RT Handbook

An ISO 9001:2008 Certified Company Radiography Testing
INDEX
1. Introduction
1.1 History 3
1.2 Present State 6
1.3 Future Direction 7
2. Physics of Radiography
2.1 Nature of Radiation 11
2.1.1 X-Radiation 12
2.1.2 Bremsstrahlung Radiation 12
2.1.3 K-Shell Emission Radiation 13
2.2 Gamma Radiation 14
2.3 Activity 15
2.4 Decay Rate 15
2.5 Ionization 16
2.6 Inverse Square Law 17
2.7 Interaction of Radiation and Matter 18
2.8 Linear Attenuation Coefficient 19
2.9 Half-Value Layer 20
2.10 Sources of Attenuation 22
2.10.1 Compton Scattering 25
2.11 Geometric Unsharpness 26
2.12 Filters in Radiography 28
2.13 Scatter/Radiation Control 28
2.14 Radiation Safety 30
3. Equipment & Materials

3.1 X-ray Sources 33
3.2 Radio Isotope Sources 35
3.3 Radiographic Film 38
3.4 Exposure Vaults 41
4. Techniques & Calibrations

4.1 Imaging Consideration 44
4.2 Contrast 46
4.3 Definition 48
4.4 Radiographic Density 51
4.5 Film Characteristic Curves 52
4.6 Exposure Calculations 54
4.7 Controlling Quality 55
4.8 Film Processing 58
4.9 Viewing Radiographs 60
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4.10 Radiograph Interp Welds 62

4.11 Radiograph Interp Castings 70
5. Radiation Quantities & Units

5.1 Radiation Units 78
5.2 Biological Factors 82
5.3 Stochastic (Delayed) Effects 82
5.3.1 Cancer 83
5.3.2 Leukemia 84
5.3.3 Genetic Effects 85
5.3.4 Cataracts 86
5.4 Nonstochastic (Acute) Effects 86
5.5 Exposure Symptoms 88
6. Safe use of Radiation

6.1 The NRC & Code of Federal Regulations 92
6.2 Exposure Limits 92
6.3 Controlling Exposure 94
6.3.1 Time-Dose Calculation 95
6.3.2 Distance-Intensity Calculation 95
6.4 HVL-Shielding 98
6.5 Safety Controls 99
6.6 Responsibilities 101
6.7 Procedures 102
6.8 Survey Techniques 103
7. Radiation Safety Equipment

7.1 Radiation Detectors 108
7.2 Survey Meters 108
7.3 Pocket Dosimeter 112
7.4 Audible Alarm Rate Meters 114
7.5 Film Badges 115
7.6 Thermo luminescent Dosimeter 116
8. Standards
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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 History of Radiography
X-rays were discovered in 1895 by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen (1845-

1923) who was a Professor at Wuerzburg University in Germany.
Working with a cathode-ray tube in his laboratory, Roentgen observed
a fluorescent glow of crystals on a table near his tube. The tube that
Roentgen was working with consisted of a glass envelope (bulb) with
positive and negative electrodes encapsulated in it. The air in the tube
was evacuated, and when a high voltage was applied, the tube
produced a fluorescent glow. Roentgen shielded the tube with heavy
black paper, and discovered a green colored fluorescent light generated
by a material located a few feet away from the tube.
He concluded that a new type of ray was being emitted from the tube. This ray was
capable of passing through the heavy paper covering and exciting the phosphorescent
materials in the room. He found that the new ray could pass through most substances
casting shadows of solid objects. Roentgen also discovered that the ray could pass
through the tissue of humans, but not bones and metal objects. One of Roentgen's first
experiments late in 1895 was a film of the hand of his wife, Bertha. It is interesting that
the first use of X-rays were for an industrial (not medical) application, as Roentgen
produced a radiograph of a set of weights in a box to show his colleagues.
Roentgen's discovery was a scientific bombshell, and was received

with extraordinary interest by both scientist and laymen. Scientists
everywhere could duplicate his experiment because the cathode tube
was very well known during this period. Many scientists dropped other
lines of research to pursue the mysterious rays. Newspapers and
magazines of the day provided the public with numerous stories, some
true, others fanciful, about the properties of the newly discovered rays.
Public fancy was caught by this invisible ray with the ability to pass through solid matter,
and, in conjunction with a photographic plate, provide a picture of bones and interior
body parts. Scientific fancy was captured by the demonstration of a wavelength shorter
than light. This generated new possibilities in physics, and for investigating the structure
of matter. Much enthusiasm was generated about potential applications of rays as an aid
in medicine and surgery. Within a month after the announcement of the discovery,
several medical radiographs had been made in Europe and the United States, which were
used by surgeons to guide them in their work. In June 1896, only 6 months after
Roentgen announced his discovery, X-rays were being used by battlefield physicians to
locate bullets in wounded soldiers.
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Prior to 1912, X-rays were used little outside the realms of medicine and dentistry,
though some X-ray pictures of metals were produced. The reason that X-rays were not
used in industrial application before this date was because the X-ray tubes (the source of
the X-rays) broke down under the voltages required to produce rays of satisfactory
penetrating power for industrial purposes. However, that changed in 1913 when the high
vacuum X-ray tubes designed by Coolidge became available. The high vacuum tubes
were an intense and reliable X-ray source, operating at energies up to 100,000 volts.
In 1922, industrial radiography took another step

forward with the advent of the 200,000-volt X-ray
tube that allowed radiographs of thick steel parts to
be produced in a reasonable amount of time. In
1931, General Electric Company developed
1,000,000 volt X-ray generators, providing an
effective tool for industrial radiography. That same
year, the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME) permitted X-ray approval of
fusion welded pressure vessels that further opened the door to industrial acceptance and
use.
A Second Source of Radiation
Shortly after the discovery of X-rays, another form of penetrating rays was discovered. In
1896, French scientist Henri Becquerel discovered natural radioactivity. Many scientists
of the period were working with cathode rays, and other scientists were gathering
evidence on the theory that the atom could be subdivided. Some of the new research
showed that certain types of atoms disintegrate by themselves. It was Henri Becquerel
who discovered this phenomenon while investigating the properties of fluorescent
minerals. Becquerel was researching the principles of fluorescence, wherein certain
minerals glow (fluoresce) when exposed to sunlight. He utilized photographic plates to
record this fluorescence.
One of the minerals Becquerel worked with was a uranium compound. On a day when it
was too cloudy to expose his samples to direct sunlight, Becquerel stored some of the
compound in a drawer with his photographic plates. Later when he developed these
plates, he discovered that they were fogged (exhibited exposure to light). Becquerel
questioned what would have caused this fogging. He knew he had wrapped the plates
tightly before using them, so the fogging was not due to stray light. In addition, he
noticed that only the plates that were in the drawer with the uranium compound were
fogged. Becquerel concluded that the uranium compound gave off a type of radiation that
could penetrate heavy paper and expose photographic film. Becquerel continued to test
samples of uranium compounds and determined that the source of radiation was the
element uranium. Bacquerel's discovery was, unlike that of the X-rays, virtually
unnoticed by laymen and scientists alike. Relatively few scientists were interested in
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Becquerel's findings. It was not until the discovery of radium by the Curies two years
later that interest in radioactivity became widespread.
While working in France at the time of Becquerel's discovery, Polish scientist Marie
Curie became very interested in his work. She suspected that a uranium ore known as
pitchblende contained other radioactive elements. Marie and her husband, French
scientist Pierre Curie, started looking for these other elements. In 1898, the Curies
discovered another radioactive element in pitchblende, and named it 'polonium' in honor
of Marie Curie's native homeland. Later that year, the Curies discovered another
radioactive element which they named radium, or shining element. Both polonium and
radium were more radioactive than uranium. Since these discoveries, many other
radioactive elements have been discovered or produced.
Radium became the initial industrial gamma ray source. The material allowed castings up
to 10 to 12 inches thick to be radiographed. During World War II, industrial radiography
grew tremendously as part of the Navy's shipbuilding program. In 1946, man-made
gamma ray sources such as cobalt and iridium became available. These new sources were
far stronger than radium and were much less expensive. The manmade sources rapidly
replaced radium, and use of gamma rays grew quickly in industrial radiography.
Health Concerns
The science of radiation protection, or "health physics" as it is more properly called, grew
out of the parallel discoveries of X-rays and radioactivity in the closing years of the 19th
century. Experimenters, physicians, laymen, and physicists alike set up X-ray generating
apparatuses and proceeded about their labors with a lack of concern regarding potential
dangers. Such a lack of concern is quite understandable, for there was nothing in previous
experience to suggest that X-rays would in any way be hazardous. Indeed, the opposite
was the case, for who would suspect that a ray similar to light but unseen, unfelt, or
otherwise undetectable by the senses would be damaging to a person? More likely, or so
it seemed to some, X-rays could be beneficial for the body.
Inevitably, the widespread and unrestrained use of X-rays led to serious injuries. Often
injuries were not attributed to X-ray exposure, in part because of the slow onset of
symptoms, and because there was simply no reason to suspect X-rays as the cause. Some
early experimenters did tie X-ray exposure and skin burns together. The first warning of
possible adverse effects of X-rays came from Thomas Edison, William J. Morton, and
Nikola Tesla who each reported eye irritations from experimentation with X-rays and
fluorescent substances.
Today, it can be said that radiation ranks among the most thoroughly investigated causes
of disease. Although much still remains to be learned, more is known about the
mechanisms of radiation damage on the molecular, cellular, and organ system than is
known for most other health stressing agents. Indeed, it is precisely this vast
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accumulation of quantitative dose-response data that enables health physicists to specify

radiation levels so that medical, scientific, and industrial uses of radiation may continue
at levels of risk no greater than, and frequently less than, the levels of risk associated with
any other technology.
X-rays and Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation of exactly the same nature as light,
but of much shorter wavelength. Wavelength of visible light is on the order of 6000
angstroms while the wavelength of x-rays is in the range of one angstrom and that of
gamma rays is 0.0001 angstrom. This very short wavelength is what gives x-rays and
gamma rays their power to penetrate materials that light cannot. These electromagnetic
waves are of a high energy level and can break chemical bonds in materials they
penetrate. If the irradiated matter is living tissue, the breaking of chemical bonds may
result in altered structure or a change in the function of cells. Early exposures to radiation
resulted in the loss of limbs and even lives. Men and women researchers collected and
documented information on the interaction of radiation and the human body. This early
information helped science understand how electromagnetic radiation interacts with
living tissue. Unfortunately, much of this information was collected at great personal
expense.
1.2 Present State of Radiography
In many ways, radiography has changed little from the early days of its use. We still
capture a shadow image on film using similar procedures and processes technicians were
using in the late 1800's. Today, however, we are able to generate images of higher quality
and greater sensitivity through the use of higher quality films with a larger variety of film
grain sizes. Film processing has evolved to an automated state, producing more consistent
film quality by removing manual processing variables. Electronics and computers allow
technicians to now capture images digitally. The use of "filmless radiography" provides a
means of capturing an image, digitally enhancing, sending the image anywhere in the
world, and archiving an image that will not deteriorate with time. Technological advances
have provided industry with smaller, lighter, and very portable equipment that produce
high quality X-rays. The use of linear accelerators provide a means of generating
extremely short wavelength, highly penetrating radiation, a concept dreamed of only a
few short years ago.
While the process has changed little, technology has evolved allowing radiography to be
widely used in numerous areas of inspection. Radiography has seen expanded usage in
industry to inspect not only welds and castings, but to radiographically inspect items such
as airbags and canned food products. Radiography has found use in metallurgical
material identification and security systems at airports and other facilities.
Gamma ray inspection has also changed considerably since the Curies' discovery of
radium. Man-made isotopes of today are far stronger and offer the technician a wide
range of energy levels and half-lives. The technician can select Co-60 which will
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effectively penetrate very thick materials, or select a lower energy isotope, such as Tm-
170, which can be used to inspect plastics and very thin or low density materials. Today
gamma rays find wide application in industries such as petrochemical, casting, welding,
and aerospace.
Addressing Health Concerns
It was in the Manhattan District of US Army Corps of Engineers that the name "health
physics" was born, and great advances were made in radiation safety. From the onset, the
leaders of the Manhattan District recognized that a new and intense source of radiation
and radioactivity would be created. In the summer of 1942, the leaders asked Ernest O.
Wollan, a cosmic ray physicist at the University of Chicago, to form a group to study and
control radiation hazards. Thus, Wollan was the first to bear the title of health physicist.
He was soon joined by Carl G. Gamertsfelder, recently graduated physics baccalaureate,
and Herbert M. Parker, the noted British-American medical physicist. By mid 1943, six
others had been added. These six include Karl Z. Morgan, James C. Hart, Robert R.
Coveyou, O.G. Landsverk, L.A. Pardue, and John E. Rose.
Within the Manhattan District, the name "health physicist" seems to have been derived in
part from the need for secrecy (and hence a code name for radiation protection activities)
and the fact that it was a group of mostly physicists working on health related problems.
Activities included developing appropriate monitoring instruments, physical controls,
administrative procedures, monitoring radiation areas, personnel monitoring, and
radioactive waste disposal. It was in the Manhattan District that many of the modern
concepts of protection were born, including the rem unit, which took into account the
biological effectiveness of the radiation. It was in the Manhattan District that radiation
protection concepts realized maturity and enforceability.
1.3 Future Direction of Radiographic Education
Although many of the methods and techniques developed over a century ago remain in
use, computers are slowly becoming a part of radiographic inspection. The future of
radiography will likely see many changes. As noted earlier, companies are performing
many inspections without the aid of film.
Radiographers of the future will capture images in

digitized form and e-mail them to the customer when
the inspection has been completed. Film evaluation
will likely be left to computers. Inspectors may
capture a digitized image, feed them into a computer
and wait for a printout of the image with an
accept/reject report. Systems will be able to scan a
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part and present a three-dimensional image to the radiographer, helping him or her to
locate the defect within the part.
Inspectors in the future will be able to peal away layer after layer of a part to evaluate the
material in much greater detail. Color images, much like computer generated ultrasonic
C-scans of today, will make interpretation of indications much more reliable and less
time consuming.
Educational techniques and materials will need to be revised and updated to keep pace
with technology and meet the requirements of industry. These needs may well be met
with computers. Computer programs can simulate radiographic inspections using a
computer aided design (CAD) model of a part to produce physically accurate simulated
x-ray radiographic images. Programs allow the operator to select different parts to
inspect, adjust the placement and orientation of the part to obtain the proper
equipment/part relationships, and adjust all the usual x-ray generator settings to arrive at
the desired radiographic film exposure.
Computer simulation will likely have its greatest impact in the classroom, allowing the
student to see results in almost real-time. Simulators and computers may well become the
primary tool for instructors as well as students in the technical classroom.
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NOTES
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NOTES
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2. PHYSICS OF RADIOGRAPHY
2.1 Nature of Penetrating Radiation
X-rays and gamma rays differ only in their source of origin. X-rays are produced by an
x-ray generator and gamma radiation is the product of radioactive atoms. They are both
part of the electromagnetic spectrum. They are waveforms, as are light rays,
microwaves, and radio waves. X-rays and gamma rays cannot been seen, felt, or heard.
They possess no charge and no mass and, therefore, are not influenced by electrical and
magnetic fields and will generally travel in straight lines. However, they can be diffracted
(bent) in a manner similar to light.
Both X-rays and gamma rays can be characterized by frequency, wavelength, and
velocity. However, they act somewhat like a particle at times in that they occur as small
"packets" of energy and are referred to as "photons." Due to their short wavelength they
have more energy to pass through matter than do the other forms of energy in the
electromagnetic spectrum. As they pass through matter, they are scattered and absorbed
and the degree of penetration depends on the kind of matter and the energy of the rays.
Properties of X-Rays and Gamma Rays
They are not detected by human senses (cannot be seen, heard, felt, etc.).
They travel in straight lines at the speed of light.
Their paths cannot be changed by electrical or magnetic fields.
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They can be diffracted to a small degree at interfaces between two different

materials.
They pass through matter until they have a chance encounter with an atomic
particle.
Their degree of penetration depends on their energy and the matter they are
traveling through.
They have enough energy to ionize matter and can damage or destroy living cells.
2.1.1 X-Radiation
X-rays are just like any other kind of electromagnetic radiation. They can be produced in
parcels of energy called photons, just like light. There are two different atomic processes
that can produce X-ray photons. One is called Bremsstrahlung and is a German term
meaning "braking radiation." The other is called K-shell emission. They can both occur in
the heavy atoms of tungsten. Tungsten is often the material chosen for the target or anode
of the x-ray tube.
Both ways of making X-rays involve a change in the state of electrons. However,
Bremsstrahlung is easier to understand using the classical idea that radiation is emitted
when the velocity of the electron shot at the tungsten changes. The negatively charged
electron slows down after swinging around the nucleus of a positively charged tungsten
atom. This energy loss produces X-radiation. Electrons are scattered elastically and
inelastically by the positively charged nucleus. The inelastically scattered electron loses
energy, which appears as Bremsstrahlung. Elastically scattered electrons (which include
backscattered electrons) are generally scattered through larger angles. In the interaction,
many photons of different wavelengths are produced, but none of the photons have more
energy than the electron had to begin with. After emitting the spectrum of X-ray
radiation, the original electron is slowed down or stopped.
2.1.2 Bremsstrahlung Radiation
X-ray tubes produce x-ray photons by accelerating a stream of electrons to energies of

several hundred kilovolts with velocities of several hundred kilometers per hour and
colliding them into a heavy target material. The abrupt acceleration of the charged
particles (electrons) produces Bremsstrahlung photons. X-ray radiation with a continuous
spectrum of energies is produced with a range from a few keV to a maximum of the
energy of the electron beam. Target materials for industrial tubes are typically tungsten,
which means that the wave functions of the bound tungsten electrons are required. The
inherent filtration of an X-ray tube must be computed, which is controlled by the amount
that the electron penetrates into the surface of the target and by the type of vacuum
window present.
The bremsstrahlung photons generated within the target material are attenuated as they
pass through typically 50 microns of target material. The beam is further attenuated by
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the aluminum or beryllium vacuum window. The results are an elimination of the low
energy photons, 1 keV through l5 keV, and a significant reduction in the portion of the
spectrum from 15 keV through 50 keV. The spectrum from an x-ray tube is further
modified by the filtration caused by the selection of filters used in the setup.
The applet below allows the user to visualize an electron accelerating and interacting
with a heavy target material. The graph keeps a record of the bremsstrahlung photons
numbers as a function of energy. After a few events, the "building up" of the graph may
be accomplished by pressing the "automate" button.
2.1.3 K-shell Emission Radiation
Remember that atoms have their electrons arranged in closed "shells" of different
energies. The K-shell is the lowest energy state of an atom. An incoming electron can
give a K-shell electron enough energy to knock it out of its energy state. About 0.1% of
the electrons produce K-shell vacancies; most produce heat. Then, a tungsten electron of
higher energy (from an outer shell) can fall into the K-shell. The energy lost by the
falling electron shows up in an emitted x-ray photon. Meanwhile, higher energy electrons
fall into the vacated energy state in the outer shell, and so on. K-shell emission produces
higher-intensity x-rays than Bremsstrahlung, and the x-ray photon comes out at a single
wavelength.
When outer-shell electrons drop into inner shells, they emit a quantized photon
"characteristic" of the element. The energies of the characteristic X-rays produced are
only very weakly dependent on the chemical structure in which the atom is bound,
indicating that the non-bonding shells of atoms are the X-ray source. The resulting
characteristic spectrum is superimposed on the continuum as shown in the graphs below.
An atom remains ionized for a very short time (about 10 -14 second) and thus an atom can
be repeatedly ionized by the incident electrons which arrive about every 10-12 second.
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2.2 Gamma Radiation
Gamma radiation is one of the three types of natural radioactivity. Gamma rays are
electromagnetic radiation, like X-rays. The other two types of natural radioactivity are
alpha and beta radiation, which are in the form of particles. Gamma rays are the most
energetic form of electromagnetic radiation, with a very short wavelength of less than
one-tenth of a nanometer.
Gamma radiation is the product of radioactive atoms. Depending upon the ratio of
neutrons to protons within its nucleus, an isotope of a particular element may be stable or
unstable. When the binding energy is not strong enough to hold the nucleus of an atom
together, the atom is said to be unstable. Atoms with unstable nuclei are constantly
changing as a result of the imbalance of energy within the nucleus. Over time, the nuclei
of unstable isotopes spontaneously disintegrate, or transform, in a process known as
radioactive decay. Various types of penetrating radiation may be emitted from the
nucleus and/or its surrounding electrons. Nuclides which undergo radioactive decay are
called radionuclides. Any material which contains measurable amounts of one or more
radionuclides is a radioactive material.
Types Radiation Produced by Radioactive Decay
When an atom undergoes radioactive decay, it emits one or more forms of radiation with
sufficient energy to ionize the atoms with which it interacts. Ionizing radiation can
consist of high speed subatomic particles ejected from the nucleus or electromagnetic
radiation (gamma-rays) emitted by either the nucleus or orbital electrons.
Alpha Particles
Certain radionuclides of high atomic mass (Ra226, U238, Pu239) decay by the emission
of alpha particles. These alpha particles are tightly bound units of two neutrons and two
protons each (He4 nucleus) and have a positive charge. Emission of an alpha particle
from the nucleus results in a decrease of two units of atomic number (Z) and four units of
mass number (A). Alpha particles are emitted with discrete energies characteristic of the
particular transformation from which they originate. All alpha particles from a particular
radionuclide transformation will have identical energies.
Beta Particles
A nucleus with an unstable ratio of neutrons to protons may decay through the emission
of a high speed electron called a beta particle. This results in a net change of one unit of
atomic number (Z). Beta particles have a negative charge and the beta particles emitted
by a specific radionuclide will range in energy from near zero up to a maximum value,
which is characteristic of the particular transformation.
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Gamma-rays
A nucleus which is in an excited state may emit one or more photons (packets of
electromagnetic radiation) of discrete energies. The emission of gamma rays does not
alter the number of protons or neutrons in the nucleus but instead has the effect of
moving the nucleus from a higher to a lower energy state (unstable to stable). Gamma ray
emission frequently follows beta decay, alpha decay, and other nuclear decay processes.
2.3 Activity of Radionuclides
The quantity which expresses the degree of radioactivity or the radiation producing
potential of a given amount of radioactive material is activity. The curie was originally
defined as that amount of any radioactive material that disintegrates at the same rate as
one gram of pure radium. The curie has since been defined more precisely as a quantity
of radioactive material in which 3.7 x 10 10 atoms disintegrate per second. The
International System (SI) unit for activity is the Becquerel (Bq), which is that quantity of
radioactive material in which one atom is transformed per second. The radioactivity of a
given amount of radioactive material does not depend upon the mass of material present.
For example, two one-curie sources of Cs-137 might have very different masses
depending upon the relative proportion of non-radioactive atoms present in each source.
Radioactivity is expressed as the number of curies or becquerels per unit mass or volume.
The concentration of radioactivity, or the relationship between the mass of radioactive

material and the activity, is called "specific activity." Specific activity is expressed as the
number of curies or becquerels per unit mass or volume. Each gram of Cobalt-60 will
contain approximately 50 curies. Iridium-192 will contain 350 curies for every gram of
material. The shorter half-life, the less amount of material that will be required to produce
a given activity or curies. The higher specific activity of Iridium results in physically
smaller sources. This allows technicians to place the source in closer proximity to the
film while maintaining geometric unsharpness requirements on the radiograph. These
unsharpness requirements may not be met if a source with a low specific activity were
used at similar source to film distances.
2.4 Isotope Decay Rate (Half-Life)
Each radionuclide decays at its own

unique rate which cannot be altered by
any chemical or physical process. A
useful measure of this rate is the half-life
of the radionuclide. Half-life is defined
as the time required for the activity of
any particular radionuclide to decrease
to one-half of its initial value. In other
words one-half of the atoms have
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reverted to a more stable state material. Half-lives of radionuclides range from

microseconds to billions of years. Half-life of two widely used industrial isotopes are 74
days for Iridium-192, and 5.3 years for Cobalt-60. More exacting calculations can be
made for the half-life of these materials, however, these times are commonly used.
2.5 Ionization
As penetrating radiation moves from

point to point in matter, it loses its
energy through various interactions
with the atoms it encounters. The
rate at which this energy loss occurs
depends upon the type and energy of
the radiation and the density and
atomic composition of the matter
through which it is passing.
The various types of penetrating

radiation impart their energy to
matter primarily through excitation
and ionization of orbital electrons. The term "excitation" is used to describe an interaction
where electrons acquire energy from a passing charged particle but are not removed
completely from their atom. Excited electrons may subsequently emit energy in the form
of x-rays during the process of returning to a lower energy state. The term "ionization"
refers to the complete removal of an electron from an atom following the transfer of
energy from a passing charged particle. In describing the intensity of ionization, the term
"specific ionization" is often used. This is defined as the number of ion pairs formed per
unit path length for a given type of radiation.
Because of their double charge and relatively slow velocity, alpha particles have a high
specific ionization and a relatively short range in matter (a few centimeters in air and
only fractions of a millimeter in tissue). Beta particles have a much lower specific
ionization than alpha particles and, generally, a greater range. For example, the relatively
energetic beta particles from P32 have a maximum range of 7 meters in air and 8
millimeters in tissue. The low energy betas from H3, on the other hand, are stopped by
only 6 millimeters of air or 6 micrometers of tissue.
Gamma-rays, x-rays, and neutrons are referred to as indirectly ionizing radiation since,
having no charge, they do not directly apply impulses to orbital electrons as do alpha and
beta particles. Electromagnetic radiation proceeds through matter until there is a chance
of interaction with a particle. If the particle is an electron, it may receive enough energy
to be ionized, whereupon it causes further ionization by direct interactions with other
electrons. As a result, indirectly ionizing radiation (e.g. gamma, x-rays, and neutrons) can
cause the liberation of directly ionizing particles (electrons) deep inside a medium.
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Because these neutral radiations undergo only chance encounters with matter, they do not
have finite ranges, but rather are attenuated in an exponential manner. In other words, a
given gamma ray has a definite probability of passing through any medium of any depth.
Neutrons lose energy in matter by collisions which transfer kinetic energy. This process
is called moderation and is most effective if the matter the neutrons collide with has
about the same mass as the neutron. Once slowed down to the same average energy as the
matter being interacted with (thermal energies), the neutrons have a much greater chance
of interacting with a nucleus. Such interactions can result in material becoming
radioactive or can cause radiation to be given off.
2.6 Newton's Inverse Square Law
Any point source which spreads its influence equally in all directions without a limit to
its range will obey the inverse square law. This comes from strictly geometrical
considerations. The intensity of the influence at any given radius (r) is the source
strength divided by the area of the sphere. Being strictly geometric in its origin, the
inverse square law applies to diverse phenomena. Point sources of gravitational force,
electric field, light, sound, and radiation obey the inverse square law.
As one of the fields which obey the general inverse square law, a point radiation source
can be characterized by the diagram above whether you are talking about Roentgens,
rads, or rems. All measures of exposure will drop off by the inverse square law. For
example, if the radiation exposure is 100 mR/hr at 1 inch from a source, the exposure will
be 0.01 mR/hr at 100 inches.
The applet below shows a radioactive source. The distance to the green source is shown
below. You can also drag the little person and his Geiger counter around to a distance of
your choice. When the mouse button is released, a point is plotted on the graph. The
dosage the person receives at the particular distance is shown numerically and
graphically. The graph allows you to confirm Newton's Inverse Square Law.
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If the distance is too small, the dosage will be too high and our brave technician will face
severe medical effects.
2.7 Interaction between Penetrating Radiation and Matter
When x-rays or gamma rays are directed

into an object, some of the photons interact
with the particles of the matter and their
energy can be absorbed or scattered. This
absorption and scattering is called
attenuation. Other photons travel
completely through the object without
interacting with any of the material's
particles. The number of photons
transmitted through a material depends on
the thickness, density and atomic number of
the material, and the energy of the
individual photons.
Even when they have the same energy,
photons travel different distances within a
material simply based on the probability of
their encounter with one or more of the
particles of the matter and the type of
encounter that occurs. Since the probability
of an encounter increases with the distance
traveled, the number of photons reaching a
specific point within the matter decreases
exponentially with distance traveled. As
shown in the graphic to the right, if 1000
photons are aimed at ten 1 cm layers of a
material and there is a 10% chance of a
photon being attenuated in this layer, then
there will be 100 photons attenuated. This
leave 900 photos to travel into the next layer
where 10% of these photos will be
attenuated. By continuing this progression,
the exponential shape of the curve becomes
apparent.
The formula that describes this curve is:
18
The factor that indicates how much attenuation will take place per cm (10% in this
example) is known as the linear attenuation coefficient, m.
2.8 Transmitted Intensity and Linear Attenuation Coefficient
For a narrow beam of mono-energetic photons, the change in x-ray beam intensity at
some distance in a material can be expressed in the form of an equation as:
Where: dI = the change in intensity

I = the initial intensity
n = the number of atoms/cm3
a proportionality constant that reflects the total probability of a
s =
photon being scattered or absorbed
dx = the incremental thickness of material traversed
When this equation is integrated, it becomes:
The number of atoms/cm3 (n) and the proportionality constant (s) are usually combined to
yield the linear attenuation coefficient (m). Therefore the equation becomes:
Where: I = the intensity of photons transmitted across some distance x

I0 = the initial intensity of photons
a proportionality constant that reflects the total probability of
s =
a photon being scattered or absorbed
m = the linear attenuation coefficient
x = distance traveled
19
The Linear Attenuation Coefficient (m)
The linear attenuation coefficient (m) describes the fraction of a beam of x-rays or
gamma rays that is absorbed or scattered per unit thickness of the absorber. This value
basically accounts for the number of atoms in a cubic cm volume of material and the
probability of a photon being scattered or absorbed from the nucleus or an electron of one
of these atoms. The linear attenuation coefficients for a variety of materials and x-ray
energies are available in various reference books.
Using the transmitted intensity equation above, linear attenuation coefficients can be used
to make a number of calculations. These include:
the intensity of the energy transmitted through a material when the incident x-ray
intensity, the material and the material thickness are known.
the intensity of the incident x-ray energy when the transmitted x-ray intensity,
material, and material thickness are known.
the thickness of the material when the incident and transmitted intensity, and the
material are known.
the material can be determined from the value of m when the incident and
transmitted intensity, and the material thickness are known.
2.9 Half-Value Layer
The thickness of any given material where

50% of the incident energy has been
attenuated is know as the half-value layer
(HVL). The HVL is expressed in units of
distance (mm or cm). Like the attenuation
coefficient, it is photon energy dependant.
Increasing the penetrating energy of a
stream of photons will result in an increase
in a material's HVL.
The HVL is inversely proportional to the

attenuation coefficient. If an incident energy
of 1 and a transmitted energy is 0.5 is
plugged into the equation introduced on the
preceding page, it can be seen that the HVL
multiplied by m must equal 0.693.
20
If x is the HVL then m times HVL must equal 0.693 (since the number 0.693 is the
exponent value that gives a value of 0.5).
Therefore, the HVL and m are related as follows:
The HVL is often used in radiography simply

because it is easier to remember values and
perform simple calculations. In a shielding
calculation, such as illustrated to the right, it
can be seen that if the thickness of one HVL is
known, it is possible to quickly determine how
much material is needed to reduce the
intensity to less than 1%.
Approximate HVL for Various Materials when Radiation is from a Gamma Source
Half-Value Layer, mm (inch)

Source Concrete Steel Lead Tungsten Uranium
Iridium-192 44.5 (1.75) 12.7 (0.5) 4.8 (0.19) 3.3 (0.13) 2.8 (0.11)
Cobalt-60 60.5 (2.38) 21.6 (0.85) 12.5 (0.49) 7.9 (0.31) 6.9 (0.27)
Approximate Half-Value Layer for Various Materials when Radiation is from an X-ray
Source
21
Peak Voltage (kVp) Lead Concrete
50 0.06 (0.002) 4.32 (0.170)

100 0.27 (0.010) 15.10 (0.595)
150 0.30 (0.012) 22.32 (0.879)
200 0.52 (0.021) 25.0 (0.984)
250 0.88 (0.035) 28.0 (1.102)
300 1.47 (0.055) 31.21 (1.229)
400 2.5 (0.098) 33.0 (1.299)
1000 7.9 (0.311) 44.45 (1.75)
Note: The values presented on this page are intended for educational purposes. Other
sources of information should be consulted when designing shielding for radiation
sources.
2.10 Sources of Attenuation
The attenuation that results due to the interaction between penetrating radiation and
matter is not a simple process. A single interaction event between a primary x-ray photon
and a particle of matter does not usually result in the photon changing to some other form
of energy and effectively disappearing. Several interaction events are usually involved
and the total attenuation is the sum of the attenuation due to different types of
interactions. These interactions include the photoelectric effect, scattering, and pair
production. The figure below shows an approximation of the total absorption coefficient,
(), in red, for iron plotted as a function of radiation energy. The four radiation-matter
interactions that contribute to the total absorption are shown in black. The four types of
interactions are: photoelectric (PE), Compton scattering (C), pair production (PP), and
Thomson or Rayleigh scattering (R). Since most industrial radiography is done in the 0.1
to 1.5 MeV range, it can be seen from the plot that photoelectric and Compton scattering
account for the majority of attenuation encountered.
22
Summary of different mechanisms that cause attenuation of an incident x-ray beam
Photoelectric (PE) absorption of x-rays occurs

when the x-ray photon is absorbed, resulting in the
ejection of electrons from the outer shell of the
atom, and hence the ionization of the atom.
Subsequently, the ionized atom returns to the
neutral state with the emission of an x-ray
characteristic of the atom. This subsequent emission
of lower energy photons is generally absorbed and
does not contribute to (or hinder) the image making process. Photoelectron absorption is
the dominant process for x-ray absorption up to energies of about 500 KeV.
Photoelectron absorption is also dominant for atoms of high atomic numbers.
Compton scattering (C) occurs when the incident

x-ray photon is deflected from its original path by
an interaction with an electron. The electron gains
energy and is ejected from its orbital position. The
x-ray photon loses energy due to the interaction but
continues to travel through the material along an
altered path. Since the scattered x-ray photon has
less energy, it, therefore, has a longer wavelength
than the incident photon. The event is also known as incoherent scattering because the
photon energy change resulting from an interaction is not always orderly and consistent.
23
The energy shift depends on the angle of scattering and not on the nature of the scattering
medium.
Pair production (PP) can occur when the x-

ray photon energy is greater than 1.02 MeV,
but really only becomes significant at energies
around 10 MeV. Pair production occurs when
an electron and positron are created with the
annihilation of the x-ray photon. Positrons are
very short lived and disappear (positron
annihilation) with the formation of two
photons of 0.51 MeV energy. Pair production is of particular importance when high-
energy photons pass through materials of a high atomic number.
Below are other interaction phenomenon that can occur. Under special circumstances
these may need to be considered, but are generally negligible.
Thomson scattering (R), also known as

Rayleigh, coherent, or classical scattering,
occurs when the x-ray photon interacts with
the whole atom so that the photon is
scattered with no change in internal energy to
the scattering atom, nor to the x-ray photon.
Thomson scattering is never more than a
minor contributor to the absorption coefficient. The scattering occurs without the loss of
energy. Scattering is mainly in the forward direction.
Photodisintegration (PD) is the process

by which the x-ray photon is captured by
the nucleus of the atom with the ejection
of a particle from the nucleus when all
the energy of the x-ray is given to the
nucleus. Because of the enormously high
energies involved, this process may be
neglected for the energies of x-rays used in radiography.
Effect of Photon Energy on Attenuation
Absorption characteristics will increase or decrease as the energy of the x-ray is increased
or decreased. Since attenuation characteristics of materials are important in the
development of contrast in a radiograph, an understanding of the relationship between
material thickness, absorption properties, and photon energy is fundamental to producing
a quality radiograph. A radiograph with higher contrast will provide greater probability of
24
detection of a given discontinuity. An understanding of absorption is also necessary when

designing x-ray and gamma ray shielding, cabinets, or exposure vaults.
2.10.1 Compton Scattering
As mentioned on the previous page, Compton

scattering occurs when the incident x-ray photon is
deflected from its original path by an interaction
with an electron. The electron is ejected from its
orbital position and the x-ray photon loses energy
because of the interaction but continues to travel
through the material along an altered path. Energy
and momentum are conserved in this process. The
energy shift depends on the angle of scattering and not on the nature of the scattering
medium. Since the scattered x-ray photon has less energy, it has a longer wavelength and
less penetrating than the incident photon.
Compton effect was first observed by Arthur Compton in 1923 and this discovery led to
his award of the 1927 Nobel Prize in Physics. The discovery is important because it
demonstrates that light cannot be explained purely as a wave phenomenon. Compton's
work convinced the scientific community that light can behave as a stream of particles
(photons) whose energy is proportional to the frequency.
The change in wavelength of the scattered photon is given by:
Where: l = wavelength of incident x-ray photon

l' = wavelength of scattered x-ray photon
Planck's Constant: The fundamental constant equal to the ratio
h =
of the energy E of a quantum of energy to its frequency v: E=hv.
me = the mass of an electron at rest
c = the speed of light
q = The scattering angle of the scattered photon
The applet below demonstrates Compton scattering as calculated with the Klein-Nishina
formula, which provides an accurate prediction of the angular distribution of x-rays and
gamma-rays that are incident upon a single electron. Before this formula was derived,
the electron cross section had been classically derived by the British physicist and
25
discoverer of the electron, J.J. Thomson. However, scattering experiments showed

significant deviations from the results predicted by Thomson's model. The Klein-Nishina
formula incorporates the Breit-Dirac recoil factor, R, also known as radiation pressure.
The formula also corrects for relativistic quantum mechanics and takes into account the
interaction of the spin and magnetic moment of the electron with electromagnetic
radiation. Quantum mechanics is a system of mechanics based on quantum theory to
provide a consistent explanation of both electromagnetic wave and atomic structure.
2.11 Geometric Unsharpness
Geometric unsharpness refers to the loss of definition that is the result of geometric
factors of the radiographic equipment and setup. It occurs because the radiation does not
originate from a single point but rather over an area. Consider the images below which
show two sources of different sizes, the paths of the radiation from each edge of the
source to each edge of the feature of the sample, the locations where this radiation will
expose the film and the density profile across the film. In the first image, the radiation
originates at a very small source. Since all of the radiation originates from basically the
same point, very little geometric unsharpness is produced in the image. In the second
image, the source size is larger and the different paths that the rays of radiation can take
from their point of origin in the source causes the edges of the notch to be less defined.
The three factors controlling unsharpness are source size, source to object distance, and
object to detector distance. The source size is obtained by referencing manufacturers
specifications for a given X-ray or gamma ray source. Industrial x-ray tubes often have
focal spot sizes of 1.5 mm squared but microfocus systems have spot sizes in the 30
micron range. As the source size decreases, the geometric unsharpness also decreases.
For a given size source, the unsharpness can also be decreased by increasing the source to
object distance, but this comes with a reduction in radiation intensity.
26
The object to detector distance is usually kept as small as possible to help minimize
unsharpness. However, there are situations, such as when using geometric enlargement,
when the object is separated from the detector, which will reduce the definition.
Codes and standards used in industrial radiography require that geometric unsharpness be
limited. In general, the allowable amount is 1/100 of the material thickness up to a
maximum of 0.040 inch. These values refer to the degree of penumbra shadow in a
radiographic image. Since the penumbra is not nearly as well defined as shown in the
image to the right, it is difficult to measure it in a radiograph. Therefore it is typically
calculated. The source size must be obtained from the equipment manufacturer or
measured. Then the unsharpness can be calculated using measurements made of the
setup.
For the case, such as that shown to the right, where a sample of significant thickness is
placed adjacent to the detector, the following formula is used to calculate the maximum
amount of unsharpness due to specimen thickness:
Ug = f * b/a
f = source focal-spot size

a = distance from the source to front surface of the object
b = the thickness of the object
For the case when the detector is not

placed next to the sample, such as when
geometric magnification is being used, the
calculation becomes:
Ug = f* b/a
f = source focal-spot size.

a = distance from x-ray source to front
surface of material/object
b = distance from the front surface of the
object to the detector
27
2.12 Filters in Radiography
At x-ray energies, filters consist of material placed in the useful beam to absorb,
preferentially, radiation based on energy level or to modify the spatial distribution of the
beam. Filtration is required to absorb the lower-energy x-ray photons emitted by the tube
before they reach the target. The use of filters produce a cleaner image by absorbing the
lower energy x-ray photons that tend to scatter more.
The total filtration of the beam includes the inherent filtration (composed of part of the x-
ray tube and tube housing) and the added filtration (thin sheets of a metal inserted in the
x-ray beam). Filters are typically placed at or near the x-ray port in the direct path of the
x-ray beam. Placing a thin sheet of copper between the part and the film cassette has also
proven an effective method of filtration.
For industrial radiography, the filters added to the x-ray beam are most often constructed
of high atomic number materials such as lead, copper, or brass. Filters for medical
radiography are usually made of aluminum (Al). The amount of both the inherent and the
added filtration are stated in mm of Al or mm of Al equivalent. The amount of filtration
of the x-ray beam is specified by and based on the voltage potential (keV) used to
produce the beam. The thickness of filter materials is dependent on atomic numbers,
kilovoltage settings, and the desired filtration factor.
Gamma radiography produces relatively high energy levels at essentially monochromatic

radiation, therefore filtration is not a useful technique and is seldom used.
2.13 Secondary (Scatter) Radiation and

Undercut control
Secondary (Scatter) Radiation
Secondary or scatter radiation must often be taken

into consideration when producing a radiograph.
The scattered photons create a loss of contrast and
definition. Often secondary radiation is thought of
as radiation striking the film reflected from an
object in the immediate area, such as a wall, or from
the table or floor where the part is resting. Side
scatter originates from walls, or objects on the
source side of the film. Control of side scatter can
be achieved by moving objects in the room away
from the film, moving the x-ray tube to the center of
the vault, or placing a collimator at the exit port,
thus reducing the diverging radiation surrounding
the central beam.
28
It is often called backscatter when it comes

from objects behind the film. Industry
codes and standards often require that a
lead letter "B" be placed on the back of the
cassette to verify the control of
backscatter. If the letter "B" shows as a
"ghost" image on the film, a significant
amount of backscatter radiation is reaching
the film. The image of the "B" is often
very nondistinct as shown in the image to
the right. The arrow points to the area of
backscatter radiation from the lead "B" located on the back side of the film. The control
of backscatter radiation is achieved by backing the film in the cassette with a sheet of
lead that is at least 0.010 inch thick. It is a common practice in industry to place a 0.005"
lead screen in front and a 0.010" screen behind the film.
Undercut
Another condition that must often be controlled

when producing a radiograph is called undercut.
Parts with holes, hollow areas, or abrupt thickness
changes are likely to suffer from undercut if
controls are not put in place. Undercut appears as
a darkening of the radiograph in the area of the
thickness transition. This results in a loss of
resolution or blurring at the transition area.
Undercut occurs due to scattering within the film.
At the edges of a part or areas where the part
transitions from thick to thin, the intensity of the radiation reaching the film is much
greater than in the thicker areas of the part. The high level of radiation intensity reaching
the film results in a high level of scattering within the film. It should also be noted that
the faster the film speed, the more undercut that is likely to occur. Scattering from within
the walls of the part also contributes to undercut, but research has shown that scattering
within the film is the primary cause. Masks are used to control undercut. Sheets of lead
cut to fill holes or surround the part and metallic shot and liquid absorbers are often used
as masks.
2.14 Radiation Safety
29
Ionizing radiation is an extremely important NDT tool but it can pose

a hazard to human health. For this reason, special precautions must
be observed when using and working around ionizing radiation. The
possession of radioactive materials and use of radiation producing
devices in the United States is governed by strict regulatory controls.
The primary regulatory authority for most types and uses of
radioactive materials is the federal Nuclear Regulatory Commission
(NRC). However, more than half of the states in the US have entered
into "agreement" with the NRC to assume regulatory control of
radioactive material use within their borders. As part of the agreement process, the states
must adopt and enforce regulations comparable to those found in Title 10 of the Code of
Federal Regulations. Regulations for control of radioactive material used in Iowa are
found in Chapter 136C of the Iowa Code.
For most situations, the types and maximum quantities of radioactive materials
possessed, the manner in which they may be used, and the individuals authorized to use
radioactive materials are stipulated in the form of a "specific" license from the
appropriate regulatory authority. In Iowa, this authority is the Iowa Department of Public
Health. However, for certain institutions which routinely use large quantities of numerous
types of radioactive materials, the exact quantities of materials and details of use may not
be specified in the license. Instead, the license grants the institution the authority and
responsibility for setting the specific requirements for radioactive material use within its
facilities. These licensees are termed "broadscope" and require a Radiation Safety
Committee and usually a full-time Radiation Safety Officer.
NOTES
30
NOTES
31
3. EQUIPMENT & MATERIALS
32
3.1 X-ray Generators
The major components of an X-ray generator are

the tube, the high voltage generator, the control
console, and the cooling system. As discussed
earlier in this material, X-rays are generated by
directing a stream of high speed electrons at a
target material such as tungsten, which has a high
atomic number. When the electrons are slowed or
stopped by the interaction with the atomic
particles of the target, X-radiation is produced.
This is accomplished in an X-ray tube such as the
one shown here. The X-ray tube is one of the
components of an X-ray generator.
The tube cathode (filament) is heated with a low-

voltage current of a few amps. The filament heats
up and the electrons in the wire become loosely
held. A large electrical potential is created
between the cathode and the anode by the high-
voltage generator. Electrons that break free of the
cathode are strongly attracted to the anode target.
The stream of electrons between the cathode and
the anode is the tube current. The tube current is
measured in milliamps and is controlled by regulating the low-voltage, heating current
applied to the cathode. The higher the temperature of the filament, the larger the number
of electrons that leave the cathode and travel to the anode. The milliamp or current setting
on the control console regulates the filament temperature, which relates to the intensity of
the X-ray output.
The high-voltage between the cathode and the anode affects the speed at which the
electrons travel and strike the anode. The higher the kilo voltage, the more speed and,
therefore, energy the electrons have when they strike the anode. Electrons striking with
more energy results in X-rays with more penetrating power. The high-voltage potential is
measured in kilovolts, and this is controlled with the voltage or kilovoltage control on the
control console. An increase in the kilovoltage will also result in an increase in the
intensity of the radiation.
A focusing cup is used to concentrate the stream of electrons to a small area of the target
called the focal spot. The focal spot size is an important factor in the system's ability to
produce a sharp image. See the information on image resolution and geometric
unsharpness for more information on the effect of the focal spot size. Much of the energy
applied to the tube is transformed into heat at the focal spot of the anode. As mentioned
above, the anode target is commonly made from tungsten, which has a high melting point
33
in addition to a high atomic number. However, cooling of the anode by active or passive
means is necessary. Water or oil recirculating systems are often used to cool tubes. Some
low power tubes are cooled simply with the use of thermally conductive materials and
heat radiating fins.
It should also be noted that in order to prevent the

cathode from burning up and to prevent arcing
between the anode and the cathode, all of the oxygen
is removed from the tube by pulling a vacuum. Some
systems have external vacuum pumps to remove any
oxygen that may have leaked into the tube. However,
most industrial X-ray tubes simply require a warm-up
procedure to be followed. This warm-up procedure
carefully raises the tube current and voltage to slowly
burn any of the available oxygen before the tube is
operated at high power.
The other important component of an X-ray

generating system is the control console. Consoles typically have a keyed lock to prevent
unauthorized use of the system. They will have a button to start the generation of X-rays
and a button to manually stop the generation of X-rays. The three main adjustable
controls regulate the tube voltage in kilovolts, the tube amperage in millivolts, and the
exposure time in minutes and seconds. Some systems also have a switch to change the
focal spot size of the tube.
X-ray Generator Options Kilo voltage - X-ray

generators come in a large variety of sizes and
configurations. There are stationary units that are
intended for use in lab or production environments and
portable systems that can be easily moved to the job
site. Systems are available in a wide range of energy
levels. When inspecting large steel or heavy metal
components, systems capable of producing millions of
electron volts may be necessary to penetrate the full
thickness of the material. Alternately, small,
lightweight components may only require a system
capable of producing only a few tens of kilovolts.
Focal Spot Size - Another important consideration is

the focal spot size of the tube since this factors into the geometric unsharpness of the
image produced. Generally, the smaller the spot size the better. But as the electron stream
is focused to a smaller area, the power of the tube must be reduced to prevent overheating
at the tube anode. Therefore, the focal spot size becomes a tradeoff of resolving
capability and power. Generators can be classified as a conventional, minifocus, and
34
microfocus system. Conventional units have focal-spots larger than about 0.5 mm,
minifocus units have focal-spots ranging from 50 microns to 500 microns (.050 mm to .5
mm), and microfocus systems have focal-spots smaller than 50 microns. Smaller spot
sizes are especially advantageous in instances where the magnification of an object or
region of an object is necessary. The cost of a system typically increases as the spot size
decreases and some microfocus tubes exceed $100,000. Some manufacturers combine
two filaments of different sizes to make a dual-focus tube. This usually involves a
conventional and a minifocus spot-size and adds flexibility to the system.
AC and Constant Potential Systems - AC X-ray systems supply the tube with
sinusoidal varying alternating current. They produce X-rays only during one half of the
1/60th second cycle. This produces bursts of radiation rather than a constant stream.
Additionally, the voltage changes over the cycle and the X-ray energy varies as the
voltage ramps up and then back down. Only a portion of the radiation is useable and low
energy radiation must usually be filtered out. Constant potential generators rectify the AC
wall current and supply the tube with DC current. This results in a constant stream of
relatively consistent radiation. Most newer systems now use constant potential
generators.
Flash X-Ray Generators
Flash X-ray generators produce short, intense bursts of radiation. These systems are
useful when examining objects in rapid motion or when studying transient events such as
the tripping of an electrical breaker. In these type of situations, high-speed video is used
to rapidly capture images from an image intensifier or other real-time detector. Since the
exposure time for each image is very short, a high level of radiation intensity is needed in
order to get a usable output from the detector. To prevent the imaging system from
becoming saturated from a continuous exposure high intensity radiation, the generator
supplies microsecond bursts of radiation. The tubes of these X-ray generators do not have
a heated filament but instead electrons are pulled from the cathode by the strong electrical
potential between the cathode and the anode. This process is known as field emission or
cold emission and it is capable of producing electron currents in the thousands of
amperes.
3.2 Radio Isotope (Gamma) Sources
Manmade radioactive sources are produced by introducing an extra neutron to atoms of

the source material. As the material rids itself of the neutron, energy is released in the
form of gamma rays. Two of the more common industrial gamma-ray sources for
industrial radiography are iridium-192 and cobalt-60. These isotopes emit radiation in a
few discreet wavelengths. Cobalt-60 will emit a 1.33 and a 1.17 MeV gamma ray, and
iridium-192 will emit 0.31, 0.47, and 0.60 MeV gamma rays. In comparison to an X-ray
generator, cobalt-60 produces energies comparable to a 1.25 MeV X-ray system and
iridium-192 to a 460 keV X-ray system. These high energies make it possible to penetrate
35
thick materials with a relatively short exposure time. This and the fact that sources are
very portable are the main reasons that gamma sources are widely used for field
radiography. Of course, the disadvantage of a radioactive source is that it can never be
turned off and safely managing the source is a constant responsibility.
Physical size of isotope materials varies between manufacturers, but generally an isotope
material is a pellet that measures 1.5 mm x 1.5 mm. Depending on the level of activity
desired, a pellet or pellets are loaded into a stainless steel capsule and sealed by welding.
The capsule is attached to short flexible cable called a pigtail.
The source capsule and the pigtail is housed in a shielding device referred to as a
exposure device or camera. Depleted uranium is often used as a shielding material for
sources. The exposure device for iridium-192 and cobalt-60 sources will contain 45
pounds and 500 pounds of shielding materials, respectively. Cobalt cameras are often
fixed to a trailer and transported to and from inspection sites. When the source is not
being used to make an exposure, it is locked inside the exposure device.
36
To make a radiographic exposure, a crank-out

mechanism and a guide tube are attached to
opposite ends of the exposure device. The guide
tube often has a collimator at the end to shield the
radiation except in the direction necessary to make
the exposure. The end of the guide tube is secured
in the location where the radiation source needs to
be to produce the radiograph. The crank-out cable
is stretched as far as possible to put as much
distance as possible between the exposure device
and the radiographer. To make the exposure, the
radiographer quickly cranks the source out of the
exposure device and into position in the collimator at the end of the guide tube. At the
end of the exposure time, the source is cranked back into the exposure device. There is a
series of safety procedures, which include several radiation surveys, that must be
accomplished when making an exposure with a gamma source. See the radiation safety
material for more information.
37
3.3 Radiographic Film
X-ray films for general radiography consist of an emulsion-

gelatin containing radiation sensitive silver halide crystals,
such as silver bromide or silver chloride, and a flexible,
transparent, blue-tinted base. The emulsion is different
from those used in other types of photography films to
account for the distinct characteristics of gamma rays and
x-rays, but X-ray films are sensitive to light. Usually, the
emulsion is coated on both sides of the base in layers about
0.0005 inch thick. Putting emulsion on both sides of the
base doubles the amount of radiation-sensitive silver halide,
and thus increases the film speed. The emulsion layers are
thin enough so developing, fixing, and drying can be
accomplished in a reasonable time. A few of the films used for radiography only have
emulsion on one side which produces the greatest detail in the image.
When x-rays, gamma rays, or light strike the grains of the sensitive silver halide in the
emulsion, some of the Br- ions are liberated and captured by the Ag+ ions. This change is
of such a small nature that it cannot be detected by ordinary physical methods and is
38
called a "latent (hidden) image." However, the exposed grains are now more sensitive to
the reduction process when exposed to a chemical solution (developer), and the reaction
results in the formation of black, metallic silver. It is this silver, suspended in the gelatin
on both sides of the base, that creates an image. See the page on film processing for
additional information.
Film Selection
The selection of a film when radiographing

any particular component depends on a
number of different factors. Listed below are
some of the factors that must be considered
when selecting a film and developing a
radiographic technique.
1. Composition, shape, and size of the

part being examined and, in some
cases, its weight and location.
2. Type of radiation used, whether x-rays
from an x-ray generator or gamma rays
from a radioactive source.
3. Kilovoltages available with the x-ray
equipment or the intensity of the gamma radiation.
4. Relative importance of high radiographic detail or quick and economical results.
Selecting the proper film and developing the optimal radiographic technique usually
involves arriving at a balance between a number of opposing factors. For example, if high
resolution and contrast sensitivity is of overall importance, a slower and finer grained
film should be used in place of a faster film.
Film Packaging
Radiographic film can be purchased in a number of

different packaging options. The most basic form is
as individual sheets in a box. In preparation for use,
each sheet must be loaded into a cassette or film
holder in the darkroom to protect it from exposure to
light. The sheets are available in a variety of sizes
and can be purchased with or without interleaving
paper. Interleaved packages have a layer of paper
that separates each piece of film. The interleaving
paper is removed before the film is loaded into the
film holder. Many users find the interleaving paper useful in separating the sheets of film
and offer some protection against scratches and dirt during handling.
39
Industrial x-ray films are also available in a form in which each sheet is enclosed in a
light-tight envelope. The film can be exposed from either side without removing it from
the protective packaging. A rip strip makes it easy to remove the film in the darkroom for
processing. This form of packaging has the advantage of eliminating the process of
loading the film holders in the darkroom. The film is completely protected from finger
marks and dirt until the time the film is removed from the envelope for processing.
Packaged film is also available in rolls, which allows the radiographer to cut the film to
any length. The ends of the packaging are sealed with electrical tape in the darkroom. In
applications such as the radiography of circumferential welds and the examination of
long joints on an aircraft fuselage, long lengths of film offer great economic advantage.
The film is wrapped around the outside of a structure and the radiation source is
positioned on axis inside, allowing for examination of a large area with a single exposure.
Envelope packaged film can be purchased with the film sandwiched between two lead
oxide screens. The screens function to reduce scatter radiation at energy levels below
150keV and as intensification screens above 150 keV.
Film Handling
X-ray film should always be handled carefully to avoid physical strains, such as pressure,
creasing, buckling, friction, etc. Whenever films are loaded in semi-flexible holders and
external clamping devices are used, care should be taken to be sure pressure is uniform. If
a film holder bears against a few high spots, such as on an un-ground weld, the pressure
may be great enough to produce desensitized areas in the radiograph. This precaution is
particularly important when using envelope-packed films.
Marks resulting from contact with fingers that are moist or contaminated with processing
chemicals, as well as crimp marks, are avoided if large films are always grasped by the
edges and allowed to hang free. A supply of clean towels should be kept close at hand as
an incentive to dry the hands often and well. Use of envelope-packed films avoids many
of these problems until the envelope is opened for processing.
Another important precaution is to avoid drawing film rapidly from cartons, exposure
holders, or cassettes. Such care will help to eliminate circular or treelike black markings
in the radiograph that sometimes result due to static electric discharges.
40
3.4 Exposure Vaults & Cabinets
Exposure vaults and cabinets allow personnel to work safely in the area while exposures
are taking place. Exposure vaults tend to be larger walk in rooms with shielding provided
by high-density concrete block and lead.
Exposure cabinets are often self-contained units

with integrated x-ray equipment and are
typically shielded with steel and lead to absorb x-
ray radiation.
Exposure vaults and cabinets are equipped with

protective interlocks that disable the system if
anything interrupts the integrity of the
enclosure. Additionally, walk in vaults are
equipped with emergency "kill buttons" that allow radiographers to shut down the system
if it should accidentally be started while they were in the vault.
41
NOTES
42
NOTES
43
4. TECHNIQUES & CALIBRATIONS
4.1 Image Considerations
The usual objective in radiography is to produce an image showing the highest amount of
detail possible. This requires careful control of a number of different variables that can
affect image quality. Radiographic sensitivity is a measure of the quality of an image in
terms of the smallest detail or discontinuity that may be detected. Radiographic
sensitivity is dependant on the combined effects of two independent sets of variables.
One set of variables affects the contrast and the other set of variables affects the
definition of the image.
44
Radiographic contrast is the degree of density difference between two areas on a

radiograph. Contrast makes it easier to distinguish features of
interest, such as defects, from the surrounding area. The image to
the right shows two radiographs of the same stepwedge. The
upper radiograph has a high level of contrast and the lower
radiograph has a lower level of contrast. While they are both
imaging the same change in thickness, the high contrast image
uses a larger change in radiographic density to show this
change. In each of the two radiographs, there is a small circle,
which is of equal density in both radiographs. It is much easier to
see in the high contrast radiograph. The factors affecting
contrast will be discussed in more detail on the following page.
Radiographic definition is the abruptness of change in going

from one area of a given radiographic density to another. Like
contrast, definition also makes it easier to see features of
interest, such as defects, but in a totally different way. In the image to the right, the upper
radiograph has a high level of definition and the lower radiograph has a lower level of
definition. In the high definition radiograph it can be seen
that a change in the thickness of the stepwedge translates to an
abrupt change in radiographic density. It can be seen that the
details, particularly the small circle, are much easier to see in the
high definition radiograph. It can be said that the detail
portrayed in the radiograph is equivalent to the physical
change present in the stepwedge. In other words, a faithful
visual reproduction of the stepwedge was produced. In the
lower image, the radiographic setup did not produce a
faithful visual reproduction. The edge line between the steps is
blurred. This is evidenced by the gradual transition between the
high and low density areas on the radiograph. The factors
affecting definition will be discussed in more detail on a
following page.
Since radiographic contrast and definition are not dependent upon the same set of factors,
it is possible to produce radiographs with the following qualities:
Low contrast and poor definition

High contrast and poor definition
Low contrast and good definition
High contrast and good definition
45
4.2 Radiographic Contrast
As mentioned on the previous page,

radiographic contrast describes the
differences in photographic density in a
radiograph. The contrast between different
parts of the image is what forms the image
and the greater the contrast, the more visible
features become. Radiographic contrast has
two main contributors: subject contrast and
detector (film) contrast.
Subject Contrast
Subject contrast is the ratio of radiation

intensities transmitted through different areas
of the component being evaluated. It is
dependant on the absorption differences in
the component, the wavelength of the
primary radiation, and intensity and
distribution of secondary radiation due to scattering.
It should be no surprise that absorption differences

within the subject will affect the level of contrast in a
radiograph. The larger the difference in thickness or
density between two areas of the subject, the larger
the difference in radiographic density or contrast.
However, it is also possible to radiograph a
particular subject and produce two radiographs
having entirely different contrast levels. Generating
x-rays using a low kilovoltage will generally result
in a radiograph with high contrast. This occurs
because low energy radiation is more easily
attenuated. Therefore, the ratio of photons that are transmitted through a thick and thin
area will be greater with low energy radiation. This in turn will result in the film being
exposed to a greater and lesser degree in the two areas.
There is a tradeoff, however. Generally, as contrast sensitivity increases, the latitude of

the radiograph decreases. Radiographic latitude refers to the range of material thickness
that can be imaged This means that more areas of different thicknesses will be visible in
the image. Therefore, the goal is to balance radiographic contrast and latitude so that
there is enough contrast to identify the features of interest but also to make sure the
latitude is great enough so that all areas of interest can be inspected with one radiograph.
46
In thick parts with a large range of thicknesses, multiple radiographs will likely be
necessary to get the necessary density levels in all areas.
Film Contrast
Film contrast refers to density differences that

result due to the type of film used, how it was
exposed, and how it was processed. Since there
are other detectors besides film, this could be
called detector contrast, but the focus here will be
on film. Exposing a film to produce higher film
densities will generally increase the contrast in the
radiograph.
A typical film characteristic curve, which shows

how a film responds to different amounts of
radiation exposure, is shown to the right. (More
information on film characteristic curves is
presented later in this section.) From the shape of
the curves, it can be seen that when the film has
not seen many photon interactions (which will
result in a low film density) the slope of the curve is
low. In this region of the curve, it takes a large
change in exposure to produce a small change in film density. Therefore, the sensitivity
of the film is relatively low. It can be seen that changing the log of the relative exposure
from 0.75 to 1.4 only changes the film density from 0.20 to about 0.30. However, at film
densities above 2.0, the slope of the characteristic curve for most films is at its maximum.
In this region of the curve, a relatively small change in exposure will result in a relatively
large change in film density. For example, changing the log of relative exposure from 2.4
to 2.6 would change the film density from 1.75 to 2.75. Therefore, the sensitivity of the
film is high in this region of the curve. In general, the highest overall film density that
can be conveniently viewed or digitized will have the highest level of contrast and
contain the most useful information.
Lead screens in the thickness range of 0.004 to 0.015 inch typically reduce scatter
radiation at energy levels below 150,000 volts. Above this point they will emit electrons
to provide more exposure of the film to ionizing radiation, thus increasing the density and
contrast of the radiograph. Fluorescent screens produce visible light when exposed to
radiation and this light further exposes the film and increases contrast.
47
4.3 Definition
As mentioned previously, radiographic

definition is the abruptness of change from
one density to another. Geometric factors
of the equipment and the radiographic setup,
and film and screen factors both have an
effect on definition. Geometric factors
include the size of the area of origin of the
radiation, the source-to-detector (film)
distance, the specimen-to-detector (film)
distance, movement of the source, specimen
or detector during exposure, the angle
between the source and some feature and the
abruptness of change in specimen thickness
or density.
Geometric Factors
The effect of source size, source-to-film distance and the specimen-to-detector distance
were covered in detail on the geometric unsharpness page. But briefly, to produce the
highest level of definition, the focal-spot or source size should be as close to a point
source as possible, the source-to-detector distance should be a great as practical, and the
specimen-to-detector distance should be a small as practical. This is shown graphically
in the images below.
48
The angle between the radiation and some

features will also have an effect on definition.
If the radiation is parallel to an edge or linear
discontinuity, a sharp distinct boundary will
be seen in the image. However, if the radiation
is not parallel with the discontinuity, the
feature will appear distorted, out of position
and less defined in the image.
Abrupt changes in thickness and/or density

will appear more defined in a radiograph than
will areas of gradual change. For example,
consider a circle. Its largest dimension will a
cord that passes through its centerline. As the
cord is moved away from the centerline, the thickness gradually decreases. It is
sometimes difficult to locate the edge of a void due to this gradual change in thickness.
Lastly, any movement of the specimen, source or detector during the exposure will
reduce definition. Similar to photography, any movement will result in blurring of the
image. Vibration from nearby equipment may be an issue in some inspection situations.
49
Film and Screen Factors
The last set of factors concern the film and the use of fluorescent screens. A fine grain
film is capable of producing an image with a higher level of definition than is a coarse
grain film. Wavelength of the radiation will influence apparent graininess. As the
wavelength shortens and penetration increases, the apparent graininess of the film will
increase. Also, increased development of the film will increase the apparent graininess of
the radiograph.
The use of fluorescent screens also results in lower definition. This occurs for a couple of
different reasons. The reason that fluorescent screens are sometimes used is because
incident radiation causes them to give off light that helps to expose the film. However,
the light they produce spreads in all directions, exposing the film in adjacent areas, as
well as in the areas which are in direct contact with the incident radiation. Fluorescent
screens also produce screen mottle on radiographs. Screen mottle is associated with the
statistical variation in the numbers of photons that interact with the screen from one area
to the next.
50
4.4 Radiographic Density
Photographic, radiographic or film density is a measure of the degree of film darkening.

Technically it should be called "transmitted density" when associated with transparent-
base film since it is a measure of the light transmitted through the film. Density is a
logarithmic unit that describes a ratio of two measurements. Specifically, it is the log of
the intensity of light incident on the film (I 0) to the intensity of light transmitted through
the film (It).
Similar to the decibel, using the log of the ratio allows ratios of various sizes to be
described using easy to work with numbers. The following table shows the relationship
between the amount of transmitted light and the calculated film density.
Film
Transmittance Percent
Density
(I0/It) Transmittance
Log(I0/It)
1.0 100% 0
0.1 10% 1
0.01 1% 2
0.001 0.1% 3
0.0001 0.01% 4
0.00001 0.001% 5
0.000001 0.0001% 6
0.0000001 0.00001% 7
From this table, it can be seen that a density reading of 2.0 is the result of only one
percent of the incident light making it through the film. At a density of 4.0 only 0.01% of
transmitted light reaches the far side of the film. Industrial codes and standards typically
require a radiograph to have a density between 2.0 and 4.0 for acceptable viewing with
common film viewers. Above 4.0, extremely bright viewing lights are necessary for
evaluation. Contrast within a film increases with increasing density, so in general the
higher the density the better. When radiographs will be digitized, densities above 4.0 are
often used since digitization systems can capture and redisplay for easy viewing
information from densities up to 6.0.
Film density is measured with a densitometer. A densitometer simply has a photoelectric

sensor that measures the amount of light transmitted through a piece of film. The film is
placed between the light source and the sensor and a density reading is produced by the
instrument.
51
4.5 Film Characteristic Curves
In film radiography, the number of photons reaching the film determines how dense the
film will become when other factors such as the developing time are held constant. The
number of photons reaching the film is a function of the intensity of the radiation and the
time that the film is exposed to the radiation. The term used to describe the control of the
number of photons reaching the film is exposure.
Film Characteristic Curves
Different types of radiographic film respond

differently to a given amount of exposure.
Film manufacturers commonly characterize
their film to determine the relationship
between the applied exposure and the
resulting film density. This relationship
commonly varies over a range of film
densities, so the data is presented in the form of
a curve such as the one for Kodak AA400
shown to the right. The plot is called a film
characteristic curve, sensitometric curve,
density curve, or H and D curve (named for
developers Hurter and
Driffield). "Sensitometry" is the science of
measuring the response of photographic
emulsions to light or radiation.
A log scale is used or the values are reported in

log units on a linear scale to compress the x-
axis. Also, relative exposure values (unitless)
are often used. Relative exposure is the ratio of
two exposures. For example, if one film is
exposed at 100 keV for 6mAmin and a second
film is exposed at the same energy for
3mAmin, then the relative exposure would be
2. The image directly to the right shows three
film characteristic curves with the relative
exposure plotted on a log scale, while the
image below and to the right shows the log
relative exposure plotted on a linear scale.
Use of the logarithm of the relative exposure

scale makes it easy to compare two sets of
values, which is the primary use of the curves.
52
Film characteristic curves can be used to adjust the exposure used to produce a
radiograph with a certain density to an exposure that will produce a second radiograph of
higher or lower film density. The curves can also be used to relate the exposure produced
with one type of film to exposure needed to produce a radiograph of the same density
with a second type of film.
Adjusting the Exposure to Produce a Different Film Density
Suppose Film B was exposed with 140 keV at

1mA for 10 seconds and the resulting
radiograph had a density in the region of interest
of 1.0. Specifications typically require the
density to be above 2.0 for reasons discussed on
the film density page. From the film
characteristic curve, the relative exposures for
the actual density and desired density are
determined and the ratio of these two values is
used to adjust the actual exposure. In this first
example, a plot with log relative exposure and a
linear x-axis will be used.
From the graph, first determine the difference between the relative exposures of the
actual and the desired densities. A target density of 2.5 is used to ensure that the exposure
produces a density above the 2.0 minimum requirement. The log relative exposure of a
density of 1.0 is 1.62 and the log of the relative exposure when the density of the film is
2.5 is 2.12. The difference between the two values is 0.5. Take the anti-log of this value
to change it from log relative exposure to simply the relative exposure and this value is
3.16. Therefore, the exposure used to produce the initial radiograph with a 1.0 density
needs to be multiplied by 3.16 to produce a radiograph with the desired density of 2.5.
The exposure of the original x-ray was 10 mAs, so the new exposure must be 10 mAs x
3.16 or 31.6 mAs at 140 keV.
Adjusting the Exposure to Allow Use of a Different Film Type
53
Another use of film characteristic curves is to adjust the exposure when switching types
of film. The location of the characteristic curves of different films along the x-axis relates
to the film speed of the films. The farther to the right that a curve is on the chart, the
slower the film speed. It must be noted that the two curves being used must have been
produced with the same radiation energy. The shape of the characteristic curve is largely
independent of the wavelength of the x-ray or gamma radiation, but the location of the
curve along the x-axis, with respect to the curve of another film, does depend on radiation
quality.
Suppose an acceptable radiograph with a

density of 2.5 was produced by exposing Film
A for 30 seconds at 1mA and 130 keV. Now,
it is necessary to inspect the part using Film B.
The exposure can be adjusted by following the
above method, as long at the two film
characteristic curves were produced with
roughly the same radiation quality. For this
example, the characteristic curves for Film A
and B are shown on a chart showing relative
exposure on a log scale. The relative exposure
that produced a density of 2.5 on Film A is
found to be 68. The relative exposure that
should produce a density of 2.5 on Film B is
found to be 140. The relative exposure of Film B is about twice that of Film A, or 2.1 to
be more exact. Therefore, to produce a 2.5 density radiograph with Film B the exposure
should be 30mAs times 2.1 or 62 mA.
4.6 Exposure Calculations
Properly exposing a radiograph is often a trial and error process, as there are many
variables that affect the final radiograph. Some of the variables that affect the density of
the radiograph include:
The spectrum of radiation produced by the x-ray generator.

The voltage potential used to generate the x-rays (KeV).
The amperage used to generate the x-rays (mA).
The exposure time.
The distance between the radiation source and the film.
The material of the component being radiographed.
The thickness of the material that the radiation must travel through.
The amount of scattered radiation reaching the film.
The film being used.
The concentration of the film processing chemicals and the contact time.
54
The current industrial practice is to develop a procedure that produces an acceptable

density by trail for each specific x-ray generator. This process may begin using
published exposure charts to determine a starting exposure, which usually requires some
refinement.
However, it is possible to calculate the density of a radiograph to a fair degree accuracy

when the spectrum of an x-ray generator has been characterized. The calculation cannot
completely account for scattering but, otherwise, the relationship between many of the
variables and their effect on film density is known. Therefore, the change in film density
can be estimated for any given variable change. For example, from Newton's Inverse
Square Law, it is known that the intensity of the radiation varies inversely with distance
from the source. It is also known that the intensity of the radiation transmitted through a
material varies exponentially with the linear attenuation coefficient (m) and the thickness
of the material.
A number of radiographic modeling program are available that make this calculation.
These programs can provide a fair representation of the radiograph that will be produce
with a specific setup and parameters. The applet below is a very simple radiographic
density calculator. The applet allows the density of a radiograph to be estimated based on
material, thickness, geometry, energy (voltage), current, and time. The effect of the
energy and the physical setup are shown by looking at the film density after exposure.
Since the calculation uses a generic (and fixed characteristic) x-ray source, fixed film
type and development, the applet results will differ considerably from industrial x-ray
configurations. The applet is design simply to demonstrate the affects of the variable on
the resulting film density.
4.7 Controlling Radiographic Quality
One of the methods of controlling the quality of a radiograph is through the use of image
quality indicators (IQIs). IQIs, which are also referred to as penetrameters, provide a
means of visually informing the film interpreter of the contrast sensitivity and definition
of the radiograph. The IQI indicates that a specified amount of change in material
thickness will be detectable in the radiograph, and that the radiograph has a certain level
of definition so that the density changes are not lost due to unsharpness. Without such a
reference point, consistency and quality could not be maintained and defects could go
undetected.
Image quality indicators take many shapes and forms due to the various codes or
standards that invoke their use. In the United States, two IQI styles are prevalent: the
placard, or hole-type and the wire IQI. IQIs comes in a variety of material types so that
55
one with radiation absorption characteristics similar to the material being radiographed
can be used.
Hole-Type IQIs
ASTM Standard E1025 gives detailed requirements for the design

and material group classification of hole-type image quality
indicators. E1025 designates eight groups of shims based on their
radiation absorption characteristics. A notching system is
incorporated into the requirements, which allows the radiographer to
easily determine if the IQI is the correct material type for the
product. The notches in the IQI to the right indicate that it is made of
aluminum. The thickness in thousands of an inch is noted on each
pentameter by one or more lead number. The IQI to the right is
0.005 inch thick. IQIs may also be manufactured to a military or
other industry specification and the material type and thickness may
be indicated differently. For example, the IQI on the left in the
image above uses lead letters to indicate the material. The numbers
on this same IQI indicate the sample thickness that the IQI would
typically be placed on when attempting to achieve two percent
contrast sensitivity.
Image quality levels are typically designated using a two part expression such as 2-2T.
The first term refers to the IQI thickness expressed as a percentage of the region of
interest of the part being inspected. The second term in the expression refers to the
diameter of the hole that must be revealed and it is expressed as a multiple of the IQI
thickness. Therefore, a 2-2T call-out would mean that the shim thickness should be two
percent of the material thickness and that a hole that is twice the IQI thickness must be
detectable on the radiograph. This presentation of a 2-2T IQI in the radiograph verifies
that the radiographic technique is capable of showing a material loss of 2% in the area of
interest.
56
It should be noted that even if 2-2T sensitivity is indicated on a radiograph, a defect of

the same diameter and material loss may not be visible. The holes in the IQI represent
sharp boundaries, and a small thickness change. Discontinues within the part may contain
gradual changes and are often less visible. The IQI is used to indicate the quality of the
radiographic technique and not intended to be used as a measure of the size of a cavity
that can be located on the radiograph.
Wire IQIs
ASTM Standard E747 covers the radiographic examination of materials using wire IQIs
to control image quality. Wire IQIs consist of a set of six wires arranged in order of
increasing diameter and encapsulated between two sheets of clear plastic. E747 specifies
four wire IQI sets, which control the wire diameters. The set letter (A, B, C or D) is
shown in the lower right corner of the IQI. The number in the lower left corner indicates
the material group. The same image quality levels and expressions (i.e. 2-2T) used for
hole-type IQIs are typically also used for wire IQIs. The wire sizes that correspond to
various hole-type quality levels can be found in a table in E747 or can be calculated using
the following formula.
Where:
F = 0.79 (constant form factor for wire)
d = wire diameter (mm or inch)
l = 7.6 mm or 0.3 inch (effective length of wire)
T = Hole-type IQI thickness (mm or inch)
H = Hole-type IQI hole diameter (mm or inch)
Placement of IQIs
IQIs should be placed on the source side of the part over a section with a material
thickness equivalent to the region of interest. If this is not possible, the IQI may be placed
on a block of similar material and thickness to the region of interest. When a block is
used, the IQI should be the same distance from the film as it would be if placed directly
on the part in the region of interest. The IQI should also be placed slightly away from the
edge of the part so that at least three of its edges are visible in the radiograph.
57
4.8 Film Processing
As mentioned previously, radiographic film consists of a transparent, blue-tinted base

coated on both sides with an emulsion. The emulsion consists of gelatin containing
microscopic, radiation sensitive silver halide crystals, such as silver bromide and silver
chloride. When x-rays, gamma rays or light rays strike the the crystals or grains, some of
the Br- ions are liberated and captured by the Ag + ions. In this condition, the radiograph is
said to contain a latent (hidden) image because the change in the grains is virtually
undetectable, but the exposed grains are now more sensitive to reaction with the
developer.
When the film is processed, it is exposed to several different chemicals solutions for
controlled periods of time. Processing film basically involves the following five steps.
Development - The developing agent gives up

electrons to convert the silver halide grains to metallic
silver. Grains that have been exposed to the radiation
develop more rapidly, but given enough time the
developer will convert all the silver ions into silver
metal. Proper temperature control is needed to convert
exposed grains to pure silver while keeping unexposed
grains as silver halide crystals.
Stopping the development - The stop bath simply stops
the development process by diluting and washing the
developer away with water.
Fixing - Unexposed silver halide crystals are removed
by the fixing bath. The fixer dissolves only silver
halide crystals, leaving the silver metal behind.
Washing - The film is washed with water to remove all
the processing chemicals.
Drying - The film is dried for viewing.
Processing film is a strict science governed by rigid rules of

chemical concentration, temperature, time, and physical
movement. Whether processing is done by hand or
58
automatically by machine, excellent radiographs require a high degree of consistency and

quality control.
Manual Processing & Darkrooms
Manual processing begins with the darkroom. The darkroom should be located in a
central location, adjacent to the reading room and a reasonable distance from the
exposure area. For portability, darkrooms are often mounted on pickups or trailers.
Film should be located in a light, tight compartment, which is most often a metal bin that
is used to store and protect the film. An area next to the film bin that is dry and free of
dust and dirt should be used to load and unload the film. Another area, the wet side,
should be used to process the film. This method protects the film from any water or
chemicals that may be located on the surface of the wet side.
Each of step in the film processing must be excited properly to develop the image, wash
out residual processing chemicals, and to provide adequate shelf life of the radiograph.
The objective of processing is two fold: first, to produce a radiograph adequate for
viewing, and second, to prepare the radiograph for archival storage. Radiographs are
often stored for 20 years or more as a record of the inspection.
Automatic Processor Evaluation
The automatic processor is the essential piece of equipment in every x-ray department.
The automatic processor will reduce film processing time when compared to manual
development by a factor of four. To monitor the performance of a processor, apart from
optimum temperature and mechanical checks, chemical and sensitometric checks should
be performed for developer and fixer. Chemical checks involve measuring the pH values
of the developer and fixer as well as both replenishers. Also, the specific gravity and fixer
silver levels must be measured. Ideally, pH should be measured daily and it is important
to record these measurements, as regular logging provides very useful information. The
daily measurements of pH values for the developer and fixer can then be plotted to
observe the trend of variations in these values compared to the normal pH operating
levels to identify problems.
Sensitometric checks may be carried out to evaluate if the performance of films in the
automatic processors is being maximized. These checks involve measurement of basic
fog level, speed and average gradient made at 1 C intervals of temperature. The range of
59
temperature measurement depends on the type of chemistry in use, whether cold or hot
developer. These three measurements: fog level, speed, and average gradient, should then
be plotted against temperature and compared with the manufacturer's supplied figures.
4.9 Viewing Radiographs
Radiographs (developed film exposed to x-ray or

gamma radiation) are generally viewed on a light-
box. However, it is becoming increasingly common to
digitize radiographs and view them on a high
resolution monitor. Proper viewing conditions are
very important when interpreting a radiograph. The
viewing conditions can enhance or degrade the subtle
details of radiographs.
Viewing Radiographs
Before beginning the evaluation of a radiograph, the

viewing equipment and area should be considered.
The area should be clean and free of distracting
materials. Magnifying aids, masking aids, and film markers should be close at hand. Thin
cotton gloves should be available and worn to prevent fingerprints on the radiograph.
Ambient light levels should be low. Ambient light levels of less than 2 fc are often
recommended, but subdued lighting (rather than total darkness) is preferable in the
viewing room. The brightness of the surroundings should be about the same as the area of
interest in the radiograph. Room illumination must be arranged so that there are no
reflections from the surface of the film under examination.
Film viewers should be clean and in good working condition. There are four groups of
film viewers. These include strip viewers, area viewers, spot viewers, and a combination
of spot and area viewers. Film viewers should provide a source of defused, adjustable,
and relativity cool light as heat from viewers can cause distortion of the radiograph. A
film having a measured density of 2.0 will allow only 1% of the incident light to pass. A
film containing a density of 4.0 will allow only 0.01% of the incident light to pass. With
such low levels of light passing through the radiograph, the delivery of a good light
source is important.
60
The radiographic process should be performed in accordance with a written procedure or

code, or as required by contractual documents. The required documents should be
available in the viewing area and referenced as necessary when evaluating components.
Radiographic film quality and acceptability, as required by the procedure, should first be
determined. It should be verified that the radiograph was produced to the correct density
on the required film type, and that it contains the correct identification information. It
should also be verified that the proper image quality indicator was used and that the
required sensitivity level was met. Next, the radiograph should be checked to ensure that
it does not contain processing and handling artifacts that could mask discontinuities or
other details of interest. The technician should develop a standard process for evaluating
the radiographs so that details are not overlooked.
Once a radiograph passes these initial checks, it is ready for interpretation. Radiographic
film interpretation is an acquired skill combining visual acuity with knowledge of
materials, manufacturing processes, and their associated discontinuities. If the component
is inspected while in service, an understanding of applied loads and history of the
component is helpful. A process for viewing radiographs (e.g. left to right, top to bottom,
etc.) is helpful and will prevent overlooking an area on the radiograph. This process is
often developed over time and individualized. One part of the interpretation process,
sometimes overlooked, is rest. The mind as well as the eyes need to occasionally rest
when interpreting radiographs.
When viewing a particular region of interest, techniques such as using a small light
source and moving the radiograph over the small light source, or changing the intensity
of the light source will help the radiographer identify relevant indications. Magnifying
tools should also be used when appropriate to help identify and evaluate indications.
Viewing the actual component being inspected is very often helpful in developing an
understanding of the details seen in a radiograph.
Interpretation of radiographs is an acquired skill that is perfected over time. By using the
proper equipment and developing consistent evaluation processes, the interpreter will
increase his or her probability of detecting defects.
61
4.10 Radiograph Interpretation - Welds
In addition to producing high quality radiographs, the radiographer must also be skilled in
radiographic interpretation. Interpretation of radiographs takes place in three basic steps:
(1) detection, (2) interpretation, and (3) evaluation. All of these steps make use of the
radiographer's visual acuity. Visual acuity is the ability to resolve a spatial pattern in an
image. The ability of an individual to detect discontinuities in radiography is also affected
by the lighting condition in the place of viewing, and the experience level for recognizing
various features in the image. The following material was developed to help students
develop an understanding of the types of defects found in weldments and how they
appear in a radiograph.
Discontinuities
Discontinuities are interruptions in the typical structure of a material. These interruptions

may occur in the base metal, weld material or "heat affected" zones. Discontinuities,
which do not meet the requirements of the codes or specifications used to invoke and
control an inspection, are referred to as defects.
General Welding Discontinuities
The following discontinuities are typical of all types of welding.
Cold lap is a condition where the weld filler metal does not properly fuse with the base
metal or the previous weld pass material (interpass cold lap). The arc does not melt the
base metal sufficiently and causes the slightly molten puddle to flow into the base
material without bonding.
62
Porosity is the result of gas entrapment in the solidifying metal. Porosity can take many
shapes on a radiograph but often appears as dark round or irregular spots or specks
appearing singularly, in clusters, or in rows. Sometimes, porosity is elongated and may
appear to have a tail. This is the result of gas attempting to escape while the metal is still
in a liquid state and is called wormhole porosity. All porosity is a void in the material and
it will have a higher radiographic density than the surrounding area.
Cluster porosity is caused when flux coated electrodes are contaminated with moisture.
The moisture turns into a gas when heated and becomes trapped in the weld during the
welding process. Cluster porosity appear just like regular porosity in the radiograph but
the indications will be grouped close together.
63
Slag inclusions are nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or between weld
and base metal. In a radiograph, dark, jagged asymmetrical shapes within the weld or
along the weld joint areas are indicative of slag inclusions.
Incomplete penetration (IP) or lack of penetration (LOP) occurs when the weld metal
fails to penetrate the joint. It is one of the most objectionable weld discontinuities. Lack
of penetration allows a natural stress riser from which a crack may propagate. The
appearance on a radiograph is a dark area with well-defined, straight edges that follows
the land or root face down the center of the weldment.
64
Incomplete fusion is a condition where the weld filler metal does not properly fuse with
the base metal. Appearance on radiograph: usually appears as a dark line or lines oriented
in the direction of the weld seam along the weld preparation or joining area.
Internal concavity or suck back is a condition where the weld metal has contracted as it
cools and has been drawn up into the root of the weld. On a radiograph it looks similar to
a lack of penetration but the line has irregular edges and it is often quite wide in the
center of the weld image.
65
Internal or root undercut is an erosion of the base metal next to the root of the weld. In
the radiographic image it appears as a dark irregular line offset from the centerline of the
weldment. Undercutting is not as straight edged as LOP because it does not follow a
ground edge.
External or crown undercut is an erosion of the base metal next to the crown of the
weld. In the radiograph, it appears as a dark irregular line along the outside edge of the
weld area.
66
Offset or mismatch are terms associated with a condition where two pieces being
welded together are not properly aligned. The radiographic image shows a noticeable
difference in density between the two pieces. The difference in density is caused by the
difference in material thickness. The dark, straight line is caused by the failure of the
weld metal to fuse with the land area.
Inadequate weld reinforcement is an area of a weld where the thickness of weld metal
deposited is less than the thickness of the base material. It is very easy to determine by
radiograph if the weld has inadequate reinforcement, because the image density in the
area of suspected inadequacy will be higher (darker) than the image density of the
surrounding base material.
67
Excess weld reinforcement is an area of a weld that has weld metal added in excess of
that specified by engineering drawings and codes. The appearance on a radiograph is a
localized, lighter area in the weld. A visual inspection will easily determine if the weld
reinforcement is in excess of that specified by the engineering requirements.
Cracks can be detected in a radiograph only when they are propagating in a direction that
produces a change in thickness that is parallel to the x-ray beam. Cracks will appear as
jagged and often very faint irregular lines. Cracks can sometimes appear as "tails" on
inclusions or porosity.
68
Discontinuities in TIG welds
The following discontinuities are unique to the TIG welding process. These
discontinuities occur in most metals welded by the process, including aluminum and
stainless steels. The TIG method of welding produces a clean homogeneous weld which
when radiographed is easily interpreted.
Tungsten inclusions. Tungsten is a brittle and inherently dense material used in the
electrode in tungsten inert gas welding. If improper welding procedures are used,
tungsten may be entrapped in the weld. Radiographically, tungsten is more dense than
aluminum or steel, therefore it shows up as a lighter area with a distinct outline on the
radiograph.
Oxide inclusions are usually visible on the surface of material being welded (especially
aluminum). Oxide inclusions are less dense than the surrounding material and, therefore,
appear as dark irregularly shaped discontinuities in the radiograph.
69
Discontinuities in Gas Metal Arc Welds (GMAW)
The following discontinuities are most commonly found in GMAW welds.
Whiskers are short lengths of weld electrode wire, visible on the top or bottom surface of
the weld or contained within the weld. On a radiograph they appear as light, "wire like"
indications.
Burn-Through results when too much heat causes excessive weld metal to penetrate the
weld zone. Often lumps of metal sag through the weld, creating a thick globular condition
on the back of the weld. These globs of metal are referred to as icicles. On a radiograph,
burn-through appears as dark spots, which are often surrounded by light globular areas
(icicles).
70
4.11 Radiograph Interpretation - Castings
The major objective of radiographic testing of castings is the disclosure of defects that
adversely affect the strength of the product. Castings are a product form that often receive
radiographic inspection since many of the defects produced by the casting process are
volumetric in nature, and are thus relatively easy to detect with this method. These
discontinuities of course, are related to casting process deficiencies, which, if properly
understood, can lead to accurate accept-reject decisions as well as to suitable corrective
measures. Since different types and sizes of defects have different effects of the
performance of the casting, it is important that the radiographer is able to identify the
type and size of the defects. ASTM E155, Standard for Radiographs of castings has been
produced to help the radiographer make a better assessment of the defects found in
components. The castings used to produce the standard radiographs have been
destructively analyzed to confirm the size and type of discontinuities present. The
following is a brief description of the most common discontinuity types included in
existing reference radiograph documents (in graded types or as single illustrations).
Gas porosity or blow holes are caused by

accumulated gas or air which is trapped by the
metal. These discontinuities are usually
smooth-walled rounded cavities of a spherical,
elongated or flattened shape. If the sprue is not
high enough to provide the necessary heat
transfer needed to force the gas or air out of
the mold, the gas or air will be trapped as the
molten metal begins to solidify. Blows can
also be caused by sand that is too fine, too
wet, or by sand that has a low permeability so
that gas cannot escape. Too high a moisture
content in the sand makes it difficult to carry the excessive volumes of water vapor away
from the casting. Another cause of blows can be attributed to using green ladles, rusty or
damp chills and chaplets.
71
Sand inclusions and dross are nonmetallic

oxides, which appear on the radiograph as
irregular, dark blotches. These come from
disintegrated portions of mold or core walls
and/or from oxides (formed in the melt) which
have not been skimmed off prior to the
introduction of the metal into the mold gates.
Careful control of the melt, proper holding
time in the ladle and skimming of the melt
during pouring will minimize or obviate this
source of trouble.
Shrinkage is a form of discontinuity that appears as dark spots on the radiograph.

Shrinkage assumes various forms, but in all cases it occurs because molten metal shrinks
as it solidifies, in all portions of the final casting. Shrinkage is avoided by making sure
that the volume of the casting is adequately fed by risers which sacrificially retain the
shrinkage. Shrinkage in its various forms can be recognized by a number of
characteristics on radiographs. There are at least four types of shrinkage: (1) cavity; (2)
dendritic; (3) filamentary; and (4) sponge types. Some documents designate these types
by numbers, without actual names, to avoid possible misunderstanding.
Cavity shrinkage appears as areas with

distinct jagged boundaries. It may be produced
when metal solidifies between two original
streams of melt coming from opposite
directions to join a common front. Cavity
shrinkage usually occurs at a time when the
melt has almost reached solidification
temperature and there is no source of
supplementary liquid to feed possible cavities.
72
Dendritic shrinkage is a distribution of very

fine lines or small elongated cavities that may
vary in density and are usually unconnected.
Filamentary shrinkage usually occurs as a

continuous structure of connected lines or
branches of variable length, width and density,
or occasionally as a network.
Sponge shrinkage shows itself as areas of

lacy texture with diffuse outlines, generally
toward the mid-thickness of heavier casting
sections. Sponge shrinkage may be dendritic
or filamentary shrinkage. Filamentary sponge
shrinkage appears more blurred because it is
projected through the relatively thick coating
between the discontinuities and the film
surface.
Cracks are thin (straight or jagged) linearly

disposed discontinuities that occur after the
melt has solidified. They generally appear
singly and originate at casting surfaces.
Cold shuts generally appear on or near a

surface of cast metal as a result of two
streams of liquid meeting and failing to
unite. They may appear on a radiograph as
cracks or seams with smooth or rounded
edges.
73
Inclusions are nonmetallic materials in an

otherwise solid metallic matrix. They may
be less or more dense than the matrix alloy
and will appear on the radiograph,
respectively, as darker or lighter indications.
The latter type is more common in light
metal castings.
Core shift shows itself as a variation in

section thickness, usually on radiographic
views representing diametrically opposite
portions of cylindrical casting portions.
Hot tears are linearly disposed indications

that represent fractures formed in a metal
during solidification because of hindered
contraction. The latter may occur due to
overly hard (completely unyielding) mold or
core walls. The effect of hot tears as a stress
concentration is similar to that of an
ordinary crack, and hot tears are usually
systematic flaws. If flaws are identified as hot tears in larger runs of a casting type,
explicit improvements in the casting technique will be required.
Misruns appear on the radiograph as prominent dense areas of variable dimensions with
a definite smooth outline. They are mostly random in occurrence and not readily
eliminated by specific remedial actions in the process.
Mottling is a radiographic indication that appears as an indistinct area of more or less

dense images. The condition is a diffraction effect that occurs on relatively vague, thin-
section radiographs, most often with austenitic stainless steel. Mottling is caused by
interaction of the object's grain boundary material with low-energy X-rays (300 kV or
lower). Inexperienced interpreters may incorrectly consider mottling as indications of
unacceptable casting flaws. Even experienced interpreters often have to check the
condition by re-radiography from slightly different source-film angles. Shifts in mottling
74
are then very pronounced, while true casting discontinuities change only slightly in
appearance.
Radiographic Indications for Casting Repair Welds
Most common alloy castings require welding either in upgrading from defective
conditions or in joining to other system parts. It is mainly for reasons of casting repair
that these descriptions of the more common weld defects are provided here. The terms
appear as indication types in ASTM E390. For additional information, see the
Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Volume 3, Section 9 on the "Radiographic Control of
Welds."
Slag is nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or between weld material and
base metal. Radiographically, slag may appear in various shapes, from long narrow
indications to short wide indications, and in various densities, from gray to very dark.
Porosity is a series of rounded gas pockets or voids in the weld metal, and is generally
cylindrical or elliptical in shape.
Undercut is a groove melted in the base metal at the edge of a weld and left unfilled by
weld metal. It represents a stress concentration that often must be corrected, and appears
as a dark indication at the toe of a weld.
Incomplete penetration, as the name implies, is a lack of weld penetration through the
thickness of the joint (or penetration which is less than specified). It is located at the
center of a weld and is a wide, linear indication.
Incomplete fusion is lack of complete fusion of some portions of the metal in a weld
joint with adjacent metal (either base or previously deposited weld metal). On a
radiograph, this appears as a long, sharp linear indication, occurring at the centerline of
the weld joint or at the fusion line.
Melt-through is a convex or concave irregularity (on the surface of backing ring, strip,
fused root or adjacent base metal) resulting from the complete melting of a localized
region but without the development of a void or open hole. On a radiograph, melt-
through generally appears as a round or elliptical indication.
Burn-through is a void or open hole in a backing ring, strip, fused root or adjacent base
metal.
Arc strike is an indication from a localized heat-affected zone or a change in surface

contour of a finished weld or adjacent base metal. Arc strikes are caused by the heat
generated when electrical energy passes between the surfaces of the finished weld or base
metal and the current source.
75
Weld spatter occurs in arc or gas welding as metal particles which are expelled during
welding. These particles do not form part of the actual weld. Weld spatter appears as
many small, light cylindrical indications on a radiograph.
Tungsten inclusion is usually denser than base-metal particles. Tungsten inclusions

appear very light radiographic images. Accept/reject decisions for this defect are
generally based on the slag criteria.
Oxidation is the condition of a surface which is heated during welding, resulting in oxide
formation on the surface, due to partial or complete lack of purge of the weld atmosphere.
The condition is also called sugaring.
Root edge condition shows the penetration of weld metal into the backing ring or into
the clearance between the backing ring or strip and the base metal. It appears in
radiographs as a sharply defined film density transition.
Root undercut appears as an intermittent or continuous groove in the internal surface of

the base metal, backing ring or strip along the edge of the weld root.
NOTES
76
NOTES
77
5. RADIATION QUANTITIES & UNITS
5.1 Radiation Units
There are four measures of radiation that radiographers will commonly encounter. These
are: Activity, Exposure, Absorbed Dose, and Dose Equivalent. A short summary of these
measures and their units will be followed by more in depth information.
Activity: The activity of a radioactive source is defined as the rate at which the
isotope decays. Radioactivity may be thought of as the volume of radiation
produced in a given amount of time. The International System (SI) unit for
activity is the becquerel (Bq) and the curie (Ci) is also commonly used.
78
Exposure: Exposure is a measure of the strength of a radiation field at some

point in air. This is the measure made by a survey meter. The most commonly
used unit of exposure is the roentgen (R).
Absorbed Dose: Absorbed dose is the amount of energy that ionizing radiation
imparts to a given mass of matter. The SI unit for absorbed dose is the gray (Gy),
but the rad (Radiation Absorbed Dose) is commonly used. 1 rad is equivalent to
0.01 Gy. Different materials that receive the same exposure may not absorb the
same amount of energy. In human tissue, one Roentgen of gamma radiation
exposure results in about one rad of absorbed dose.
Dose Equivalent: The dose equivalent relates the absorbed dose to the biological
effect of that dose. The absorbed dose of specific types of radiation is multiplied
by a "quality factor" to arrive at the dose equivalent. The SI unit is the sievert
(SV), but the rem is commonly used. Rem is an acronym for "roentgen equivalent
in man." One rem is equivalent to 0.01 SV. When exposed to X- or Gamma
radiation, the quality factor is 1.
Since for human tissue one Roentgen equals one rad and the quality factor for x- and
gamma rays is one, radiographers can consider the Roentgen, rad, and rem to be equal
in value.
More Information on Radiation Units
Activity
The strength of a radioactive source is called
its activity, which is defined as the rate at
which the isotope decays. Radioactivity may
be thought of as the volume of radiation
produced in a given amount of time. It is
similar to the current control on a X-ray tube.
The International System (SI) unit for activity
is the becquerel (Bq), which is that quantity
of radioactive material in which one atom
transforms per second. The becquerel is a
small unit. In practical situations,
79
radioactivity is often quantified in kilobecqerels (kBq) or megabecquerels (MBq). The

curie (Ci) is also commonly used as the unit for activity of a particular source material.
The curie is a quantity of radioactive material in which 3.7 x 1010 atoms disintegrate per
second. This is approximately the amount of radioactivity emitted by one gram (1 g) of
Radium 226. One curie equals approximately 37,037 MBq. New sources of cobalt will
have an activity of 20 to over 100 curies, and new sources of iridium will have an activity
of similar amounts.
The activity of a given amount of radioactive material does not depend upon the mass of
material present. For example, two one-curie sources of Cs-137 might have very different
masses depending upon the relative proportion of non-radioactive atoms present in each
source. The concentration of radioactivity, or the relationship between the mass of
radioactive material and the activity, is called the specific activity. Specific activity is
expressed as the number of curies or becquerels per unit mass or volume. The higher the
specific activity of a material, the smaller the physical size of the source is likely to be.
Exposure
Exposure is a measure of the
strength of a radiation field at some
point. It is a measure of the
ionization of the molecules in a
mass of air. It is usually defined as the
amount of charge (i.e. the sum of all
ions of the same sign) produced in a
unit mass of air when the interacting
photons are completely absorbed in
that mass. The most commonly used
unit of exposure is the Roentgen
(R). Specifically, a Roentgen is the
amount of photon energy required to
produce 1.610 x 1012 ion pairs in one
cubic centimeter of dry air at 0C. A
80
radiation field of one Roentgen will deposit 2.58 x 10-4 coulombs of charge in one
kilogram of dry air. The main advantage of this unit is that it is easy to directly measure
with a survey meter. The main limitation is that it is only valid for deposition in air.
Absorbed Dose
Whereas exposure is defined for air, the

absorbed dose is the amount of
energy that ionizing radiation
imparts to a given mass of matter.
The most commonly used unit for
absorbed dose is the rad
(Radiation Absorbed Dose). A rad is
defined as a dose of 100 ergs of
energy per gram of the given
material. The SI unit for absorbed
dose is the gray (Gy), which is
defined as a dose of one joule per
kilogram. Since one joule equals 107
ergs, and since one kilogram equals
1000 grams, 1 Gray equals 100 rads.
The size of the absorbed dose is

dependent upon the strength (or activity) of the radiation source, the distance from the
source to the irradiated material, and the time over which the material is irradiated. The
activity of the source will determine the dose, rate which can be expressed in rad/hr,
mr/hr, mGy/sec, etc.
Dose Equivalent
When considering radiation

interacting with living tissue, it is
important to also consider the type
of radiation. Although the biological
effects of radiation are dependent
upon the absorbed dose, some types
of radiation produce greater effects
than others for the same amount of
energy imparted. For example, for
equal absorbed doses, alpha
particles may be 20 times as
damaging as beta particles. In order
to account for these variations when
describing human health risks from radiation exposure, the quantity called dose
81
equivalent is used. This is the absorbed dose multiplied by certain quality or

adjustment factors indicative of the relative biological-damage potential of the
particular type of radiation.
The quality factor (Q) is a factor used in radiation protection to weigh the absorbed dose
with regard to its presumed biological effectiveness. Radiation with higher Q factors will
cause greater damage to tissue. The rem is a term used to describe a special unit of dose
equivalent. Rem is an abbreviation for roentgen equivalent in man. The SI unit is the
sievert (SV); one rem is equivalent to 0.01 SV. Doses of radiation received by workers
are recorded in rems, however, sieverts are being required as the industry transitions to
the SI unit system.
The table below presents the Q factors for several types of radiation.
Type of Radiation Rad Q Factor Rem
1 1 1
X-Ray
Gamma Ray 1 1 1
Beta Particles 1 1 1
Thermal Neutrons 1 5 5
Fast Neutrons 1 10 10
Alpha Particles 1 20 20
5.2 Biological Effects
The occurrence of particular health effects from exposure to ionizing radiation is a

complicated function of numerous factors including:
Type of radiation involved. All kinds of ionizing radiation can produce health
effects. The main difference in the ability of alpha and beta particles and Gamma
and X-rays to cause health effects is the amount of energy they have. Their energy
determines how far they can penetrate into tissue and how much energy they are
able to transmit directly or indirectly to tissues.
Size of dose received. The higher the dose of radiation received, the higher the
likelihood of health effects.
Rate the dose is received. Tissue can receive larger dosages over a period of
time. If the dosage occurs over a number of days or weeks, the results are often
not as serious if a similar dose was received in a matter of minutes.
82
Part of the body exposed. Extremities such as the hands or feet are able to
receive a greater amount of radiation with less resulting damage than blood
forming organs housed in the torso.
The age of the individual. As a person ages, cell division slows and the body is
less sensitive to the effects of ionizing radiation. Once cell division has slowed,
the effects of radiation are somewhat less damaging than when cells were rapidly
dividing.
Biological differences. Some individuals are more sensitive to the effects of
radiation than others. Studies have not been able to conclusively determine the
differences.
The effects of ionizing radiation upon humans are often broadly classified as being either
stochastic or nonstochastic. These two terms are discussed more in the next few pages.
5.3 Stochastic Effects
Stochastic effects are those that occur by chance and consist primarily of cancer and
genetic effects. Stochastic effects often show up years after exposure. As the dose to an
individual increases, the probability that cancer or a genetic effect will occur also
increases. However, at no time, even for high doses, is it certain that cancer or genetic
damage will result. Similarly, for stochastic effects, there is no threshold dose below
which it is relatively certain that an adverse effect cannot occur. In addition, because
stochastic effects can occur in individuals that have not been exposed to radiation above
background levels, it can never be determined for certain that an occurrence of cancer or
genetic damage was due to a specific exposure.
While it cannot be determined conclusively, it often possible to estimate the probability

that radiation exposure will cause a stochastic effect. As mentioned previously, it is
estimated that the probability of having a cancer in the US rises from 20% for non
radiation workers to 21% for persons who work regularly with radiation. The probability
for genetic defects is even less likely to increase for workers exposed to radiation. Studies
conducted on Japanese atomic bomb survivors who were exposed to large doses of
radiation found no more genetic defects than what would normally occur.
Radiation-induced hereditary effects have not been observed in human populations, yet
they have been demonstrated in animals. If the germ cells that are present in the ovaries
and testes and are responsible for reproduction were modified by radiation, hereditary
effects could occur in the progeny of the individual. Exposure of the embryo or fetus to
ionizing radiation could increase the risk of leukemia in infants and, during certain
periods in early pregnancy, may lead to mental retardation and congenital malformations
if the amount of radiation is sufficiently high.
5.3.1 Cancer
83
Cancer is any malignant growth or tumor caused by abnormal and uncontrolled cell
division. Cancer may spread to other parts of the body through the lymphatic system or
the blood stream. The carcinogenic effects of doses of 100 rads (1 Gy)
or more of gamma radiation delivered at high dose rates are well
documented, consistent and definitive.
Although any organ or tissue may develop a tumor after overexposure

to radiation, certain organs and tissues seem to be more sensitive in
this respect than others. Radiation-induced cancer is observed most
frequently in the hemopoietic system, in the thyroid, in the bone, and
in the skin. In all these cases, the tumor induction time in man is
relatively long - on the order of 5 to 20 years after exposure.
Carcinoma of the skin was the first type of malignancy that was associated with exposure
to x-rays. Early x-ray workers, including physicists and physicians, had a much higher
incidence of skin cancer than could be expected from random occurrences of this disease.
Well over 100 cases of radiation induced skin cancer are documented in the literature. As
early as 1900, a physician who had been using x-rays in his practice described the
irritating effects of x-rays. He recorded that erythema and itching progressed to hyper-
pigmentation, ulceration, neoplasia, and finally death from metastatic carcinoma. The
entire disease process spanned a period of 9 years. Cancer of the fingers was an
occupational disease common among dentists before the carcinogenic properties of x-rays
were well understood. Dentists would hold the dental x-ray film in the mouths of patients
while x-raying their teeth.
5.3.2 Leukemia
Leukemia is a cancer of the early blood-forming cells. Usually, the leukemia is a cancer
of the white blood cells, but leukemia can involve other blood cell types as well.
Leukemia starts in the bone marrow and then spreads
to the blood. From there it can go to the lymph nodes,
spleen, liver, central nervous system (the brain and
spinal cord), testes (testicles), or other organs.
Leukemia is among the most likely forms of
malignancy resulting from overexposure to total body
radiation. Chronic lymphocytic leukemia does not
appear to be related to radiation exposure.
Radiologists and other physicians who used x-rays in

their practice before strict health physics practices
84
were common showed a significantly higher rate of leukemia than did their colleagues
who did not use radiation. Among American radiologists, the doses associated with the
increased rate of leukemia were on the order of 100 rads (1 Gy) per year. With the
increased practice of health physics, the difference in leukemia rate between radiologists
and other physicians has been continually decreasing.
Among the survivors of the nuclear bombings of Japan, there was a significantly greater
incidence of leukemia among those who had been within 1500 meters of the hypocenter
than among those who had been more than 1500 meters from ground zero at the time of
the bombing. An increase in leukemia among the survivors was first seen about three
years after the bombings, and the leukemia rate continued to increase until it peaked
about four years later. Since this time, the rate has been steadily decreasing.
The questions regarding the leukemogenicity of low radiation doses and of the existence
of a non-zero threshold dose for leukemia induction remain unanswered, and are the
subject of controversy. On the basis of a few limited studies, it was inferred that as little
as 1-5 rads (10-50 mGy) of x-rays could lead to leukemia. Other studies imply that a
threshold dose for radiogenic leukemia is significantly higher. However, it is reasonable
to infer that low level radiation at doses associated with most diagnostic x-ray
procedures, with occupational exposure within the recommended limits, and with natural
radiation is a very weak leukemogen, and that the attributive risk of leukemia from low
level radiation is probably very small.
5.3.3 Genetic Effects
Genetic information necessary for the production and functioning of a new organism is
contained in the chromosomes of the germ cells - the sperm and the ovum. The normal
human somatic cell contains 46 of these chromosomes; mature
sperm and ovum each carry 23 chromosomes. When an ovum is
fertilized by a sperm, the resulting cell, called a zygote, contains a
full complement of 46 chromosomes. During the 9-month
gestation period, the fertilized egg, by successive cellular
division and differentiation, develops into a new individual. In
the course of the cellular divisions, the chromosomes are exactly
duplicated, so that cells in the body contain the same genetic
information. The units of information in the chromosomes are
called genes. Each gene is an enormously complex
macromolecule called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), in which
the genetic information is coded according to the sequence of
certain molecular and sub-assemblies called bases. The DNA molecule consists of two
85
long chains in a spiral double helix. The two long intertwined strands are held together by
the bases, which form cross-links between the long strands in the same manner as the
treads in a step-ladder.
The genetic information can be altered by many different chemical and physical agents
called mutagens, which disrupt the sequence of bases in a DNA molecule. If this
information content of a somatic cell is scrambled, then its descendants may show some
sort of an abnormality. If the information that is jumbled is in a germ cell that
subsequently is fertilized, then the new individual may carry a genetic defect, or a
mutation. Such a mutation is often called a point mutation, since it results from damage
to one point on a gene. Most geneticists believe that the majority of such mutations in
man are undesirable or harmful.
In addition to point mutations, genetic damage can arise through chromosomal

aberrations. Certain chemical and physical agents can cause chromosomes to break. In
most of these breaks, the fragments reunite, and the only result may be a point mutation
at the site of the original break. In a small fraction of breaks, however, the broken pieces
do not reunite. When this happens, one of the broken fragments may be lost when the cell
divides, and the daughter cell does not receive the genetic information contained in the
lost fragment. The other possibility following chromosomal breakage, especially if two or
more chromosomes are broken, is the interchange of the fragments among the broken
chromosomes, and the production of aberrant chromosomes. Cells with such aberrant
chromosomes usually have impaired reproductive capacity as well as other abnormalities.
Studies suggest that the existence of a threshold dose for the genetic effects of radiation is
unlikely. However, they also show that the genetic effects of radiation are inversely
dependent on dose rate over the range of 800 mrad/min (8 mGy/min) to 90 rads/min (0.9
Gy/min). The dose rate dependence clearly implies a repair mechanism that is
overwhelmed at the high dose rate. Geneticists estimate that there are 320 chances per
million of a "spontaneous" mutation in a dominant gene trait of a person. The radiation
dose that would eventually lead to a doubling of the mutation rate is estimated to be in
the range of 50-250 rads (0.5-2.5 Gy).
5.3.4 Cataracts
A cataract is a clouding of the normally clear lens of the eye. A

much higher incidence of cataracts was reported among physicists
in cyclotron laboratories whose eyes had been exposed
intermittently for long periods of time to relatively low radiation
fields, as well as among atomic bomb survivors whose eyes had
been exposed to a single high radiation dose. This shows that both
chronic and acute overexposure of the eyes can lead to cataracts.
Radiation may injure the cornea, conjunctiva, iris, and the lens of
the eye. In the case of the lens, the principal site of damage is the
86
proliferating cells of the anterior epithelium. This results in abnormal lens fibers, which
eventually disintegrate to form an opaque area, or cataract, that prevents light from
reaching the retina.
The cataractogenic dose to the lens is on the order of 500 rad of beta or gamma radiation.
No radiogenic cataracts resulting from occupational exposure to x-rays have been
reported. From patients who suffered irradiation of the eye in the course of x-ray therapy
and developed cataracts as a consequence, the cataractogenic threshold is estimated at
about 200 rad. In cases either of occupationally or therapeutically induced radiation
cataracts, a long latent period, on the order of several years, usually elapsed between the
exposure and the appearance of the lens opacity. The cataractogenic dose has been found,
in laboratory experiments with animals, to be a function of age; young animals are more
sensitive than old animals.
5.4 Nonstochastic (Acute) Effects
Unlike stochastic effects, nonstochastic effects are characterized by a threshold dose

below which they do not occur. In other words, nonstochastic effects have a clear
relationship between the exposure and the effect. In addition, the magnitude of the effect
is directly proportional to the size of the dose. Nonstochastic effects typically result when
very large dosages of radiation are received in a short amount of time. These effects will
often be evident within hours or days. Examples of nonstochastic effects include
erythema (skin reddening), skin and tissue burns, cataract formation, sterility, radiation
sickness and death. Each of these effects differs from the others in that both its threshold
dose and the time over which the dose was received cause the effect (i.e. acute vs.
chronic exposure).
There are a number of cases of radiation burns occurring to the hands or fingers. These
cases occurred when a radiographer touched or came in close contact with a high
intensity radiation emitter. Intensity on the surface of an 85 curie Ir-192 source capsule is
approximately 1,768 R/s. Contact with the source for two seconds would expose the hand
of an individual to 3,536 rems, and this does not consider any additional whole body
dosage received when approaching the source.
More on Specific Non stochastic Effects
Hemopoietic Syndrome
The hemopoietic syndrome encompasses the medical conditions that affect the blood.
Hemopoietic syndrome conditions appear after a gamma dose of about 200 rads (2 Gy).
This disease is characterized by depression or ablation of the bone marrow, and the
physiological consequences of this damage. The onset of the disease is rather sudden, and
is heralded by nausea and vomiting within several hours after the overexposure occurred.
Malaise and fatigue are felt by the victim, but the degree of malaise does not seem to be
87
correlated with the size of the dose. Loss of hair (epilation), which is almost always seen,
appears between the second and third week after the exposure. Death may occur within
one to two months after exposure. The chief effects to be noted, of course, are in the bone
marrow and in the blood. Marrow depression is seen at 200 rads and at about 400 to 600
rads (4 to 6 Gy) complete ablation of the marrow occurs. In this case, however,
spontaneous regrowth of the marrow is possible if the victim survives the physiological
effects of the denuding of the marrow. An exposure of about 700 rads (7 Gy) or greater
leads to irreversible ablation of the bone marrow.
Gastrointestinal Syndrome
The gastrointestinal syndrome encompasses the medical conditions that affect the
stomach and the intestines. This medical condition follows a total body gamma dose of
about 1000 rads (10 Gy) or greater, and is a consequence of the desquamation of the
intestinal epithelium. All the signs and symptoms of hemopoietic syndrome are seen,
with the addition of severe nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea which begin very soon after
exposure. Death within one to two weeks after exposure is the most likely outcome.
Central Nervous System
A total body gamma dose in excess of about 2000 rads (20 Gy) damages the central
nervous system, as well as all the other organ systems in the body. Unconsciousness
follows within minutes after exposure and death can result in a matter of hours to several
days. The rapidity of the onset of unconsciousness is directly related to the dose received.
In one instance in which a 200 msec burst of mixed neutrons and gamma rays delivered a
mean total body dose of about 4400 rads (44 Gy), the victim was ataxic and disoriented
within 30 seconds. In 10 minutes, he was unconscious and in shock. Vigorous
symptomatic treatment kept the patient alive for 34 hours after the accident.
Other Acute Effects
Several other immediate effects of acute overexposure should be noted. Because of its
physical location, the skin is subject to more radiation exposure, especially in the case of
low energy x-rays and beta rays, than most other tissues. An exposure of about 300 R (77
mC/kg) of low energy (in the diagnostic range) x-rays results in erythema. Higher doses
may cause changes in pigmentation, loss of hair, blistering, cell death, and ulceration.
Radiation dermatitis of the hands and face was a relatively common occupational disease
among radiologists who practiced during the early years of the twentieth century.
The reproductive organs are particularly radiosensitive. A single dose of only 30 rads
(300 mGy) to the testes results in temporary sterility among men. For women, a 300 rad
(3 Gy) dose to the ovaries produces temporary sterility. Higher doses increase the period
of temporary sterility. In women, temporary sterility is evidenced by a cessation of
menstruation for a period of one month or more, depending on the dose. Irregularities in
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the menstrual cycle, which suggest functional changes in the reproductive organs, may
result from local irradiation of the ovaries with doses smaller than that required for
temporary sterilization.
The eyes too, are relatively radiosensitive. A local dose of several hundred rads can result
in acute conjunctivitis.
5.5 Exposure Symptoms
Listed below are some of the probable prompt and delayed effects of certain doses of
radiation when the doses are received by an individual within a twenty-four hour period.
Dosages are in Roentgen Equivalent Man (Rem)
0-25 No injury evident. First detectable blood change at 5 rem.

25-50 Definite blood change at 25 rem. No serious injury.
50-100 Some injury possible.
100-200 Injury and possible disability.
200-400 Injury and disability likely, death possible.
400-500 Median Lethal Dose (MLD) 50% of exposures are fatal.
500-1,000 Up to 100% of exposures are fatal.
1,000-over 100% likely fatal.
The delayed effects of radiation may be due either to a single large overexposure or
continuing low-level overexposure.
Example dosages and resulting symptoms when an individual receives an exposure to the
whole body within a twenty-four hour period.
100 - 200 Rem

First Day No definite symptoms
First Week No definite symptoms
No definite symptoms
Second Week
Third Week Loss of appetite, malaise, sore throat and diarrhea
Recovery is likely in a few months unless complications develop because
Fourth Week
of poor health
400 - 500 Rem
First Day Nausea, vomiting and diarrhea, usually in the first few hours
First Week Symptoms may continue
Second Week Epilation, loss off appetite
Hemorrhage, nosebleeds, inflammation of mouth and throat, diarrhea,
Third Week
emaciation
Fourth Week Rapid emaciation and mortality rate around 50%
89
NOTES
90
NOTES
91
6. SAFE USE OF RADIATION
6. 1 The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission and the Code of Federal Regulations
Since working with ionizing radiation can present significant

safety risks, its use is closely regulated. In the United States, the
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) is responsible for
protecting workers, the public and the environment from the
effects of radiation. The NRC is an independent agency
established by the Energy Reorganization Act of 1974 to regulate
civilian use of nuclear materials. The NRC is headed by five
commissioners appointed by the President and confirmed by the
Senate for five-year terms.
The Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) is the system used by the US Federal
Government to organize the rules published in the Federal Register by the executive
departments and agencies. The CFR is divided into 50 titles that represent broad areas
subject to Federal regulation. Title 10 of the code applies to energy and parts 0 through
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50 of Title 10 apply to NRC rules. Part 19, Notices, instructions and reports to workers:
inspection and investigations; Part 20, Standards for protection against radiation; and Part
34, Licenses for industrial radiography and radiation safety requirements for industrial
radiographic operations, are areas of the Code that are of primary interest when
addressing radiation safety in industrial radiography.
More than half of the states in the U.S. have entered into "agreement" with the NRC to
assume regulatory control of radioactive material use within their borders. As part of the
agreement process, the states must adopt and enforce regulations comparable to those
found in Title 10 of the Code of Federal Regulations. Some of the requirement of the
Code, such as exposure limits, responsibilities and procedures will be discussed in the
following pages.
6. 2 Exposure Limits
As discussed in the introduction, concern over the

biological effect of ionizing radiation began shortly
after the discovery of X-rays in 1895. Over the years,
numerous recommendations regarding occupational
exposure limits have been developed by the
International Commission on Radiological Protection
(ICRP) and other radiation protection groups. In
general, the guidelines established for radiation
exposure have had two principle objectives: 1) to
prevent acute exposure; and 2) to limit chronic
exposure to "acceptable" levels.
Current guidelines are based on the conservative assumption that there is no safe level of
exposure. In other words, even the smallest exposure has some probability of causing a
stochastic effect, such as cancer. This assumption has led to the general philosophy of not
only keeping exposures below recommended levels or regulation limits but also
maintaining all exposure "as low as reasonable achievable" (ALARA). ALARA is a
basic requirement of current radiation safety practices. It means that every reasonable
effort must be made to keep the dose to workers and the public as far below the required
limits as possible.
Regulatory Limits for Occupational Exposure
93
Many of the recommendations from the

ICRP and other groups have been
incorporated into the regulatory
requirements of countries around the
world. In the United States, annual
radiation exposure limits are found in Title
10, part 20 of the Code of Federal
Regulations, and in equivalent state
regulations. For industrial radiographers
who generally are not concerned with an
intake of radioactive material, the Code
sets the annual limit of exposure at the
following:
1) the more limiting of:

A total effective dose equivalent of 5
rems (0.05 Sv)
or
The sum of the deep-dose
equivalent to any individual organ or
tissue other than the lens of the eye
being equal to 50 rems (0.5 Sv).
2) The annual limits to the lens of the eye, to

the skin, and to the extremities, which are:
A lens dose equivalent of 15 rems (0.15 Sv)

A shallow-dose equivalent of 50 rems (0.50 Sv) to the skin or to any extremity.
The shallow-dose equivalent is the external dose to the skin of the whole-body or
extremities from an external source of ionizing radiation. This value is the dose
equivalent at a tissue depth of 0.007 cm averaged over and area of 10 cm 2.
The lens dose equivalent is the dose equivalent to the lens of the eye from an external
source of ionizing radiation. This value is the dose equivalent at a tissue depth of 0.3 cm.
The deep-dose equivalent is the whole-body dose from an external source of ionizing
radiation. This value is the dose equivalent at a tissue depth of 1 cm.
The total effective dose equivalent is the dose equivalent to the whole-body.
Declared Pregnant Workers and Minors
Because of the increased health risks to the rapidly developing embryo and fetus,
pregnant women can receive no more than 0.5 rem during the entire gestation period.
This is 10% of the dose limit that normally applies to radiation workers. Persons under
the age of 18 years are also limited to 0.5rem/year.
94
Non-radiation Workers and the Public
The dose limit to non-radiation workers and members of the public are two percent of the
annual occupational dose limit. Therefore, a non-radiation worker can receive a whole
body dose of no more that 0.1 rem/year from industrial ionizing radiation. This exposure
would be in addition to the 0.3 rem/year from natural background radiation and the 0.05
rem/year from man-made sources such as medical x-rays.
6. 3 Controlling Radiation Exposure
When working with radiation, there is a concern for two types of exposure: acute and
chronic. An acute exposure is a single accidental exposure to a high dose of radiation
during a short period of time. An acute exposure has the potential for producing both
nonstochastic and stochastic effects. Chronic exposure, which is also sometimes called
"continuous exposure," is long-term, low level overexposure. Chronic exposure may
result in stochastic health effects and is likely to be the result of improper or inadequate
protective measures.
The three basic ways of controlling exposure to harmful radiation are: 1) limiting the time
spent near a source of radiation, 2) increasing the distance away from the source, 3) and
using shielding to stop or reduce the level of radiation.
6.3.1 Time-Dose Calculation
The radiation dose is directly proportional to the time spent in the radiation. Therefore, a
person should not stay near a source of radiation any longer than necessary. If a survey
meter reads 4 mR/h at a particular location, a total dose of 4mr will be received if a
person remains at that location for one hour. In a two hour span of time, a dose of 8 mR
would be received. The following equation can be used to make a simple calculation to
determine the dose that will be or has been received in a radiation area.
Dose = Dose Rate x Time
95
When using a gamma camera, it is important to get the source from the shielded camera
to the collimator as quickly as possible to limit the time of exposure to the unshielded
source. Devices that shield radiation in some directions but allow it pass in one or more
other directions are known as collimators. This is illustrated in the images at the bottom
of this page.
6.3.2 Distance-Intensity Calculation
Increasing distance from the source of radiation will reduce the amount of radiation
received. As radiation travels from the source, it spreads out becoming less intense. This
is analogous to standing near a fire. The closer a person stands to the fire, the more
intense the heat feels from the fire. This phenomenon can be expressed by an equation
known as the inverse square law, which states that as the radiation travels out from the
source, the dosage decreases inversely with the square of the distance.
Inverse Square Law: I1/ I2 = D22/ D12
Shielding
The third way to reduce exposure to radiation is to place something between the
radiographer and the source of radiation. In general, the denser the material the more
shielding it will provide. The most effective shielding is provided by depleted uranium
metal. It is used primarily in gamma ray cameras like the one shown below. The circle of
dark material in the plastic see-through camera (below right) would actually be a sphere
of depleted uranium in a real gamma ray camera. Depleted uranium and other heavy
metals, like tungsten, are very effective in shielding radiation because their tightly packed
atoms make it hard for radiation to move through the material without interacting with
the atoms. Lead and concrete are the most commonly used radiation shielding materials
primarily because they are easy to work with and are readily available materials.
Concrete is commonly used in the construction of radiation vaults. Some vaults will also
be lined with lead sheeting to help reduce the radiation to acceptable levels on the
outside.
Dose = Dose Rate x Time
Example Calculations 1
A technician is in an area for 10 minutes and the reading on the survey meter is 5mR/h.
What dose of radiation does the technician receive?
96
5mR/h / 60 min./h = 0.0833 mR/min.
0.0833 mR/min. x 10 minutes = 0.833 mR total dose.
Example Calculations 2
A technician wants to receive no more than a 1.0 mR dose knowing the above conditions.
What is the maximum time the technician can stay in the area?
1.0 mR / 0.0833 mR/min. = 12 minutes
The calculated dosages would be approximations. The actual dosages may vary due to
scattering and other considerations. The TLD or Film Badge should be used to determine
dosage received by an individual.
Calculating Intensity with the Inverse Square Law
I1/ I2 = D22/ D12
Where:
I1 = Intensity 1 at D1
I2 = Intensity 2 at D2
D1 = Distance 1 from source
D2 = Distance 2 from source
Example Calculation 1
The intensity of radiation is 530 R/h at 5 feet away from a source. What is the intensity of
the radiation at 10 feet?
Rework the equation to solve for the intensity at distance 2

I2 = I1 x D12 / D22
Plug in the known values

I2 = 530R/h x (5ft)2 / (10ft)2
97
Solve for I 2
I2 = 132.5 R/h
In this instance the distance has been doubled and the intensity at that point has decreased
by a factor of four.
Example Calculation 2
A source is producing an intensity of 456 R/h at one foot from the source. What would be
the distance in feet to the 100, 5, and 2 mR/h boundaries.
Convert R/hour to mR/hour
456R/h x 1000 = 456,000 mR/h
Rework the equation to solve for D2
Plug in the known values and solve
D2= 67.5 feet
Using this equation the 100mR/h boundary would be at 68 feet, the 5mR/h boundary
would be at 301.99 feet, and the 2mR/h boundary would be at 477.5 feet. Sources are
seldom operated for an entire hour, and collimators are often used which reduce these
distances considerably.
6. 4 Half-Value Layer (Shielding)
As was discussed in the radiation theory section, the depth of penetration for a given
photon energy is dependent upon the material density (atomic structure). The more
subatomic particles in a material (higher Z number), the greater the likelihood that
interactions will occur and the radiation will lose its energy. Therefore, the denser a
material is the smaller the depth of radiation penetration will be. Materials such as
depleted uranium, tungsten and lead have high Z numbers, and are therefore very
effective in shielding radiation. Concrete is not as effective in shielding radiation but it is
98
a very common building material and so it is commonly used in the construction of

radiation vaults.
Since different materials attenuate radiation to different degrees, a convenient method of

comparing the shielding performance of materials was needed. The half-value layer
(HVL) is commonly used for this purpose and to determine what thickness of a given
material is necessary to reduce the exposure rate from a source to some level. At some
point in the material, there is a level at which the radiation intensity becomes one half
that at the surface of the material. This depth is known as the half-value layer for that
material. Another way of looking at this is that the HVL is the amount of material
necessary to the reduce the exposure rate from a source to one-half its unshielded value.
Sometimes shielding is specified as some number of HVL. For example, if a Gamma

source is producing 369 R/h at one foot and a four HVL shield is placed around it, the
intensity would be reduced to 23.0 R/h.
Each material has its own specific HVL thickness. Not only is the HVL material
dependent, but it is also radiation energy dependent. This means that for a given material,
if the radiation energy changes, the point at which the intensity decreases to half its
original value will also change. Below are some HVL values for various materials
commonly used in industrial radiography. As can be seen from reviewing the values, as
the energy of the radiation increases the HVL value also increases.
Approximate HVL for Various Materials when Radiation is from a Gamma Source

Source Concrete Steel Lead Tungsten Uranium
Iridium-192 44.5 (1.75) 12.7 (0.5) 4.8 (0.19) 3.3 (0.13) 2.8 (0.11)
Cobalt-60 60.5 (2.38) 21.6 (0.85) 12.5 (0.49) 7.9 (0.31) 6.9 (0.27)
Approximate Half-Value Layer for Various Materials when Radiation is from an X-ray
Source
Lead Concrete
Peak Voltage (kVp)
50 0.06 (0.002) 4.32 (0.170)
100 0.27 (0.010) 15.10 (0.595)
150 0.30 (0.012) 22.32 (0.879)
200 0.52 (0.021) 25.0 (0.984)
99
250 0.88 (0.035) 28.0 (1.102)

300 1.47 (0.055) 31.21 (1.229)
400 2.5 (0.098) 33.0 (1.299)
1000 7.9 (0.311) 44.45 (1.75)
Note: The values presented on this page are intended for educational purposes. Other
sources of information should be consulted when designing shielding for radiation
sources.
6. 5 Safety Controls
Since X-ray and gamma radiation are not

detectable by the human senses and the resulting
damage to the body is not immediately apparent, a
variety of safety controls are used to limit
exposure. The two basic types of radiation safety
controls used to provide a safe working
environment are engineered and administrative
controls. Engineered controls include shielding,
interlocks, alarms, warning signals, and material
containment. Administrative controls include postings, procedures, dosimetry, and
training.
Engineered Controls
Engineered controls such as shielding and door

interlocks are used to contain the radiation in a
cabinet or a "radiation vault." Fixed shielding
materials are commonly high density concrete
and/or lead. Door interlocks are used to
immediately cut the power to X-ray generating
equipment if a door is accidentally opened when X-
rays are being produced. Warning lights are used to
alert workers and the public that radiation is being
used. Sensors and warning alarms are often used to
signal that a predetermined amount of radiation is
present. Safety controls should never be tampered
with or bypassed.
When portable radiography is performed, it is most often not practical to place alarms or
warning lights in the exposure area. Ropes and signs are used to block the entrance to
radiation areas and to alert the public to the presence of radiation. Occasionally,
radiographers will use battery operated flashing lights to alert the public to the presence
100
of radiation. Portable or temporary shielding devices may be fabricated from materials or

equipment located in the area of the inspection. Sheets of steel, steel beams, or other
equipment may be used for temporary shielding. It is the responsibility of the
radiographer to know and understand the absorption value of various materials. More
information on absorption values and material properties can be found in the radiography
section of this site.
Administrative Controls
As mentioned above, administrative controls supplement the

engineered controls. These controls include postings,
procedures, dosimetry, and training. It is commonly required
that all areas containing X-ray producing equipment or
radioactive materials have signs posted bearing the radiation
symbol and a notice explaining the dangers of radiation.
Normal operating procedures and emergency procedures
must also be prepared and followed. In the US, federal law
requires that any individual who is likely to receive more
than 10% of any annual occupational dose limit be
monitored for radiation exposure. This monitoring is
accomplished with the use of dosimeters, which are
discussed in the radiation safety equipment section of this
material. Proper training with accompanying documentation
is also a very important administrative control.
6. 6 Responsibilities
Working safely with radiation is the

responsibility of everyone involved in the use
and management of radiation producing
equipment and materials. Depending on the size of
the organization, specific responsibilities may
be assigned to various individuals and/or
committees.
Radiation Safety Officer
All organizations that are licensed to use

ionizing radiation must have a Radiation Safety
Officer. The RSO is the individual authorized
by the company to serve as point of contact for
all activities conducted under the scope of the
authorization. The RSO ensures that radiation
101
safety activities are being performed in accordance with approved procedures and
regulatory requirements. Some of the common responsible for the RSO include:
Ensuring that all individuals using radiation equipment are appropriately trained
and supervised.
Ensuring that all individuals using the equipment have been formally authorized
to use the equipment.
Ensuring that all rules, regulations, and procedures for the safe use of radioactive
sources and X-ray systems are observed.
Ensuring that proper operating, emergency, and ALARA procedures have been
developed and are available to all system users.
Ensuring that accurate records of the use of the sources and equipment are
maintained.
Ensuring that required radiation surveys and leak tests are performed and
documented.
Ensuring that systems and equipment are protected from unauthorized access or
removal.
The minimum qualifications, training, and experience for RSOs for industrial
radiography are as follows: (1) Completion of the training and testing requirements of
Sec. 34.43(a) of Part 10 of the Federal Code of Regulations, (2) 2000 hours of hands-on
experience as a qualified radiographer in industrial radiographic operations, and (3)
Formal training in the establishment and maintenance of a radiation protection program.
Radiation Safety Committee
Some organizations may have a Radiation Safety Committee (RSC) to assist the RSO.
The RSC often provides oversight of the policies, procedures and responsibilities of an
organizations radiation safety program.
System Users
The individuals authorized to use the X-ray producing system or gamma sources are
responsible for ensuring that:
All rules, regulations, and procedures for the safe use of the X-ray system are
followed.
An accurate record of the use of the system is maintained.
102
All safety problems with the system are reported to the RSO and corrected before
further use.
The system is protected from unauthorized access or removal.
6. 7 Procedures
Written operating procedures must be developed and made available to anyone that will
be working with radiation sources or X-ray producing equipment. These procedures must
be specific to the equipment and its use in a particular application. Simply making the
equipment manufacturers operating instructions available to workers does not satisfy this
requirement. The operating procedure must be followed at all times unless written
permission to deviate is received from the Radiation Safety Officer.
Standard Operating Procedures
As a minimum, operating procedures must include instructions for the following:
Appropriate handling and use of licensed sealed sources and radiographic

exposure devices so that no person is likely to be exposed to radiation doses in
excess of the established exposure limits.
Methods and occasions for conducting radiation surveys.
Methods for controlling access to radiographic areas.
Methods and occasions for locking and securing radiographic exposure devices,
transport and storage containers and sealed sources.
Personnel monitoring and the use of personnel monitoring equipment.
Transporting sealed sources to field locations, including packing of radiographic
exposure devices and storage containers in the vehicles, placarding of vehicles
when needed, and control of the sealed sources during transportation.
The inspection, maintenance, and operability checks of radiographic exposure
devices, survey instruments, transport containers, and storage containers.
The procedure(s) for identifying and reporting defects and noncompliance.
Maintenance of records.
Emergency Procedures
Procedures must also be developed that guide workers in the event of an emergency. A
few of the items that could be covered include:
Steps that must be taken immediately by radiography personnel in the event a

pocket dosimeter is found to be off-scale or an alarm ratemeter alarms
unexpectedly.
Steps for minimizing exposure of persons in the event of an accident.
The procedure for notifying proper persons in the event of an accident.
Radioactive source recovery procedure if licensee will perform the recovery.
103
6.8 Survey Technique
The majority of over exposures in industrial radiography are the result of the
radiographer not knowing the location of a
gamma emitter and failing to conduct a
proper radiation survey. Exposure vaults are
equipped with warning lights and safety
interlock switches which provide a margin of
safety for workers. A survey must be
performed occasionally to verify that vaults
are not "leaking" radiation and that the safety
devices are performing properly. However,
when conducting radiography with gamma
emitters in the field, the radiographer must
rely heavily on measurements with a survey
meter since other safety devices are
uncommon. A series of surveys must be taken and some of the results from these surveys
must be documented when transporting and working with gamma emitters in the field.
Approaching the Exposure Device
A technician should be thoroughly familiar with the operation of a survey meter since
proper use of the device is essential. Before removing the exposure device (camera) from
storage, the calibration of the survey meter must be verified and the battery level must be
checked. When approaching the exposure device to remove it from the storage location,
the survey meter should be in hand and operational. The survey meter should be placed
next to the exposure device to verify that the source is contained inside the projector, and
to verify that the survey meter is working properly. Survey meter readings should be
compared to previous readings and recorded.
Transporting the Exposure Device
When transporting the exposure device, it must be stowed securely in the vehicle. A
lockable metal box is often bolted in the rear of the vehicle. A survey of the over pack,
the outside of the vehicle, and the drivers compartment is then conducted and
documented.
Preparing for an Exposure
Once on the job site, the exposure area will be assessed, distance calculations made for
restricted area boundaries, and ropes and signs placed appropriately. Once this is
complete, the radiographer is ready to remove the exposure device from its storage
compartment in the vehicle. The survey meter should be monitored as the storage
compartment is approached and when removing the exposure device from the
104
compartment. Daily safety checks should then be made. Once these checks are
completed, the radiographer and assistant may then move the exposure device to the
exposure location. As the cranks and guide tubes are attached in preparation for the first
exposure, the survey meter should be monitored. Before the source is exposed, the
assistant should check the area for persons who may have crossed into the restricted area,
and then move outside the rope boundary.
Making an Exposure
The radiographer should be at the maximum distance from the exposure device that the
guide tube will allow as he or she quickly cracks the source out of the exposure device
and into place. As the source moves out of the exposure device, the survey meter will
increase to a very high level and then reduce once the source is inside the collimator.
During the exposure, the assistant will survey the established boundary to determine the
levels of radiation present. If the survey meter indicates levels are higher than calculated,
the boundary must be extended.
Retracting the Source
On retraction of the source, the radiographers will see a rise in readings as the source
moves from the collimator and is retracted into the projector. When the source is inside
the exposure device, the radiographer should approach it while monitoring the survey
meter. If the source is properly retracted, no increase in the survey meter reading should
be seen when approaching the exposure device. The exposure device should be surveyed
on all sides, paying special attention to the front of the device. The entire length of the
guide tube must then be surveyed.
This process is repeated for each exposure. The survey results must be documented when
the exposure device is returned to the vehicle for transportation, and when it is placed
back into its storage location.
105
NOTES
106
NOTES
107
7. RADIATION SAFETY EQUIPMENT
7.1 Radiation Detectors
108
Instruments used for radiation measurement fall into two broad categories:
- rate measuring instruments and
- personal dose measuring instruments.
Rate measuring instruments measure the rate at

which exposure is received (more commonly
called the radiation intensity). Survey meters,
audible alarms and area monitors fall into this
category. These instruments present a radiation
intensity reading relative to time, such as R/hr or
mR/hr. An analogy can be made between these
instruments and the speedometer of a car because
both are measuring units relative to time.
Dose measuring instruments are those that

measure the total amount of exposure received
during a measuring period. The dose measuring instruments, or dosimeters, that are
commonly used in industrial radiography are small devices which are designed to be
worn by an individual to measure the exposure received by the individual. An analogy
can be made between these instruments and the odometer of a car because both are
measuring accumulated units.
The radiation measuring instruments commonly used in industrial radiography are

described in more detail in the following pages.
7. 2 Survey Meters
The survey meter is the most important resource a radiographer

has to determine the presence and intensity of radiation. A
review of incident and overexposure reports indicate that a
majority of these type of events occurred when a technician did
not have or did not use a survey meter.
There are many different models of survey meters available to

measure radiation in the field. They all basically consist of a
detector and a readout display. Analog and digital displays are
available. Most of the survey meters used for industrial
radiography use a gas filled detector.
Gas filled detectors consists of consists of a gas filled cylinder with two electrodes.
Sometimes, the cylinder itself acts as one electrode, and a needle or thin taut wire along
the axis of the cylinder acts as the other electrode. A voltage is applied to the device so
that the central needle or wire become an anode (+ charge) and the other electrode or
cylinder wall becomes the cathode (- charge). The gas becomes ionized whenever the
109
counter is brought near radioactive substances. The electric field created by the potential
difference between the anode and cathode causes the electrons of each ion pair to move
to the anode while the positively charged gas atom is drawn to the cathode. This results in
an electrical signal that is amplified, correlated to exposure and displayed as a value.
Depending on the voltage applied between the anode and the cathode, the detector may
be considered an ion chamber, a proportional counter, or a Geiger-Mller (GM) detector.
Each of these types of detectors have their advantages and disadvantages. A brief
summary of each of these detectors follows.
Ion Chamber Counter
Ion chambers have a relatively low voltage between the anode and cathode, which results
in a collection of only the charges produced in the initial ionization event. This type of
detector produces a weak output signal that corresponds to the number of ionization
events. Higher energies and intensities of radiation will produce more ionization, which
will result in a stronger output voltage.
Collection of only primary ions provides information on true radiation exposure (energy
and intensity). However, the meters require sensitive electronics to amplify the signal,
which makes them fairly expensive and delicate. The additional expense and required
care is justified when it is necessary to make accurate radiation exposure measurements
over a range of radiation energies. This might be necessary when measuring the
Bremsstrahlung radiation produced by an X-ray generator. An ion chamber survey meter
is sometimes used in the field when performing gamma radiography because it will
provide accurate exposure measurements regardless of the radioactive isotope being used.
Proportional Counter
110
Proportional counter detectors use a slightly higher voltage between the anode and
cathode. Due to the strong electrical field, the charges produced in the initial ionization
are accelerated fast enough to ionize other electrons in the gas. The electrons produced in
these secondary ion pairs, along with the primary electrons, continue to gain energy as
they move towards the anode, and as they do, they produce more and more ionizations.
The result is that each electron from a primary ion pair produces a cascade of ion pairs.
This effect is known as gas multiplication or amplification. In this voltage regime, the
number of particles liberated by secondary interactions is proportional to the number of
ions produced by the passing ionizing particle. Hence, these gas ionization detectors are
called proportional counters.
Like ion chamber detectors, proportional detectors discriminate between types of

radiation. However, they require very stable electronics which are expensive and fragile.
Proportional detectors are usually only used in a laboratory setting.
Geiger-Mller (GM) Counter
Geiger-Mller counters operate under even higher voltages between the anode and the
cathode, usually in the 800 to 1200 volt range. Like the proportional counter, the high
voltage accelerates the charges produced in the initial ionization to where they have
enough energy to ionize other electrons in the gas. However, this cascading of ion pairs
occurs to a much larger degree and continues until the counter is saturated with ions. This
all happens in a fraction of a second and results in an electrical current pulse of constant
voltage. The collection of the large number of secondary ions in the GM region is known
as an avalanche and produces a large voltage pulse. In other words, the size of the current
The GM counter was

named for Hans Geiger
who invented the
device in 1908, and
Walther Mller who
collaborated with
Geiger in developing it
further in 1928.
pulse is independent of the size of the ionization event that produced it.
The electronic circuit of a GM counters counts and records the number of pulses and the
information is often displayed in counts per minute. If the instrument has a speaker, the
pulses can also produce an audible click. When the volume of gas in the chamber is
completely ionized, ion collection stops until the electrical pulse discharges. Again, this
only takes a fraction of a second, but this process slightly limits the rate at which
individual events can be detected.
111
Because they can display individual ionizing events, GM counters are generally more
sensitive to low levels of radiation than ion chamber instruments. By means of
calibration, the count rate can be displayed as the exposure rate over a specified energy
range. When used for gamma radiography, GM meters are typically calibrated for the
energy of the gamma radiation being used. Most often, gamma radiation from Cs-137 at
0.662 MeV provides the calibration. Only small errors occur when the radiographer uses
Ir-192 (average energy about 0.34 MeV) or Co-60 (average energy about 1.25 MeV).
Since the Geiger-Mller counter produces many more electrons than a ion chamber
counter or a proportional counter, it does not require the same level of electronic
sophistication as other survey meters. This results in a meter that is relatively low cost
and rugged. The disadvantages of GM survey meters are the lack of ability to account for
different amounts of ionization caused by different energy photons and noncontinuous
measurement (need to discharge).
Comparison of Gas Filled Detectors
The graph to the right shows the

relationship of ion collection in a gas
filled detector versus the applied voltage.
In the ion chamber region, the voltage
between the anode and cathode is
relatively low and only primary ions are
collected. In the proportional region ,the
voltage is higher, and primary ions and a
number of secondary ions (proportional
to the primary ions originally formed)
are collected. In the GM region, a
maximum number of secondary ions are
collected when the gas around the anode is
completely ionized. Note that
discrimination between kinds of
radiation (E1 and E2) is possible in the
ion chamber and proportional regions.
Radiation at different energy levels
forms different numbers of primary ions
in the detector. However in the GM
region, the number of secondary ions collected per event remains the same no matter
what the energy of the radiation that initiated the event. The GM counter gives up the
ability to accurately measure the exposure due to different energies of radiation in
exchange for a large signal pulse. This large signal pulse simplifies the electronics that
are necessary for instruments such as survey meters.
112
7.3 Pocket Dosimeter
Pocket dosimeters are used to provide the wearer with an immediate reading of his or her
exposure to x-rays and gamma rays. As the name implies, they are commonly worn in the
pocket. The two types commonly used in industrial radiography are the Direct Read
Pocket Dosimeter and the Digital Electronic Dosimeter.
Direct Read Pocket Dosimeter
A direct reading pocket ionization dosimeter is generally of the size and shape of a
fountain pen. The dosimeter contains a small ionization chamber with a volume of
approximately two milliliters. Inside the ionization chamber is a central wire anode, and
attached to this wire anode is a metal coated quartz fiber. When the anode is charged to a
positive potential, the charge is distributed between the wire anode and quartz fiber.
Electrostatic repulsion deflects the quartz fiber, and the greater the charge, the greater the
deflection of the quartz fiber. Radiation incident on the chamber produces ionization
inside the active volume of the chamber. The electrons produced by ionization are
attracted to, and collected by, the positively charged central anode. This collection of
electrons reduces the net positive charge and allows the quartz fiber to return in the
direction of the original position. The amount of movement is directly proportional to the
amount of ionization which occurs.
113
By pointing the instrument at a light source, the position of the fiber may be observed
through a system of built-in lenses. The fiber is viewed on a translucent scale which is
graduated in units of exposure. Typical industrial radiography pocket dosimeters have a
full scale reading of 200 milliroentgens but there are designs that will record higher
amounts. During the shift, the dosimeter reading should be checked frequently. The
measured exposure should be recorded at the end of each shift.
The principal advantage of a pocket dosimeter is its ability to provide the wearer an
immediate reading of his or her radiation exposure. It also has the advantage of being
reusable. The limited range, inability to provide a permanent record, and the potential for
discharging and reading loss due to dropping or bumping are a few of the main
disadvantages of a pocket dosimeter. The dosimeters must be recharged and recorded at
114
the start of each working shift. Charge leakage, or drift, can also affect the reading of a
dosimeter. Leakage should be no greater than 2 percent of full scale in a 24 hour period.
Digital Electronic Dosimeter
Another type of pocket dosimeter is the Digital Electronic

Dosimeter. These dosimeters record dose information and dose rate.
These dosimeters most often use Geiger-Mller counters. The output
of the radiation detector is collected and, when a predetermined
exposure has been reached, the collected charge is discharged to
trigger an electronic counter. The counter then displays the
accumulated exposure and dose rate in digital form.
Some Digital Electronic Dosimeters include an audible alarm feature

which emits an audible signal or chirp with each recorded increment
of exposure. Some models can also be set to provide a continuous
audible signal when a preset exposure has been reached. This format
helps to minimize the reading errors associated with direct reading pocket ionization
chamber dosimeters and allows the instrument to achieve a higher maximum readout
before resetting is necessary.
7.4 Audible Alarm Rate Meters and Digital Electronic Dosimeters
Audible alarms are devices that emit a short "beep" or "chirp" when a
predetermined exposure has been received. It is required that these
electronic devices be worn by an individual working with gamma
emitters. These devices reduce the likelihood of accidental exposures
in industrial radiography by alerting the radiographer to dosages of
radiation above a preset amount. Typical alarm rate meters will begin
sounding in areas of 450-500 mR/h. It is important to note that audible
alarms are not intended to be and should not be used as replacements
for survey meters.
Most audible alarms use a Geiger-Mller detector. The output of the detector is collected,
and when a predetermined exposure has been reached, this collected charge is discharged
through a speaker. Hence, an audible "chirp" is emitted. Consequently, the frequency or
chirp rate of the alarm is proportional to the radiation intensity. The chirp rate varies
among different alarms from one chirp per milliroentgen to more than 100 chirps per
milliroentgen.
115
7. 5 Film Badges
Personnel dosimetry film badges are commonly

used to measure and record radiation exposure
due to gamma rays, X-rays and beta particles.
The detector is, as the name implies, a piece of
radiation sensitive film. The film is packaged in a
light proof, vapor proof envelope preventing
light, moisture or chemical vapors from affecting
the film.
A special film is used which is coated with two

different emulsions. One side is coated with a large grain, fast emulsion that is sensitive
to low levels of exposure. The other side of the film is coated with a fine grain, slow
emulsion that is less sensitive to exposure. If the radiation exposure causes the fast
emulsion in the processed film to be darkened to a degree that it cannot be interpreted,
the fast emulsion is removed and the dose is computed using the slow emulsion.
The film is contained inside a film holder or badge.

The badge incorporates a series of filters to determine
the quality of the radiation. Radiation of a given
energy is attenuated to a different extent by various
types of absorbers. Therefore, the same quantity of
radiation incident on the badge will produce a different
degree of darkening under each filter. By comparing
these results, the energy of the radiation can be
determined and the dose can be calculated knowing the
film response for that energy. The badge holder also
contains an open window to determine radiation
exposure due to beta particles. Beta particles are
effectively shielded by a thin amount of material.
The major advantages of a film badge as a personnel

monitoring device are that it provides a permanent record, it is able to distinguish
between different energies of photons, and it can measure doses due to different types of
radiation. It is quite accurate for exposures greater than 100 millirem. The major
disadvantages are that it must be developed and read by a processor (which is time
consuming), prolonged heat exposure can affect the film, and exposures of less than 20
millirem of gamma radiation cannot be accurately measured.
Film badges need to be worn correctly so that the dose they receive accurately represents
the dose the wearer receives. Whole body badges are worn on the body between the neck
and the waist, often on the belt or a shirt pocket. The clip-on badge is worn most often
when performing X-ray or gamma radiography. The film badge may also be worn when
116
working around a low curie source. Ring badges are worn on a finger of the hand most
likely to be exposed to ionizing radiation. A LIXI system with its culminated and
directional beam would be one example where monitoring the hands would be more
important than the whole body.
7.6 Thermoluminescent Dosimeter
Thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLD) are often used instead of the film badge. Like a
film badge, it is worn for a period of time (usually 3 months or less) and then must be
processed to determine the dose received, if any. Thermoluminescent dosimeters can
measure doses as low as 1 millirem, but under routine
conditions their low-dose capability is approximately the
same as for film badges. TLDs have a precision of
approximately 15% for low doses. This precision improves to
approximately 3% for high doses. The advantages of a TLD
over other personnel monitors is its linearity of response to
dose, its relative energy independence, and its sensitivity to
low doses. It is also reusable, which is an advantage over film
badges. However, no permanent record or re-readability is
provided and an immediate, on the job readout is not
possible.
How it works
A TLD is a phosphor, such as lithium fluoride (LiF) or calcium fluoride (CaF), in a solid
crystal structure. When a TLD is exposed to ionizing radiation at ambient temperatures,
the radiation interacts with the phosphor crystal and deposits all or part of the incident
energy in that material. Some of the atoms in the material that absorb that energy become
ionized, producing free electrons and areas lacking one or more electrons, called holes.
Imperfections in the crystal lattice structure act as sites where free electrons can become
trapped and locked into place.
Heating the crystal causes the crystal lattice to vibrate, releasing the trapped electrons in
the process. Released electrons return to the original ground state, releasing the captured
energy from ionization as light, hence the name thermo luminescent. Released light is
counted using photomultiplier tubes and the number of photons counted is proportional to
the quantity of radiation striking the phosphor.
Instead of reading the optical density (blackness) of a film, as is done with film badges,
the amount of light released versus the heating of the individual pieces of thermo
luminescent material is measured. The "glow curve" produced by this process is then
related to the radiation exposure. The process can be repeated many times.
117
NOTES
118
NOTES
119

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An ISO 9001:2008 Certified Company Radiography Testing

3. Equipment & Materials

4. Techniques & Calibrations

4.10 Radiograph Interp Welds 62

5. Radiation Quantities & Units

6. Safe use of Radiation

7. Radiation Safety Equipment

1.1 History of Radiography

X-rays were discovered in 1895 by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen (1845-

Roentgen's discovery was a scientific bombshell, and was received

In 1922, industrial radiography took another step

A Second Source of Radiation

accumulation of quantitative dose-response data that enables health physicists to specify

1.2 Present State of Radiography

Addressing Health Concerns

1.3 Future Direction of Radiographic Education

Radiographers of the future will capture images in

2.1 Nature of Penetrating Radiation

Properties of X-Rays and Gamma Rays

They can be diffracted to a small degree at interfaces between two different

2.1.2 Bremsstrahlung Radiation

X-ray tubes produce x-ray photons by accelerating a stream of electrons to energies of

2.1.3 K-shell Emission Radiation

2.2 Gamma Radiation

Types Radiation Produced by Radioactive Decay

2.3 Activity of Radionuclides

The concentration of radioactivity, or the relationship between the mass of radioactive

2.4 Isotope Decay Rate (Half-Life)

Each radionuclide decays at its own

reverted to a more stable state material. Half-lives of radionuclides range from

As penetrating radiation moves from

The various types of penetrating

2.6 Newton's Inverse Square Law

2.7 Interaction between Penetrating Radiation and Matter

When x-rays or gamma rays are directed

The formula that describes this curve is:

2.8 Transmitted Intensity and Linear Attenuation Coefficient

Where: dI = the change in intensity

When this equation is integrated, it becomes:

Where: I = the intensity of photons transmitted across some distance x

The Linear Attenuation Coefficient (m)

2.9 Half-Value Layer

The thickness of any given material where

The HVL is inversely proportional to the

Therefore, the HVL and m are related as follows:

The HVL is often used in radiography simply

Half-Value Layer, mm (inch)

Half-Value Layer, mm (inch)

Peak Voltage (kVp) Lead Concrete

50 0.06 (0.002) 4.32 (0.170)

2.10 Sources of Attenuation

Summary of different mechanisms that cause attenuation of an incident x-ray beam

Photoelectric (PE) absorption of x-rays occurs

Compton scattering (C) occurs when the incident

Pair production (PP) can occur when the x-

Thomson scattering (R), also known as

Photodisintegration (PD) is the process

Effect of Photon Energy on Attenuation

detection of a given discontinuity. An understanding of absorption is also necessary when

2.10.1 Compton Scattering

As mentioned on the previous page, Compton

The change in wavelength of the scattered photon is given by:

Where: l = wavelength of incident x-ray photon