Abstracts and

writing

other summaries
There are many different kinds of summaries which you can write, depending on the audience and the purpose.
Sometimes terms such as abstract, synopsis, summary, prcis are used as synonyms, however, depending on the
discipline, academics may have different expectations depending on which word they use. If in doubt, ask for
clarification.

Summative and descriptive abstracts

First, an important distinction. Library, bookstore and movie catalogues give descriptive abstracts, which outline the
topics covered in a title, without giving any actual content away. The aim here is to get you to read or buy or see that
item. This is usually not the kind of abstract an academic examiner wants. Your examiner wants a summative abstract,
which condenses and extracts the essence the most important message of the full text.
The aim is to tell the reader the essence of your argument. A synopsis is neither a table of contents, nor a
statement of the points you intend to address (History).
A summative abstract tests your ability to recognise the essential information.
Abstracts may also differ depending on, for example, whether they are written for academic papers or conference
papers, or whether they are written in scientific or non-scientific fields. Therefore, the context is very important in
determining the kind of abstract you write. Length varies, but generally for a 34,000-word essay, you would write
not more than half a page, which would be able to stand alone (it is usually given on a separate page, but it should
be able to communicate main points without relying on the actual paper). Below we outline common areas of
confusion in relation to abstracts and summaries.
Generally, an abstract comprises:
why you did it (introduce purpose and issue)
how you did it (describe methodology)
what you found (summarise results)
what you concluded (present conclusions).
In other words:
Introduction Methods Results Conclusion
But abstracts differ according to the context in which you are writing, and the culture of the discipline in which you
are writing.

Scientific paper abstract

In the context of a scientific paper, the purpose of an abstract is to allow retrieval of the paper through library
searches, and, in case the searcher cannot get access to the whole article, to summarise the main findings. The
abstract should therefore include:
why you did the experiment (restate the controversy addressed by the experiment)
how you did the experiment and to whom/what (paraphrase the experimental procedures section of your
materials and methods, or just give the name of a well-known procedure)

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 your main results (the hypotheses to which you gave the highest priority in your results section)
your principal conclusions from the results (those with the most important theoretical implications). (D.
Lindsay, 1995. A Guide to Scientific Writing, Addison Wesley Longman, Sydney: 38-39)

Abstract Psychology
The purpose of the current study was to ascertain the effect of a concurrent verbal task on unimanual
skills. One hundred and eighty four undergraduate psychology students (102 females and 82 males, mean
age 24.2 years) each performed a series of tasks requiring them to balance a dowel rod on their right or
left index finger, with and without concurrently repeating a short phrase. The order of these tasks was
counterbalanced. The hypothesis that right-handed males would experience shorter right-handed balancing
times while verbalising, but that left-handed balancing would be unimpaired, was supported. The results also
supported the prediction that right-handed females would experience little difference in balancing times for
either hand, whether they balanced while verbalising or in silence. It was concluded that males, presumably
more hemispherically specialised, experience interference effects which are not experienced by the less
hemispherically lateralised females. (B. Findlay, 1996. How to Write Psychology Laboratory Reports and Essays,
Prentice Hall, Sydney: 85.)
Note that this abstract has a statement of the purpose of the research (The purpose...) and there is a very brief
overview of the sample and method (184 undergraduates...The order...). There is a statement of the research
findings (The hypothesis...was supported. The results also supported...) and a statement of the conclusion (It was
concluded...). Only the essential information is included. There is no literature review or discussion of the results.

Writing abstracts
The language used in an abstract includes technical terminology (eg, unimanual, counterbalanced, lateralised),
because, for an abstract, the audience is assumed to be already expert in the subject, and the use of jargon means
that the abstract will be found by keyword searches for those terms. Since abstracts and summaries must be very
concise, jargon is also used to reduce the number of words.
The abstract is typically information dense. Words which do not contribute to the meaning are eliminated, although
the sentences are grammatically complete, so you must not leave out the little words as you might for headings or
bullet points. See the handout on writing concisely for further advice on shortening a text without changing the
meaning.

Abstracts compared to argument summaries

An argument summary is often required in disciplines such as Sociology, and means something quite different
from an abstract. In the argument summary below, the main argument (This essay argues...) and the conclusions
(Participation is secondary in importance. ...The social, cultural and familial norms ... are predominant) are
summarised, but the evidence and alternative contending arguments discussed in the essay are not:

Argument summary Sociology

This essay argues that dominant thought patterns are the most influential factor in the restriction of personal
freedoms. The process of socialisation and internalisation of dominant thought patterns in any social world
is fundamentally important to the individual self. The culture and society in which the individual self exists
is also of importance to the question of individual choice and freedom. Participation in diverse social roles
is secondary in importance to that of the family role. The social, cultural and familial norms of rules and
behaviour are the predominant thought pattern of the individual self.

Statement of the argument/thesis statement

Very often you will be asked to provide a one sentence summary which conveys the main argument of the
essay. In addition you will be expected to provide an abstract which provides a succinct statement explaining

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 the purpose, coherence and main argument of the essay. It must refer to the argument and conclusions; it
should not be a description of the material covered Sociology
Sometimes you may be asked to write a statement of the argument (also known as a thesis statement). You would
be required to state your line of argument/point of view about the set topic, rather than describe what the essay is
about. This statement of argument, unless you are directed otherwise, should be embedded in your introduction. For
this purpose, it is important to distinguish thesis from theme.
(from Bate and Sharpe - D. Bate and P. Sharpe, 1996. Writers Handbook for University Students,
Harcourt Brace, London: 10)
In undergraduate essay writing, theme refers to the general subject of the essay, while thesis is the
point of view or stand taken towards the subject. The general theme of the following is the French
Revolution, and more specifically, the peoples economic, social and political grievances:
Topic:
Discuss to what extent the grievances of the bourgeoisie represented the grievances of the nation or of
a particular class. Were these grievances more economic than social or political?
Your thesis is the position you take towards this theme. In other words, a proposition or point of view
set out to be discussed, argued and defended. A thesis for the preceding topic might read:
The grievances of the bourgeoisie represented the major problems besetting the nation and thus spoke
for all classes. It cannot be said that these grievances were all economic because of the manner in
which economic, social and political factors interrelated.

Thesis statement:
This essay will argue that the Second Republic was doomed from the outset by warring factions of socialists
and republicans whose antithetical political views would admit to no compromise.

Statement of what the essay is about:

This essay inquires into the reasons why the Second Republic fell in 1849. (C. E. Forth, 1999. Course Guide: The
French Revolution, Dept. History, Australian National University: 7)
(Note that this statement is descriptive, it does not actually tell you what these reasons are, as a summative abstract
would.)

Abstracts compared to introductions

Abstracts are different from introductions. Introductions generally include information which provides context
or locates the topic in terms of previous research and debate in that context, whereas abstracts generally do not.
Further, introductions also identify why the research is important and how the ensuing discussion may address a gap
in knowledge. In contrast, abstracts generally include information about the aims, the methodology, the findings and
conclusions reached, all of which are covered in the body of the text, rather than the introduction.

Abstract Psychology
The purpose of this study was to determine whether the eye movement theory adequately accounts for the
Mller-Lyer illusion. It was predicted that subjects actively scanning lines of equal length would perceive
them as unequal. Undergraduate students (N=20) acted both as subjects and experimenters. As subjects
they underwent ten trials of both fixating and scanning the figure. Illusion was found to occur in both the
Scanning condition and the Fixation condition which did not fully support the hypothesis. It is concluded that
extraneous variables could account for the results, based on the data.

Introduction Psychology
Distortions in visual perceptions of objects referred to as visual illusions have been of particular interest to

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 psychologists. The Mller-Lyer illusion, for example, suggests that observers tend to perceive that two equally
long line segments vary in length when terminated by inward and outward facing arrowhead-shaped diagonal
lines - the latter case being perceived as shorter (Sternberg 1998) [topic identification]. A number of theories
have been put forward to explain this illusion, including the sensory spread theory and the false size-
constancy theory (Coren & Girgus 1978, cited in Sternberg 1998) [topic location]. The eye movement theory,
which is central to this study, suggests that the excursion of the eye is shorter between the ends of the lines
with inward pointing arrowheads when the observer actively scans them, thus perceiving them as shorter.
This experiment attempted to confirm the Mller-Lyer illusion effect and test the eye movement theory. It
was predicted that the type of eye movement would influence a subjects number of errors in estimating the
length of lines [hypothesis].

Report abstract
In a report abstract, besides the information given for a paper, you would generally include any recommendations
you may have made. Thus, the abstract would comprise: what you did (introduce purpose); how you did it (describe
methodology); what you found (summarise results); what you concluded (present conclusions); and what your
recommendations are. Business reports may start instead with a needs or problem analysis, an exploration of possible
solutions, cost-benefit analysis of likely outcomes for each and recommendations for different market situations.

Report abstracts compared to executive summaries

A report abstract requires the audience to be expert in the topic, however, reports often have both an expert and a
more generalist or managerial audience. The latter is catered for by an executive summary, written in less technical
language and with the emphasis on implementation. This is often longer than an abstract, and will summarise the
main arguments for each section in the same order as the full report, as well as give the recommendations, as its aim
is to convince the executive or policy makers of the organisation that the recommendations should be adopted, while
recognising that most managers will not read the full report (although their expert advisers will).

Executive summary
This report presents the design of a temperature measurement and display system that uses the Motorolla
HC11 microcontroller. This design makes use of the HC11 analog-to-digital converter and the serial subsystems.
Temperature measurement and display circuits were built and control software was written to use the added
hardware. In this design, the overall objectives were met. By keeping track of the measured temperature, the
HC11 is able to control a temperature display that uses light emitting diodes. Also, if the temperature becomes
very cold or hot, an alarm message is sent to a host PC terminal. This design has many potential applications,
including temperature control and factory automation. (M. Alley, ; L. Crowley; J. Donnell, C. Moore, 2002,
Writing Guidelines for Engineering and Science Students)

Conference paper abstract

Kaplan et al. note the promissory nature of an abstract submitted for a conference program: ie the paper has not yet
been written:
...the author must convince a group of expert readers that the paper represented by the abstract:
falls within the dominant research paradigm in the field;
appears to be/is substantiated by key scholars working in that paradigm;
discusses a significant issue which has not previously been focussed on;
gives promise of an interesting paper which fits the temporal constraints of the conference program; and
falls within the more general thematic constraints of the conference. (R. B. Kaplan, S. Cantor, C. Hagstrom, L. D.
Kamhi-Stein, Y. Shiotani and C. Boyd Zimmerman, 1994. On abstract writing, Text, 14 (3): 405)

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Abstract Conference Paper
Over the past 40 years there has been a great deal of innovation in English Language Teaching (ELT). The
method by which such innovation has been diffused in many parts of the world has been the project
approach. This paper sets out to explore the sustainability and effectiveness of the approach as a model for the
diffusion of ELT innovation. It proposes a change of emphasis in project design, implementation and evaluation
in order to empower the insider and suggests ways in which such change might be achieved. (J. McGovern,
1995. Changing paradigm: the project approach, in T. Crooks and G. Crewes (eds), Language and Development,
Indonesia-Australia Language Foundation, Denpassar, Bali: 3)

Synopsis
A synopsis states your main line of argument, and depending on the discipline (compare the Political Science
and History examples below) alludes to the essential reasons for adopting that line of argument and your main
conclusion/s. Usually this kind of synopsis is a stand-alone item, on a separate page from the main text.

Synopsis - Political Science

In this essay it will be argued that the blame for the political and constitutional crisis of 1975 can be shared
by the Governor-General, the Prime Minister and leader of the Opposition, two non-Labor Premiers and the
Chief Justice of the High Court and, as conventions were broken by all concerned, some problems have been
revealed in the Constitution.

Synopsis - History
A turning point during the period 70BC to 68AD was when Pompey died and Julius Caesar received his
Dictatorship for life. Throughout the late Republican period, powerful men such as Pompey, Crassus, Cicero,
Clodius, Cato and Caesar gained power through wealth, religion military achievements, legal and oratorical
means, political appointments and offices, lineage, marriage and through gaining the support of a wide range
of people. When Caesar became life-Dictator, although the basis of power did not change, the locus did.
Caesar no longer shared or relied on other powerful figures to increase his power. Caesar was not in power
long enough to make a significant difference to Rome, but he paved the way for Augustus to hold the office
of Princeps, therefore setting the scene for change.
There are two other kinds of synopsis. In literature, a synopsis of a novel summarises the plot. Similarly, in a book
review, a synopsis of what the book covers is required at the beginning.

Synoptic essay
Sometimes, in disciplines such as History, you may be required to write a synoptic essay. This is usually an overview
of your understanding of the major themes studied in the unit/subject (and within the discipline context), often
indicating how your understanding of the themes has developed over time. In the context of History there is often no
need to include references/footnotes in a synoptic essay, but check this with your tutor/lecturer.

Preface
A preface briefly covers the background to the work, the intended audience, and provides an overview of the
contents. There is often an acknowledgement of people who have assisted in producing the work.

Foreword
The foreword is usually written by someone (of authority) other than the author, and provides an overview of the
contents of the work. The writer often praises the timeliness, usefulness, thoroughness, etc, of the work.

Summary/prcis

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A prcis or summary set as an assignment will usually be of someone elses work, eg a book or paper. A prcis is a
concise summary of essential points, statements, or facts (Merriam Webster online dictionary), with the focus on
reproducing the cohesion and logic of the original text in your own words. It does not involve evaluation of the work.
In the social sciences a prcis of a research paper follows a very similar format to an abstract in the sciences, covering
the topic or thesis, the purpose, the methods, the results and conclusion.
Long essays should be preceded by an abstract (that is, a prcis of the argument and conclusions) - Philosophy
Summary is a less precise term which may encompass both descriptive and summative forms, but usually involves
a restatement of the main ideas, without examples or evidence. Some staff may use abstract and summary
interchangeably, so if you are asked to do a summary, ask for clarification as to what is required.

According to Bate and Sharpe:

Your [summary] prcis must accurately represent the text in a condensed form. It does not contain
interpretation of the issues raised... [and] is not evaluative. There is no need for you to provide your
reaction to the ideas of the author. The central purpose is to inform the reader of what the summarised
text is about and to identify the authors main argument/theme. Provide full bibliographic details of
the text; clearly identify the texts subject matter; and clearly identify the purpose of the text. (D. Bate
and P. Sharpe, 1996. Writers Handbook for University Students, Harcourt Brace, London: 164)

ANU CRICOS Provider Number 00120C 2009 Academic Skills and Learning Centre (ASLC), The Australian National University.
This handout may be used and changed for educational purposes, so long as ASLC is appropriately acknowledged.

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