Table Of Contents

1. .Introduction
2.What Is The Internet?
3.History Of The Internet

4.How Does The Internet Work?

5.Structure Of The Internet

6.How Internet Infrastructure Works

7.Conclusion

8. References:
 INTERNET STRUCTURE

1.INTRODUCTION

One of the greatest things about the Internet is that nobody really owns it. It
is a global collection of networks, both big and small. These networks
connect together in many different ways to form the single entity that we
know as the Internet. In fact, the very name comes from this idea of
interconnected networks.

Since its beginning in 1969, the Internet has grown from four host computer
systems to tens of millions. However, just because nobody owns the Internet,
it doesn't mean it is not monitored and maintained in different ways. The
Internet Society, a non-profit group established in 1992, oversees the
formation of the policies and protocols that define how we use and interact
with the Internet.

In this article, you will learn about the basic underlying structure of the
Internet. You will learn about domain name servers, network access points
and backbones. But first you will learn about how your computer connects to
others.

2.WHAT IS THE INTERNET?

The Internet is basically a large computer network that links together

smaller networks to each other. This can then be sub divided into two types,

Clients: These are computers that are similar to yours or mine.

Servers (hosts): These are the computers that store and provide the
information for example Eircom, Ocean free etc.
3.HISTORY OF THE INTERNET:

The Internet has revolutionized the world as we know it today. Every facet of
our lives has been touched by this relatively new means of communication or
is it as new as we may think.

How did the Internet develop:

The theory and foresight into the Internet was dreamt up way back in the
early sixties when Leonard Kleinrock published the first paper on packet
switching theory. Packet switching means that each message would be
divided into packets each packet would be sent individually and join up once
the address was reached. But it wasn't until later that the theory behind this
revolutionary idea was put into practice. ARPA ( Advanced Research
Agency ) commissioned by the US department of defence set out to design a
common way of connecting to any computer, and its initial purpose was to
link military and research computer systems in a fail safe network it was
hoped to link a network of computers in different geographical locations that
would not be disabled should a nuclear attack happen,in 1969 work started
on constructing a single network that was intended to connect universities
and research institutions. ARPAnets first four nodes (computers) were linked
using cables that ran at 50 kilobits per second. At first ARPAnet was just one
network that connected lots of computers but it wasn't until 1974 that
Vincent Cerf and Bob Kahn found a way "protocol" to connect various
networks of which ARPANET was one to link together and enable each
network to swop data.
They called this "transmission control Protocol" but it was refined to TCP/IP
which Made separate jobs of delivering data to the correct part of the
net.These protocols tell computers how to locate and exchange data with
one another The Internet basic protocols remain mainly unchanged today.

4.HOW DOES THE INTERNET WORK?

The Internet is not something that you can actually see. Any computer that
is connected to the Internet is part of a network, including personal
computers connected at home. The link is like a special line that is kept
open by the servers computer. When you connect to your ISP(Internet
Service Provider) you then become part of their network. This network in turn
connects to a larger network and becomes part of their network and so on.
The Internet is basically a network of networks.

When information is sent or received on the Internet it is initially broken

down into smaller pieces called packets. Each packet is passed from server
to server until it reaches its destination. Every machine on the Internet has a
unique identifying number that is called an IP address. The IP stands for
Internet Protocol, which is the language used by computers to communicate
over the Internet. A typical IP address looks like this 216.27.61.137 this is
how it looks to a human but for a computer the same address would read like
this 110111000.00011011.00111101.10001001.

Below is a graphical representation of the hierarchy that makes up

the Internet.

HEIRARCHY OF INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDERS

Network Access Providers(NAPS)

(Sell access to)

Commerce Service Providers(CSPs)and Internet Service Providers(ISPs)

(Sell access to)

Large Business and Organisations
Smaller ISPs

(Sell
access to)

Smaller Businesses and

Organisations Individuals

5.STRUCTURE OF THE INTERNET

The Structure of the Internet is a collection of many computer networks and

individual computer units interconnected via routers. Each fragment of a
computer network is able to act independently.
The structure of the Internet allows to substitute dead connection with
another, which does not disable the network from the Internet. If, one of our
routers is damaged or turned off, his duties will assume immediately another.
The entire network will work without a router that has failed (figure below).
This rule has been adopted since the beginning of the history of the Internet.
Among the network of computers, there are two known types: servers and
clients. A server is a computer that provides its resources with other
computers on the network. The client is a computer that uses the resources
located on servers.
The Structure of the Internet is based on a set of protocols, that allows a hit
in its original form data from one network to another. Internet protocol,
depending on its structure is responsible for such activities as:
- validation of sending data,
- traffic control information.

The Internet Protocol Suite, TCP/IP, is a suite of protocols used for

communication over the internet. The TCP/IP model was created after the OSI
7 layer model for two major reasons. First, the foundation of the Internet was
built using the TCP/IP suite and through the spread of the World Wide Web
and Internet, TCP/IP has been preferred. Second, a project researched by the
Department of Defense (DOD) consisted of creating the TCP/IP protocols. The
DODs goal was to bring international standards which could not be met by
the OSI model. Since the DOD was the largest software consumer and they
preferred the TCP/IP suite, most vendors used this model rather than the OSI.
The TCP/IP model, similar to the OSI model, is comprised of layers. The OSI
has seven layers and the TCP/IP model has four or five layers depending on
different preferences. Some people use the Application, Transport, Internet
and Network Access layers. Others split the Network Access layer into the
Physical and Data Link components.

Application layer is comparable to the application, presentation, and

session layers of the OSI model all combined into one. It provides a way for
applications to have access to networked services. This layer also contains
the high level protocols. The main issue with this layer is the ability to use
both TCP1 and UDP2 protocols. For example TFTP3 uses UDP because usually
on a LAN4 the physical links are short enough to ensure quick and reliable
packet delivery without many errors. SMTP5 instead uses TCP because of the
error checking capabilities. Since we consider our email important
information we would like to ensure a safe delivery.

Transport layer acts as the delivery service used by the application layer.
Again the two protocols used are TCP and UDP. The choice is made based on
the applications transmission reliability requirements. The transport layer
also handles all error detection and recovery. It uses checksums,
acknowledgements, and timeouts to control transmissions and end to end
verification. Unlike the OSI model, TCP/IP treats reliability as an end-to-end
problem.

Internet layer is responsible for routing and delivery of data and is the key
component of this architecture. It allows communication across networks of
the same and different types and carries out translations to deal with
dissimilar data addressing schemes. It inject packets into any network and
deliver them to the destination independently to one another. Because the
path through the network is not predetermined, the packets may be received
out of order. The upper layers are responsible for the reordering of the data.
This layer can be compared to the network layer of the OSI model. IP and
ARP6 are the major protocols used at this layer.

Network access layer is a combination of the Data Link and Physical layers
of the OSI model which consists of the actual hardware. This includes wires,
network interface cards, etc. Other related details within this layer are
connectors, signal strength, and wavelength along with various others. It will
use the required LAN operating algorithms, such as Carrier Sense Multiple
Access with Collision Detect (CMSA/CD)7 or IBM Token Passing8 etc. and is
responsible for placing the data within a frame. The frame format is
dependent on the system being used, for example Ethernet LAN, Frame
relay9, etc. The frame is the package that holds the data, in the same way as
an envelope holds a letter. The frame holds the hardware address of the host
and checking algorithms for data integrity. This layer has actually not been
specified in details because it depends on which technology is being used
such as Ethernet. So freedom is given to this layer as far as implementation
is concerned.

IP (Internet Protocol) is a network protocol for transmitting data

corresponding to different networks of computers. The IP number is
presented as the number of units individuals assigned to a single computer
or individuals to a network of computers, used to identify the unit. IP address
is not assigned to a physical computer, and can be changed at every
entrance to the Internet.
The current standard IPV4 is usually separated into 4 tuples or bytes, such
as 171.154.188.76, as a dotted decimal. What this means is that if we are
to navigate the Internet to this IP address for some reason, then our network
card will send out packets with that number in them, and a process called
routing will send those packets to that Internet address.

IPv6 is the second version of the Internet Protocol to be used generally

across the virtual world. One of the main upgrades in IPv6 is in the number of
addresses available for networked devices. For example, each mobile phone
or other kind of electronic device can have its own address. IPv6 allows
3.41038 addresses. This is mainly due to the number of bits in each
protocol. IPv4 addresses have 32 bits in them and so allow a maximum of
four billion addresses. Version 6 addresses have 128 bits.

However, IPv4 is still the protocol of choice for most of the Internet. The
transition will be a steady one, and IPv6 is the future of Internet addressing,
mainly because industry experts believe that they are close to running out of
available addresses altogether.

The most important part of the Internet is routing. The device which is
responsible for routing is a router. We can also use a desktop equipped with
the appropriate software for the routing.
If we accept a model, that the Internet is collection of smaller networks
linked together in many different places, then the process of routing, or
sending Internet packets around the Internet is quite simple.
A host/device, can only send messages within its own network. The Internet
and the networks grow in same time, but we must remember that in the past
we were using only modems to communication and they acted as gateways.
Even today if you are on, for example, the Telus network, then you must go
through one of the Telus Internet gateways to see the rest of the Internet.
Even to get out of your home network, you must go through your router to
get out of your house. This process of Internet datagram movement is called
routing.

Each datagram has a source IP address, and a destination IP address in the IP

header information. As a datagram is passed to the gateway (each host
knows who its gateway is), it follows rules as to where it should go. Simply
put, the router, or gateway looks at the packet and says is this destination
IP address in my network, or should I send it off to my gateway?. Obviously
there is much more to it, but at the simplest level, that is really what
happens in a static routing table. There are, of course extremely complex
rules automatically set by protocols such as border gate protocol (BDP) by
higher level upstream providers (Telus, Sprint, etc.) since your destination IP
address may not just be upstream, but may also be downstream somewhere
too.

All this talk about numbers is great for computers, but for us humans not
really.
It is much easier for us to remember a name like mallowcollege.ie than
81.17.250.47.
Names are also useful incase we do something like change all the numbers
on the Internet and make them really hard to remember as will be the as
IPV6 is slowly introduced. IP addresses change, but names are supposed to
be more static changing only when there is a human reason for it.
When it all began, in 1970, all of the computers on the network aware of its
existence, and so on, through a text file named HOSTS.TXT.
This was maintained by one Network Information Centre (NIC). Changes were
emailed to NIC when a new host was added, or one was deleted, and clients
ftped the file to their own host to get the latest version. When ARPAnet
moved to TCP/IP, the population of the Internet exploded, and this scheme no
longer worked.

To solve this problem a database was created called the Domain Name
System. The idea was simple. Computer has a number, and the DNS system
lets you look up that number to find another device on the Internet.
The structure of the hierarchy is that there is one root point, and several
nodes coming off of that root point called top level domains. The root point
is not a single computer, but several core networks possibly separately
corporately owned, but it is simpler to imagine it as a single point.
6.HOW INTERNET INFRASTRUCTURE WORKS

(I). The Internet: Computer Network Hierarchy

Every computer that is connected to the Internet is part of a network, even
the one in your home. For example, you may use a modem and dial a local
number to connect to an Internet Service Provider (ISP). At work, you
may be part of a local area network (LAN), but you most likely still connect
to the Internet using an ISP that your company has contracted with. When
you connect to your ISP, you become part of their network. The ISP may then
connect to a larger network and become part of their network. The Internet is
simply a network of networks.

Most large communications companies have their own dedicated backbones

connecting various regions. In each region, the company has a Point of
Presence (POP). The POP is a place for local users to access the company's
network, often through a local phone number or dedicated line. The amazing
thing here is that there is no overall controlling network. Instead, there are
several high-level networks connecting to each other through Network
Access Points or NAP

(II).Internet Network Example

Here's an example. Imagine that Company A is a large ISP. In each major
city, Company A has a POP. The POP in each city is a rack full of modems that
the ISP's customers dial into. Company A leases fiber optic lines from the
phone company to connect the POPs together
Imagine that Company B is a corporate ISP. Company B builds large buildings
in major cities and corporations locate their Internet server machines in
these buildings. Company B is such a large company that it runs its own fiber
optic lines between its buildings so that they are all interconnected.

In this arrangement, all of Company A's customers can talk to each other,
and all of Company B's customers can talk to each other, but there is no way
for Company A's customers and Company B's customers to
intercommunicate. Therefore, Company A and Company B both agree to
connect to NAPs in various cities, and traffic between the two companies
flows between the networks at the NAPs.

In the real Internet, dozens of large Internet providers interconnect at NAPs

in various cities, and trillions of bytes of data flow between the individual
networks at these points. The Internet is a collection of huge corporate
networks that agree to all intercommunicate with each other at the NAPs. In
this way, every computer on the Internet connects to every other.

(III).The Function of an Internet Router

All of these networks rely on NAPs, backbones and routers to talk to each
other. What is incredible about this process is that a message can leave one
computer and travel halfway across the world through several different
networks and arrive at another computer in a fraction of a second!

The routers determine where to send information from one computer to

another. Routers are specialized computers that send your messages and
those of every other Internet user speeding to their destinations along
thousands of pathways. A router has two separate, but related, jobs:

It ensures that information doesn't go where it's not needed. This is

crucial for keeping large volumes of data from clogging the
connections of "innocent bystanders."

It makes sure that information does make it to the intended

destination.

In performing these two jobs, a router is extremely useful in dealing with two
separate computer networks. It joins the two networks, passing information
from one to the other. It also protects the networks from one another,
preventing the traffic on one from unnecessarily spilling over to the other.
Regardless of how many networks are attached, the basic operation and
function of the router remains the same. Since the Internet is one huge
network made up of tens of thousands of smaller networks, its use of routers
is an absolute necessity.

(IV).Internet Backbone
The National Science Foundation (NSF) created the first high-speed
backbone in 1987. Called NSFNET, it was a T1 line that connected 170
smaller networks together and operated at 1.544 Mbps (million bits per
second). IBM, MCI and Merit worked with NSF to create the backbone and
developed a T3 (45 Mbps) backbone the following year.

Backbones are typically fiber optic trunk lines. The trunk line has multiple
fiber optic cables combined together to increase the capacity. Fiber optic
cables are designated OC for optical carrier, such as OC-3, OC-12 or OC-48.
An OC-3 line is capable of transmitting 155 Mbps while an OC-48 can
transmit 2,488 Mbps (2.488 Gbps). Compare that to a typical 56K modem
transmitting 56,000 bps and you see just how fast a modern backbone is.

Today there are many companies that operate their own high-capacity
backbones, and all of them interconnect at various NAPs around the world. In
this way, everyone on the Internet, no matter where they are and what
company they use, is able to talk to everyone else on the planet. The entire
Internet is a gigantic, sprawling agreement between companies to
intercommunicate freely.

(V).Internet Protocol: IP Addresses

Every machine on the Internet has a unique identifying number, called an IP
Address. The IP stands for Internet Protocol, which is the language that
computers use to communicate over the Internet. A protocol is the pre-
defined way that someone who wants to use a service talks with that service.
The "someone" could be a person, but more often it is a computer program
like a Web browser.

A typical IP address looks like this: 216.27.61.137.

To make it easier for us humans to remember, IP addresses are normally

expressed in decimal format as a dotted decimal number like the one above.
But computers communicate in binary form. Look at the same IP address in
binary: 11011000.00011011.00111101.10001001.

The four numbers in an IP address are called octets, because they each
have eight positions when viewed in binary form. If you add all the positions
together, you get 32, which is why IP addresses are considered 32-bit
numbers. Since each of the eight positions can have two different states (1
or zero), the total number of possible combinations per octet is 28 or 256. So
each octet can contain any value between zero and 255. Combine the four
octets and you get 232 or a possible 4,294,967,296 unique values!

Out of the almost 4.3 billion possible combinations, certain values are
restricted from use as typical IP addresses. For example, the IP address
0.0.0.0 is reserved for the default network and the address 255.255.255.255
is used for broadcasts.

The octets serve a purpose other than simply separating the numbers. They
are used to create classes of IP addresses that can be assigned to a
particular business, government or other entity based on size and need. The
octets are split into two sections: Net and Host. The Net section always
contains the first octet. It is used to identify the network that a computer
belongs to. Host (sometimes referred to as Node) identifies the actual
computer on the network. The Host section always contains the last octet.
There are five IP classes plus certain special addresses.

(VI).Internet Protocol: Domain Name System

When the Internet was in its infancy, it consisted of a small number of
computers hooked together with modems and telephone lines. You could
only make connections by providing the IP address of the computer you
wanted to establish a link with. For example, a typical IP address might be
216.27.22.162. This was fine when there were only a few hosts out there, but
it became unwieldy as more and more systems came online.

The first solution to the problem was a simple text file maintained by the
Network Information Center that mapped names to IP addresses. Soon this
text file became so large it was too cumbersome to manage. In 1983, the
University of Wisconsin created the Domain Name System (DNS), which
maps text names to IP addresses automatically.

(VII).URL: Uniform Resource Locator

When you use the Web or send an e-mail message, you use a domain name
to do it. For example, the Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
"http://www.howstuffworks.com" contains the domain name
howstuffworks.com. So does this e-mail address:
example@howstuffworks.com. Every time you use a domain name, you use
the Internet's DNS servers to translate the human-readable domain name
into the machine-readable IP address. Check out How Domain Name Servers
Work for more in-depth information on DNS.

Top-level domain names, also called first-level domain names, include

.COM, .ORG, .NET, .EDU and .GOV. Within every top-level domain there is a
huge list of second-level domains. For example, in the .COM first-level
domain there is:

HowStuffWorks

Yahoo

Microsoft

Every name in the .COM top-level domain must be unique. The left-most
word, like www, is the host name. It specifies the name of a specific machine
(with a specific IP address) in a domain. A given domain can, potentially,
contain millions of host names as long as they are all unique within that
domain.

DNS servers accept requests from programs and other name servers to
convert domain names into IP addresses. When a request comes in, the DNS
server can do one of four things with it:

1. It can answer the request with an IP address because it already knows

the IP address for the requested domain.

2. It can contact another DNS server and try to find the IP address for the
name requested. It may have to do this multiple times.

3. It can say, "I don't know the IP address for the domain you requested,
but here's the IP address for a DNS server that knows more than I do."

4. It can return an error message because the requested domain name is

invalid or does not exist.

(VIII).A DNS Example

Let's say that you type the URL www.howstuffworks.com into your browser.
The browser contacts a DNS server to get the IP address. A DNS server would
start its search for an IP address by contacting one of the root DNS
servers. The root servers know the IP addresses for all of the DNS servers
that handle the top-level domains (.COM, .NET, .ORG, etc.). Your DNS server
would ask the root for www.howstuffworks.com, and the root would say, "I
don't know the IP address for www.howstuffworks.com, but here's the IP
address for the .COM DNS server."

Your name server then sends a query to the .COM DNS server asking it if it
knows the IP address for www.howstuffworks.com. The DNS server for the
COM domain knows the IP addresses for the name servers handling the
www.howstuffworks.com domain, so it returns those.

Your name server then contacts the DNS server for www.howstuffworks.com
and asks if it knows the IP address for www.howstuffworks.com. It actually
does, so it returns the IP address to your DNS server, which returns it to the
browser, which can then contact the server for www.howstuffworks.com to
get a Web page.

One of the keys to making this work is redundancy. There are multiple DNS
servers at every level, so that if one fails, there are others to handle the
requests. The other key is caching. Once a DNS server resolves a request, it
caches the IP address it receives. Once it has made a request to a root DNS
server for any .COM domain, it knows the IP address for a DNS server
handling the .COM domain, so it doesn't have to bug the root DNS servers
again for that information. DNS servers can do this for every request, and
this caching helps to keep things from bogging down.

Even though it is totally invisible, DNS servers handle billions of requests

every day and they are essential to the Internet's smooth functioning. The
fact that this distributed database works so well and so invisibly day in and
day out is a testimony to the design.

(IX).Internet Servers and Clients

Internet servers make the Internet possible. All of the machines on the
Internet are either servers or clients. The machines that provide services to
other machines are servers. And the machines that are used to connect to
those services are clients. There are Web servers, e-mail servers, FTP servers
and so on serving the needs of Internet users all over the world.

When you connect to www.howstuffworks.com to read a page, you are a user

sitting at a client's machine. You are accessing the HowStuffWorks Web
server. The server machine finds the page you requested and sends it to you.
Clients that come to a server machine do so with a specific intent, so clients
direct their requests to a specific software server running on the server
machine. For example, if you are running a Web browser on your machine, it
will want to talk to the Web server on the server machine, not the e-mail
server.

A server has a static IP address that does not change very often. A home
machine that is dialing up through a modem, on the other hand, typically has
an IP address assigned by the ISP every time you dial in. That IP address is
unique for your session -- it may be different the next time you dial in. This
way, an ISP only needs one IP address for each modem it supports, rather
than one for each customer.

(X).Ports and HTTP

Any server machine makes its services available using numbered ports -- one
for each service that is available on the server. For example, if a server
machine is running a Web server and a file transfer protocol (FTP) server, the
Web server would typically be available on port 80, and the FTP server would
be available on port 21. Clients connect to a service at a specific IP address
and on a specific port number.

Once a client has connected to a service on a particular port, it accesses the

service using a specific protocol. Protocols are often text and simply describe
how the client and server will have their conversation. Every Web server on
the Internet conforms to the hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP).

(7).CONCLUSION

Networks, routers, NAPs, ISPs, DNS and powerful servers all make the
Internet possible. It is truly amazing when you realize that all this information
is sent around the world in a matter of milliseconds! The components are
extremely important in modern life -- without them, there would be no
Internet. And without the Internet, life would be very different indeed for
many of us
(8). REFERENCES:

http://computer.howstuffworks.com/internet/basics/internet-
infrastructure.htm

http://internethistory.eu/index.php/structure-of-the-internet/

http://internethistory.eu/index.php/internet-history/

http://homepage.eircom.net/~vtoswaterford/Ann
%20Maire/structure_of_the_internet.htm

http://homepage.eircom.net/~vtoswaterford/Ann
%20Maire/History_of_Internet.html