Metallic Materials Sessional

Military Institute of Science & Technology (MIST)

Department of Mechanical Engineering

ME 292
Metallic Materials Sessional
Level-2, Term-II
Contact Hr: 3/2 Credit: 0.75

Name of the Experiments:

1. Introduction to Metallographic and Metallographic Sample Specimen Preparation.

2. Study of Phase Diagrams.
3. Microstudy of steels
4. Heat treatment of steels-1
5. Heat treatment of steels-2
6. Microstudy of cast irons-1
7. Microstudy of cast irons-2
Experiment # 01
Introduction to Metallographic and Metallographic Sample Specimen Preparation

Objectives:
1. To provide practice in the techniques of micro specimen selection, polishing, and
etching.
2. To provide initial training in the use of metallurgical microscope.

Procedure:
1. Take one sample from your instructor and identify your sample by putting on an
identification number.
2. Polish the specimen manually by grinding on a series of emery papers of
progressively finer grade. To polish at each paper, hold the paper on top of a glass
sheet with one hand while rubbing the specimen with the other hand using
moderate pressure, back and forth across the abrasive surface in one direction
only. This creates a series of parallel scratches or grind marks on the specimen.
3. It is naturally very important to avoid the transfer of loose abrasive particles from
one paper to another. There before proceeding to the next finer paper clean
thoroughly the loose abrasive particles from the specimen and from the hands.
Clean each paper carefully before use to protect the quality of the polishing job.
4. During grinding on the next finer paper, hold the specimen in such a way that the
new, finer set of scratches will be approximately perpendicular to the existing set
of scratches.
5. After completing the paper polishing, clean the sample thoroughly with soap water
and show it to the instructor. He will check its finish and indicate whether you
may proceed to the final polishing step.
6. Place some alumina powder on top of the wet polishing cloth of the grinding
wheel. Hold the specimen face down on the wheel under a moderate pressure
slowly move in a direction opposite to the direction of the wheel. Continue final
polishing until a mirror-finish is obtained. Hold the specimen quite stationary
during most of the polishing operation. Before leaving the wheel at the end of the
final fine polishing, rotate the specimen counter to the direction of wheel rotation
to eliminate streaks caused by draught of inclusions.
7. After a mirror-finish is attained, wash the specimen and the hands and dry the
specimen surface.
8. Never touch the polished surfaces with fingers at any time because skin oil and
salt will deposit a film or cause tarnish, either of which will hide the structure to
be observed.
9. Etch the specimen with 2 percent natal. Avoid over etching. Under etching is
preferable to over etching. Re-polish till the cloudy film has been removed and
surface is again showing a mirror finish. Re-etch carefully. Ask the instructor the
check your etched specimen and advise you whether to proceed to examine it on
the microscope or whether you need to polish and etch again.
10. Examine the optical features of a metallurgical microscope. Draw on it a broken
line to show the path of rays of light from the light source to the observers eye.
11. Examine the microscope. Locate each of its components. Complete the following
table by listing the magnifying power of each objective lens and each eye-piece.
Indicate the total magnifications available on your microscope.

Objective Eye-piece Total magnification available with each lens

magnification magnification 1 2 3

12. Study the structure by focusing it by going away from the lens. Using the
mechanical stage movements, explore the etched surface, adjusting the focus, if
necessary, as you go. Practice using both the stage control knobs simultaneously to
move the specimen in various directions. Locate a good area to sketch. If your
specimen does not show a good, clear structure, ask the instructor to advise you
whether you should re-polish and re-etch.
13. Complete the data sheet.

DATA SHEET
 Material:
Magnification: Etchant:
Structure:

Before etching

After etching

Experiment # 02
Study of Phase Diagrams.
Phase Diagrams

It can be defined as a diagram which contains a good number of information about

the metal or its alloy.
It is also known as a equilibrium diagrams or constitutional diagram.

Some basic concepts

Phase
A phase of a substance is a form of matter that is uniform throughout in
chemical composition and physical state
A homogeneous region with distinct structure and physical properties
State matter which is uniform throughout not only in chemical
composition but also in physical state J. Willard Gibbs
In principle, can be isolated
Can be solid, liquid or gas
A phase transition occurs at a characteristic temperature for a given pressure
Two phases are at equilibrium when their chemical potentials are equal.
Phase transformation
Change from one phase to another
E.g. L S, S S etc.
Occurs because energy change is negative/goes from high to low energy
state
Phase boundary
Boundary between phases in a phase diagram

Gibbs Phase Rule

 When Temperature, Pressure and Composition of are independent variables in the
equation of state.
F=C-P+2
Where, F= number of degrees of freedom
C= number of chemical components.
P= number of phases.
Modified Gibbs Phase Rule (for incompressible systems). Phase diagram usually
constructed for a fixed pressure of 1 atmosphere.
F=C-P+1

Limitations of Phase Diagram

1. Its gives information only on the constitution of alloys and not on the structural
distribution of the phases.
2. The diagram shows only the equilibrium state, whereas alloys in practical use are
rarely in equilibrium.

Solidification (cooling) curves

T T A Gas Cooling
For Pure metal Gas C ondensing
B
100C
L Liquid Cooling

Temp.
L S Solid freezing
Tm
Tm C
S 0C
D
Solid Cooling

t Time
Ideal Real

Pure metal
L
T

L
S
Micro-structural changes during solidification
T L S
m

t
Solidification (cooling) curves

Alloy

L
Soldification
begins
T
L
L+S
T
S
Solidification S
complete

Micro-structural changes during solidification

Alloy
L
T

L
T
L
L+S
T
S
S
S

t
Tie Line
 Tie line can be defined as the horizontal temperature line parallel to the x-axis
connecting two difference phase region.
It is used to determine the composition of alloy for a particular temperature.

Phase Diagrams: Two metals completely soluble in the liquid & solid states

T L
L
L

L+S

S
S

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
A %B B
Composition

Phase Diagrams: Two metals completely soluble in the liquid state & completely
insoluble in the solid state
 TA Tie line
L+S

TB
Liquid (L)
m n o
L+S

TE
T

Solid (S) Eutectic

T
point

A B
(100%) (100%)
Composition (weight percentage)

Phase Diagrams: Two metals completely soluble in the liquid state but only partly
soluble in the solid state
 T
L
L

+L
+L TE
L

CE

Wt%
particles

T L
L

+L +L
TE
Proeutectic

+
CE
A+B

A B
Wt%B

A+B
T
L L

+L
+L TE

E
A+B

+
CE S

A Wt B
%B A+B
Phase Diagrams: Alloy at various composition

Liquid (L)

L+A
Eutectic point
L+AmBn L+B
T

A+AmBn T
A
m B )
n +( +B
A Bn
m B (A m
n +B +
) B
A B
Composition (weight percentage) (100%)
(100%)
The Iron-Carbon Diagram
General Properties:

ferrite ,(present only at extreme temperatures)

 Austenite, (FCC, high formability, high solubility of C, over 2%C can be
dissolved in it, most of heat treatments begin with this single phase). FCC Iron
with much Carbon.DuctileFerrite, BCC, stable form of iron below 912 deg.C,
only up to 0.02 wt% C in solid solution and leads to two phase mixture in most
of steels. It is Iron with a little Carbon. Fairly Soft.
Cementite (iron-carbide), stoichiometric intermetalic compound, hard, brittle,
exact melting point unknown. Hard ceramic material.Currie point (770 deg. C),
atomic level nonmagnetic-to-magnetic transition
Peritectic, at 1495 deg.C, with low wt% C alloys (almost no engineering
importance).
Eutectic, at 1148 deg.C, with 4.3wt% C, hapends to all alloys of more than
2.11wt% C and they are called cast irons.
Eutectoid, at 727 deg.C with eutectoid composition of 0.77wt% C, alloys
bellow 2.11%C miss the eutectic reaction to create two-phase mixture. They
are steels.
Microstructures in Eutectic Systems
Hypoeutectic & Hypereutectic

Proeutectoid Forms before eutectoid

Iron-carbon (Fe-c) Phase Diagram

Hypoeutectoid Steel
Hypoeutectoid Steel
Eutectoid Steel

Pearlite
Ferrite (white)
Cementite (dark)

At 0.77%C by cooling from

austenite (FCC) changes to
BCC-ferrite (max 0.02%C)
and excess C forms
intermetalic cementite.
Chemical crystalline solid
separation gives fine mixture
of ferrite and cementite.
Perlite (right), 1000X.

Hypoeutectoid Steel

With less than 0.77%C from

austenite by cooling
transformation leads to growth of
low-C ferrite growth. At 727deg.C
austenite transforms in to pearlite.
Mixture of proeutectoid ferrite
(white) and regions of pearlite
forms.
Magnification 500X.

Hypereutectoid Steel
 Proeutectoid Cementite (white)
Pearlite (striped)
With more than 0.77%C, from
austenite transformation leads to
proeutectoid primary cementite and
secondary ferrite. At 727 deg.C
austenite changes to pearlite.
Structure of primary cementite and
pearlite forms.
Magnification 500X.

Cast Irons
 Iron-Carbon alloys of 2.11%C or more are cast irons.
Typical composition: 2.0-4.0%C,0.5-3.0% Si, less than 1.0% Mn and less than 0.2%
S.
Si-substitutes partially for C and promotes formation of graphite as the carbon rich
component instead Fe3C.

Gray Cast Iron

Composes of: 2.5-4.0%C, 1.0-

3.0%Si and 0.4-1.0% Mn.
Microstructure: 3-D graphite
flakes formed during eutectic
reaction. They have pointed
edges to act as voids and crack
initiation sites.
Sold by class (class 20 has min.
tensile strength of 20,000 psi is
a high C-equivalent metal in
ferrite matrix ). Class 40 would
have pearlite matrix.
Properties: excellent compressive strength, excellent machinability, good resistance
to adhesive wear (self lubrication due to graphite flakes), outstanding damping
capacity ( graphite flakes absorb transmitted energy), good corrosion resistance
and it has good fluidity needed for casting operations.
It is widely used, especially for large equipment parts subjected to compressive
loads and vibrations.

White Cast Iron

 Composes of: 1.8-3.6%C, 0.5-1.9%Si and 0.25-0.8%Mn.
All of its carbon is in the form of iron-carbide (Fe3C). It is called white because of
distinctive white fracture surface.
It is very hard and brittle (a lot of Fe3C).
It is used where a high wear resistance is dominant requirement (coupled hard
martensite matrix and iron-carbide). Thin coatings over steel (mill rolls).

Malleable Cast Iron

Formed by extensive heat treatment

around 900 degC, Fe3C will
dissociate and form irregular shaped
graphite nodules. Rapid cooling
restricts production amount to up to 5
kg. Less voids and notches.
Ferritic MCI: 10% EL,35 ksi yield
strength, 50 ksi tensile strength.
Excellent impact strength, good
corrosion resistance and good
machinability.

Ductile iron with ferrite matrix (top) and pearlite matrix (bottom) at 500X.
Spheroidal shape of the graphite nodule is achieved in each case.

Pearlitic Malleable Cast Iron

Pearlitic MCI: by rapid cooling through eutectic transformation of austenite to

pearlite or martensite matrix.
Composition: 1-4% EL, 45-85 ksi yield strength, 65-105 ksi tensile strength. Not
as machinable as ferritic malleable cast iron.

Ductile Cast Iron

 Without a heat treatment by addition of ferrosilicon (MgFeSi) formation of smooth
spheres (nodules) of graphite is promoted.
Properties: 2-18% EL, 40-90 ksi yield strength, 60-120 ksi tensile strength.
Attractive engineering material due to: good ductility, high strength, toughness,
wear resistance, machinability and low melting point castability.

Globular cast iron

List of Metallographic Samples:

1. steel samples
 a. dead soft steels
b. mild steels
c. medium carbon steels
d. File steels

2. Cast iron samples

a. Grey cast irons
b. White cast irons
c. Malleable cast irons (Ferritic)
d. Malleable cast irons (Pearlitic)
e. Ductile cast irons (Ferritic)
f. Ductile cast irons (Pearlitic)

3. Heat treatment samples

a. mild steels (Annealed)
b. Mild steels (Normalized)
c. File steels (Annealed)
d. File steels (Normalized)
e. File steels (Quenched)
f. File steels (Tempered)

Total number of samples = 16

Please note
All samples are mounted, grinned and polished, and etched carefully to reveal
microstructures with optimum clarity. The samples are packed and marked in neat.

\
Experiment # 03
Microstudy of Steels

Objective:
To study the micro constituents present in the microstructure of low carbon steels.

Procedure:
1. Obtain a specimen of steel from the instructor. Polish and etch the specimen
according to the procedures as used in the previous experiment.
2. Examine the specimen on the microscope, using a magnification of X400.
Reproduce the microstructure, labeling all microconstituents carefully and neatly.
3. Estimate the approximate relative amounts of the microconstituents present in your
sample. Identify the steel by calculating the carbon content. What will be the
approximate tensile strength of the steel sample?
4. Complete the report by answering the following questions:

a) Which is the predominant constituent in the dead soft steel? What is the
estimated percentage of carbon in dead soft steel you have observed?
b) The matrix of the materials microstructure often plays a major role in
determining the properties that the material has. In the case of dead soft
steel, what particular property does the matrix contribute? Explain.
c) What is the predominant constituent of mild steel? How does it affect the
properties of the steel?
d) How does an increase in carbon affect the structure of plain carbon steels?
e) Why are high carbon steels less ductile than steels of lower carbon content?
For what purposes are high-carbon steels best suited?

DATA SHEET
Microstructure of showing grains of...
and .. Etched in .Magnification

Microstructure of showing grains of...

and .. Etched in .Magnification
 Microstructure of showing grains of...
and .. Etched in .Magnification

Microstructure of showing grains of...

and .. Etched in .Magnification

Experiment # 04
Heat treatment of steels-1

Objective
To understand the reasons for heat treating steels, the ways of doing it, and to study the
nature and type of resultant microconstituents that influence the properties of heat-treated
steels.

Procedure:
1. Obtain a specimen of steel from the instructor for heat treatment.
2. Observe the heat treating furnace, the method of heating and measuring temperature
used.
3. Study the ingredients and observe the method of producing the mixture that is to be
used to control the furnace atmosphere.
4. Observe the method of packing the sample in heat treatment box and then charging
into the furnace.
5. Observe the programming or setting up the temperature and time for heating, holding
and cooling cycles of heat treatment.
6. Observe the method of cooling of sample during each heat treatment process.
7. Take the heat treated sample and grind and polish it as before to study its
microstructure.
8. Draw the representative microstructure of the heat treated steel and label it.
9. complete the report by answering the following questions:
a. Why an accurate temperature measurement in heat treatment process is important?
b. Which equipment is used in your experiment to measure temperature? Name three
other temperature measure devices.
c. Describe the function of each ingredient used to prepare the heat treatment
mixture.
d. List the names of some common defects that you may found in heat treated steel
sample.
e. Indicate the purposes of annealing and normalizing.
f. Indicate the proper annealing and normalizing temperatures of mild steel and a file
steel samples.
g. Discuss the difference in structures of annealed and normalized mild steel.
DATA SHEET
 Microstructure of annealed steel sample showing .and
..Etched inMagnification...

Microstructure of annealed steel sample showing .and

..Etched inMagnification...

Microstructure of annealed steel sample showing .and

..Etched inMagnification...

Experiment # 05
Heat Treatment of Steels-2

Objective:
To understand the principles of hardening and tempering operations of steel, the methods
of doing it, and to study the nature and type of resultant microconstituents that influence
the properties of heat-treated steels.

Procedure:
1. Obtain a specimen of steel from the instructor for heat treatment.
2. Observe the programming or setting up the temperature and time for heating,
holding and cooling cycles of hardening treatment.
3. Observe the method of quenching of sample after hardening.
4. Take one hardened sample and temper it at the temperature indicated.
5. Take the heat-treated samples and grind and polish them as before to study their
microstructures.
6. Draw the representative microstructures and label them.
7. Complete the report by answering the following questions:
a) What is the principle reason of hardening a steel sample?
b) Indicate why low carbon steels are not hardened?
c) List the salient features of martensitic transformation.
d) Why tempering is necessary after heat treatment?
e) What happens to the hardened structure during tempering?
f) If you want to retain a maximum hardness, what should be the proper
tempering temperature?

DATA SHEET
 Microstructure of annealed steel sample showing .and
..Etched inMagnification...

Microstructure of annealed steel sample showing .and

..Etched inMagnification...

Microstructure of annealed steel sample showing .and

..Etched inMagnification...

Experiment # 06
Microstudy of Cast Irons-1

Objective:
To study the microconstituents present in the microstructure of grey cast irons and white
cast irons.

Procedure:
1. Obtain two specimens of cast iron from the instructor. Polish the specimen
according to the procedures as used in the first experiment.
2. Examine the specimens under the microscope, both etched and unetched
conditions, using a magnification of X400. Reproduce the microstructure, labeling
all microconstituents carefully and neatly.
3. Complete the report by answering the following questions:
a) What is the range of carbon percentage in cast irons? Why those materials
are named as cast irons?
b) How cast irons are usually classified?
c) Which is the predominant constituent in grey cast iron?
d) Why graphite flakes are observed in unetched conditions?
e) Which properties of grey cast irons are attributed respectively by the matrix
and graphite flakes?
f) Why white cast irons are not used as structural materials? Name some
applications of white cast irons.

DATA SHEET
 Microstructure of showing grains of...
and .. Etched in .Magnification

Microstructure of showing grains of...

and .. Etched in .Magnification

Microstructure of showing grains of...

and .. Etched in .Magnification

Experiment # 07
Microstudy of Cast Irons-2 (Microstudy of Malleable and Ductile Cast Irons)

Objective:
To study the microconstituents present in the microstructures of malleable cast irons and
ductile cast irons.

Procedure:
1. Obtain two specimens of cast iron from the instructor. Polish the specimen
according to the procedures as used in the first experiment.
2. Examine the specimens under the microscope, both etched and unetched
conditions, using a magnification of X400. Reproduce the microstructure, labeling
all microconstituents carefully and neatly.
3. Complete the report by answering the following questions:
a) Indicate the difference, silicon and manganese contents between malleable
and ductile cast irons.
b) Why cast irons are used as raw material for producing malleable irons?
c) Discuss what happens during first, second and third stages of malleableising
heat treatment.
d) Why bulls eye structure is produced?
e) Indicate the functions of magnesium in producing ductile iron.
f) Why desulphurization treatment is necessary during ductile iron production?
g) Summarize a comparison between malleable and ductile irons about their
quality.

DATA SHEET
Microstructure of showing grains of...
and .. Etched in .Magnification

Microstructure of showing grains of...

and .. Etched in .Magnification

Microstructure of showing grains of...

and .. Etched in .Magnification