BAHAGIAN 1

a) Terangkan secara
ringkas ,

i) pengoptimuman matematik ,

ii) maksimum I minimum global,

iii) maksimum I minimum lokal.

Anda boleh menggunakan gambarajah untuk menjelaskan jawapan

anda.

b) Peta Pemikiran adalah alat pembelajaran visual. Setiap peta

adalah berdasarkan kepada proses pemikiran asas, seperti kuantiti
, penjujukan , mengelas, membandingkan dan membezakan, dan
boleh digunakan bersama-sama sebagai satu set alat untuk
menunjukkan hubungan. Bina sekurang-kurangnya satu peta i-
Think, menunjukkan pelbagai cara untuk mencari nilai maksimum
atau minimum suatu fungsi kuadratik. Sertakan contoh yang
berkaitan.

INTRODUCTION

In mathematics , the maximum and minimum of a function, known collectively as

extrema are the largest and smallest value that the function takes at a point
either within a given neighbourhood (local or relative extremum) or on the function
domain in its entirety (global or absolute extremum). Pierre de Fermat was one of
the first mathematicians to propose a general technique (called adequality) for
finding maxima and minima.To locate extreme values is the basic objective of
optimization.

PART I

a) Describe briefly ,

i) mathematical optimization ,

ii) global maximum I minimum ,

iii) local maximum I minimum.

You may use diagram to illustrate your answer.

 b) Thinking maps are visual learning tools. Each map is based on fundamental
thinking process, such as a quantity, sequencing, classifying, comparing
and contrasting, and can be used together as a set of tools for showing
relationships. Create at least one
i- Think map to show various methods in finding the maximum or minimum value
of a quadratic function . Include examples .

Answers:

Mathematical optimization (alternatively, optimization or mathematical programming) is

the selection of a best element (with regard to some criteria) from some set of available
alternatives.[1]

In the simplest case, an optimization problem consists of maximizing or minimizing a real

function by systematically choosing input values from within an allowed set and computing the
value of the function. The generalization of optimization theory and techniques to other
formulations comprises a large area of applied mathematics. More generally, optimization
includes finding "best available" values of some objective function given a defined domain (or a
set of constraints), including a variety of different types of objective functions and different types
of domains.

Finding maxima and minima

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxima_and_minima

Finding global maxima and minima is the goal of optimization. If the function is defined over a
closed domain, then by the extreme value theorem global maxima and minima exist.
Furthermore, a global maximum (or minimum) must be either a local maximum (or minimum) in
the interior of the domain, or it must lie on the boundary of the domain. So a method of finding a
global maximum (or minimum) is to look at all the local maxima (or minima) in the interior, and
also look at the maxima (or minima) of the points on the boundary; and take the biggest (or
smallest) one.

For twice-differentiable functions in one variable, a simple technique for finding local maxima
and minima is to look for stationary points, which are points where the first derivative is zero. If
the second derivative at a stationary point is positive, the point is a local minimum; if it is
negative, the point is a local maximum; if it is zero, further investigation is required.

For any function that is defined piecewise, you can find maxima (or minima) by finding the
maxima (or minima) of each piece separately; and then seeing which one is biggest (or smallest).

Examples

The function x2 has a unique global minimum at x = 0.

The function x3 has no global or local minima or maxima. Although the first
derivative (3x2) is 0 at x = 0, the second derivative (6x) is also 0.
 The function x3/ 3 - x has first derivative x2 1 and second derivative 2x.
Setting the first derivative to 0 and solving for x gives stationary points at -1
and +1. From the sign of the second derivative we can see that -1 is a local
maximum and +1 is a local minimum. Note that this function has no global
maxima or minima.

The function |x| has a global minimum at x = 0 that cannot be found by

taking derivatives, because the derivative does not exist at x = 0.

The function cos(x) has infinitely many global maxima at 0, 2, 4, ..., and
infinitely many global minima at , 3, ... .

The function 2cos(x) - x has infinitely many local maxima and minima, but no
global maxima or minima.

The function x3 + 3x2 2x + 1 defined over the closed interval (segment) [-

4,2] (see graph) has two extrema: one local minimum in

one local maximum in

A global maximum on x=2 and a global minimum on x=-4.

A graph illustrating local min/max and global min/max points

PENEROKAAN LANJUT

Pengaturcaraan Linear, atau kadang-kadang dikenali sebagai Pengoptimuman

Linear adalah satu kaedah untuk mencapai hasil yang terbaik (maksimum
atau minimum) dalam model matematik yang mana keperluannya diwakili
 oleh perhubungan linear.

(a) Jalankan satu kajian tentang Pengatucaraan Linear dan kemudian

tuliskan penemuan anda. Anda boleh muatkan aspek-aspek sejarah dan
kepentingannya kepada situasi kehidupan sebenar. Anda juga perlu
memberi sekurang-kurangnya dua contoh bagaimana Pengaturcaraan
Linear diaplikasikan dalam pelbagai bidang pengaj ian.

Answer
History Of Linear Programming

The 1940s was a time of innovation and reformation of how products were
made, both to make things more efficient and to make a better-quality
product. The second world war was going on at the time and the army
needed a way to plan expenditures and returns in order to reduce costs and
increase losses for the enemy. George B. Dantzig is the founder of the
simplex method of linear programming, but it was kept secret and was not
published until 1947 since it was being used as a war-time strategy. But once
it was released, many industries also found the method to be highly
valuable. Another person who played a key role in the development of linear
programming is John von Neumann, who developed the theory of the duality
and Leonid Kantorovich, a Russian mathematician who used similar
techniques in economics before Dantzig and won the Nobel prize in 1975 in
economics.

Dantzig's original example of finding the best assignment of 70 people to 70

jobs emphasizes the praticality of linear programming. The computing power
required to test all possible combinations to select the best assignment is
quite large. However, it takes only a moment to find the optimum solution by
modeling problem as a linear program and applying the simplex algorithm.
The theory behind linear programming is to drastically reduce the number of
possible optimal solutions that must be checked.

In the years from the time when it was first proposed in 1947 by Dantzig,
linear programming and its many forms have come into wide use worldwide.
LP has become popular in academic circles, for decision scientists
(operations researchers and management scientists), as well as numerical
analysts, mathematicians, and economists who have written hundreds of
books and many more papers on the subject. Though it is so common now, it
was unknown to the public prior to 1947. Actually, several researchers
developed the idea in the past. Fourier in 1823 and the well-known Belgian
mathematician de la Valle Poussin in 1911 each wrote a paper describing
today's linear programming methods, but it never made its way into
mainstream use. A paper by Hitchcock in 1941 on a transportation problem
was also overlooked until the late 1940s and early 1950s. It seems the
reason linear programming failed to catch on in the past was lack of interest
in optimizing.

Linear programming can be viewed as part of a great revolutionary

development which has given mankind the ability to state general goals and
to lay out a path of detailed decisions to take in order to 'best' achieve its
goals when faced with practical situations of great complexity. Our tools for
doing this are ways to formulate real-world problems in detailed
mathematical terms (models), techniques for solving the models
(algorithms), and engines for executing the steps of algorithms (computers
and software).

Example Application of Linear Programming in Real-Life

Airlines

The airline industry uses linear programming to optimize profits and

minimize expenses in their business. Initially, airlines charged the same
price for any seat on the aircraft. In order to make money, they decided to
charge different fares for different seats and promoted different prices
depending on how early you bought your ticket. This required some linear
programming. Airlines needed to consider how many people would be
willing to pay a higher price for a ticket if they were able to book their flight
at the last minute and have substantial flexibility in their schedule and flight
times. The airline also needed to know how many people would only
purchase a low price ticket, without an in-flight meal. Through linear
programming, airlines were able to find the optimal breakdown of how many
tickets to sell at which price, including various prices in between.

Airlines also need to consider plane routes, pilot schedules, direct and in-
direct flights, and layovers. There are certain standards that require pilots to
sleep for so many hours and to have so many days rest before flying.
Airlines want to maximize the amount of time that their pilots are in the air,
as well. Pilots have certain specializations, as not all pilots are able to fly the
same planes, so this also becomes a factor. The most controllable factor an
airline has is its pilots salary, so it is important that airlines use their
optimization teams to keep this expense as low as possible. Because all of
these constraints must be considered when making economic decisions
about the airline, linear programming becomes a crucial job.

Contoh2 Lain. Banyak lagi contoh-contoh lain yang menggunakan Linear

Programming ni. Termasuklah
 The military

Capital budgeting

Designing diets

Conservation of resources

Economic growth prediction

Transportation systems (busses, trains, etc.)

Strategic games (e.g. chess)

Factory manufacturing

All of these industries rely on the intricate mathematics of linear

programming. Even farmers use linear programming to increase the revenue
of their operations, like what to grow, how much of it, and what to use it for.
Amusement parks use linear programming to make decisions about queue
lines. Linear programming is an important part of operations research and
continues to make the world more economically efficient.