Running Head: ONLINE LEARNING: A COGNITIVE APPROACH

Online Learning: A Cognitive Approach

Jody R. Becker

Western Oregon University

Author Note

Graduate Student at Western Oregon University College of Education

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Jody R. Becker

jody.r.becker@gmail.com
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Abstract
The American Association for Community Colleges (AACC, 2015) reported that community

college enrollment decreased by 3.5 percent from fall 2013 to fall 2014, while a report from The

Instructional Technology Council, a group associated with the AACC, indicated that there was a

4.7 percent increase in online class enrollment for that same year (2015). The retention and

completion rates of online classes and programs are lower than traditional classes and this may

be cause for concern. While enrollment in online classes is increasing the drop and withdrawal

rates in online classes are six to seven times higher than in face to face programs (Boston and

Ice, 2011). Retention in online classes is a growing topic of discussion at community colleges

because online classes may account for most of the growth in this sector in recent years. It is

imperative that course planners and designers are aware of the various components in online

classes that can create a positive, or negative, learning experience for students attending online.

Online classes are different than face to face classes, cognitive load must be considered as

information is designed and presented, and knowledgeable faculty must be hired or trained to

create robust online programs that support retention and completion. If these considerations are

part of online course development processes at community colleges, then the institution will not

only improve the quality of classes they offer, but maintain acceptable retention and completion

rates while simultaneously increasing student enrollment at their college.

Keywords: online learning, cognitive theories, Mayers Theory of Multimedia Cognition,

instructional designers, retention, community college

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Introduction
Retention in online classes is a growing topic of discussion at community colleges and

universities. Oregon's Higher Education Coordinating Commission (HECC) has formally

released the 2016-20 Strategic Plan for higher education and the plan defines six key priorities,

many of which are aimed at student support and completion at community college (Higher

Education Coordinating Commission, 2016). Oregon has made progress toward the states 40-

40-20 goal, yet not all the states populations have experienced equally the benefits of improving

completion rates. The 40-40-20 stemmed from educational reform efforts in 2011 where the

Legislature adopted Senate Bill 253 that aims for 40% of Oregonians to have a baccalaureate

degree or higher, 40% to have an associates degree or certificate in a skilled occupation, and the

remaining 20% to have at least a high school diploma, equivalent, or GED. Colleges are

accountable to their students and the state to implement the best practices possible concerning

retention and completion at their institution. States, as the leading investors in higher education,

have the power and authority to demand more from higher education, and in Oregon, they are

doing just that.

Online classes may account for most of the growth occurring at community colleges in recent

years. The American Association for Community Colleges (AACC, 2015) reported that

community college enrollment decreased by 3.5 percent from fall 2013 to fall 2014, while a

report from The Instructional Technology Council, a group associated with the AACC, indicated

that there was a 4.7 percent increase in online class enrollment for that same year (2015).

Enrollment in online classes may be increasing, however, this is cause for concern because

dropout rates in online classes are six to seven times higher than in face to face programs

(Boston & Ice, 2011). These high dropout rates, or lack of retention in online classes, should be a
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major concern for any college hoping to maintain quality of education and completion rates,

while simultaneously, expanding their online course offerings. Instructors and course designers

need to consider cognitive load theories and the learning needs of their students to create classes

that will retain that will retain students and provide a positive online learning experience.

Its imperative that course planners and designers are aware of the various components in online

classes that can create a positive, or negative, learning experience for students attending online.

Online classes are different than face-to-face classes, and because of the complexity of the

components involved, cognitive load theories must be considered as information is designed and

presented. Knowledgeable faculty must be hired or trained to create robust online programs that

support retention and completion. Online course designers must be well educated about learning

theories and apply these theories to their work, as well as provide professional development

opportunities to faculty and others involved in the online teaching experience.

If cognitive load and multimedia are considered as major components of online course design,

faculty are aware of how their interactions with students effect class retention, and faculty and

course designers are informed of current instructional models, then it may be possible to increase

retention rates in online classes at community colleges. If these considerations are part of the

online course development processes at community colleges, then the institution will not only

improve the quality of classes they offer, but maintain acceptable retention and completion rates

while simultaneously increasing student enrollment.

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Online Classes vs. Face-to-Face

Online classes have been shown to increase learning success if they are designed well. A 2009

study compared an online class to a face to face class and measured learning success and gains in

both groups. This study utilized pre and post assessments to determine prior knowledge of

learners. When the post assessment results were confirmed, the researchers found that online

students had a 42% grade improvement. Students attending the same material in a face to face

class had a 21% grade improvement. In this particular study, online students nearly doubled their

learning success in lab-related knowledge and skills (Reuter, 2009).

Reuters study showed that online classes can be just as successful, if not more successful, than

face to face classes. Both groups met the objectives and course outcomes for this particular

subject, and the online group gained twice as much knowledge and skills than those attending the

same subject face to face. In order for this to take place, an online class must be designed and

facilitated appropriately. Studies have shown that design had a significant impact on the nature of

the interactions and whether students approached learning in a deep and meaningful way.

Structure and leadership have been found to be crucial for online learners to take a deep and

meaningful approach to learning (Garrison & Cleveland-Innes, 2005). Course designers must

consider current research on cognitive theories and other components of online education that

facilitate learning and student success in these classes.

Cognitive Load Theories

Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) is a psychological learning theory that has provided the basis for

exploring instructional design and learning processes. While a learner is attending information,
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they are simultaneously processing it (Ormrod, 2016). For maximum learning to take place,

there must be a balance of information as it is presented in the class so that the learner can

process the information in the working memory without becoming overwhelmed or missing any

of the information. Cognitive theory applies to face to face classes as well as online classes,

however, with the use of technology, we can go a step deeper and consider the affects that

multimedia technology can have on cognition in online education. There are ways to incorporate

and present information that are conducive to learning while poor design may lead to decreased

learning and student frustration.

Mayers (2015) multimedia principal asserts that people learn more deeply from words and

pictures than from words alone (Mayer, 2015). This is due to the idea that the human cognitive

system is known to have two main channels, one for visual or pictorial processing and one for

auditory or verbal processing. Mayers Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning states that in

order for meaningful learning to occur the learner must select relevant words for processing in

verbal working memory, select relevant images for processing in visual working memory,

organize selected words into a verbal model, organize selected images into a pictorial model, and

integrate the verbal and pictorial representations with each other and with prior knowledge

(Mayer, 2015)

These processes to not necessarily occur linearly and that successful multimedia learning

requires that the learner be aware of and monitor these five processes. The same is true of

instructional design. The designer must be aware of these processes and consider how the
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material presented will be processed in the cognitive systems of the human mind as it is

receiving the information.

A recent study tested Mayers Cognitive Theory of Multimedia learning in an online setting. The

control group was presented information in the more traditional fashion with pictures, captions,

and text on each slide. The experimental group was presented the same material, but it was

adjusted so that the captions were removed, the pictures were animated, and the text was narrated

rather than printed. They tested for information retention and transferability, and found that the

experimental group could retain and transfer more information compared to the control group

(Thompson and McGill, 2008).

This study shows that the rate of information retention and information transferability can be

improved from minor adjustments in presentation and instructional design. Its important that the

course designers consider cognitive load of their learners. When a learner is feeling confused or

overwhelmed with information, they may become emotional or experience a scattering of

attention. Excessive load, deficient materials, navigational structure, and incompetent use of

hypermedia, will likely lead to rapid exhaustion and scattering of attention (Lehtonen,

Thorsteinsson, & Page, 2007). This can lead to emotional states that have negative effects on

learning, and may result in students dropping out of classes.

Mental Load

In a study that observed emotional experiences in online education the emotional situations

related to online learning were examined from the perspectives of cognitive load, emotional load,

and situational anxiety/pleasure. In this study, situational anxiety was an emotional response to a
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situation that is perceived as too rapidly changing. This is what some have referred to as mental

load, a concept derived from Swellers theoretic model of cognitive load supplemented with

emotional load. Mental load implies an excessive burden in relation to a learners emotional and

cognitive resources that is caused by the structures and activities that they are participating in,

including related equipment and materials. (Lehtonen, Thorsteinsson, and Page, 2007). When the

mental load is too high, the learner is unable to study and retain material. It is important that the

balance between cognitive channels is maintained throughout the lesson.

When situational pleasure is induced, through a well-balanced cognitive system, as described in

Mayers theories, then learning will be supported, enhanced and even remembered. It is

important that course designers and instructors are aware of how this balance affects the learning

process. If the tools and instructions are not clear enough, the student may try to find fault in

himself (Lehtonen, Thorsteinsson, & Page, 2007). The results of this study reinforce that

reducing the students mental load and situational anxiety to a sufficiently low level and creating

and maintaining an appropriate emotional environment are essential factors to be accounted for

when planning and offering online teaching and studying.

Faculty Interaction

The quality and frequency of communication with the instructor may provide the necessary

support and clarifications to avoid heightened emotions that inhibit learning. Effective online

learning must utilize the strengths of written communication because of the asynchronous nature

of learning management systems. The key is not to inundate students with information, but rather

to identify the central idea and allow students to reflect on it, and make connections in a way that
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encourages construction of ideas and higher order learning. If learners are overwhelmed with

material, or inundated with excessive use of hypermedia, then learning will likely be undermined

and students feel overwhelmed with information. This may lead to an increased mental load and

distress. It is important that instructors communicate often with students are available to answer

questions or clarify materials as needed.

How students approach study and classroom material has been shown to be strongly influenced

by the design and teaching approach in online classes. This approach required continued

guidance throughout the course. A 2005 study found that teaching presence contributes to a deep

approach to learning, while interaction alone does not yield the same results (Garrison &

Cleveland-Innes, 2005). The authors of this study suggest that the quality of interactions must be

a specific component of the design goal and interactions should be facilitated and directed in a

sustained manner. Based on this study, it is apparent that the course design and approach to

instruction is an important component of online education if learning is to be successful.

When expert online faculty and online students were interviewed to see what they determined as

the top five factors of student retention in online classes, it was found that students and faculty

disagreed on the top factor of retention. Perhaps this disagreement is a partial cause for low

retention rates in online courses. Research revealed that faculty believed student self-discipline,

quality of faculty and student interactions, institutional support to students, the last grade

received in an online class, and finally the number of transfer credits received by the student are

the top five factors affecting student retention in online. Contrary to this, students believed that

increased faculty instruction, meaningful feedback given to students, the number of transfer
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credits received, adequate GPA, and institutional support were the top five determinants of

retention in order of greatest impact to least (Gayton, 2015). In this study, both groups agreed

that the meaningful feedback and quality interactions between students and faculty had a positive

impact on retention of students, however, faculty believed that self-discipline was the most

important factor, and students believed that quality faculty interaction was most important. Based

on this study, it can be deduced that the online presence of class facilitators has a direct link to

retention of students in online classes and that feedback is a positive correlate as well. For

faculty to increase retention of students in the classes they teach online, then they must check in

often, and provide quality feedback.

Faculty vs. Student Perspectives

Regarding priority concerns or practices that may affect student retention in fully online

programs, another study found that student support and connection with the institution, quality

interaction between faculty and students, as well as student self-discipline were the largest

contributors. The results of this model and search for emergent themes, reveals, once again, that

the quality interactions between faculty and students is a large indicator of retention in the online

classroom. Through these interactions, connections are made and faculty can support students

through their online learning experience.

The faculty view of why students drop out is much different that the reason why students say

they drop out. In a recent study faculty claimed that student self-discipline is one of the most

important factors for student success in online classes (Heymann, 2010), while students say the

top reason for dropping out is that faculty do not offer the instruction that they need to succeed
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(Gayton, 2015). The inconsistencies between what faculty and students believe contribute to

retention in online classes may be the grounds for the high dropout rates in online courses

compared to face-to-face instruction.

Within any learning context, individual differences can be found in patterns of thinking and

reasoning about information, how individuals process information, preferences for information

processing, and how past knowledge, skills, or ability influence the learning process. These

characteristics of learning will undoubtedly, influence how an individual learns online. Overall, it

is important that students stay motivated in the class. These factors include interests,

expectancies, values, goals, and attributions (Ormrod, 2016). Jeanne Ormrod, the author of

Human Learning, contributes that students learn more when they find the classroom material

interesting as well as informative. Students will also, be more optimistic about their chances of

success when they have environmental support for their efforts and that students are more

motivated to learn classroom subject matter when they believe it has value for them personally

(Ormrod, 2016). It possible to build a supportive community of learning through dialogue,

communication, and proper design and facilitation of online classes.

Recommendations

Cognitive and mental load are components that must be considered when presenting information

as well. Some programs have adopted the following strategies to avoid mental overload in online

classes. The designers have limited the amount of content and activities to reduce memory

overload. Recommendations are that instructors break lectures into 10 12 minute chunks of

information because the short lectures make it easier for students to complete in one sitting and
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fits better with the learning cycle. That instruction is organized around the learning cycle in that

it is organized into sections or modules. Each module contains an introduction to the new content

in the form of video or recording, then the student has an opportunity to apply the information,

and it is reflected on or assessed by peers or the instructor. Finally, it is recommended that a

graphic organizer is provided for the course. It is easy for students to get lost in the hypertext

environment and to avoid frustration and mental overload, its important that students are

provided with a map or visual organization tool for the course (Johnson & Aragon, 2003).

Faculty presence in an online classroom is more than just interaction, it is creating a learning

environment that is safe, encouraging, and supportive for the diverse array of learners that are

guided through the learning process by course design and facilitation. It is the responsibility of

educators to provide quality material in a format that considers cognitive theory, metacognition,

the use of multimedia, instructor and student interactions, as well as individual needs. If these

considerations are part of the online course development processes at community colleges, then

the institution will not only improve the quality of classes they offer, but maintain acceptable

retention and completion rates while simultaneously increasing student enrollment at their

college.
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