photographic ones, technical going to see photograplis with open
flaws that obscure the photographer's eyes and allow ourselves to be touched
intentions before anyone else can en- by tliem. Whenever we are confronted
counter his image. But the great ma- with a non-representational image, or
jority of these obstructions lie with us with one wliose identity may be ob-
as viewers, not with the photographs, scure, we must be able to get beyond
and are therefore harder to recognize. the "picture of" syndrome and see
Some people, for example, have what else is there. Resemblance is a
trouble responding to a photograph in useful criterion in a great deal of pho-
an appropriate emotional way. They tographic work, but it is not an abso-
may be sentimental and miss the deep lutely essential ^^any
characteristic,
sense of mystery that a photograph photographs function well without it.
like Prince's evokes. Or they may be Discarding such a visual and mental
unable to get beyond a literal inter- constraint at the outset, then, will let
pretation of subject matter, and us explore beyond it.
thereby miss an important part of the
message. We must be able to feel what-
ever stimulation to our senses a photo- Conceptual Approaches
graph offers. If we try to empathize
with the image, and feel our way into Once we establish rapport with an
its tonal recesses, its rhythms, and sim- image, the concept of approaches pre-
ilar elements, a good deal more of the sented in this book may help us under-
photographer's message will likely stand what a photograph seems to be
come across to us. doing, and to judge how well it suc-
What we think a photograph should ceeds. Any such concept, of course, is
look like a generalized preconception only a guide. Many images v.ill ap>-
of the image may not square with the pear to fit several approaches because
example before us. Another related they function on different levels for
problem stems from personal experi- different people. Criteria that we es-
ences that are vivid in our mind: they tablished lor the symbolistic approach
may steer us sharply to one interpreta- in Chapter 9, for instance, can be ap-
tion of a picture that inadvertently plied to numerous photographs else-
excludes other, equally valid ones. where in the book. Charles Sheelers
Perfectly human shortcomings, but ob- approach to the barn (on page 258)
stacles nonetheless. was almost reportorial. Compare this
Undoubtedly one of the most per- image with his directly visualized pho-
what is in
sistent obstacles to seeing tograph in Chapter 4. Similar subject
such images our insistence that a
is matter, but altogether different inter-
photograph should resemble some- pretations.
thing real, that it should present such Margaret Bourke-^Vhite"s photo-
a convincing illusion of reality that graph in Chapter 1 illustrates another
we need not consider it an illusion at important point: a photograph re-
all. Identity is a very pervasive ele- moved from the context of its origin
ment in photography, one that isn't may convey an entirely different mean-
easily set aside. Yet we must be pre- ing. That picture was made in Louis-
Charles Sheeler: Barn, c. 1915. Collection: Philadelphia Muieiini of Art: Bequest of
Fiske and Marie Kimball.
ville during the great Ohio River flood Documents such as this refugee pic-
of 1937. Three-fourths of the city \vas ture easily fit a concept of approaches,
inundated. Bourke-White realized that but much contemporary work is diffi-
259
260 Image as object: responding to photographs
They describe the exhibition or event, they enlarge the size and sharpen the
add background information
some interest of his audience.
about the artist, and tell where and Once a reviewer makes a judgment
when the work may be seen. Re- or evaluation about an image or ex-
viewers often comment on Avhat they hibitor, however, he crosses a thin line
believe are the photographer's inten- and becomes a critic. The distinction
tions,but such remarks should be la- is an important one, because with that
beled what they are opinion and step a reviewer claims the privilege of
comment rather than fact. Informa- publicly expressing his own opinion
tional reviews should be ^\Titten for about a photographer's work or worth.
the viewer; they aid the photographer Equally important, the critic also as-
being revie^ved to whatever extent sumes certain responsibilities to his
262 Image as object: responding to photographs
263
How to test a camera for proper operation
Any used camera should be thor- ment and has the proper testing 1 second. The release on the camera
oughly checked by the buyer before aids.Most larger dealers can per- body should work smoothly with-
final purchase arrangements are made. form or refer vou to this service. out binding. Clean the lens and film
Many dealers will permit such a cus- chamber, and load the camera with
tomer test within a few days, with full Kodak Panatomic-X, Ilford Pan-F, or
crecHt or refund if the camera proves Testing Procedure a similar ASA 32 to 50 film.
unsatisfactory but is returned in the 2 Secure the camera on a rigid tripod
same condition that it was obtained. The following procedure is devised to or stand, and use a cable release for
The main things to check are these: test a camera for the first four points all exposures.
above with a minimum of time, trou- 3 In overcast daylight or open shade,
1 The lens should be tested for image ble, and expense. Although especially tack or tape a double-paged slieet of
sharpness. appropriate to used cameras, the pro- classified ads from a newspaper to a
2 The shutter should be checked for cedure obviously can be applied to wall or other flat surface, and frame
proper mechanical operation and new ones as well. In addition to the this in the camera so that it fills the
for the relative accuracy of its set- camera, you'll need a tripod, cable re- finder and so that the camera back and
tings. lease, slow film (ASA 32 to 50). an the newspaper are parallel. The cam-
3 The camera body should be 18% gray card, a good 8X magnifier, a era's lens should be pointed squarely
checked for light leaks, particularly black crayon or marking pen, and a at the center of the newspaper target.
around the back and bottom. couple of sheets of newspaper. Here's Focus carefully on the sheet.
4 If the camera has a rangefinder, the procedure: 4 Expose frame Xo. 1 at the maxi-
thismust be checked for accuracy. mum aperture. Use a meter for correct
5 While it is desirable to check in- 1 Examine the camera body for dents exposure, or carefully apply the table
ternal flash synchronizers and ex- or scrapes that impair the movement in Chapter 3.
posure meters, these devices vary of any adjustable part. Cock and re- 5 Expose frame Xo. 2 at the critical
according to the type of camera lease the shutter on each of its settings; aperture, two stops smaller than the
and are best examined by a dealer watch particularly for failure to close maximum. Again, use correct expo-
or technician who knows the equip- on longer time settings such as i/g and sure.
266 Appendix A: How to test a camera for proper operation
6 Expose frame No. 3 at the smallest Evaluating the Test essential that each shutter setting give
marked aperture. Correct the exposure the actual indicated time; what ;s
for this reduced amount of light. Examine the dry negatives by trans- important is that each be correct rela-
7 Replace the newspaper with an mitted light (against a window or on a tive to the others. Actual times, if de-
18% gray card. Move the camera in light table) with an 8X magnifier. Be sired, can be ascertained by a repair
close, filling the frame with the gray sure that the film is held flat. technician with appropriate equip-
tone. The image need not be in focus; Irregular black patchy areas or ment, but most camera shops are not
the lens, in fact, should be focused on streaks at random locations on the equipped to provide this service.
infinity. Expose frames No. 4 through film are evidence of light leaks in If the rangefinder test was made,
No. 12 at shutter times of 14, i/g, Yi^, the camera body. These marks along examine that negative with the magni-
ViO' Veo' M25 H50' V500' ^'^^ Mooo the top of the negative strip, for ex- fier. If the letter with the crayon mark
second respectively, adjusting the ap- ample, indicate leaks along the bot- through it is the sharpest point in the
erture to give each frame a correct tom of the camera. headline, the rangefinder is correctly
equivalent exposure. This should be Frame No. 1 should be examined adjusted. If the crayonis not mark
done under the light conditions indi- carefully for sharpness, especially in sharp but another point on the head-
cated; avoid early or late daylight the corners of the negative. The cen- line is, the rangefinder is out of ad-
hours as the light intensity rapidly tral area should be acceptably sharp; justment and should be corrected by
changes at those times. corners, however, may be less so. Many a competent serviceman.
8 If the camera has a rangefinder, lenses produce an image that is sharp- In 35 mm
cameras with removable
perform the following test on an addi- est in a slightly concave, saucer-shaped takeup spools (such as the Leica III
tional frame or on a separate roll of plane, rather than a flat plane like the Series), make sure the film actually is
film if necessary. Take a newspaper film is. If the corners are sharp but the being transported when the advance
page with a bold headline or advertis- center of the frame is fuzzy, the lens lever orknob is operated. To do this,
ing banner that runs all the way focusing scale or rangefinder should load the camera in the usual manner
across the page (rather than over a be checked for mechanical error. and position the film for the first ex-
column or two). Mark a heavy black Frame No. 2 should be acceptably posure. Then turn the rewind knob or
line with the crayon or pen vertically sharp all over the frame. If this image crank gently to take up the slack film
through the headline near its center. isunsharp in places, reject the lens. in the cartridge. Thereafter, when the
Tack it up as before, but this time Frame No. 3 should be slightly less film advanced, the rewind control
is
place the camera tripod so that it is sharp than No. 2 overall, but better should move also. If it does not, the
about 3 or 4 feet from the page, with than No. 1. Corners should be sharp. film is not advancing and the takeup
the lens axis at about a 45 angle to it. Frames No. 4 through No. 12 should spool may be slipping on its core. The
Focus carefully on the crayon mark have the same apparent grayness in the effect is noticed, as a rule, only with
with the rangefinder, and expose a negatives. Serious unevenness usually 36-exposure loads. The spool may re-
frame with meter and cable release as can be spotted visually, but a densi- quire shimming to correct this fault
before, using the maximum aperture. tometer, if available, will provide a and insure proper transport.
For greater accuracy, repeat this test more precise evaluation.* It is not One final note: insist on xuritten
using a picket fence (mark one central estimates before ordering extensive re-
picket) about 25 feet away, in fading pairs to older, used cameras. Skilled
daylight. Again, the maximum aper- labor, of course, is the major factor in
" Densitometer readings from all adjacent
ture must be used. the cost of such work, and the charge
frames (except 1/8 and 1/15 second)
9 Develop the exposed film as recom- should be the same; a variance of .1 in
may be too great considering the value
mended by the manufacturer or by the reading indicates a 33% error in shut- of the camera. You be the judge, he-
your usual procedure for this material. ter time. fore the work is done.
Polaroid materials B
Polaroid picture materials are all face to face.As the negative image ages to be more perceptive has been
negative-positive nature but are
in develops, unexposed silver ions are amply demonstrated over the last
otherwise fundamentally different delivered to the specially prepared quarter century. Many other uses for
from conventional films. Each Pola- print paper through an ingenious the process in business and industry
roid Land film unit consists of four chemical transfer system that takes have been discovered, and most, like
essential parts: a negative emulsion, place in the syrupy reagent. When scientific recording, have been sug-
usually coated on paper, which is ex- separated from the negative 15 sec- gested by its rapid-access feature.
posed in the camera; a positive paper onds later, a relatively stable print is
sheet on which the print is produced; obtained. Coating it with lacquer
a pod of chemicals that process the makes it permanent. Film Types
image when spread between the nega- A guiding premise behind the de-
tive and print; and an opaque paper velopment of Polaroid Land mater- Black-and-white Polaroid materials
roll, envelope, or similar container ials prior to their introduction in are available as roUfilms, film packs,
that protects the other parts from 1948 and throughout their subse- and individual sheets. All must be
premature exposure to light. With a quent improvement was and still is used in Polaroid Land cameras or in
single only the positive
exception, an esthetic one. The aim has been to devices that adapt other cameras to
print retained as a usable, perma-
is place nothing between the photog- these films. The primary designations
nent image. rapher and his image except a quick given below are for 4 by 5 in. sheet
After exposure in the usual man- process that would deliver a positive film units, but similar materials in
ner, thenegative and positive ma- print while the original motivation other formats are noted.
terials are simultaneously pulled be- for the picture was still fresh in his Type 52 material yields a high-
tween two steel rollers that press mind. Instant feedback from the quality, long-scale print 15 to 20 sec-
against them. These rollers spread a image to its maker was the primary onds after removal from the film-
viscous developing solution from a goal; instant processing in the camera holder. It has an ASA rating of 400
bursting pod between the materials helped insure it. The value of this and is panchromatic, making it su-
and squeeze them tightly together, feedback in teaching people of all perb for general photographic use.
268 Appendix B: Polaroid materials
Stabilization processing materials pro- prolonged exposure to light. Even plies a high-contrast paper, Grade T,
vide a convenient way to make black- under severe exposure conditions, for phototypesetting and other photo-
and-white photographic prints that however, the image should remain mechanical work. It handles like reg-
are needed quickly. The process is useful for about a month. ular enlarging paper; no filters are
identical to conventional methods of If a permanent image is desired needed.
making prints through exposure, but after an immediate use such as photo- All of these papers are exposed in
replaces the customary wet-processing mechanical reproduction, a stabilized the usual manner, although exposure
sequence with a damp-dry one that print may subsequently be fixed, time is more critical than it is with
takes as little as ten seconds. Photog- washed, and dried by conventional conventional materials since the print
raphers have found many applica- methods at any time before image cannot be manipulated during de-
tions for these quick prints in publi- deterioration has begun. velopment. Any local exposure con-
cation work where they are needed trol such as burning or dodging, of
only long enough to make a halftone course, may be used.
copy, and in experimental work Papers
where the print, once made, will soon
be discarded. Stabilization papers are supplied by Processing
A stabilized dry to the
print is Eastman Kodak (Ektamatic), Ilford
touch and is usable immediately, but (Ilfoprint), Agfa-Gevaert (Rapido- Rapid processing of stabilization
is not permanent. How long it will print), anda few other manufac- prints is made possible by incorpora-
last depends on how it is stored. A turers, who also supply processing ting the developing agent (typically
print kept in darkness at normal machines for them. Most of these hydroquinone) in the paper emul-
room temperature and humidity can papers expose just like conventional sion. After the silver halides of this
last aslong as three years, but that graded paper. The Kodak Ektamatic emulsion have been exposed in the
time is shortened by higher-than- SC paper, however, permits contrast normal manner, the emulsion needs
normal humidity, and deterioration control with filters just like Poly- only to be brought into contact with
of the print is rapidly accelerated by contrast papers do. Kodak also sup- a powerful alkali for development to
270 Appendix C: Stabilization papers and their processing
occur. Such an alkaline solution is squeegeed front and back and de-
called an activator, and the paper livered from the machine in a damp-
emulsion is formulated for quick pen- dry state. The xuhole process takes
etration by it. Since no development only 10 to 15 seconds. Activator and
(and therefore no oxidation of the stabilizer solutions are automatically
developing agent) occurs except in fed into the machine from their stor-
the emulsion, a strong reducing agent age bottles at the proper rate.
and a strong alkali can be used. This
combination produces extremely rap-
id development without spoilage. Use and Storage of
When conventional papers are pro- Stabilized Prints
cessed, the unexposed and unde-
veloped silver halides remaining in Stabilized prints depend on chemicals
the emulsion after development are retained in the emulsion for stability
dissolved in the fixing bath, making over their useful life. Any aftertreat-
the image permanent. In a stabiliza- ment such as toning or local reduc-
tion process these halides are not dis- tion thatintroduces water to the
solved but are converted to a color- paper will wash out some of these
less, relatively stable compound that chemicals and affect the print's stabil-
remains in the emulsion. Ammonium ity. Before any such treatment is
thiocyanate typically is used as a sta- given it, then, a stabilized print must
bilizing agent. A slight fixation may be fixed and washed by conventional
occur, but most of the halides are means. Stabilized prints can be dry
simply converted to a more or less mounted, but no water-based adhe-
stable form. sives should be used.
Because development and stabiliz- Because these prints contain stabi-
ing both occur rapidly and must be lizing chemicals, they should not be
carefully controlled, manual (tray) left in prolonged contact with other
processing is not practical. The en- conventional films and papers.
tire process is conveniently performed Neither should they contact metal
in a table-top machine that sits in objects such as paper clips and sta-
the darkroom. These self-contained ples; the metal might corrode and
units use motor-driven rollers to stain the print. Once a stabilized
transport the exposed paper and to print is fixed and w^ashed by conven-
bring the emulsion in contact with tional methods, however, it may be
each solution, all with precise timing. treated as any ordinary photographic
The paper is fed into the processor print. Any of these papers, inciden-
face down. The activator solution tally, may be processed after exposure
contacts only the emulsion side, and by conventional methods and chem-
after a quick immersion in the stabi- icals outlined in Chapter 6, although
lizer to stop development and arrest the rapid-access feature will then be
the image, the print is automatically lost.
Bibliography
These selections from the extensive California Press, 1966. A standard tone-line, posterization, and photo
literature of photography and related reference on the perception of screen printing. Well illustrated.
topics are recommended for addi- visual experiences by a noted psy- Bibliography.
tional study,general reading, and chologist. His more recent thesis, * Gassan, Arnold. A Handbook for
stimulating picture viewing. The that all thinking is perceptual in Contemporary Photography. 2nd
Newhall History and Lyons anthology nature, is set forth in Visual Think- ed. Athens, Ohio: Handbook Com-
contain valuable and extensive bibli- ing (Berkeley: University of Cali- pany, 1971. A good reference to
ographies through 1965; the Time- fornia Press, 1969).* the Zone System and non-silver
Life volumes likewise list many Boorstin, Daniel J. The Image. New processes. Not illustrated.
sources from more recent years. A York: Harper Colophon Books, Gernsheim, Helmut in collaboration
few older books, although out of 1964. This vigorous, stimulating with Gernsheim, Alison. The His-
print, are included here because they essay on the art of self-deception tory of Photography from the cam-
continue to be outstanding references in America includes an excellent era obscura to the beginning of the
to topics of current interest, and are discussion of how photography has modern era. New York: McGraw-
available in many libraries. So is the affected our taste and culture. Hill, 1969. The best reference to
Boni bibliography (see reference
T. Photographic nineteenth-century photography in
Eaton, George
tools), themost comprehensive listing Chemistry. Hastings-on-Hudson, Europe, especially in England and
of photographic literature to date. Scotland. 599 pages, 390 illustra-
N.Y.: Morgan & Morgan, Inc., 1965.
Titles marked with an asterisk (*) are tions. An expanded revision of the
A lucidexplanation of photo-
available in paperback. 1955 edition by Oxford University
graphic chemistry for the general
reader. Press.
Frontiers of Photography. New York: * Ivins, William M., Jr. Prints and
General Works Time-Life Books, 1972. A sugges- Visual Communication. Cambridge,
tion of where photographic images Mass.: The ^^LT. Press, 1969. .\
* Arnheim, Rudolph. Art and Visual and equipment seem to be headed. lucid, scholarly analysis of how re-
Perception. Berkeley: University of Contains step-by-step directions for produced images have affected hu-
272 Bibliography
man perception and learning, and used to reveal things too fast, too by The Sierra Club and Ballantine
how the advent of photography has slow, too far, and too small for hu- Books.*
changed our cultural vision. En- mans to see otherwise. Illustrated. * Conrat, Maisie and Richard. Execu-
gagingly written. Republication of Schuneman, R. Smith, ed. Photo- tive Order 9066. San Francisco:
the 1953 edition by Harvard Uni- graphic Commmunication. New California Historical Society, 1972.
versity Press. York: Hastings House, 1972. The A fine example of picture selection
contemporary overview of to portray the story of this ugly scar
Lyons, Nathan, ed. Photographers best
on Photography. Englewood Cliffs, photojournalism, edited from con- on the American conscience.
N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1966. A ference tapes by 53 leading photog- *The Family ofMan. New York: The
superb anthology of writings by 23 and art directors.
raphers, editors, Museum of Modern Art, 1955. The
photographers on their vision and *Taft, Robert. Photography and the classic photographic theme-show
their craft. Extensive biographical American Scene. New York: Dover seen around the world, here in book
and bibliographical data. Publications,Inc., 1964. Still the form. More than 500 pictures.
Neblette, C. B. Photographic Lenses. best general history of how the The Great Themes. New York: Time-
Hastings-on-Hudson, N.Y.: Morgan camera was used in nineteenth-cen- Life Books, 1970. Six basic ideas
k Morgan, Inc., 1972. An excellent tury America. Superb notes. An that have occupied photographers
guide to modern photographic unaltered reprint of the 1938 Mac- over the years.
lenses. Many diagrams. millan edition. Jensen, Oliver; Kerr, Joan Paterson;
Neblette, C. B. Photography, Its Ma- Wall, E. and Jordan, Franklin I.
J.,
and Belsky, Murray. American
terials and Processes. 6th ed. New Photographic Facts and Formulas. Album. New York: American Heri-
York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Boston: American Photographic tage Publishing Co., Inc., 1968. A
Company, 1962. The best general Publishing Co., 1947. This remains good reference to sources of nine-
reference to photographic technol- a useful technical reference for teenth- and early twentieth-century
ogy. Revised to December, 1961. many older print processes of con- photographs of American life. En-
Newhall, Beaumont. The History temporary interest. A Xerox facsim- gaging introduction and captions,
ile of the 1940 edition is available 326 photographs. An abridged edi-
of Photography from 1839 to the
present day. 4th edition, hard cover, from University Microfilms, Ann tion was published by Ballantine
Photography as a Tool. New York: A landmark exhibition in book garage.A fine example of contem-
Time-Life Books, 1970. A good de- form tliat is still a definitive eco- porary photographic book publish-
scription of how photography is logical statement. Reprinted 1968 ing.
Bibliography 273
Scherman, David E., ed. The Best of deal with the entire spectrum of
Life. New
York: Time-Life Books, photographic imagery and thought.
1973. Selected photographic essays Occasionally controversial, usually
from the magazine that defined the stimulating, and always beautifully
concept of photojournalism. printed.
Stryker, Roy Emerson, and Wood,
Nancy. In This Proud Land.
Greenwich, Conn.: New York Reference Tools
Graphic Society Ltd., 1973. From
the huge Farm Security Adminis- Boni, Albert, ed. Photographic Litera-
tration collection, its director has ture (1727-1960). New York: Mor-
chosen nearly 200 photographs to gan k Morgan, Inc., 1962. 333 pp.
show the dignity and spirit of Boni, Albert, ed. Photographic Litera-
Americans who survived a historic ture 1960-1970. Hastings-on-Hud-
depression only to face an epochal son, N. Y.: Morgan & Morgan, Inc.,
war. Bibliography. 1972. 535 pp. Some idea of how
*Szarkowski, John. Looking at Photo- rapidly photographic literature is
graphs. New York: The Museum of mushrooming can be gained from
Modern Art. 1973. One hundred these comprehensive bibliographies.
photographs from the Museum's The second volume (covering only
outstanding collection, each dis- the contains more entries
1960s)
cussed with perceptive insight by than the first, which spans the pre-
one who wears his considerable ceding 233 years.
scholarship as lightly as a miniature Pittaro, Ernest M., ed. Photo-Lab
camera. Index 1972. Hastings-on-Hudson,
*Szarkowski, John. The Photogra- N.Y.: Morgan k Morgan, Inc., 1972.
pher's Eye. New York: The Museum The standard manual of collected
of Modern Art. 1966. A superb col- data on current photographic ma-
lection of pictures to study, with a terials, formulas, and processes from
Abbott, Berenice, 233, 234 Aristotle, 19 Bullock, Wynn, 5, 135, 158
Accent light, 226, 228, 229 Art Institute of Chicago, 260 Burning, 116
Acetate filters, 101, 223 Artificial light, 222, 225-39
Acetic acid, 105, 113 ASA film rating, 55, 85, 220, 232 Cabinet photograph, 37, 38
Action, photography of, 46, 153-60, 230, 231, ASA lamp designation, 227 Cable release, 56
233, 234 Atget, Eugene, 71 Cadmium sulfide cell, 60
Activator, in stabilization processing, 270 Audience, photographer's, 260-62 Calhoun, John, 33
Adams, Ansel, 74, 75, 123, 133, 134, 138, 141 Audubon, John J., 33 Callahan, Harry, 88, 133, 188, 194
Adams, John Quincy, 39 Awareness, 4, 256 Callen, Maude,' 169
Adamson, Robert, 29, 30 Azo dye, 208 Calotype, 29, 30, 31, 34, 35, 38
Advertising illustration, 169, 243 Camera obscura, 18-79, 20, 21, 24, 49
Agitation in film processing, 93, 95, 96 Background light, 226, 228, 229 Cameras, 49-65, 213, 215, 265-66
in paper processing, 107, 109, 113 Baer, Morley, 73 automatic, 64
Air-impingement dryer, 112 Baker, Isaac W., 40 as extension of eye, 50, 156
Leon Battista,
Alberti, 18 Barium sulfate (baryta), 102, 110 formats, 53, 268
Album, photograph, 37 Battery, 60, 231, 232 image formation in, 4-6
Albumen paper, ?>\, 34, 35, 36, 38, 39, 203 Battle of Wounded Knee, 44 Instamatic and Pocket Instamatic, 53
Alexander-Wyatt Photography, 244 Beard, Richard, 26 loading of, 65
Alhazen, 19 Bedford, Francis, 34, 35 rangefinder, 49, 50-51, 53, 54, 146
Ambrotype, 35, 38 Bennett, Charles, 46 reflex, 49, 51-53, 54, 55, 219
American National Red Cross, 163 Bishop, Michael, 180, 201 storage of, 65
American National Standards Institute, 55 Bitumen of Judea, 22 Talbot's experimental, 27, 28
American Standards Association, 55 Black and white (print values), 136-37 testing of, 265-66
Ammonia, 21, 208 Blanquart-Evrard, Louis Desire, 29, 31 used, 53, 266
Ammonium thiocyanate, 270 Blotting paper, photographic, 112 view, 49-50, 53, 54, 194, 215
Ammonium thiosulfate, 91 Blueprint. See Cyanotype Canaletto, 19
Andrews, Weston, 196, 197 Blurred images, 153, 154 Capa, Robert, 154
Angstrom (A), 79 Books, photographic, 170-71 Caponigro. Paul, 72
Anthony, Edward and Henry T., 31, 32 Boorstin, Daniel, 9 Careers in photography, 241-50
Anti-halation layer, 84, 89 Bounce light, 226, 230, 236-57 Carte-de-visite, 36, 37
Aperture, 56-59, 213, 218, 232, 238 Bourke-White, Margaret, //, 12, 257, 258 Cartier-Bresson, Henri, 143, 154, 755, 756, 757
critical, 265 Bracketing, exposure, 59-60, 236 Catadioptric lens systems, 217-18
related to depth of field, 145-46, 149, 151 Brady, Mathew B., 31, 33, 39, 40, 161, 174 Cellulose triacetate, 83
related to shutter, 58-59 Brandt, Bill, 183 Ceriani, Dr. Ernest, 169
Apprenticeships, 243, 247 Braun, Adolphe, 54 Chalon-sur-Saone, 22
Arago, Francois, 24, 27, 28, 262 Brightness, 69 Chevalier, 23
Archer, Frederick Scott, 34, 35 Brightness range, 62, 69 Chiarenza, Carl, 77*
Architectural photography, 218, 243, 244 BritishQueen, 31 Chretien, Gilles-Louis, 19
Broughton, James, 6, 188 Cismondi, Ed, 74, 137
Brown, Robert E., 14 Civil War, 33, 39, 40, 161
Brunelleschi, Filippo, 18 Cleaning lenses, 64-65
Page numbers in italics refer to illustrations. Bulb (shutter setting), 56, 238 Clerk-Maxwell, James, 79
276 Index
Close. Chuck, 210-11 Detail, 8, 123, 129, 185, 186 Emulsion. See Film; Paper
Closeup lens attachments, 219 Developer, 91, 95, 97, 105, 107, 113, 202 Engraving, 20, 99
Coke, Van Deren, 200, 201 fine grain, 88 Enlarged negatives, 202, 204
Collections, print, 260 Kodak Dektol, 105, 113, 202 Enlarged positi\es, 202, 206
Colleges and universities, 250-51, 260 Kodak D-19, 194 Enlarger, 100-101, 107, 108-9, 194
Collodion, 34-39, 46, 47, 159 Kodalith, 194 Enlarging lenses, 219, 220
Colloid, 204 Developing agents, 91 Environmental Protection Agency, 167
Color, 186-87, 203. 204, 206, 220-23 Developing out, 31 Equivalence (image concept), 175-82
Color of light, 67-68, 80, 220-23 Development, 29, 91, 95, 105, 107 Equivalent exposures, 58, 59, 222
Color photography, 9, 46, 68, 220, 225, 227. agitation during, 95, 96 Essence (image concept), 185
230, 248 chemical, 29 Etching, 210
Color wheel, 220-27, 223 physical, 29 Evans, Walker. 143, 144, 165, 166, 246, 253,
Combined images. See Multiple images Diaphragm. See Aperture 254
Commercial photography, 10, 226. 231, 243- Diapositives, 202 Executive Order 9066, 171
45. 248 Diazo materials, 208 Exhibitions, photographic, 170-71, 260, 261
Computers. 215. 247 Diorama, 24 Exposure of film, 49, 55-62
Conceptual approaches. 257-58 Direct approach, 122-41, 185, 190. 257 bracketing, 59-60, 236
Conrat, Maisie and Richard, 171 Direct Duplicating Film, Kodak, 200 in daylight (table), 59
Contact frame, 106, 194, 198 Direct positive processes, 200
9, equivalents, 58, 59, 222
Contact printing, 38, 102. 106, 194, 202 Disderi, Adolphe-Eugene, 36, 37 with filters, 222, 223
Contact sheet, 106-7. 169 Documentary photography, 165-67, 170-71, with flash, 231-32, 236, 238
Context (of object or event), 143, 147, 185, 257 258 Exposure index. See ASA film rating
Continuous tone, 7, 123. 136 Dodging, 116 Exposure meters, 52, 55, 60-62. 69. 228, 230
Contrast, negative, 103 Draper, John W., 31 Exposure of paper, 107, 109, 114-16
paper, 103-4, 114-15 Drawing aids, mechanical, 18 Exposure scale (paper), 103HI, 114-15
print, 114-15 Driffield, Vero C, 91 Eye, 4-6
Copper, silver-plated. 24. 25. 29 Dropout, 194-97 field of view, 217
"Country Doctor," 169 Dry mounting, 119-21 response to light, 68-69, 79
Crane, Barbara, 194, 195 Dryer, print, 112 visual field, 217
Craven, George M., 66-67, 98, 114, 138, 199, Drying film, 97 Eye-level finder, 54
212 conventional paper, 112, 113
Crimean War, 39 resin-coated (RC) paper, 112, 113
Critical aperture, 265 Duchamp, Marcel, 160 Fallon, Max J. A., 187, 209
Criticism, 260-62 Duncan, David Douglas, 170 Farm Security Administration, 165-67
Critics, 253. 260, 261-62 Duplication of image, 9, 99, 186 Feathering (light control), 228
Cunningham. Imogen, 6, 130, 131, 141, 174, Diirer, Albrecht, 19 Fenton, Roger, 39
188 Dutton, Allen A., 190, 191 Ferric ammonium citrate, 203
Cutting, James Ambrose, 35 Ferrotyping, 112
Cyan (color of light), 220-21 E. and H. T. Anthony and Company. 32 Field of view (of eye), 217
Cyanotype, 186, 203 Eakins, Thomas, 159, 160, 188 Figure-ground relationship, 130
Eastman, George, 4, 46, 83 Fill light, 226, 228, 229, 238, 239
Daguerre, Louis Jacques Mande, 23-26, 27, Ecology, 96, 203 Film, 49, 55, 80, 83-97. 267
28, 29, 31. 34 Edge of the photograph, 126-28 base, 83, 89
Daguerreotype, 24-26, 27, 28, 31, 32, 33, 35, Edgerton, Dr. Harold E., 230, 231, 233 color sensitivity, 68-69, 85-86, 220, 222
36, 38, 39. 40, 47, 124, 159. 262 Editing photographs, 168-70 contrast, 85, 88. (See also Film, high con-
Daniels. John T., 58 Edwards, J. M., 31 trast)
Darkroom, 92, 105, 109, 194 Einstein, Albert, 80, 153 cross-section, 84, 89
Davy, Humphry, 21, 27 Ektaflo Type Developer, Kodak, 105, 113
1 emulsion. 84-90
Daylight, 67-69, 222. See also Sunlight Electromagnetic spectrum, 79 as energy detector, 80
Decisive moment, 156 Electronic flash, 225, 230, 231, 232. 233 high contrast, 88, 194-96, 198-99, 202, 206,
Definition,8, 220 Electronic media. See Television 268
Dektol developer, Kodak, 105, 113, 202 Electron microscope, 80 infrared sensitive, 86, 272
Dclaroche, Paul, 24 Electrostatic systems, 208-9 Polaroid-Land, 267-68
Densitometer, 266 Emerging nodal point, 215 processing, 90-97
Depth of field, 145-49. 151, 218, 220 Emerson, Peter Henry, 139, 140, 190, 262 summary table, 97
scale on camera, 146 Empathy, 4, 245, 253, 257 screen-printing, 206
I
Index 277
sensitivity to light, 55, 56, 85, 220 Gernsheim, Helmut and Alison, 22, 23, 26 Hypo eliminator. See Hypo clearing agent
speed (see Film, sensitivity to light) Gesell, Gerhard, 82 Hyposulfite of soda, 28, 92. See also Sodium
thin emulsion, 89 Glass, as image support, 23, 34, 35, 46 thiosulfate
X-ray sensitivity, 87 in filters, 220, 223
Filters, 218, 220-23, 230 Glossy paper, 103, 112, 136, 202 I Protest!, 170
colored, 220-21, 223 Gold, discovery in California, 33, 40 Identity, 257
exposure factors, 222, 223 Goodwin, Rev. Hannibal, 46 Illusion, 11, 13, 257
interference, 220 Gowin, Emmet, 177 Illustration board, 119
neutral density, 220 Grabill, J. C. H., 42, 44 Image, 7-9, 14-15, 50, 253-62
polarizing, 220, 222-23 Graded paper, 103, 115 characteristics, 7-9, 253
variable-contrast printing, 101, 104, 115, Graininess, 85, 88, 186, 268 latent, 29, 31, 90, 208
116, 269 Grand Canyon of the Colorado, 42 multiple, 188-92 (see also Multiple ex-
Fisher, Shirley I., 186, 190 Graphic arts photography, 247, 251 posures; Multiple images)
Fixer, film, 91-92, 95-96, 97, 194 Graphic Revolution, 9 negative, 200-201
paper, 105, 107, 110, 111. 113 Gray card (\B%), 62, 230 non-representational, 14, 76, 180, 190, 257
two bath, 110 Ground glass, 50, 52, 54, 146 representational, 14
recyclable, 96 Group f/64, 141 roots in realism, 10-12
Fixing, 24, 91-92, 95-96, 107, 110 Guardi, Antonio, 19 sharpness, 89 (see also Depth of field; Focus-
Flash, 225, 230-39 Guide number, 232, 238-39 ing)
bounce, 236, 237 Gum arable, 204 size, 215-18
electronic, 225, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234 Gum bichromate, 186, 187, 204, 205 substitution for object, 9
exposure with, 231-32, 236, 238-39 unity, 71
multiple-lamp, 236, 238 Haas, Ernst, 153 Image, The, 9
single-lamp, 235-S6 Hair light. See Accent light Impact, 253
with sunlight, 238-39 Halation, 84 Incident light, 60
Flashbulb, 225, 230-32 Halftone process, 206 Industrial photography, 231, 241, 242, 243,
Flashcube, 230, 231, 236 Halide conversion, 270 249, 250
Fluorescent lamp, 225 Hamilton, Richard, 201, 211 Infinity, 148^9, 215
f/ number, 56, 57. See also Aperture Hfindicapped people, 250 Infrared radiation, 79, 212
Focal length, 56-57, 127, 215-18, 219 Handy, Levin C, 33 Ingolt, Meister, 18
related to depth of field, 149, 151 Hardening gelatin, 92, 96, 110 Ink images, 206
table, 216 Harrison, William Henry, 39 Instamatic cartridge, 53, 94
variable, 218 Hart, A. A., 40 Instant processing, 267-68
Focal plane shutter, 55-56, 231 Hawes, Josiah J., 32 Instant replay, 169
Focus Gallery, 260 Hayden Surveys, 44 Instruction in photography, 250-51
Focusing, 49, 54, 74, 145-51 Heinecken, Robert, 192, 201 Intensity, 55, 56, 69, 80, 232
Form, 70, 123, 130 Heliography, 22, 38 International Museum of Photography at
Formats, camera, 53, 268 Herschel, Sir John, 7, 28, 92, 99, 203 George Eastman House, 260
Found objects, 192 Hester, Wilhelm, 8 In This Proud Land, 167
Framing, 13, 49, 54, 126-29, 228 Hicks, Wilson, 168 Inverse square law, 232
Free-lancing, 247 High Contrast Copy Film. Kodak, 194 Iodine, 24, 25
Freemesser, Bernard, 149, 150 High contrast films, 194-96. See also Film, Iron processes, 203
"Freezing" action, 154, 230, 231, 233, 234 high contrast Isolation, 126, 127
Fremont, John Charles, 33 High contrast images, 88, 192, 193, 194-95, Isometric perspective, 153
French Academy of Sciences, 24, 28 196, 197, 198-99, 206, 209
f/ stop. See Aperture Highlights, 226, 228 Jackson, Bob, 10
Hill, David Octavius, 29, 30 Jackson, William Henry, 44, 45, 65
Gagliani, Oliver, 180, 261 Hine, Lewis W., 163, 164, 175 Johnston, Frances Benjamin, 36
Galleries, 260 Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 26, 37
Gallery of Illustrious Americans, 33 How the Other Half Lives, 163 Kert^sz, Andre, 145
Gallic acid, 29 Huffman, L. A., 162 Key light, 226, 228, 229, 230, 235, 238, 239
Gardner, Alexander, 39, 40, 46, 161, 162, 163 Hurter, Ferdinand, 91 King, Clarence (survey party), 40
Garnett, William A., 7 Hydroquinone, 269 Kinsey, Darius, 245
Gelatin, 46, 84, 90, 92, 111, 159, 206 Hyperfocal focusing, 148-49, 151 Kodalith developer, 194
in filters, 220, 223 Hypo (sodium thiosulfate), 29, 92, 110, 111 Kodalith films, 194-96, 198-99, 202, 206
Gemma-Frisius, 19 Hypo clearing agent, 110, 111, 113 Kodak (camera), 4, 46
278 Index
normal, 216-17, 218 Metzker, Ray K., 192, 193 Owens, Bill, 171, 178, 218, 224, 236. 237
positive, 214, 217, 218 Mexican War, 33, 39 Oxygen (in flashbulbs), 230
process, 220 Micro and macro lenses, 219
retrofocus, 218 Mirror lenses, 217 Painting, 160, 187, 211
telephoto, 216, 217, 218 Moffat, John, 27 Pakosol solution, 112
variable focal-length, 218 Moffett, C. R., 35 Palladium prints, 203
wide-angle, 216, 218, 236 Moholy-Nagy, Laszl6, 76 Panchromatic emulsions, 46, 86, 194, 220, 222
zoom, 218 Monroe, C. R., 16-17 Panning, 154
Leonard, Joanne, 63 Mood, 133, 226 Paper, photographic, 102-4, 115
Leonardo da Vinci, 18, 19 Morgan, Barbara, 81 exposure and processing, 106-13, 269, 270
Life magazine, 168-69 Morse, Samuel F. B., 31 glossy, 103, 136-37
Light, 7, 9, 67-80, 225-39 Motion, 153-60, 231 graded, 103, 115
absorbed, 76, 80, 220 Motion pictures, 160, 218, 247, 251 resin-coated (RC), 102, 111, 112, 113
artificial, 69, 73, 225-39 Mounting prints. See Dry mounting stabilization, 102, 269, 270
as color, 67-69, 80, 220-21 Multiple exposures, 6, 64, 160, 185, 188, 204 variable contrast, 101, 103^, 115, 116
as energy, 79-80 Multiple flash, 236, 238 Paper negatives, 22, 28, 202
filtered, 80, 220-23 Multiple images, 6, 15, 153, 160, 180, 181, Parallax, 51, 52, 219
and form, 70 185, 186, 188-93, 196, 197, 199, 200, Partridge, T., 37
intensity, 55, 56, 69, 80, 232 204, 205 Patterson, Marion, 149, 151
natural, 67-69, 225, 238 Museum of Modern Art, The, 260 Pencil of Nature, The, 29
physical properties, 80, 136 Museums, 260 Pennell, Joseph J., 253, 255
polarized, 222-23 Muybridge, Eadweard, 159, 160 Perception, 4, 6, 253. 267
Index 279
Perspective, 18, 152-53, 190, 217 Photosculpture, 210 Reflected light, 80, 133, 135
Pewter, 22 Photo-Secession, 140 Reflex cameras
Photo screen printing, 186, 187, 206 Physionotrace, 19 single-lens, 49, 51, 52-53, 54, 55
Photo sequence. See Picture story "Picture of" syndrome, 257 twin-lens, 57-52. 53, 54, 219
Photofinishing, 248 Picture story, 168-71 Refraction, 80, 213-14
Photoflash. See Flash Pigment, 204 Refraction print, 78, 184
Photo-Flo 200 Solution, Kodak, 96-97, 196 Pinholes, 196 Reichenbach, Henry, 46
Photoflood lamp, 225, 227, 228 Planck, Max, 80 Rejlander, Oscar, 190
Photogenic drawing, 27-28, 29, 76 Plastic filters, 220, 223 Renaissance, 49, 152
Photogram, 76-78, 81, 200, 201 Platinum printing, 203 Repairs to cameras, 266
Photograph, 7-9 Plumbe. John, Jr., 31 Reportorial photography, 142-47. 161-71,
as catalyst, 173 Pocket Instamatic Camera, Kodak, 53 185. 218, 257
combined with other media, 210-11 Polarization of light, 222-23 Representational photography. 10
as document, 12, 165-67, 170-71 Polaroid-Land materials, 89, 196, 267-68 Reproduction versus original object, 9
as experience, 14 Polyethylene terephthalate, 83 Resin-coated (RC) paper, 102, 111, 112. 113
first American, 31 Portraiture. 19, 25, 26, 31-33, 35-38, 217, 226. Resist, 206, 210
as historic record, 33, 161-67, 170-71 227-29, 236, 245, 246, 248 Responding to photographs, 253, 256-58, 260-
as illusion, 11, 13 Positive, 9, 99, 196, 202 62
as mirror, 15, 178-82 Postvisualization, 189, 253 Retailing, photographic, 247, 248
as stencil, 210 Potassium alum, 92 Reticulation, 95
as substitute for reality, 10 Potassium bichromate, 204 Retrofocus lens, 218
as symbol, 173-82 Potassium ferricyanide, 203 Reviewers, 260-62
as window, 15 Potassium iodide, 34 Reviews, 260-61
world's 22-23
first, Preconception of images, 257 Riboud. Marc, 142
Photographer's Eye, The, 126-27 Presence, 74, 123, 136 Rice, Leland, 67, 68
Photographic Art and Science Foundation, Prince, Douglas, 256, 257 Riis, Jacob A., 163, 166
Inc., 251 Print, photographic, 99, 260. See also Non- Rizzuto, Angelo, 117, 118
Photographic essay. See Picture story silver processes Robinson, Henry Peach, 190
Photographic instruction, 250-51 brilliance, 136-37 Rolleiflex camera, 51
Photographic manufacturing, 248 conditioning solution, 112, 113 Rollfilm, 65, 267-68
Photographic metaphor, 173-82 contrast, 114-16 Rothstein, Arthur, 165, 166
Photographic retailing, 247, 248 processing, 106-13 Royal Society, 27, 28, 29
Photography summary tables, 113 Russell, Capt. Andrew J., 40, 41
with artificial light, 225-39 stabilization, 269, 270
as a career, 241-51 storage, 121
combined with painting and sculpture, Printing out, 31 Sabatier-Blot, J.
B., 23
210-11 Prism, 214 Safelights, 104, 106. 109, 194
commercial, 243-45 Process lenses, 220 Saint-Memin, Fevret de, 20
defined, 3, 7 Product photographs, 243 Sales work. 247. 248
in education, 169, 248-49, 251 Profit motivation, 245 Savage, Charles, 40
graphic arts, 220, 247 Pseudo-events, 9 Saxton, Joseph, 31
industrial, 241-43 Publications photography, 247 Scheele, Carl Wilhelm, 21
portrait, 246 (See also Portraiture) Published photographs (multiple originals), Schuffert, Augustus, 38
for the printing craft, 220, 247 38 Schulze, Johann Heinrich, 21
for publications and media, 247 (see also Science Museum, London, 28, 29
Photomechanical reproduction, 163, 194, 247, Rapid-access materials, 267, 269-70 Selective focus. 145-46, 149
Photomosaics, 242^ 249 Realism, 10-12, 180, 185, 187. 192. 201, 257 Shadowless lighting. 226-27. 230
Photomurals, 202 Recycling of fixer, 96 Shadows, 73, 130, 226, 228, 229. 235. 238
Photon, 80 Recycling of silver, 203 Sharpness, 74, 220. See also Depth of field
280 Index
Sheeler, Charles, 70, 257, 258 Superimposed images, 6, 192 Vietnam war, 170
Sheet film, 194, 267-68 Surface texture of photographic paper, 103 View cameras, 49-50, 53, 54, 194, 215
Shooting script, 168 Surfaces of objects, 73-74, 230 Viewer, 174, 176, 253, 256-58, 261, 262
Shutter, 49, 55-56, 58-60, 143, 153-54, 160, Surrealism, 192 Viewfinder, 50, 51, 54, 143
231. 232, 238, 265 Swedlund, Charles, 206, 207 Viewing photographs, 253, 256-58, 260-62
electronic, 56 Symbolistic approach, 173-82, 185, 257 Vision, human, 4-5
focal-plane, 55-56, 231 Symbols, 3, 173, 176 Visual field (of the eye), 217
leaf, 55, 56,231 Synchronization, 230-31, 238 Visual Studies Workshop, 260
related to aperture, 58-60 Synchro-sunlight, 238-39 Visualization, 123-24, 138
time, 55-56, 58-60 Szarkowski, John, 126-27
Silk, George, 168 Wahrhaftig, Alma Lavenson, 126, 127
Silk-screen process, 99, 186, 187, 206 Tacking iron, 119, 120 Wakely, George D., 762
Silver (metal), 21, 29, 91, 92, 203 Talbot, William Henry Fox, 27-30, 34, 76, Walker, Todd, 13
Silver bromide, 84, 85, 88, 90, 91, 102, 203 99, 231 Washing, film, 92, 96
Silver chloride, 21, 27, 102, 203 Talbot's Reading establishment, 29, 30, 31 photographic paper. 111, 113
Silver iodide, 24, 25, 26, 34, 85 Talbotype, 29 Waterspotting on film, 96
Silver nitrate, 21, 29, 34 Tanks, film developing, 93, 95, 96 Watkins, Carleton E., 40
Single flash, 235-36 Taylor. Zachary, 33 Watson, Rulon E., 240
Siskind, Aaron, 127, 178, 779, 259 "Tech reps," 248 Wavelength, 79, 80, 220
Skylight, 68, 223, 225, 226 Technique, photographic, 136-39 Webster, Daniel, 33
Slave unit, 238 Telephoto lenses, 216, 217, 218 Wedgwood, Josiah, 21
Slavery, 33 Television, 169-70, 218, 247 Wedgwood, Thomas, 21, 27
Single-lens reflex cameras, 51, 52-53, 146 Test strips, 109, 194 Weight of photographic paper, 102
Small object photography, 219, 226, 229, 230 Texture, 73-74, 123, 227 "West Coast School," 141
Smallev, Gayle, 204, 205 Thin-emulsion films. 89, 268 Weston, Brett, 729, 133, 149
Smith, Henry Holmes, 76, 78, 180, 184, 201 35mm cameras, 50, 52-53, 156, 215, 218 Weston, Edward, 722, 123, 124, 725, 130, 141
Smith, W. Eugene, 169 Tice, George A., 147, 148. 149 Weston Master Exposure Meter, 61, 62
Smithsonian Institution, 260 Time. 143, 153-60 Wet plate. See Collodion
Snapshot, 4, 6, 10, 47, 124, 128, 177, 185 exposure, 55-56, 58-59, 231-32, 238 Wetting agent, 96, 97
Sodium chloride (table salt), 24, 26, 27 shutter setting, 56, 238 Wheeler, Lt. George M., 42
Sodium sulfite, 268 Time-lapse photography, 241 White, Minor, 772, 173, 776, 177, 178, 252,
Sodium thiosulfate (hypo), 26, 29, 91, 92, 110 Time-temperature development, 91, 95 253
Sommcr, Frederick, 182 Tint of photographic paper, 102 Whiteprint process, 208
SO-015 Film, Kodak, 202 Tintype, 35, 36, 38 Wide-angle lenses, 127, 153, 216. 218, 236
Southworth, Albert, 31, 32 Tonal scale of print, 74, 136-38, 185 Witkin Gallery, 260
Space, 123, 127, 143, 145-58 Tone of photographic paper, 103 Wolcott, Marion Post, 87
"Spanish Village," 169 Tone-line process, 198-99 Wood engraving, 21
Spin-out process, 198-99 Tray siphon. 111, 196 Wood pulp, 102
Spirit, 182 Tripod, 49, 217, 265 Woodcut, 18, 19, 20, 21
Sports Illustrated, 154 Tungsten filament lamp, 225, 227. 228 Worth, Don, 130, 132
Spotting, 121 Tungsten-halogen lamp, 227
Stabilization papers and processing, 102, Turpentine. 22 Xenon gas, 231, 232
269-70 Twin-lens reflex cameras, 57-52, 53, 146 Xerography, 186, 757, 208-9
Stanford, Leland, 159 Two-bath fixation. 110 X-M switch, 231
Steinbeck, John, 166 X-ray film. 201
Stereoscopic negatives, 44 Uelsmann, Jerry N., 15, 180, 181, 188, 189, 190 X rays, 79, 87
Stieglitz, Alfred, 140, 174, 175, 182, 262 Ultraviolet radiation, 79, 203, 208, 210
Stock solution, 105 Union Pacific Railroad. 40, 41 Yellow (color of light), 220-21
Stop bath, 105, 110, 113. 194 Unity. 123 Yellowstone National Park, 44
Strand, Paul, 128, 140, 141 University of New Mexico Art Museum, 260
Stroboscopic light, 160, 233 Zahn, Johann, 20
Stryker, Roy, 165, 167 Vance, R. H., 40 Zinc oxide. 208
Style, individual, 139 Vanishing point. 152. 153 Zirconium wire. 230, 231
Suburbia, 171, 236 Variable-contrast filters, 101, 104, 115, 116, 269 Zone System, 138, 139
Sunlight, 67-69, 73-74, 225, 226 Variable-contrast papers, 101, 103-4, 115, 116, Zoom lenses, 218
with flash, 238-39 269 Zoopraxiscope, 160
(continued from front flap)
act to photographs.
PRENTICE-HALL, Inc.
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey
377 Printed in U S. of America
George M. Craven writes that, "Photography is by all odds
our most common picture making process. When its effect
on the way we see things is considered, it is also quite hkely
our least understood one. This introductory book is there-
fore concerned with both the process and the product: it
0-13-628925-8