Lecture 5 Excavations PDF

1/23/14
BCEE 451
Construction Engineering
Lecture 5
Excavations
Dr C.J. Willis, CAPM, P.Eng 1
Learning Objectives
Learners will:
Understand what is excavation and be introduced to the types of
excavations
Understand soil-volume change characteristics associated with
excavating
Be introduced to the types of spoil banks and learn to estimate
their sizes
Be able to estimate the amount of material to be excavated
References
Andres, C. K & Smith, R.C. 1998. Principles and Practices of Heavy
Construction. 5th Edition. Prentice Hall. Pp 18-43
Knutson et al. 2009. Construction Management Fundamentals, McGraw Hill
Construction, pp 369-413
Nunally, S.W. 2010. Construction Methods and Management, Prentice Hall
1
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What is Excavating?
Excavating is simply the removal of topsoil /

earth by digging.
It is any man-made cut, cavity, trench or
depression made in the earths surface formed
by earth removal.
In most construction projects, earth removal is
achieved using some type of powered
equipment.
Types of Excavations
Excavation operations are of two types:

general and special
General excavation includes all the work, other
than rock excavation that can be carried out by
mechanical equipment.
Special excavation includes work that must be
done by blasting, by special machines, by hand,
or a combination of hand and machine
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Soil-Volume Change Characteristics
In excavating, there are three principle soil

conditions:
1. Banks: material in its natural state before
excavation. Referred to as in-place or in-situ.
The quantity of this type of material is given as
bank cubic metre (BCM)
2. Loose: material that has been excavated or
moved. Quantity is given in loose cubic
metre (LCM)
3. Compacted: material after compaction. Quantity
is given in compacted cubic metre (CCM)
In excavating, when soil is taken from its banked

state and broken up, it increases in bulk.
This increase is referred to as soil swell and occurs
because the soils grains loosen during the
excavation process and air fills the voids created.
The volume of material to be removed from the
site must therefore be increased by a percentage
depending on the type of soil.
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This percentage increase is referred to as a swell

factor and is determined as follows:
Swell % = {weight of bank soil/weight of loose soil 1} x 100
Example
Find the swell of a soil that weighs 1661 kg/m3
in its natural state (Bank) and 1186 kg/m3 after
excavation (Loose)
Swell % = {1661 kg/m3/1186 kg/m3 1} x 100 = 40%
When soil is compacted, air is forced out of the

soils void spaces and shrinkage occurs.
The percent decrease in volume, i.e. shrinkage
is found by
Shrinkage % = {1 - weight of bank volume/weight of compacted volume} x 100
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Example
Find the shrinkage of a soil that weighs 1661 kg/
m3 in its natural state (Bank) and 2077 kg/m3
after compaction.
Shrinkage % = {1 - 1661 kg/m3 /2077 kg/m3} x 100 = 20%
Both swell and shrinkage are calculated from the

bank (or natural) condition
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To convert from loose volume to bank volume, we use a load factor
where
Load factor = (weight per Loose Cubic Metre / weight per Bank
Cubic Metre)
or
Load factor = 1/(1+ swell)
To convert from bank volume to compacted volume, we use a

shrinkage factor:
Shrinkage factor = (weight per Bank Cubic Metre / weight per
Compacted Cubic Metre)
or
Shrinkage factor = 1-shrinkage

Example
A soil weighs 1163 kg/LCM, 1661 kg/BCM and 2077 kg/CCM. Find the
load factor and shrinkage factor for the soil. Also, how many BCM and
CCM are contained in 593,300 LCM?
Load factor = 1163 kg/LCM 1661 kg/BCM = 0.7
Shrinkage factor = 1661 kg/BCM 2077 kg/CCM = 0.8
Bank volume = LCM x load factor = 593,300 x 0.7 = 415,310 m3
Compacted volume = BCM x shrinkage factor = 415,310 x 0.8 = 332,324 m3
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Spoil Bank
When planning and estimating excavation

work, it is usually necessary to determine the
size of the pile of material that will be created
by the material removed from the excavation.
If the pile of material is long in relation to its
width, it is referred to as a spoil bank.
7
48 CCM
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33 S. El-Omari BCEE 6831 / 492 Lecture 2 34
Spoil Bank
Triangular
g Spoil
p Banks
the Volume
Spoil banks are characterized
= Section area X Lengthby a triangular
its width,
idth it is cross-section
L
H
the spoil R B
the volume
35 S. El-Omari BCEE 6831 / 492 Lecture 2 36

Spoil Pile
Spoil Pile
8
Find the base width
idth and height of a triangular
triang lar spoil Find the base width
idth a
bank containing 76.5 BCM if the pile length is bank containing 76
9 14 m,
9.14 m the soil's angle of repose is 37,
37 and its 9 14 m,
9.14 m the soil's a
swell is 25%. swell is 25%.
1/23/14
Loose volume = 76.5
76 5 X 1.25
1 25
Base width
Height
g =
S. El-Omari BCEE 6831 / 492 Lecture 2 37 S. El-Omari BC
Spoil Pile
If the excavated material is dumped from a fixed

position, a spoil pile is created which has a conical
Conical Spoil p Pile Conic
shape.
Example:
H Find the base diam
D spoil pile that w
e ca ation if the so
excavation
its swell is 12%.

S. El-Omari BCEE 6831 / 492 Lecture 2 39 S. El-Omari BC
Spoil Bank/Pile
In order to determine the dimensions of spoil

banks and spoil piles, first convert the volume
of excavation from in-place conditions (BCM)
to loose conditions (LCM).
Bank or pile dimensions may then be
calculated using the expressions provided if the
soils angle of repose is known.
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Angle of Repose
A soils angle of repose is the angle that the

sides of a spoil bank or pile naturally form with
the horizontal when the excavated soil is
dumped onto the pile.
The angle of repose represents the equilibrium
condition of the soil
Varies with the soils physical characteristics and its
moisture content.
Angle of Repose
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Angle of Repose
Typical values of angle of repose for common

soils are given in the table below.
Spoil Banks
Example
Find the base width and height of a triangular spoil
bank containing 76.5 BCM if the pile length is
9.14m, the soils angle of repose is 37, and its
swell is 25%.

Loose volume = 76.5 x 1.25 = 95.6 m3

Base width = (4 x 95.6 / 9.14 x tan 37)1/2 = 7.45m

Height = (7.45 x tan 37) / 2 = 2.80m
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Spoil Pile
Example
Find the base diameter and height of a conical spoil pile
that will contain 76.5 BCM of excavation if the soils
angle of repose is 32 and its swell is 12%.

Loose volume = 76.5 x 1.12 = 85.7 m3
Base diameter = (7.64 x 85.7 / tan 32) 1/3 = 10.16m
Height = 10.16 / 2 x tan 32 = 3.17m
Estimating Volume of Soil to be Removed
Pit excavations
These are small, relatively deep excavations
those required for basements and foundations.
To determine the volume we simply multiply the
horizontal area by the average depth of the
excavation.
Volume = Horizontal Area x Average Depth
To perform this calculation, first divide the
horizontal area into a convenient set of rectangles,
triangles or circular segments.
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Pit Excavations (Cont.)

The total area is found as the sum of the
segment areas.
To calculate the average depth for simple
rectangular excavations, it is simply the average
of the four corner depths.
For more complex excavations, measure the
depth at additional points along the perimeter
of the excavation and average all depths.

Example
Estimate the volume of excavation required (bank measure) for the basement shown
in the figure below. Values shown at each corner are depths of excavation in feet and
metres in brackets.
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Area = 7.63 x 9.15 = 69.8m2
Average Depth = 1.8 + 2.5 + 2.3 + 1.8 / 4 = 2.1m
Volume of Excavation = 69.8 m2 x 2.1 m = 146.6

BCM

Trench excavation
Usually done for utility lines and strip foundations
The volume required is calculated as the product of the
trench cross-sectional area and the linear distance along
the trench line.
Volume = Cross-sectional area x Length
For rectangular trench sections where the trench width

and depth are relatively constant, trench volume can be
found as simply the product of trench width, depth and
length.
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When trench sides are sloped and vary in width

and/or depth, cross-sections should be taken at
frequent linear intervals and the volumes
between locations computed.
These volumes are then added to find the total
trench volume.
Example
Find the volume (bank measure) of excavation
required for a trench 0.92m wide, 1.83m deep and
152m long. Assume that the trench sides will be
approximately vertical.
Cross-sectional area = 0.92 x 1.83 = 1.68m2
Volume = 1.68 x 152 = 255 BCM

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Excavating large areas

One method of estimating excavation volume in large or
complex areas is to divide the area into a grid indicating
the depth of excavation or fill at each grid intersection.
Assign the depth at each corner or segment intersection
a weight according to its location (number of segment
lines intersecting at the point).
Based on this, interior points (intersection of four
segments) are assigned a weight of four, exterior points at
the intersection of two segments are assigned a weight of
two, and corner points are assigned a weight of one.
Average depth is computed using the equation

shown below and multiplied by the horizontal area
to obtain the volume of the excavation.
Average depth = Sum of products depth x weight / sum of weights
The above calculation yields the net volume of

excavation for the area.
Any balancing of cut and fill within the area is not
identified in the result.
16
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Example
Find the volume of excavation required for the area shown below. The
number at each grid intersection represents the depth of cut at that location.
Metric dimensions are shown in brackets
Corner points = 1.83 + 1.04 + 0.61 + 1.22 = 4.70m

Border points = 1.77 + 1.59 + 1.4 + 0.92 + 0.85 + 0.92 + 1.07 +
1.46 + 1.46 + 1.68 =13.12m
Interior points = 1.52 + 1.40 + 1.28 + 1.49 + 1.22 + 1.10 =
8.01m
Average depth = 4.7 + 2(13.12) + 4(8.01) / 48 = 1.31m
Area = 91.4 x 121.9 = 11,142 m2
Volume = 11,142 x 1.31 = 14,596 BCM
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If the soil is cohesive enough, or if some means of

supporting the sides of the excavation are to be
used (e.g. a trench box), the compact volume is
simply a matter of: length X width X depth.
For loose-sliding soils, the excavation must have
sloping sides, usually at least a 1:1 slope to reduce
the risk of cave-ins.
This fact must be taken into account when
estimating the volume of material to be removed.
A formula to use in calculating the volume in

such cases is:
H/ (A+B+(A*B))
3
Where
A= top area
B= bottom area
H= vertical height
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Example:
A rectangular excavation measures 6m X 9m at surface grade. If
the slope of the sides is 1:2 and the excavation is 3.6m deep,
calculate the amount of material that has to be removed in m3.
A = top area= 6 X 9=54m2
Depth of excavation: H=3.6m
B = bottom area= [6 (3.6/2) X 2] X [9 (3.6/2) x 2] = 2.4 x
5.4 = 12.96 m3, say 13m3
Volume of material removed
V = [3.6/3 X (54 +13 + (54 X 13)] = 112.2 m3
Mass Diagram
A continuous curve representing the

accumulated volume of earthwork plotted
against the linear profile of a roadway or airfield
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Mass Diagram
Balance Line
FIGURE 2-5. A mass diagram.

Characteristics of a Mass Diagram

The vertical coordinate of the mass diagram corresponding
to any location on the roadway profile represents the
cumulative earthwork volume from the origin to that point
Within a cut, the curve rises from left to right
Within a fill, the curve falls from left to right
A peak on the curve represents a point where the earthwork
changes from cut to fill
A valley (low point) on the curve represents a point where the
earthwork changes from fill to cut
When a horizontal line intersects the curve at two or more
points, the accumulated volumes at these points are equal.
Such a line represents a balance line on the diagram
20
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Using the Mass Diagram
Information which a mass diagram can provide a

construction manager includes the following:
The length and direction of haul within a balanced
section
The average length of haul for a balanced section
The location and amount of borrow (material
hauled in from a borrow pit) and waste (material
hauled away to a waste area) for the project
FIGURE 2-6. ConstrucGon use of a mass diagram.

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For a balanced section (section 1 on the figure), project

the end points of the section up to the profile (points A
and B). These points identify the limits of the balanced
section
Locate point C on the profile corresponding to the
lowest point of the mass diagram within section 1.
This is the point at which the excavation changes from fill to
cut.
The areas of cut and fill can now be identified on the profile
The direction of haul within a balanced section is always
from cut to fill

Repeat this process for sections 2,3 and 4
Since the mass diagram has a negative value from D to
the end, the ordinate at point E (-38,230 BCM)
represents the volume of material which must be
brought in from a borrow pit to complete the roadway
embankment.
The approximate average haul distance within a
balanced section can be taken as the length of a
horizontal line located midway between the balance line
for the section and the peak or valley of the curve for the
section
The length of the line F-G represents the average haul
distance for section 1, which is 1800ft or 549m.
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Developing the Mass Diagram

Table 1: Earthwork volume calculation sheet
Stations (Column1)
A listing of all survey stations at which cross-sectional
areas have been recorded. Usually a full station is a
100ft or 30m interval.
Area of Cut (Column 2)
The cross-sectional area of the cut at each station.
Usually this area must be computed from the project
cross-sections
Area of Fill (Column 3)
The cross-sectional area of fill at each station. Usually
this area must be computed from the project cross-
sections.
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Volume of Cut (Column 4)

The volume of the cut between the adjacent preceding
station and the station. The average-end-area formula is
used to calculate this volume. This is a bank volume
Volume = (A1+A2)/2 * L
A1 and A2 and respective end areas (m2 or ft2)
L is the distance between stations (m or ft or yds)
Volume of Fill (Column 5)
The volume of fill between the adjacent preceding
station and the station. The average-end-area formula is
used to calculate this volume. This is a compacted
volume.
Stripping Volume in the Cut (Volume 6)

The stripping volume of topsoil above the cut between
the adjacent preceding station and the station.
This volume is commonly calculated by multiplying the
distance between stations by the width of the cut. This
area is then multiplied by the average depth of the
topsoil to derive the stripping volume. This represents a
bank measure of cut material.
Usually topsoil material is not suitable for use in the
embankment.
The average depth of the topsoil must be determined
by field investigation.
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Stripping Volume in the Fill (Column 7)

The stripping volume of topsoil under the fill
between the adjacent preceding station and the
station.
This volume is commonly calculated by multiplying
the distance between stations by the width of the fill
by the average depth of the topsoil.
The stripping is a bank measure, but it also
represents an additional requirement for fill
material, compacted volume of fill.
Total Volume of Cut (Column 8)

The volume of cut material available for use in embankment
construction. It is derived by subtracting the cut stripping
(column 6) from the cut volume (column 4).
Total Volume of Fill (column 9)
The total volume of fill required. It is derived by adding the
fill stripping (column 7) to the fill volume (column 5).
Adjusted Fill (column 10)
The total fill volume converted from compacted volume to
bank volume. Compacted volume is divided by the
shrinkage factor
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Algebraic Sum (Column 11)

The difference between column 10 and 8. This
indicates the volume of material that is available (cut
is positive) and required (fill is negative) within
station increments after intra-station balancing
Mass Ordinate (Column 12)
The running total of column 11 values from some
point of beginning on the project profile. When the
stations being summed are excavation sections, the
value of this column will increase.
Vol
40000
Mass Diagram
um
30000
20000
10000
0
0+00 0+50 1+00 2+00 2+50 3+00 4+00 5+00 6+00 6+50 7+00 8+00 8+50
-10000
-20000
-30000
26
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?
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27

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1/23/14

Dr C.J. Willis, CAPM, P.Eng 1

Excavating is simply the removal of topsoil /

Dr C.J. Willis, CAPM, P.Eng 3

Excavation operations are of two types:

Dr C.J. Willis, CAPM, P.Eng 4

Soil-Volume Change Characteristics

In excavating, there are three principle soil

Soil-Volume Change Characteristics

In excavating, when soil is taken from its banked

Dr C.J. Willis, CAPM, P.Eng 6

Soil-Volume Change Characteristics

This percentage increase is referred to as a swell

Soil-Volume Change Characteristics

When soil is compacted, air is forced out of the

Shrinkage % = {1 - weight of bank volume/weight of compacted volume} x 100

Dr C.J. Willis, CAPM, P.Eng 8

Soil-Volume Change Characteristics

Shrinkage % = {1 - 1661 kg/m3 /2077 kg/m3} x 100 = 20%

Dr C.J. Willis, CAPM, P.Eng 9

Soil-Volume Change Characteristics

Both swell and shrinkage are calculated from the

Soil-Volume Change Characteristics

To convert from bank volume to compacted volume, we use a

Dr C.J. Willis, CAPM, P.Eng 11

Soil-Volume Change Characteristics

Load factor = 1163 kg/LCM 1661 kg/BCM = 0.7

Shrinkage factor = 1661 kg/BCM 2077 kg/CCM = 0.8

Bank volume = LCM x load factor = 593,300 x 0.7 = 415,310 m3

Compacted volume = BCM x shrinkage factor = 415,310 x 0.8 = 332,324 m3

Dr C.J. Willis, CAPM, P.Eng 12

Soil-Volume Change Characteristics

Dr C.J. Willis, CAPM, P.Eng 13

When planning and estimating excavation

Dr C.J. Willis, CAPM, P.Eng 14

35 S. El-Omari BCEE 6831 / 492 Lecture 2 36

Dr C.J. Willis, CAPM, P.Eng 16

S. El-Omari BCEE 6831 / 492 Lecture 2 37 S. El-Omari BC

If the excavated material is dumped from a fixed

Dr C.J. Willis, CAPM, P.Eng 17

In order to determine the dimensions of spoil

Dr C.J. Willis, CAPM, P.Eng 18

A soils angle of repose is the angle that the

Dr C.J. Willis, CAPM, P.Eng 19

Dr C.J. Willis, CAPM, P.Eng 20

Typical values of angle of repose for common

Dr C.J. Willis, CAPM, P.Eng 21

Base diameter = (7.64 x 85.7 / tan 32) 1/3 = 10.16m

Height = 10.16 / 2 x tan 32 = 3.17m

Dr C.J. Willis, CAPM, P.Eng 23

Estimating Volume of Soil to be Removed

Dr C.J. Willis, CAPM, P.Eng 24

Estimating Volume of Soil to be Removed

Pit Excavations (Cont.)

Estimating Volume of Soil to be Removed

Dr C.J. Willis, CAPM, P.Eng 26

Estimating Volume of Soil to be Removed

Area = 7.63 x 9.15 = 69.8m2

Average Depth = 1.8 + 2.5 + 2.3 + 1.8 / 4 = 2.1m

Volume of Excavation = 69.8 m2 x 2.1 m = 146.6

Dr C.J. Willis, CAPM, P.Eng 27

Estimating Volume of Soil to be Removed

Volume = Cross-sectional area x Length