Journal of Materials Processing Technology 170 (2005) 240246

The mechanical and microstructural characteristics of

laser-deposited IN718
P.L. Blackwell
QinetiQ Ltd., Cody Technology Park, Room G069, A7 Building, Ively Road, Farnborough GU14 0LX, UK

Received 4 May 2004; accepted 16 May 2005

Abstract

The paper is concerned with the application of laser deposition to the nickel-based superalloy INCONELTM 718 (IN718). Several blocks
of material were manufactured using the LENSTM process and subsequently heat treated and tensile tested. Following this, further sections of
the original blocks were hot isostatically pressed (HIPed) and then reassessed for mechanical properties and microstructure. It was found that
prior to HIPing the deposit exhibited anisotropic properties that appeared to be associated with non-optimised processing conditions. HIPing
led to a reduction in anisotropy within the deposit, but generated considerable grain growth within the (IN718) substrate.
2005 Qinetiq. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: INCONELTM 718; Laser deposition; Nickel; LENSTM

1. Introduction superalloys, having found numerous applications in the aero-

The direct laser deposition (DLD) process, sometimes also
referred to as the direct laser fabrication technique, is a manu-
facturing method that allows the die-less production of metal
parts direct from powder. It is essentially a derivative of a
rapid prototyping process that has been used for some years
for polymeric materials. The DLD process involves feed-
ing the metal powder through a nozzle into the focal point
of a laser beam, which then melts the powder producing a
deposit onto a pre-existing substrate. For generating struc-
tural shapes, the powder nozzle and the beam are moved
relative to the metal surface in a raster pattern. A compo-
nent is then built up layer by layer until the required shape is
obtained. Modern systems feature five axis heads that allow
complex geometries to be built up using computerised control
similar to those found on CNC machining centres. Applica-
tions for the DLD process include the repair of worn parts,
e.g. turbine blades, and the manufacture of components that
feature complex internal geometries that would be difficult
to machine or cast, e.g. plastic injection moulding dies.
The present investigation centred on the nickel-based
superalloy IN718. This alloy is one of the most widely used
Tel.: +44 1252 392000; fax: +44 1252 397491.
engine, e.g. as a turbine disk material, for shafts and as
compressor blades. It is also used in cryogenic applications.
The alloy is age-hardenable via the precipitation of the meta-
stable form of the delta () phase (Ni3 Nb), known as  .
The purpose of the investigation was to examine some
commercially produced IN718 deposit and to compare its
mechanical and microstructural characteristics to wrought
product. The deposition technology used was that of the
LENSTM process. This features a 4 kW Nd-YAG laser, which
is capable of close control in terms of the accuracy of depo-
sition.
2. Experimental procedure
The deposit was laid down on wrought IN718 substrate
material; the block dimensions are shown in Fig. 1. The
original substrate measured 170 mm 40 mm 30 mm and
the deposit was built up on top of this to a final size of
170 mm 80 mm 30 mm. Fig. 1 illustrates the location of
the tensile testpieces that were taken from the blocks fol-
lowing deposition. It will be noted that testpieces 13 were
taken across the bond-line and included both the substrate and
deposit; the intention being to assess any bond-line weakness.

0924-0136/$ see front matter 2005 Qinetiq. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2005.05.005
 P.L. Blackwell / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 170 (2005) 240246 241

Fig. 1. Cut-up diagram for the laser-fabricated blocks.

The tensile tests were carried out using an applied strain rate substrate was unusually high although the PS and UTS were
of 103 s1 at room temperature. broadly in line with that for wrought material.
Several states of heat treatment were examined; tests The testpieces that were positioned across the bond-line
were carried out on the deposit in either the as-deposited, (cross-bond) tended to exhibit strengths that reflected those
deposited + (double) aged, or, in the fully heat-treated con- of the deposit, albeit at a reduced level, and all gave very poor
dition. The heat treatment used was a 980 C, 1 h, air cool elongations.
solution treatment followed by a double age (720 C, 8 h, The tensile strengths following HIPing are presented in
furnace cool + 620 C, 8 h, air cool). This is a standard heat Table 2. It is notable that the strength values obtained for
treatment used for this material. In addition, a number of as-
deposited blocks were hot isostatically pressed (HIPed) at
1160 C for 3 h with a pressure of 100 MPa and then fully
heat-treated.
Following testing, several of the fracture faces were
examined using scanning electron microscopy, while the
microstructure was examined using an electron backscatter
pattern (EBSP) technique.

3. Experimental results

One of the blocks from which the testpieces were extracted

is shown in Fig. 2. In practice, the blocks were fabricated with
the substrate at the bottom (Fig. 1)the picture shows the
block standing on one end. It will be noted that the deposit
surface was reasonably smooth and accurately laid down onto
the substrate.
3.1. Mechanical properties

The tensile test results are presented in Table 1. It may be

seen that the as-deposited material gave relatively low proof
(PS) and ultimate tensile strengths (UTS) with a high ductil-
ity. Reference figures for fully heat-treated wrought material
are included in the Table 1 [1].
Following ageing, the PS and UTS of the deposit rose
considerably to give values above that typical for wrought
material. However, the elongation at 13% was low. If the
deposit was fully heat-treated then the strengths increased Fig. 2. Overall view of test-block. The substrate is on the right hand side,
still further. It was notable that the elongation figure for the the dimensions were as given in Fig. 1.
242 P.L. Blackwell / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 170 (2005) 240246

Table 1
Tensile test results
Sample description 0.2% PS UTS (MPa) Reduction
(MPa) in area (%)
As-deposited 650 1000 38
Deposit + age 1204 1393 13
Deposit + full heat-treatment 1257 1436 13
Substrate 1152 1358 47
Cross-bond (as-deposited) 612 650 4.6
Cross-bond (aged) 1110 1162 4.6
Cross-bond (fully heat-treated) 1142 1244 5
Wrought IN718 (typical) 1125 1365 20

the cross-bond testpieces and from the substrate were closely

comparable. However, the elongation for the cross-bond test-
pieces was about half of that for the substrate. Examination
of the gauge area of the tensile specimens suggested that the
cross-bond testpieces had failed within the substrate and that
very little deformation had occurred within the deposit. This
would explain both the similarity of the tensile strength noted
above and the reduction in elongation for the cross-bond test-
pieces. Testpieces taken from the deposit exhibited strengths
and ductilities similar to that for wrought product.
Comparing these results with those for the non-HIPed
samples shows that for the cross-bond testpieces the HIP
operation had produced a considerable increase in ductil-
ity. This was, however, accompanied with a reduction in
strength. For the testpieces taken from the deposit there was
an improvement in ductility, albeit of a more modest level Fig. 3. Fracture face from a cross-bond testpiece prior to heat treatment
than that noted for the cross-bond testpieces. Within the sub- or HIPing; (a) shows the overall fracture face which exhibited a patterning
effect (marker 2 mm) and (b) close-up showing areas that were apparently
strate region there had been a marked decrease in ductility not bonded (marker: 500 m).
together with a reduction in strength.

3.2. Microstructural observations tion the surface appeared as shown in Fig. 3b. A number
of features may be noted. Firstly, there were areas where
Fig. 3a shows the fracture face from one of the cross-bond micro-void formation had occurred indicating a ductile fail-
testpieces with the deposit left in the as-received state, i.e. ure. There were, however, other areas where the surface was
with no heat treatment or HIPing. It may be seen that the relatively smooth and where it appeared that there was a lack
surface exhibited a clear patterning. At a higher magnifica- of bonding between successive layers of the deposit. In addi-
tion, numerous spherical particles could be seen, which were
Table 2 likely to be non-melted powder particles from the original
Tensile results following HIPing and full heat treatment
deposition process.
Testpiece no. 0.2% PS UTS (MPa) Reduction Fig. 4a shows the overall view of the fracture face of a
(MPa) in area (%)
testpiece that was taken from within the deposit; in this case,
Cross-bond 1003 1159 17.5 the IN718 had been fully heat-treated (though not HIPed). It
984 1138 14.5
997 1158 16.5
is not entirely apparent from Fig. 4a but the fracture had
997 1155 17.5 formed shear lips around the outer circumference of the
978 1148 16.0 gauge; though apart from this the fracture face was fairly flat.
Deposit 1147 1381 19.5 At a higher magnification there was again evidence of a sig-
1121 1355 20.5 nificant amount of un-melted powder, which may be clearly
1173 1389 20.0 seen in Fig. 4b and c. Apart from this there was considerable
1178 1393 21.5 micro-void formation.
Substrate 957 1162 30.0 Fig. 5 shows the fracture face from one of the cross-bond
966 1174 30.5 testpieces following heat treatment. The majority of the frac-
956 1161 29.0 ture surface was relatively flat (Fig. 5a) and a visual inspection
958 1173 32.0
revealed a pattern similar to that shown in Fig. 3. Again, there
 P.L. Blackwell / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 170 (2005) 240246
Fig. 4. Heat-treated deposit: (a) overall fracture surface (marker 2 mm) and
(b and c) evidence of un-melted powder (marker: 1 mm and 100 m, respec-
tively).
243
Fig. 5. Fully heat-treated cross-bond testpiece: (a) overall fracture face
(marker: 2 mm) and (b) high magnification view (marker: 100 m).
was extensive evidence of non-assimilated particles and areas
that had not bonded. Fig. 6 shows the fracture surface from a
post-HIP and fully heat-treated testpiece that was taken across
the bond-line. The testpiece appeared to have failed within
the substrate. Failure appeared to be primarily via micro-void
coalescence (Fig. 6b).
Fig. 7 shows metallographic detail from the as-deposited
material. At a high magnification a fine dendritic cast struc-
ture was apparent, indicative of a high cooling rate. At lower
magnification, evidence of the individual passes of the laser
could be seen in the form of a series of arcs, each arc cor-
responding to a specific pass. Similar structures have been
noted in Ti6Al4V by Gorman et al. [2].
Fig. 8 shows the grain structure within the fully heat-
treated deposit (prior to HIP); the image was obtained using
EBSP. The different shades of grey represent different orien-
tations. This revealed a banded structure within the deposit
with some of the bands containing fine equiaxed grains and
others containing coarser columnar grains.
244 P.L. Blackwell / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 170 (2005) 240246

Fig. 7. As-deposited IN718 showing evidence of individual passes and (b)

detail of dendritic structure within a single pass.

in some applications. The post-deposition full heat treatment

produced a slight improvement in strength compared to the
as-aged properties, but this was not particularly significant.
With respect to the use of this technology for repair then,
Fig. 6. Deposit following HIPing and heat treatment: (a) overall fracture
face (marker: 2 mm) and (b) micro-void coalescence (marker: 50 m).

The interface region is featured in Fig. 9, with the deposit

lying on the right hand side of the figure. This is included
for reference against Fig. 10, which shows a similar area
following HIPing. This difference was dramatic. The high
temperatures associated with the HIP operation had allowed
considerable grain growth to take place within the substrate.
In the deposit, the grains had become equiaxed though little
grain growth had taken place.

4. Discussion

Based on the evidence of the tensile tests, it appeared

that in the as-deposited state the IN718 was effectively in
a solution-treated condition. Subsequent ageing generated a
marked increase in strength accompanied by some loss of
ductility. The elongation, at 13%, was low when compared to
fully heat-treated wrought material, but might be acceptable
Fig. 8. Electron back-scatter patterned (EBSP) image showing grain struc-
ture within as-deposited material. The grain colours correlate to different
orientations. There was no evidence for epitaxial growth.
 P.L. Blackwell / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 170 (2005) 240246
Fig. 9. EBSP image of the interface region following heat treatment.
based on the above, it would be necessary to use a post-
deposition ageing treatment to develop acceptable properties.
The fact that such a strong ageing response was obtained
indicates that the cooling rates following deposition were
significantat least rapid enough that ageing was sup-
pressed. With regard to the substrate, the results indicated
that the deposition process was not unduly affecting the sub-
strate, although, the high ductility noted for the substrate in
Table 1 suggests that the material may have been slightly
under-aged.
The low strengths noted for the cross-bond testpieces were
probably related to the low elongations. There appeared to be
two possible reasons for the poor ductility:
Fig. 10. Interface zone following HIPing and heat treatment. This shows
that considerable grain growth occurred within the substrate material.
245
(1) the substrate/deposit bond was weak, or,
(2) the deposit was strongly anisotropic.
This can be resolved with reference to the fractograhic
results. Considering firstly the pre-HIPed material, it was
noted that testpieces, which have been taken parallel to the
build direction, often exhibited a criss-cross pattern on the
fracture face (Fig. 3a). This was almost certainly a result of
the rastering pattern of the laser during the original deposition
process. For the production of the blocks used in this inves-
tigation a step spacing of 0.4 mm was used for each pass
across the surface; this correlates well with the pattern size.
There also appeared to be areas where the bonding between
successive layers was interrupted (Figs. 3b and 5b). A rough
estimation would suggest that up to 30% of the fracture sur-
face may not have been bonded. The low ductilities measured
in this direction for the pre-HIP material was, therefore, not
surprising.
Another feature of the fracture faces shown in Figs. 35
was the presence of what appeared to be un-melted powder.
This may have been present either as a result of the fact that
during the initial deposition there was excessive powder being
sprayed into the melt pool, or it may be over-spray powder that
settled onto the semi-molten surface after the deposition head
had moved away. Whatever the cause, there was evidence to
suggest that the process was not under optimum control. Fol-
lowing HIPing, the patterning effect was not observed and
it may be assumed that the HIPing operation had success-
fully bonded any previously un-bonded areas. Similar effects
were noted by Kobryn et al. [3]. They used Ti6Al4V alloy
and found that when tested parallel to the build direction the
elongations were as low as 0.8%; HIPing increased this to
12%.
Fig. 8 reveals that the deposit had a complex grain struc-
ture. To manufacture blocks as large as those examined
here, laser passes were made both along the length of the
blocks (170 mm) and also across the width (30 mm). This
was alternatedone layer would be deposited length-wise
and then one across the width. Now, given that the deposi-
tion parameters (laser speed and step size) were held constant
then, for any point on the surface, the time between the laser
passing over that point and returning for the next, adjacent
pass (in the same layer), was much shorter when the mate-
rial was being deposited across the width. Hence, the cooling
rates for the two deposition directions would have reflected
this. The bands of finer grains, associated with higher cool-
ing rates, would have been the result of the longitudinal
passes. Much of the work that has been carried out to exam-
ine the structure of laser-deposited material has focused on
titanium alloys and often on relatively thin-walled sections
created using a few longitudinal passes. These often fea-
ture elongated grain structures generated as a result of the
occurrence of epitaxial growth between layers [4]. There
was no evidence of epitaxial growth in the present material.
This may be due to the significant difference in the rela-
tive thermal conductivity of titanium and nickel, leading to
246 P.L. Blackwell / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 170 (2005) 240246
higher cooling rates for IN718 which may have suppressed
any tendency for epitaxial growth. The EBSP data indi-
cated that the crystallographic texture within the deposit was
random.
The effect of HIPing on the material behaviour was sig-
nificant. As noted, the high temperature used for the HIP-
ing process allowed considerable grain growth to take place
within the substrate (see Figs. 9 and 10). Prior to HIP-
ing the substrate grain size was 125 m; following HIP-
ing this increased to 500 m. The increase in grain size
accounts for the reduced strengths and elongations noted in
the substrate results from Table 2. The grain growth also
produced a significant change in the failure behaviour of
the cross-bond testpieces; prior to HIPing these testpieces
failed in the deposit (Figs. 3 and 5). Following HIPing, failure
occurred in the substrate. The effect of the HIPing in gener-
ating an improved bond between successive layers within the
deposit, combined with the substrate grain growth, appeared
to have led to the substrate becoming weaker than the
deposit.
The reason for the difference in grain size stability between
the deposit and the substrate was unclear. The HIPing oper-
ation was performed at 1160 C. This is well above the delta
solvus for IN718 and hence grain growth was expected. What
was surprising was that the grain size within the deposit did
not increase to the same degree. It is possible that fine second
phase particles (oxides, carbides) may have been incorpo-
rated into the material from the original powder surfaces, or,
that they could be generated during the deposition process.
Such particles would tend to inhibit grain growth. A sys-
tematic investigation of this issue was not carried out, but it
is intended that further work will be performed as part of a
follow-on programme.
5. Summary
Investigation of commercially sourced laser-deposited
IN718 has shown that, prior to HIPing, the deposit exhibited
strongly anisotropic properties. This appeared to be associ-
ated with a lack of bonding between successive layers of the
deposit and points to the need for further research on deposi-
tion parameters. A subsequent HIPing operation significantly
reduced the anisotropy and eliminated any evidence of poor
interlayer bonding.
Acknowledgements
The author gratefully acknowledges both the MOD and the
DTI who jointly funded this project as part of ARP 04 and the
DTI Aeronautics Research Programme (formerly CARAD),
respectively.
References
[1] High-Temperature, High-Strength Nickel Base Alloys, No. 393,
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dow evaluation for laser engineered powder metal deposition, Proc.
Int. Conf. on Metal Powder Deposition for Rapid Manufacturing,
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Industries Federation, 2002, pp. 121127.
[3] P.A. Kobryn, S.L. Semiatin, Mechanical properties of laser-deposited
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Marcus, K.L. Wood, J.W. Barlow (Eds.), Proceedings of the Solid
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