Journal of Occupational Accidents, 3 (1982) 231-247 231

Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam - Printed in The Netherlands

BLAST EFFECT FROM UNCONFINED VAPOUB CLOUD EXPLOSIONS*

A.F. ROBERTS and D.K. PRITCHARD

Explosion and Flame Laboratory, Health and Safety Executive, Harpur Hill, Buxton,
Derbyshire (U.K.)
(Received April 9, 1981; accepted May 28,198l)

ABSTRACT

Roberts, A.F. and Pritchard, D.K., 1982. Blast effect from unconfined vapour cloud
explosions. Journal of Occupational Accidents, 3: 231-247.

Despite a considerable effort to predict the consequences of an unconfined vapour

cloud explosion (UVCE) at a petro-chemical site, the major source of data remains the
actual accidents themselves.
The most has not always been made of this diagnostic information and, as an example
of the type of work that can be undertaken, an analysis of the blast damage to lamp
posts at Flixborough is presented in this paper combined with information from damage
to other structures. This analysis provided an insight into the sequence of events. It was
concluded from the calculated impulses and estimates of peak overpressures that the
overpressure-time history in the near field of an UVCE is very different from that
generated by the detonation of a solid explosive. The analysis is also of value in its own
right since the estimated loadings can be used as a design basis for geometrically similar
structures.
A programme to investigate the effect of UVCE type blast waves on simple structures
has been started at Buxton, as an aid to accident investigation. The facilities available
for this work are described in this paper and the work planned is briefly outlined.

INTRODUCTION

In recent years the probability and consequences of unconfined vapour

cloud explosions (UVCEs) occurring at petro-chemical complexes have
figured prominently in the safety considerations of these sites. The explo-
sion at the Nypro (UK) Ltd. plant at Flixborough (Sadee et al., 1976) il-
lustrated the destructive power of this type of explosion. Not surprisingly a
lot of effort, both experimental and theoretical, has gone into developing
methods for predicting the effects and investigating the mechanisms of
UVCEs. Theory predicts that high flame velocities (100 m s-l or greater)
are necessary to produce the overpressures required to account for the ob-

*Presented at the Symposium on the Science and Technology of Accident Investigation

held at the University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology, April 7-9,
1981.
232

served damage and that the rise-times and positive phase durations are
longer in the blast wave from a UVCE than in the blast wave from high
explosives, at similar overpressures. These differences affect the damage
caused by the blast wave. However, to date no convincing experimental
simulation of a UVCE has been made nor has any adequate explanation of
flame acceleration effects been given.
The major sources of data on the overpressure-time histories of UVCEs
are actual accidents. The damage caused to pieces of equipment or struc-
tural elements can be used diagnostically for determining the magnitude and
possibly the duration of the overpressure at given locations and it is im-
portant that maximum use should be made of this diagnostic information.
A problem with the diagnostic approach is relating damage to overpres-
sure or to impulse (the pressure/time integral). There is a considerable body
of information on the effects of blast from high explosives and nuclear
bombs that may be used to estimate overpressures. However, due to the dif-
ferent characteristics of the UVCE blast wave such data may lead to errors
in estimates of overpressure in this context, e.g. a blast wave of long dura-
tion but low peak pressure could cause more damage to certain objects, de-
pending on their frequency of response, than a blast wave of higher peak
value but shorter duration. There is therefore a need for more detailed
analyses in this area.
In this paper an analysis is given of the explosion damage to a set of
17 lamp posts located on the Flixborough site. The significance of these
lamp posts is that they were objects of standardised dimensions and form
of construction distributed fairly uniformly around the site. As rigidly
mounted vertical cylinders, they are also representative of many chemical
plant structures, e.g. distillation columns, flare stacks. The observed defor-
mation (Roberts, 1974) was mostly of a simple plastic type at a hinge
formed by the blast forces and the simple construction of the posts enabled
an analysis to be developed linking the applied forces to the observed defor-
mation. Since the deformation is progressive, an actual estimate of blast
loading is obtained, rather than a greater than estimate as with many
forms of damage (e.g. windows). The results of this analysis are related to
other information on the development of the explosion.
Gugan (1979) has also put forward an analysis of damage to some of the
same lamp posts but because of entirely different assumptions about blast
wave form and mechanisms causing deformation the two accounts are not
directly comparable.

THE LAMP POSTS: CONSTRUCTION, LOCATION AND RECORDED

DEFORMATION

The lamp posts were of a tubular steel construction with a larger diam-
eter base tapering to a smaller diameter upper portion.
Significant dimensions were:
 233

Overall height 9.0 m

Height at which change in cross-section occurs 1.8 m
Outside diameter of base 0.204 m
Wall thickness of base 0.006 m
Outside diameter of upper portion 0.114 m
Wall thickness of upper portion 0.0054 m
The location of the 17 lamp posts for which damage was recorded are
shown in Fig. 1, which is a simplified representation of the relevant area of
the Flixborough plant (a more detailed representation has been given by
Sadee et al., 1976). Where only a simple deformation of the lamp post oc-
curred, the direction of displacement is also shown.
Simple bending of the lamp posts occurred at two separate positions
A - at ground level
B - at approximately 2 m above ground level, i.e. slightly above the
height at which the change in cross section takes place.
Some lamp posts had bent at only one of the two levels, some at both,
and some exhibited more complex deformation. Figure 2(b) illustrates the
second type of deformation. The Annex give values for 0 1, the angle of dis-
placement at A, e2, the angle of displacement at B and any other relevant
information. It will be apparent that for bending at A, e1 cannot exceed 90
because in this state the lamp post is lying along the ground. For bending
at B, the top of the post touches the ground when e2 = 130. However e2
can increase beyond this value if the upper part of the post deforms and as-
sumes a concave shape, as illustrated in Fig. 2(a).

Fig. 1. General layout of Flixborough site.

234

SECTIONS 25A
I

(a)

I /

(b)

Fig. 2. Representation of degree of damage to lamp posts.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DEFORMATION OF A LAMP POST AND THE APPLIED

FORCES

The situation considered is a solid object rigidly supported at one end

and free to move at the other. The object is of constant cross section with
 235

a mass per unit length of m and it is subjected to a steady force per unit
length (u)) perpendicular to its major axis for a period of duration td. For
an explosion, it is assumed that the force w results from aerodynamic drag
from the blast wind, which is reasonable where the difference in static pres-
sure across the object is of a lower order of magnitude than the stagnation
pressure. Clearly if the external force does not cause the elastic limit of the
object to be exceeded there will be no permanent deformation; if however
the elastic limit is exceeded there will be a permanent deformation, from
the magnitude of which the external force can be calculated if the ap-
propriate information is available.
When the elastic limit is exceeded it is conventionally assumed that a
plastic hinge is formed in the structure which exerts a constant resistance to
motion independent of the degree of rotation about the hinge. This
moment will be denoted MO. For a hollow cylinder, as in the case under
consideration

MO = + (R23 - R13)

where u0 is the yield stress of the material and Rz and RI are the outer
and inner radii of the cylinder, respectively.
If the length of the structure is L then the moment exerted by the
external load at the plastic hinge is wL2/2. Hence the equation of motion
for 0 < t < td may be written

mL3 wL2
e= -- MO (2)
3 2

where 0 = angular displacement in radians.

The solutions of eqn. (2) are as follows, for 0 = i = 0 at t = 0

3
(j= __
(3)
mL3
and

e=_-!.- -wL2
mL3 ( 4
-- M0 t2
2 )
(4)

For t > td, eqn. (2) applies with w =: 0 leading to

3 WL2 td
(j= - -Mot
~ (5)
mL3 2
and

e= 3 wL2 td t WL2 td2 MO2 t2

(6)
mL3 2 - 4 . 2
236

Motion of the displaced object ceases when 6 = 0, i.e. when t = wL2 t&2&&
Substituting this value of t into eqn. (6) gives the following equation for
e, the permanent angular deformation:

3w wL2
e^= - hi2 ( - -1
4t?lL 2s 1

Equations (l)-(7) reveal several interesting features about the bending

phenomenon. A
Firstly for 0 > 0, wL2 > 2M0 is the condition defining the transition
between elastic and plastic deformation. Values of w which do not satisfy
this inequality will produce no permanent deformation.
Secondly, defining @d as the value of 0 for t = td and comparing
eqns. (4) and (7), one can see that

z
-=
(8)
0d

Thus, if one considers an example of g = 90 for wL2/2M0 = 5 (which is

fairly typical of the data to be discussed below) one sees that 6d = 18: this
relatively small displacement at the termination of loading is significant be-
cause for an applied force which is actinghorizontally, such as a blast wind,
it means that the:projected area of the target does not change sigrdficantly
during the period of loading.
Thirdly, the maximum angular velocity of the displaced object (g) is
achieved when t = td. Comparing (3) and (4)

; = 26&d (9)
For the above example of f3d = 18 and assuming a value of td = 200 ms
(on the basis of the analysis to be presented below)

Since the lamp posts considered have a height of 9 m, the maximum tip
velocity on the basis of these figures would have been 28 m s-l - a value
si~ific~t in comparison with the estimated wind speeds of 200 m s- but
not one to seriously limit the assumption of w being constant for
0 < t < td, i.e. a constant aerodynamic loading.
Fourthly, e,sn. (7) apparently shows that one needs to know both td and
w to predict 8. However;within the limits of accuracy feasible in this type
of work, if wL2~2M~ > 5 (say), eqn. (7) may be written

--& 0
(wtd)2
 237

Thus, in these circumstances the permanent defo~ation may be predicted

from a single quantity, namely the product (Z&d) which is the force/time
integral, and one does not need to know w and td independently.

APPLICATION OF ANALYSIS TO THE FLIXBOROUGH LAMP POSTS

All the relevant ~mensions and properties of the F~~borough lamp posts
are known or can be estimated for substitution into eqns. (l)-(10). w, the
external loading on the posts derived from aerodynamic drag from the blast
wind, is given by
W = titPd&C (11)

C is the drag coefficient, assumed to be 1 for this shape of object, and Pd

is the dynamic pressure exerted by the blast wind defined by

Pd =$ pu2 (12)
where p = air density and U = air velocity. Since p is not known at each
location and time (being a function of temperature and pressure) a value of
1.3 kg mV3 will be assumed throughout, as a means of estimating approx-
imate local blast velocities.
In analysing the behaviour of the posts it was assumed that w and m
were constant with height (i.e. the effect of the broader base on w and M
was neglected - it is relatively small in numerical terms) but different
values of MO were used for bending at A and B (58.8 kN m and 15.9 kH m,
respectively).
The equations then predict that permanent deformation takes place at A
if Pd > 11.5 kPa (U =.133 m s-l) and at B if Pd > 5.7 kPa (U = 94 m s-l).
The data given in Table 1 show that in three cases(L2, LlO and Lll) bend-
ing was observed at both A and B, which is not a feature that the analytical
model predicts. One possible explanation is that the blast wind originally
caused bending at A and then decreased in velocity, so that bending ceased
at A but began at B. In calculating the total impulse exerted by the blast
wind, the independent contributions of bending at A and B have been
added together for the above 3 posts.
The formulae derived for bending at A and B (from eqn, (7)) - with g
in degrees, Pd in kPa and td in seconds - are:
Bending at A

i; = 38.2 P,td2(0.087 Pd - 1) (11)

Bending at B

ii = 48.6 Pdtd2(0.176 Pd - 1) (12)

These formulae simplify according to eqn. (10):
Bending at A
238

TABLE 1

Lamp post Distance from Impulse (kP, s) Dynamic Approximate

number explosion pressure* particle
centre pd (kP,) velocity*
m U (m s-l)

Ll 93 >5.2 0 >5.2 > 26 >200

L2 104 2.7 3.2 5.9 29.5 213
L3 98 0 >4.0 >4.0 >20 >175
L6 16 0 0 0 0 0
L7 41 >5.2 0 >5.2 > 26 >200
LB 45 >5.2 0 >5.2 > 26 >200
L9 61 1.5 0 1.5 7.5 107
LlO 200 1.2 2.3 3.5 17.5 164
Lll 250 1.2 0.5 1.7 8.5 114
L12 120 0 >3.9 >3.9 > 19.5 >173
L13 184 0 1.7 1.7 8.5 114
L14 143 0 1.3 1.3 6.5 100
L15 170 0 3.7 3.7 18.5 169
L16 198 0 1.3 1.3 6.5 100
L17 243 0 0.9 0.9 4.5 83

*Based on an estimated value of td = 200 ms.

; = 3.33 I2 (13)
Bending at B

; = 8.53 I2 (14)
where I = Pdtd, the impulseAor pressure/time integral. Equations (13) and
(14) show a dependence of 0 on I only, hence they would also apply to
wave forms other than the one assumed in the derivation of the equation.
Equations (13) and (14) apply to a reasonable degree of accuracy where
6 > 2, i.e. in all circumstances where reasonably accurate measurements
can be taken in the field.
Values of I calculated from the observations of damage listed in the
Annex are tabulated in Table 1 in units of kPa s. IA denotes an impulse
calculated for bending at A, IB the equivalent for: bending at B, and
IA + IB the sum of the two. The distance of each post.from the explosion
centre, (see Fig. 1) as denoted by Sadee et al. (1976) is listed, together
with the value of Pd calculated from (IA + 1~) + td, assuming td = 200 ms.
The final column gives the value of U equivalent to Pd as described above.
No estimates could be obtained for L4 and L5 because of the complex de-
formation of these posts.
In Table 1, the inequality sign for greater than is used for cases where
8, = 90 or 19~= 130 because in these cases the tip of the lamp post
struck the ground and an additional decelerating force was applied to the
lamp post which is not included in eqn. (2).
 239

In the work of Sadee et al. (1976) an overpressure/distance curve is

quoted for the Flixborough explosion based mainly on observations of
damage to brickwork, concrete structures, domestic houses etc. compared
with equivalent damage from TNT explosions and a TNT equivalent of
16 + 2 tonnes TNT is derived for the explosion. The impulse/distance rela-
tionship for the dynamic pressure exerted by such a TNT explosion, cal-
culated from tabulated values of the properties of shock waves (Keefer,
1966), is plotted in Fig. 3 together with equivalent estimates from Table 1
which show that, at all distances in the range of observations, the impulse
due to the aerodynamic drag of the blast wind was very much higher at
Flixborough than it would have been in a TNT explosion giving a similar
overpressure/distance field. The reason for this is that in a vapour cloud ex-
plosion the duration of the period of energy release is very much longer, prob-
ably of the order of 100 milliseconds, than in the detonation of a solid ex-
plosive; this has important consequences in the damage caused to certain
types of structure.
Estimates of t,-j were based on the following arguments. According to
Sadee et al. (1976), at 100 m from the explosion centre the peak pressure

Fig. 3. Comparison of dynamic pressure impulse for TNT explosion and estimates for
Flixborough explosion.
240

was about 100 kPa, for which the particle velocity in the shock wave is
180 m s- . It would, therefore, be physically inadmissible on this basis for
the blast winds at the 100 m distance to exceed 180 m s-l. From this argu-
ment it follows that for lamp post L2, to keep the estimated particle
velocity below this value, td > 280 ms. For lamp post L3 td > 190 ms. On
the other hand a value of Pd > 5.7 kPa would be required to produce the
slight bending observed in L17, in which case a value of td < 160 ms is in-
dicated. A value of td = 200 ms has therefore been used to estimate the
values of Pd and U given in Table 1. It is not necessarily the same as the
duration of the period of energy release in the explosion since the locus of
energy release was moving and creating gas movement in different regions at
different times. The above values of td and the estimates of Pd and U in
Table 1 are all affected by the assumption of p = 1.3 kg mm3, introduced
following eqn. (12), and are therefore not particularly accurate. Neither the
pressure/time history nor the temperature/time history at a particular loca-
tion can be estimated with any accuracy but it is considered that the estima-
tion of pd and U is a useful exercise, even if it can only be done approx-
imately, which justifies the assumption of a representative value of p,

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EXPLOSION AT FZJXBOROUGH

Figure 1 is a simplified representation of the relevant area of the

Flixborough plant showing also the point of release of the cyclohexane that
give rise to the explosion, the prevailing wind direction and the location of
the lamp posts Ll-L17; Sections 25A, 7 and 27, the main sections of
plant near the explosion centre, are identified in Fig. 2a.
Sadee et al. (1976) described an explosion centre, a cloud boundary
and a possible source of ignition - the hydrogen plant - all of which are
shown in Fig. 1. As stated above, the explosion centre, was also used as a
datum point for measurement of distances by the present authors for the
sake of consistency. The position of the cloud boundary was estimated
from observations of carbonisation, melting and soot formation and hence
may be identified with a region engulfed by flames and hot gases for several
seconds, possibly resulting from the burning of a fuel rich mixture (the
north and west boundarues of this region could not be estimated accurately
because of the effects of sustained fires).
The present authors have defined the boundary of a region from within
which all the main blast effects appear to originate (based on detailed exam-
ination of local variations in blast intensity and direction) and the limit of
crop scorching on the field to the south of the plant (based on discolora-
tions of the crop apparent in colour photographs taken from a helicopter);
this information is also shown in Fig. 1.
This detailed examination of the damage in and around sections 25A, 7
and 27 (Roberts, 1974) showed considerable local variation in blast intens-
ity and prevailing blast direction. In one part of Section 27, a three floored
 241

reinforced concrete structure, mainly open sided and containing chemical

plant, the first floor (reinforced concrete 0.45 m thick) was displaced an ap-
preciable distance downwards, whereas in other parts comparatively little
damage occurred. Displacements of reinforced concrete walls and plant
items in Section 7, a similar structure to Section 27, were suggestive of a
fast flame moving through the section from east to west, creating blast ef-
fects as it went. The patterns of damage in this area seemed most consistent
with the major sources of blast of the explosion developing in the eastern
side of Section 7 and the western side of Section 27 and the open space in
between these Sections, from ground level to a height of about 20 m.
During the period of the explosion, pressure waves and associated bulk
gas movements would be leaving the region shown in Fig. 1. Since the
region is uncovered, upward movement would be unrestricted (except within
the Sections). However approximately 50% of the perimeter of the region
was originally occupied by buildings or chemical plant of heights ranging
from 20-40 m; pressure waves and gas flows at ground level to 20 m
would therefore have been considerably affected by these obstructions until
they were flattened by the blast.
The lamp posts included in this survey would have been mainly influ-
enced by ground level flows issuing from between obstructions. Although
these flows may have been preceded by a shock front, or at least by a
sharp pressure rise, they would have appeared initially as sustained jets of
high velocity gas with a relatively narrow angle of spread. The effects of
one such jet are clearly apparent in the distortion of the boundary of crop
scorching south of Section 27, as shown in Fig. 1.
Various points of origin for such jets are indicated on Fig. 1 by the let-
ters A-F and it can be seen that to a large extent the lines of displacement
of the lamp posts emanate from such points.
e.g. L15, L16 emanate from A
L12, L13 emanate from B
Ll, L8, L9, LlO emanate from C
L5, L7 emanate from D
The exceptions to this finding can be explained by a more detailed con-
sideration of the topography of the site:
Ll 1. The line of displacement of this post passes near to the NE comer
of the warehouse and does not emanate from any well defined source of
blast effects. Fence posts in the same area were similarly displaced. This sug-
gests a gas flow along the northern edge of the warehouse, spreading out on
reaching the NE comer. Other fence posts in this area were displaced to a
greater extent and as if by a source at C in Fig. 1, suggesting that this
region was exposed to two distinct sets of influences, those emanating from
C being more powerful and slightly later.
L9. Relatively little displaced (less than Ll and L2, for instance) al-
though close to the explosion centre. This post would have been shielded
from flows from the NW by the office block (prior to its collapse).
242

L14. Less displacement than L15 and L13 which are further away.
Robably protected by the pipe bridge.
L6. No observable displacement although closest to centre of explosion.
Heavily impacted with soot on face away from office block. This suggests
that post was in a stagnation region with flow direction perpendicular to
the main wall of the office block rather than parallel to it (this is consistent
with the observed displacement of the office block).
L4 and L5. Twisted, apparently acted on by more than one set of forces.
Consistent with a flow parallel to N wall of project offices setting up a
region of intense shear with rapid &anges in flow direction.
If the general description of the explosion development given in this sec-
tion is valid, then Flixborough was certainly not an unconfined vapour
cloud explosion - partially confined would be a better description in
view of the solid floors of Sections 7 and 27, the walls in parts of Section 7,
the nearby office block, control room, pipe bridge, warehouse, etc. The pat-
tern of blast development would have been considerably affected by the pre-
sence of all these obstacles.
The view expressed above is partially consistent with that of Sadee et al.
(1976). Their explosion centre is fairly near the region in which it is esti-
mated that the explosion began to develop and the region of major blast ef-
fects lies within their estimate of the cloud boundary (see Fig. 1). Near its
limit, crop scorching probably resulted from a short exposure to a premixed
flame; the relative positions of the cloud boundary and the crop scorch-
ing boundary in Fig. 1 are consistent with their suggested causes. The sug-
gested pattern of explosion development is not consistent with the TNT
models indication of an elevated source (45 rt 24 m). The point of ignition
is to some extent irrelevant since many eye witness accounts describe the
existence of flames prior to the blast. A reasonable hypothesis is that flames
spreading through the cloud without significant blast effects reached the
portion of the flammable cloud in the vicinity of Sections 7 and 27 and
were there subjected to flame acceleration effects that gave rise to the blast-
producing high flame speeds necessary to create the explosion. Candidate
flame acceleration mechanisms would be partial confinement by the floors
of these sections and turbulence produced by the passage of flame past the
many items of plant in these sections (see Fig. 4).
Thus, the general pattern of explosion development indicated by the
lamp post displacement and other factors is not consistent with an elevated
point source of energy release but with a source of appreciable volume with
the local rate of energy release differing appreciably from one point to an-
other. As the source of energy release moved through the cloud, its ap-
parent origin as indicated by damage in the near field was affected by the
presence of major obstacles creating anomalous displacement directions.
However, in the medium to far field the significance of these effects de-
creased and the effects of the explosion approached those of a point source.
 243

Fig. 4. Suggested location of rapid flame acceleration and major source of blast.

FUTURE WORK

A steel explosion gallery (69 m long by 1.22 m diameter) at Buxton has

been adapted to look at the effects of long duration, slow rise-time blast
waves on simple structures for accident investigation purposes. The gallery
is instrumented with pressure transducers and photocells (for monitoring
flame arrival times). Dynamic and drag pressures can be measured in the
test section (37 m from the closed end) using either a stagnation pressure
gauge or a reed anemometer. The test section is equipped with glass
windows enabling the test specimens to be filmed by high speed tine as
they undergo deformation. Facilities are also available for strain gauging the
specimens. Thus, the rate of deformation, the total deformation and the
load applied to the specimen can be monitored.
The blast waves are generated by igniting mixtures of methane/air in a
polythene balloon, or a pre-dispersed dust cloud, at the closed end of the
gallery. A safety fuse is used to ignite the gas mixtures and a hot plate or
captive rocket to ignite the dust clouds. These particular arrangements allow
peak pressures of up to 90 kPa, rise times of the order of 100 ms and posi-
tive phase durations of about 300 ms to be produced in the test section.
These values are in the ranges thought to be appropriate to UVCE studies,
but could be altered if required. As an example of the blast wave profiles
that have been obtained in preliminary experiments, Fig. 5 shows typical
overpressure-time profiles for 4.4 m3 of 9.8% methane/air mixture and
4.5 kg of flour.
244

0 / I , , 'A
TNne
01Seconds

:t ~ '~

Fig. 5. Typical overpressure-time profiles for dust and gas explosions in test gallery,

A limitation of using a gallery is that oscillations are set up in the air

column by pressure wave reflections from the closed and open ends, which
give rise to a pressure pulsing. It was found that for weak cantilevers
(0.8 mm and 1.6 mm thick mild steel strips) the final deformation was to-
wards the closed end. In fact the tine record showed that the #inner strips
were bent forwards and backwards a number of times before they finally
came to rest. For thicker strips, 3.2 mm and 6.4 mm, one outward move-
ment was followed by a partial return movement (possible due to elastic
unloading) and the final deformation was towards the open end. Super-
imposed on these movements was an oscillation due to the natural fre-
quency of the cantilever.
The reflected rarefaction wave from the open end of the gallery results in
a double peak in the dynamic pressure-time profile, the inward travelling
rarefaction wave producing an outflow of gas. This is illustrated in Fig. 6
which shows the dynamic pressure in the test section as measured by the
reed anemometer for 4.4.m3 of 9.8% methane/air mixture. Moving the test
section nearer to the open end would result in a merging of the two peaks,
but also in lower dynamic pressures. Test structures could also be placed
outside the gallery mouth but, because of the low overpressure field outside
the gallery and its rapid attenuation, experiments would be limited to weak
structures.
 245

Fig. 6. Dynamic pressure-time profile for 9.8% methane/air explosion, measured in the
test section (37 m from closed end) with the reed anemometer.

Another obvious limitation with tests of this type is the size of test
specimen relative to the gallery diameter. To avoid boundary layer effects
and non-uniform loading, the specimens must be well clear of the gallery
walls. Specimens have therefore been limited to a height of 0.75 m. The
strength of the specimens that can be tested is also limited. As an indica-
tion of this, it was found that for the maximum pressures generated in the
gallery a 0.75 m by 9.5 mm thick mild steel cantilever would just suffer
permanent deformation. The range of size of test specimens could be ex-
tended by using the Buxton full-scale surface explosion gallery (366 m long
with a U-shaped cross-section of 2.7 m by 2.4 m high) as an alternative to
the 1.2 m diameter gallery described above.
Preliminary experiments with full instrumentation have been carried out
in the 1.2 m diameter gallery with mild steel solid rectangular (3.2 and
6.4 mm thick) and tubular (12.7 mm o.d. by 0.94 mm thick) cantilevers.
The results from these experiments are still being analysed and will be re-
ported at a later date. Further work with cantilevers is planned, which will
include looking at the influence of a change of cross-section on the
deformation.
For the rigid-plastic analysis of the lamp posts, described in Section 3, a
square overpressure-time history was assumed. Work is in progress on ex-
tending the analysis to other wave forms, including ones with a negative
phase. Analytical solutions have been obtained for a triangular overpressure-
time history. Results from the above experimental programme will be used
to test and refine these solutions.
246

CONCLUSIONS

The development of the experimental and analytical techniques described

will enable more detailed information on blast wave characteristics to be ob-
tained from the investigation of accidental explosions. In principle, where
analytical solutions are not available, simulation experiments can be con-
ducted with the facilities described above to attempt to reproduce observed
damage, so that an extremely versatile tool for accident investigation will be
available. The discussion has been in terms of UVCEs, but of course other
forms of explosion, in particular mine explosions, could be studied if the
need arose.
Clearly the analysis and calculations made in this paper are somewhat
speculative, but they give values which are reasonably consistent with other
available data. The additional work in progress will serve to firm up the
analyses or point to any necessary modifications.

0 Crown copyright 1981.

ANNEX

OBSERVED DAMAGE TO LAMP POSTS

Figure 1 shows the location of the seventeen lamp posts surveyed and
the estimated lines of displacement, where measured, These lamp posts are
designated Ll-L17 and further observations made on them are given below.
The angle between the lower portion of the lamp post and the vertical is de-
signated el, the angle between the lower portion and the upper portion of
the post is designated e2, while the height above ground level at which the
latter displacement starts is designated H (see Fig. 2(b)).
Ll. Moved since the explosion, but the original line of displacement was
estimated from an impact mark where the top of the lamp post struck the
surface of the car park. The top 2.4 m of the column had been rendered
concave on the surface facing the source of the blast.
81 = 90, e* = o, H = 0.
L2. Moved since the explosion, but the original line of displacement was
estimated from an impact mark where the top of the lamp post struck a
kerb stone on the opposite side of the road.
e1 = 25, e2 = 90, H = 2.25 m.
L3. Moved since the explosion but no impact mark located.
8, = O, ez = 140, H = 2.2 m.
L4. Deformed in a more complex way. The post appears to have been
twisted and bent in more than one place. No estimate for el, Bz and H.
L5. Apparently subjected to more than one displacement effect. The
lower part of the post was displaced in the direction shown in Fig. 1 and
the upper part in a somewhat different direction.
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I!?~= 15, 19~= 20, H = 1.8 m.

L6. Only slightly displaced from the vertical and little deformation. One
half of the surface of this post was blackened, apparently by impacted soot,
in a manner which indicated that this deposit arrived from the general area
between Sections 25A and 7.
L7. f31 = 90 (in this case the 90 bend occurred 0.75 m above ground
level).
L8. Post cut off about 0.6 m from base. ~3~= 90.
Lg. e1 = so, e2 = 0.
LlO. e1 = 5, e2 = 45, H = 2.1 m.
Lll. e1 = 5, Sz = 3, H = 2.1 m. This post was only displaced to a small
extent, and the line of displacement is therefore subject to some
uncertainty.
L12. Moved from original position. e1 = 0, e2 = 130, H = 2.0 m.
L13. C!J1= 0, e2 = 25, H = 2.1 m.
L14. e1 = O, e2 = 15, H = 2.1 m.
L15. e1 = O, ez = 110, H = 2.0 m.
L16. 8, = 0, e2 = 15, H = 2.1 m.
L17. e1 = 0, e2 = 7, H = 2.1 m.
Inaddition to the lamp posts surveyed there were others, with only minor
signs of damage, the locations of which are not shown.

REFERENCES

Gugan, K., 1979. Unconfined Vapour Cloud Explosions. Institution of Chemical

Engineers, George Godwin Ltd., London.
Keefer, J.H., 1966. Air blast predictions for Operation Distant Plain. BRL Technical
Note No. 1612. Ballistic Research Laboratories, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland,
USA.
Roberts, A.F., 1974. A survey of certain aspects of the blast damage. Report to Court
of Inquiry on Flixborough explosion.
Sadee, C., Samuels, D.E. and OBrien, T.P., 1976. The characteristics of the explosion
of cyclohexane at the Nypro (UK) Flixborough Plant on 1st June 1974. Journal of
Occupational Accidents, l(3): 203-235.