Bendickson 1

Kaitlyn Bendickson

Ms. Demmer-Freeman

Honors EN II

13 December 2016

Research Paper

Biology Revolution: CRISPR-Cas9

A worldwide fire is catching. Gene drive flames lick at almost every countrys door. A

gene drive is a targeted contagion intended to spread within a species, forever altering the

offspring. (Saey) Gene drive: a way to modify the DNA of an entire species of organism. These

so called gene drives have been researched for about 40 years, and the recent discovery of

CRISPR-Cas9 offers a fast and easy process to accomplish a gene drive. CRISPR-Cas9, having

been under development for the past five years, can cheaply edit the overwhelming majority of

organisms, in contrast to the past gene editing systems specific to one. (Saey) This system has

caught fire in the science world, becoming part of many biologists research. Though risky, the

CRISPR-Cas9 system is evolving and scientists are accomplishing great work with its help. The

flames are rising, and the CRISPR-Cas9 system is working.

The Past of Gene Modification

In the past, gene modification has been researched and processes have been created, but

none are as effective as CRISPR-Cas9. More than 40 years ago, scientists discovered how to take

genes from one organism and insert them into another organism. This DNA modification was

used mainly for plants, but was sometimes used minorly in animals. (Specter) An idea was

sparked in the minds of scientists to create a way for gene alteration to be passed down through

generations of plants and animals, unlike the stagnant modification of the original processes.
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Processes meant to alter an entire species, called gene drives, were researched, and found to be

possible. Though they were possible, they were thought to be too complicated and were not

implemented. This was the case until one man, Austin Burt, made a breakthrough in the process

of gene editing. As an evolutionary geneticist, Austin Burt has used selfish genetic elements as

his sole research subject during his time at Imperial College London. Selfish genetic elements

are DNA and RNA that do not have any purpose besides multiplying, ignoring the rules of

genetic inheritance by almost always appearing in offspring. Burt presented the idea of using

selfish genetic elements to create a gene drive with almost a 100% guarantee of being passed

down through generations of organisms. Combining a selfish element with a gene, then inserting

the combination into an organism, has proven useful in causing the gene drive to become

hereditary. In Burts gene drive, an organism passes its edited DNA to its mate, then to its

offspring. Because of this easy transfer, a gene drive has the potential to insert itself into an

entire species extraordinarily quickly. (Saey) Burt had an important idea in using selfish

elements; his process was finally able to be put into action in 2012, when a new aspect of

bacteria was discovered and found to be extremely useful for fast, easy gene editing. This new

process is called CRISPR. (Wahlberg) Discovering CRISPR revolutionized biology and the

possibility of successful gene drives. After this discovery, CRISPR and gene drives became more

fervently researched, as scientists knew CRISPR made the gene drive process more easily

possible.

How CRISPR-Cas9 Works

Scientists and researchers had never before seen this new bacterial process called

CRISPR. CRISPR is a safeguard for bacteria to keep out harmful viruses. (Achenbach 17) In

full, CRISPR is an acronym meaning clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats.
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(Saey) Basically, CRISPR involves DNA with a continuous identical pattern, containing spacer

DNA in between each sequence. Spacer DNA is simply DNA that does not code for a specific

trait, but is instead only taking up space, similar to Burts selfish elements. An enzyme called

Cas9 that cuts out unwanted DNA viruses, the function of the CRISPR process, was also found

in bacteria. Scientists found that pairing CRISPR with the Cas9 enzyme, in a process now known

as CRISPR-Cas9, could be used to specifically edit an organisms DNA structure. (Specter) In

the CRISPR-Cas9 gene drive system, first, an RNA molecule leads the Cas9 enzyme to the

nucleotides on the DNA strand that need to be cut. Then, the Cas9 enzyme cuts the strand,

followed by the insertion of the new nucleotides. (Specter) Once the gene drive is executed into

one organism, the organism passes its altered DNA to its mate and offspring then down through

generations, until it is finally present in the entire species. (Specter) Though the process may

sound complicated, when broken down, CRISPR-Cas9 is not only simple but relatively cheap.

Because of its easy and practical process, CRISPR-Cas9 is changing the lab practices of

scientists and researchers worldwide.

Risk and Possible Consequences

The CRISPR-Cas9 system is risky; scientists from around the world agree. In December

of 2015, these scientists came together in Washington to discuss the ethics and risks of CRISPR-

Cas9. (Specter) Also in 2015, the U.S. National Academy of Sciences was asked to give a report

on gene drives, as some interested organizations wondered about the ethics of the process and the

potential risk involved. (Saey) As gene drives are becoming more researched, so the risks are

being uncovered. Though CRISPR-Cas9 could revolutionize modern biology, the release of gene

drives could cause consequences no scientist wants to bring about. Scientists have a way to

control a gene drive in the lab, but once it is released, the gene drive cannot be controlled. If
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accidentally spread to an unintended organism, it would bring harm to that species. Scientists are

currently wary in releasing gene drives until they are positive the danger can be avoided. (Saey)

Besides danger to plants and animals, gene drives have been presented as a danger to humans in

the form of a weapon of mass destruction. Wildlife could be purposely decimated, causing the

life of humans to also be in jeopardy. Though extreme, this theory does give scientists something

to think about. A more probable consequence is the use of easy gene editing for human cosmetic

enhancements. Researchers are afraid that CRISPR-Cas9 will be used in a way similar to the

effects of the eugenics movement of the early 1900s, an idea that humans should undergo

selective breeding to produce children with desirable characteristics. (Achenbach) All of these

concerns must be taken into account as scientists continue their research of the possibility of

gene drives and gene editing.

What Has Been Accomplished

Despite the threat of consequences, scientists still constantly research and achieve

breakthroughs in the process of gene modification. In 2015, researchers in China announced that

they had used the CRISPR-Cas9 system to alter a non viable, or unable to grow, human embryo.

(Achenbach) After hearing the report concerning this development, scientists agreed not to create

babies whose genomes have been directly edited, as it is now considered unethical and

unnecessary. (Timeline) The system has been used and proven itself to be helpful for animals

and plants, though, and scientists agree that editing plants and animals is accepted. CRISPR-

Cas9 was recently used to care for mice with muscular dystrophy. This development has caused

scientists to believe that with this method, someday muscular dystrophy can be treated in

humans. (Wahlberg) Besides mice, a large subject of gene editing research has been mosquitoes.

Mosquitoes cause many problems by transmitting harmful diseases to humans and animals.
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Scientists have so far been able to alter the DNA of one species of mosquito so that it cannot

spread deadly malaria. (Specter) Though scientists have not cleared most gene drives, in April of

2016, the first CRISPR-Cas9 gene drive, the modification of the white-button mushroom, was

released. The mushroom was modified to keep from browning. (Wahlberg) Another plant, the

tomato, has been edited in China to stay ripe longer by using CRISPR-Cas9 to delete genes that

control how the tomatoes ripen. (Specter) As is seen in the high number of achievements, the

CRISPR-Cas9 system has proven effective in fast, easy gene modification.

The Future

All of these accomplishments have led scientists to become optimistic about the future of

gene editing. Scientists hope to use CRISPR-Cas9 in a number of circumstances to benefit a

number of organisms. Someday, doctors hope to use CRISPR-Cas9 to prevent diseases in

humans by editing one parents contribution to a child, for example a fathers sperm, which

would not alter genetic lineage, meaning only the one child would possess the change. (Specter)

Scientists have noticed that humans on the list for organ transplants often do not get the

necessary transplant, because an organ is not available to them. Pigs organs have been

determined the closest to humans, but they carry harmful diseases. However close a pigs organ

is to a humans, the harm its disease would cause is not worth the risk. Biologists are using

CRISPR-Cas9 to edit the genes of pigs so that their organs do not carry the diseases. According

to George Church, a Harvard Medical School professor, a pig's organs could be seen in human

organ transplants possibly in the next one to two years. (Specter) As another large benefit to

humans, scientists and doctors hope to perfect using the CRISPR-Cas9 system as a cure for HIV

and AIDS in human cells. (Specter) The system is also hoped to someday be used to make mice

resistant to lyme disease, which is transmitted to humans by ticks. This possible future gene drive
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will not be released until scientists have public approval and an antidote in the form of another

gene drive, in case of unintended problems. (Specter) Mosquitoes will continue to be candidates

for genetic modification, as the diseases they carry can be deadly. The Food and Drug

Administration wants to release mosquitoes with modified DNA to protect against the Zika virus

in the form of a gene drive, but will not go through with the gene drive until until the risk is less.

(Wahlberg) Mosquitoes are not deadly to just humans, but are also currently causing fatal harm

to many birds in Hawaii. Ecologists are looking at using the CRISPR-Cas9 system to edit the

genes of mosquitoes so that they no longer carry the diseases that are killing off native Hawaiian

bird species. (Specter) Besides direct and immediate help to organisms, the CRISPR-Cas9

system will also be useful for research. Researchers plan to genetically engineer pigs with high

risk of heart disease in order to research treatments for heart disease in animals. They will use the

pigs to research and determine what treatments are effective. (Wahlberg) A less publicized

process, but just as important to both humans and animals, is the future modification of plants. In

the near future, botanists hope to modify corn, wheat, and rice to produce natural nitrogen

fertilizer. This alteration would lower costs and maintenance for farmers, as they would no

longer have to pay for and apply crop fertilizer. (Wahlberg) Scientists are also currently working

on altering the DNA of crops to keep them from attracting pests, which would lessen the use of

poisonous pesticides that hurt animals. (Specter) CRISPR-Cas9 has already revolutionized

modern science, but scientists and researchers hope to further its influence as more is discovered.

Conclusion

As the CRISPR-Cas9 system improves, so does the science of biology itself. This system

had proven to be beneficial to humans, animals, and plants alike. Though risky, it has
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revolutionized gene modification and genetic research. The future looks bright for genetic

modification. The CRISPR-Cas9 fire is still burning, and the flames are catching.

Reflection

George Orwell wrote the book 1984 as a warning of what could come in the future. His

book warns of a totalitarian government, one that believes it has complete power; power over the

past, power over the future, power over laws, power over war, power over life, and power over

science. The CRISPR-Cas9 system is an example of Orwells warnings becoming a reality.

Biologists are assuming power over every organism by claiming the ability to change the

species DNA. These researchers and scientists are showing signs of the belief that they have

complete power over science and life. The process of gene modification the scientists have

created could lead to the modification of humans for cosmetic improvements, physical

enhancements, and disease prevention. The question, Do humans have the right to change

DNA? emerges. The answer is debated. According to Orwells 1984, humans could potentially

decide that, yes, humans have the right to edit DNA, as they will decide that humans have

complete power over all aspects of life. Orwell warned of this possibility, and scientists must be

careful to avoid replicating the ideas warned of in 1984.

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Works Cited

"A Timeline of Genetic Modification." Technology Review [Cambridge, Mass.]. Student Edition,

Nov.-Dec. 2016, p. 84+.

go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?p=STOM&sw=w&u=4784nshs&v=2.1&id=GALE

%7CA4698508

38&it=r. Accessed 29 Nov. 2016.

Achenbach, Joel. "Faster, Cheaper Way to Alter DNA Points Up Ethics Issues." Washington Post.

SIRS Issues Researcher. 02 Dec. 2015, pp. A.7.

http://sks.sirs.com/webapp/article?artno=0000377334&type=ART Accessed 29 Nov.

2016.

Saey, Tina Hesman. "Gene drives unleashed: CRISPR brings a powerful genetic tool closer to

reality."

Science News. Student Edition, 12 Dec. 2015, p.16+.

go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?p=STOM&sw=w&u=4784nshs&v=2.1&id=GALE

%7CA4376956

19&it=r Accessed 30 Nov. 2016.

Specter, Michael. "How the DNA Revolution Is changing Us." National Geographic. SIRS Issues

Researcher. 01 Aug. 2016, pp.36-55.

http://sks.sirs.com/webapp/article?artno=0000387388&type=ART Accessed 24 Nov.

2016.

Wahlberg, David. "Gene Editing Transforms Biology, Raises Ethical Questions." Wisconsin State

Journal. SIRS Issues Researcher. 08 May 2016, http://sks.sirs.com/webapp/article?

artno=0000383277&type=ART Accessed 05 Dec. 2016.

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