CAMBRIDGE STUDIES OF RELIGION / SECOND EDITION Zoj/j Significant people and schools of thought Khadijah bint Khawaylid (circa 555- 619 CE) — Fist wife and supporter of ‘Muhammad; she was the first convert to Islam Fatima al-Zahra (circa 605-632 CE) ~ Daughter of Muhammad and wife of Ali ibn Abu Talib, the fourth rightly guided caliph, she is particularly significant in Shi'a | Islam Imam Malik (citea 711-795 CE)— One of the most respected scholars in Synni Islam and founder of Maliki interpretations of the Qus’an and Hadith in the Maliki madbhab (School of Religious Judispradence) ‘Imam Abu Hanifa (699-767 CE) ~ Founder of Hanifi schoo! of Islamic jurisprudence Rabi’a al-Adawiyya (717-801 CE)— Female Sufi saint, noted for her poetry and devotion; she is considered the founder of the doctrine of Divine Love in Islan Imam al-Shafi'i (767-820 CE) ~ Founder of Shafi school of Islamic Jurisprudence ‘Abu ali Hussein Thn Sina (circa 980-1037 CE)- Also known as Avicenna; Persian scholar expert in many fields, including philosophy and medicine ‘Al-Ghazali (1058-1111 CE) ~ Sufi theologian and mystic; his writings are considered among the greatest in Islam Sayyid Maududi (1903-1979 CE)- Pakistani journalist, scholar and theologian; a Muslim revivalist leader and founder of ‘one of the political Islamist movements of the twentieth century Sayyid Qutb (1906-1966 CE)—A key figure of Muslim Brotherhood, who with fellow members, was persecuted by the Egyptian authorities and hanged, His ‘writings in prison influenced a range of radical and anti-colonial expressions of Islam from the 1970s ortwards. Mardnty » Cid oh Aisha bint Abu Bakr Her name is also transliterated from Arabic into English as ‘Ayisha’ ot ‘Ayeeshe’. AisHa’s LIFE Aisha was the daughter of Abu Bak, one of the Prophet Muhammad’ closest companions, Believed by some to be born circa 615 CE, she died circa 678 CE, She was betrothed to the Prophet ata very early age. Of the eleven or twelve wives that Muhammad took after his first wife's death, itis clear from sources thet A’isha became his favourite, After the death of the Prophet, Aisha supplied many biographical accounts of Muhammad, as well as many of his sayings that have been secorded in the Hadith. She became enmeshed ia the polities of the new Islamic community, particularly during the time of the fourth caliph, Ali, against whom she led a revolt. ‘This culminated in the battle of Basra {the Battle of the Camel) in 656 CE. She lost this battle and the victor, caliph Ali returned her to Medina, Here A’isha lived in relative seclusion until her death in about ” 6780) CONTRIBUTION TO THE DEVELOPMENT AND EXPRESSION OF ISLAM Aisha’s impact eis said that Aisha was one of the extliest to convert to the new religion of Islam. Her father, Abu Baks, perhaps the closest of all the companions of the Prophet Muhammad, was an earlier convert ~as a result, Nisha was one of the first children to gow up in a Mustim family. Her marriage t0 Mukammad bound the Prophet and Abu Bake closer in their common religious and political objectives. ‘Atha did not marry Muhamatad until the last decade of his life. In his early years, j at the age of 25, he married Khadijah, with | whom be remained monogamous until her death in 619 CE. The marriage lasted 25 ‘years and was a happy one, Consideredthe first convert to Tslam, Khadijah gave hher husband great support. Muhammad once said: ‘She believed in me when 1 was rejected when they called me a liar, she proclaimed me truthful; when T was poor she shared with me her wealth’. After Khadijah’s death, Muhammad married a number of women for a variety of reasons ~ this practice is known as polygamy. ‘Once Muhammad had left Mecca in 622 CE and been welcomed into Medina as a prophet, apartments for him were ‘uilt facing onto the mosque that was constructed there. Thus, the private area’ of Muhammad's house and the public area of the mosque were barely separate. Tris soggested that somewhere between 622 CE and 624 CE, Muhammad formally consummated his marriage with A’sha. Convention has it that she was around nine years old, as marriage at an early age was ‘common at that time in that society. Once married and living with the Prophet, Aisha was extremely close to the centre of Muslim power. Mubammad’ wives Arouiid 623-24 CE Muhammad married , Hafsa, the young but widowed daughter of Umar (another companion who would become caliph after Abu Bakr). Hafsa and ‘Alisha became good friends. These two wives, and theiz influential fathers, formed aa key part of what later came to be known as Suanism in Islam. Muhammad’: fifth marriage to Umm Salama in 626 CE challenged all this. She tended to represent the interests of the houschold of At, ‘Muhammag’s cousin and the man who ‘macried Muhemmad’s daughter Fatima. "The group around Ali and Fatima would develop into the Shi’asect of Islam. Thus the eventual split of the Islamic world into ‘two camps originally stemmed from the Prophet's own household in Medina ‘Although Muhammad continued to marry other women over the next seven years, he became increasingly attracted to ‘Nisha's wit and vivacity. Near the end of his CHAPTER 11 / ISLAM DEPTH > life, when Muhammad fell sick, he began asking what day it was, His wives realised he wanted to know when it would be his tum to be with Aisha. All his wives agreed in the end to let the Prophet spend his last days jin Aisha’s room, and he died in her arms. It is in her bedroom (now inside the Mosque in Medina) that he is buried. These events have impressed on Muslims the role that love plays in a marriage. Nisha’s charming, forthright and vibrant nature forms an ides! to which many Muslim women aspire, ‘Muhammad and Aisha were only married for nine or ten years. She was widowed at 19 and did not remacry. Asha spent the rest of her life single, under the epecial designation of Mother of the Believers’ THE SCANDAL OF THB SLANDER ‘An example of how Aisha was the catalyst for Quranic revelation comes from early in her marriage and concerns the matter of ‘the slander’ I the Islamic year 5 (627 CE), ‘Aisha and Uim Salamah accompanied the Prophet on his war campaign against the Banu Mustaliq, Their campaign was uccessfl, On the return march, Atisha strayed from the campsite; she reported that she had been looking for some lost beads, ‘Sunni The majority varient of Islam Shi'a (or Shi'ite) The second largest islamic ‘group, Shi'a Muslims baliove that Muharnnmad’s descendants are best suited to lead the Mustim commurity Figure 11.5 ‘The Mosque of the Prophet in the city cf Medina. Both ‘Muhammad and ‘visha are buried ‘there,CAMBRIDGESTUDIES OF RELIGION Back at the camp, the man assigned to ‘Alisha’ care picked up her curtained litter and attached it to the camel, thinking she was inside it, and set off. Discovering that the caravan had gone without het, Aisha sat and waited for someone to come back and fetch her. ‘A little while later, a young man called Safwvan ibn al-Muattal discovered Aisha, put her on his camel and returned her to Medina. This caused a great scandal, Unsure of his wife’ fidelity, Muhammad ed having revelations from Allah isha recumed to her parents’ hguse. It seems that a rival faction led by Abd Allah ibn Ubayy (an outwardly Muslim man, puta strong opponent of the Prophet in ‘Medina) made the most of the rumour to discredit the family of Muhammad. Even 2s a prophet, Muhammad still had to face political challenges. After seeking advice and questioning Misha, Muhammad at Jast received a revelation now found in the Quran (Sura 24:11-13): Verily those who brought forth the slander [against Aisha] are a group among you ... Unto every man among them will be paid that sbich be bad earned of the sin, and as for bins among them whe hed the greater share therein, is will be a great torment. Why then, did not the believers, men and ‘women, when you heard [the slander] think goad oftheir own people and say: This is surely an obvious lie?” Why did they not produce four soitnesses? Since they [te slanderers] have not produced witnesses! Then with Allab they are liars! In this way Aisha's innocence was proclaimed.'The reference here to ‘four ‘witnesses’ was subsequently used a8 @ precedent by Muslim jurists in Shari'a Jaw. No adultery can be proved unless four witnesses can be found. ‘THE BATTLE OF THE CAMEL After the death of the Prophet, Aisha’s father led the Muslim community for two years. After her father died (and was buried } SECOND EDITION with the Prophet in Alisha’s apartments), ‘Umar ruled as caliph (634-644 CE). Umar -was the father of Vishe's co-wife, Hafsa. ‘During his reign, Muslim armies helped add new territories to the Mustim world. Tewas during this period that large parts of the Byzantine and Persian empires were defeated by Muslims and their lands came under Muslim rule. This expansion led to great political tensions. ‘These tensions came to @ head during the reign of the third caliph, Uthman. He vas from the Umayyad clan from Mecca. ‘Uthman appointed some of his relatives to a number of important posts. Many “Muslims became critical of what appeared to be Uthman's nepotism. Men poured in, from the new provinces to Medina to list their complaints, Uchman tried to calm these complaints, but it was too late. A crowd invaded his house and Uthman was assassinated, At this point the disenchanted followers of Ali, the Prophet's son-in-law, raced into Medina and had Ali proclaimed | caliph, Nisha was out of Medina making, the pilgrimage to Mecca, Once she heard of Ushmar's death, she hurried to the Ka’ba and began speaking to the crowd, telling them to revenge the death of Uthman. A large army of volunteers gathered around ther, and she fed this army towards Basra. Unfortunately, some who were at first enthusiastic left her group, while other ; ‘men planned to use her army for their own | political advantage. Aisha's army began to break into factions. Outside Basra, Nisha’s army met the army of the caliph Ali. Fighting broke out and this is called “The Battle of the Came!” (656 CE) from Nisba's entry into the battle mounted on her camel. She became the | rallying point for her ermy and Muslims Keilled each other in her defence. Ali, seeing the viciousness of the fighting, had the camel cut down. This confused Alisha’s troops and ended the battle. Estimates suggest that thousands of men died in the conflict. Caliph Ali had Atisha escorted back.CHAPTER 11 to Medina. But his victory was chort lived; ‘Ali was assassinated by a rebel (Khatiji) in 661 CE, One of the opponents of Ali, “Muawiya (at the time of Uthman’s death the Governor of Syria and 2 relative of ‘Uthman), founded a hereditary caliphate after Al's death. This caliphate is referred to as the Umayyad Dynasty and controlled the ‘Muslim world until 750 CE. ‘Aisha returned to Medina and lived out her life in selative seclusion, bit developed a reputation for being Jeamed in early Islamic Jaw and traditions of the Prophet. She died in 678 CE, She collected over 2000 bagith (recounts or narratives) concerning what the Prophet Muhammad had done and said, ‘Many Muslim scholars believe that without ‘Aisha's transmission of such a large number of adit, many Islamic teachings on a range of issues would have been lost. ‘Afisha’s move into polities and her failure lie atthe heart of Islamic ideas of the place of women in public lif. One adi or saying of the Prophet seems to confirm this. Te says, Those who place thelr affrs in the hands of ewomen will never Ruse prosperity. ‘This hadith was collected by al-Bukhari (810-870 CE), one of the most famous Sunni collectors and verifiers of hadith. ‘Muslim scholars such as Muhammad Acata (The rights of women in Islam, 1980) use Aisha's example to show that women in Iclam should have no political oles: Isis true that A'sba feught (at The Battle of the Camel]... it must not be forgotten that this individual act by A’sha was denounced 1s an error by the greatest of the companions and condensned by other wives ofthe Prophet. And in any case, Aisha regretted ber act. Itis ‘thus not acceptable t base claims on Aisha’ experience, which was considered to be an act of bid'a Analysing Aisha’s influence Aisha provided many examples of what the Prophet did and said and her Badith have been quoted by Muslim scholars ever { ISLAM DEPTH STUDY since, The Prophet was generally seen as a successful military leader or asthe transmitter of revelations fiom Allah (which all Muslims accept). A'isha’s budith remind the world that Muhammad was also a kind and loving man, Muhammad is the ideal man for many Muslims, and Alsha’s badith show the faithful of Islam a complete man, Hereditary Passe down within a feily not just a public religious leader, Umayyad The ‘The Shi'a variant of Islam, followed by First bist those dedicated to the heritage of the caliph J dynasty thatruled fom 881-760CE ‘Ali, can be partly excused for despising her. She astacked the son-in-law of the Prophet in battler Nisha is piven a special status in the Islamic world, She was more privileged Bid’a ‘Innovation’: thistermis used against those accused of as a wife because: 1 She-was the only virgin wife of the besmirching the sacred treditions prophet, of Islam by changing ther into something new 2 Both her parents fled Mecca because they were persceuted for being Muslim, 3. Gabriel showed her likeness to ‘Muhammad and told the prophet to amaxry her. 4 In the affair of the slander, Allah declared her innocent. 5 She had washed in the same vessel as ‘Muhammad. 6 Muhammad had prayed in her company. 7 Muhammad received some of his revelations in her presence. He died in her arms. ‘He was buried in her apartments in the ‘Medina mosque. ‘Alisha remains today one of the most prominent, argued-about women in the } history of Islam.CAMBRIDGE STUDIES OF RELIGION ! SECOND EDITION 104 ANE SRD 0S REGS TUTE FTO TTT BE EXERCISE 11.1 4 How.was A’isl Muhammad? @ ‘What evidence is there to suggest Atisha was Muhammad's favourtte wife? 4 Why has A'isha been viewed as a controversial person in the his Of Islam? . ACTIVITY 11.1 1. Aisha had a significant effect on Muhammad, his life and. his ideas. That seems to contradict a.a gond wite to 2 the poduterimage of the slave of WwORTeiN Thilelairh today. What car: you ¢'sdover about the role of womikifin'Isiam? Two contemporary txaidhiplss ate Silma thram in ‘Austreliacand vamina Watlud In the USA, Research the companions of the, Prophet. Many of their biographies can be found on the Cambridge Siudivs of Religion website. Construct a table with relevant information. 3. Debate :the following topic: ‘A'isha rapresents the ideal model for the Muslim woman’ HVT T YEU CUE U0 CEUTA) ET DECLAREISLAM from bowed T A che Studlits of Religion 2006 p2O A. Significant people and ideas Aisha Bint Abu Bakr Nishe (613-678) was the third wife of Muhammad and the daughter of Abu Bakr, the first caliph, The ‘Mother of the Believers’, she was only 18 years old when the Prophet died. She is often called his favourite wife and he spent his final days in her chamber. She was a young women of keen intellect, strong will and eloquence, and an eager pupil of the Prophet. Muhammad is reputed to have said to some companions, "Draw half of your religion from this ruddy-faced woman’. On one occasion, Aisha was searching for @ lost necklace and the caravan left without her. She was found by @ young man, Safwan, and upon her return her fidelity was questioned. The Prophet's cousin, Ali, advised him to divotoe hr but a revelation of the Qur'an cleared her name (and established the law requiring four witnesses to adultery and the punishment of those who accuse falsely). Aisha was a brave, politically active woman, She participated in a number of battles that shifted the balance of power into the hands of the Muslims, by bringing, food and water to the Muslim warriors, tending to their wounds and providing battle intelligence. Yeats later when Ali became Caliph, Aisha joined an insurrection against him and fodo into battle on a camel. She was defeated and the contest was called the Battle of the Camel. Later in her life mary marvelled at her ability at theology and pootry. Muslims honour Aisha as a transmitter of hadith (sayings of the Prophet). She passed on more than two thousand of his sayings and is also considered to be an authority for ‘the interpretation of the Qur'an. .me ¢Her name (A’isha) is aa popular choice for girls, and she is a leading figure for women’s movements and organisations in the Muslim world. A Oxford Studies of Retigion ‘Aisha bint Abu Bakr ‘Nisha (613-678 ce) was the daughter of Abu Bakr, one of Muhammad's carliest followers and closest personal friends—and the man who was to be the first leader of the Muslim community after Muhammad's death in 632 ce, The betrothal in 620, when ‘A'isha was seven, and the ‘marriage in 622 were marks of the depth of friendship between the two men. “Aisha was the closest of Muhammad's wives to him, She Is also the one about whom most is known. She displayed a strong, individual personality. There are 2210 sayings of the Prophet (hadith) related through her. By way of comparison, only one other of Muhammad’s ‘wives, Umm Salma, is recorded as transmitting hadith, and she only related 378, ‘An event in ‘A'isha’s lifois mentioned in the Que’an (sura 24:11-19). It is related that on the way back from an expedition on which she accompanied the Prophet (shé was cattied in a howdah mounted on the back of a camel), the party halted for a walle. She dismounted from the howdah to relieve herself and dropped a necklace. On returning to the howdah, she realised she had dropped it and setumed to look forit. While she was searching, the caravan moved on, the bearers thinking she was inside the howdah. Left alone, she waited for someone to come back for her when she was missed. While she was waiting, an {individual ftom the rearguard following the caravan discovered het and recognised her. Modestly setting her on his owa camel, he brought het back to Madina, where she had not yet been missed. The circumstances appeared compromising, and there were rumours that she had been guilty of adultery, Muhammad was perplexed. The matter escalated into ‘a dispute that could have divided the Muslim community. Muhammad asked advice from his companions. His cousin ‘All suggested that he put ‘an end to the matter by divorcing her. For this, itis said, ‘A'sha never forgave ‘Ali, Others including a female servant insisted that ‘ilsha‘s ¥ King, ef of Zotevirtue was absolute, Eventually Muhammad recelved a revelation declaring her Innocence. When her parents urged her to be grateful to them and to ‘Muhammad, she replied: ‘No thanks to you, You did not believe me. Thanks is due to God alone.’ There are other possible references to ‘A'isha in the Que’an, in particular to Muhammad's relations with Mary the Copt—who bore a son, Ibrahim, to ‘Muhammad-—and her jealousy of the newcomer. (Ibrahim died aged 18 months) When ‘Ali became Caliph in 656 ce, ‘Aisha moved into the spotlight again. When there was a revolt against him, she took the side of the rebels and rode to the battlefield in a howdah mounted ‘ona camel. The fighting Was fierce—it is said that, the howdah was like a hedgehog, so many were the arrovrs sticking out of it, After ‘Ali's army won, ‘all approached her, and she said fo him, 'You have “ been victorious, now be magnanimous.’ He treated.» her with every courtesy and sent her under escort to Madina, where she lived the rest of her life in obscurity, but accessible to’ Muslims concerned with stories about the Prophet and the meaning of hadith. ‘wisha’s personality and popular memories of hher are important in Muslim life, Her name is a popular choice for girls, and she is a leading figure for women’s movements and organisations in the Muslim world, For example, the leading reformist ofganisation in Indonesia (30 000 000 members) is known as Muhhammadiya. The women's division is known as ‘Ashiya, activity eda and Aisha were two very important women jn Muhammad's te. Who were they and what impact id they have on Muhammad and the early development of stan? Fatima al-Zahra (Fatima the Radiant) :33 cx) was probably Muhammad's |, and she was the only one to survive him, She married his paternal cousin ‘Ali and was the only one of his children to bear him grandchildren who survived infancy. OF these children, two entered the pages of history, Hasan and Husayi. Its these sons and their descendants who became the focus of loyalty of the Shi'a wing of Islam. Fatima does not have the role in history thanks to her personality that ‘A'isha did. Neither she nor any of Muhammad's other daughters are recorded as transmitting any hadith. But part of the theology of the Shi'a is the suffering of the Imamns, and Fatima too, ini the six months or so she lived after the death of her father, shared in that suffering. ‘The Shi'a believe she suffered because het husband “All was cheated of his right to leadership of the Muslim community after the death of Muhammad. She suffered because Abu Bakr deprived her of what she had the right to inherit from her father. She suffered because she was allovred to foresee the ‘martyrdom of her two sons, Hasan and Husaya. Hasan died in 669 cx, pethaps by poisoning, and Husayn died a martyrs death, with his body treated ignominiously, at the battle of Karbala’ (in present- day Iraq) in 680 ce. Fatima had perhaps five children: Hasan and Husayn, two daughters, Zaynab and Umm Kultham, and a third son who died in infancy. Spiritually, among the Shi'a , Fatima enjoys a wonderfully privileged position. There is a hadith (not rejected by the Sunnis) that describes her as ‘Queen of tie women in Paradise’, next to Maryam, daughter of ‘Imran. She is given the ttte batul, virgin, not because she did not conceive by intercourse with ‘Ali but because she Was never defiled by menstruation. She is known as al-Zahra’ (‘the Radiant’), For the Shi'a she is the embodiment of all that is divine in womanhood—'the noblest ideal of huuman conception’ (Sayeed Ameer Ali), FIG, 15.2 Al Patina masque In Katt i named afer the daughter of Muhammad. 335,This sero fom he teenth century commemorates the Haj—the pilgrimage to Mocea—by'@ woman callos May ustratea with images of Mecca and other places of narest roure, ts a fas ‘and geographical rato, Peete ne wey and ee ‘When the Prophet Mubammad died in 11 aH/632 ce, he lefe behind a Revelation from Allah {the Qur'an), a tradition (the sumna of the Prophet), and the reports of what he did, said and approved (hadith). There were also his companions who would assume leadership roles—who ‘would be the teachers and interpreters—within the community, who were followers of the Prophet. In Islam, 19 decument that cornbies both reigious. "3 there is a widely eld belief based on sun that Gol sends a ‘renewer' at the beginning of encl century to restore or strengthen Islam. Who isa yenuine renewer (majadid) is a matter of considerable dispute. “Through the centufies, from the earliest years of Islam, there have been individuals and groups who have had great influence on the practice of Islam. Sometimes they Ihave been a focus for consolidation, sometimes they have challenged, and sometimes they have caused disputes that resulted in rifts within the community of Islatn in a way that is still apparent today. Indeed, the major division between Sunni and Shi‘ Islam occurred with the assassination of the fourth caliph only twenty-nine years after the Prophet's death. “This section will explore: the complicated legacy of ‘Alisha—a wife of the Prophet; Sayyid Quib—one of the most influential and controversial contemporary interpreters of Islam; and tasawwuf—Sufism, a mystical “dimension of Islam that has its origins in the century after the Prophet's death, enmpaper articles atid ad jwogenas ts dowd ‘igittes ‘and Islimnie practices bad ethics Where? elevate nantes andl dsceipniiso€ > welisiteson diese topics. 13.1.1 ‘Aisha bint Abi Bakr (c. 614-c. 678 ce) ; ‘The first written account of ‘A'sha was produced some 150 years after her death. Her multiple roles in the Islarnic ppast—as an ‘exceptional’ female in Islamic societys.as a scholar and political activist; and asa close, honourable ‘companion and wife to the Prophet—make her life a point of contention in continued debates surrounding the true lineage of Muhammad's successors, Each of her roles is interpreted differently by Islamic scholars, making ‘Avisha's pact in early Islamic tradition very complicated. Fered Loy pr (4h @) 2010 Mhretisey.Thete is no doubt, however, that the first Muslim woman whose views have been important co Muslims throughout Islamic history was ‘Atsha, wife of the Prophet. Muhammad’s contemporaries, among them both al-miuhajerun (emigrants who followed hitn from Mecca) and al-Ansar (those who helped the Prophet in Medina) ‘considered ‘Avisha a source of religious rules and an expert ‘on issues of Islamic legislation. Ata Bin Abi Rabah (d. 120 ai/736 Ce)—a prominent transmitter of hadith— said: A'isha was the most knowledgeable Muslim and hhad the best opinion in public affairs; 2210 sayings of the prophet Muhammad were attributed to her among which ate 170 which have been approved and Bukhari took 54 sayings from them.’ ‘Aisha narates, “God's apostle said and she quotes. “If any, of you feels drowsy wihile praying he shquid go to bed til” his slumber is ove’ because in praying while drowsy one, does not know whether one is asking for forgiveness or for arbad thing for onesell” Bukhaw Chal, 16l A brief account of ‘Aisha’s life ‘Aisha was the third wife of the Prophet Mubammad and her father was Abu Bakr, Muhammad's successor and the fist ‘rightly-guided’ caliph. She was betrothed to the Prophet ata very eatly age and itis suggested the marriage was formally consummated around 624 ce when Muhammad was fifty-four. ‘Wisha’s marriage to the Prophet represents a cultutal norm of the time—marriages which solidified famity, trial or political tie. Marriage to ‘Aisha allowed the Prophet and Abu Bake to establish a public alliance, while the young bride received honoured status as wife of the Prophet, Of the eleven or twelve wives Muhammad took, it is clear (tom sources that ‘Avisha became his favourite. It was in het room that Muhammad died and was buried. The Prophet's Mosque—al-Masjid al-Nabawi—now stands on that site in Medina. Accusation of adultery It was during Muhammad's lifetime, when returning from an expedition with him in 5 Aty627 cb, that ‘Avisha became the victim of malicious gossip. She became separated from the company when she went to look for a necklace she reported she had lost. When she returned she found that the company had left without her. She ‘was found by a young man called Safwan ibn Al-Muatial and taken on his camel to rejoin the caravan. This led ‘Abdullah Ibn Ubay, a known critic of the Prophet in Medina, to initiate speculation that she had comsicted adultery. Weeks later, when she found out about the ‘rumours, ‘Aisha returned to her parents’ house in gref ‘Muhammad sought advice and later announced that he had received a revelation confirming ‘A'isha’s innocence and directing that charges of adultety be supported by four cevewitnestes (Surat al-Nur 24:11-19 Light) Battle of the Camel ‘The frst violent division among Muslims cocucred when the third caliph, ‘Uthman, was killed and some suspected thac “Ali b. Abi Talib, his successor, conspired in the murder, Alchough ‘All was ‘AVisha’s stepson-in- law and denied involvement, ‘Avisha formed a military cexpedicion against him when ‘Ali was delayed in finding andl punishing the perpetrators. The battle, which ‘Al won, was fought near Basra in 656 ce. ‘A’isha was taken. prisones, though accorded enormous reverence as a wile of the Prophet Muhammad, and-later sent back to Medina. It ‘became known as the Battle of the Camel because ‘A’isha gave directives from a howdsh on the back of a camel. Sources say she often regretted her involvement in war but lived long enough to regain her position. She died peacefully in 678 cE in the month of Ramadan and was buried in the cemetery, Jannat al-Bag’, across from the Prophet's Mosque, beside other companions of the Prophet.Contribution to the development and expression of Islam As was said earlier, analysing ‘Avisha’s legacy is complicated and the two major strands of Islam have condlicting views—views that depend on theit version of the proper lineage ofthe Prophet's successors (see page 99 in Chapter 5) Some scholars suggest her involvement in the Battle of the Camel relegated ‘A’isha to a divisive role in early Islamic history. But her later focus on scholarship and ceaching gave her an important legacy in Sunni Islam, ‘have not known of any woman who was accused of falsifying hadith. To this we add, that from the time of “Aisha, the mothe: of believers, until the time of ab-Zahabi the sayings ofthe Frophet Muhammad were not kept or elated by anyone as they were kept in the hearts of ‘women and related by ther. ttafez ab Zahabi (4.1347), 3 renowned ‘Musin-authory on halt ‘Sunnis hold ‘A'sho in high esteem. Many believe that ¢ che was Muhammad's favourite wife and consider her to be Umm oltituiminin (Mother of Believers’) and ‘arnong the Ahi al-Bay! (tho household ofthe Prophel). For Sunnis, this household consists of the Prophot's wives, his daughter (Fatima) and her three children, 05 well as his cousin and son-in-law (Ali. ‘Shi reject the idea that ‘Aisha was the Prophet's favourite wife ond bolieve that Muhommad favoured rnone of hie wives in compliance with the Qur'anie verse ‘Surat al-Nisa 4:3 The Women’. The Shi definition (of Ani a-Bayt Includes only Fatima, ‘Ai, Hasan. and Husayn (known collectively os the Ah! aF-Kiso, ‘people ‘of tho monte’) and the Zmams, descendants of Fatima, whom they consider to be divinely chosen leaders of the Muslim community. Her participation in the Battle of the Coimel (where she attacked "All, the son-In-ow of the Prophet) is widely considerad the most significant reason for Shi contempt. They olse do not believe that ‘she conducted harself in an appropriate manner in het role as Muhammad's wife. Depending on your view, it can be said that: ‘© ‘Aisha helped preserve the details of the early years of Islam, a8 well as the details ofthe private and public life of Mubaromad by narrating more than two thousand hadith e ee She started the method of hadith critique, by ‘questioning mariy of the hadith reported by Abu ‘Hiurayra (d. 681 ce) after Muhammad's death. She was algo critical of Abu Hurayra’s skills in deducing legal conclusions from hadith. For example, ‘A'isha declared of Abu Hurayta ‘to whoever wanted to hear it: “He is not a good listener [to the Prophet}, and when he is asked a question, he gives wrong answers.” She was eloquent; her power of epeech was described by al-Abnaf (a well-known Muslim general who lived during the time of Muhammad): ‘I have heard speeches ‘of Abu Bakr and ‘Umar, ‘Uthman and ‘Ali and the Khulafa (successors of the Prophet) up to this day, but Thave not heard speech more persuasive and more beautiful from the mouth of any person than from the mouth of isha.’ ‘The Prophet is reported to have said: ‘Learn a portion of your religion fom this, humayra, (rosy lady)!—a dlescription given to ‘Avisha by the Prophet. She taught more than eighty major scholars in early Islamic: period. ‘Aisha provided a role model for women's political participation in Islamic communities. ome scholars claim up to éne-quarter of Shan‘ (Islamic teligious law), based on the collection of hadiths, have stemmed from her narratioiss and her teaching Suda) 1. Go to thie sweb destisarions for page 305 t0 find cout more akout Aisha. bist six points you have, learnt alsout ‘A'sha fromthe website. 2 Yh groups, ddbass the Ntctemente Bach of tet roles tntenpreted diferently by lelamic shila, snainy ‘Atisha’ pat 19 early Islamic ‘eadition very." ‘counplicated. Shine your ideas with ocher grove. 3, Analyse the impact of ‘Alisha on Islam. fn-your 7 ans efet to differing views of Aisha,4th Annual Women of Faith Dinner & Awards 12th March 2006 The Women of Faith Dinner, hosted by Affinity Intercultural Foundation showcased the good work in Muslim, Jewish, and Christian communities. The dinner, held at the Boshporous Lounge on Sunday, 12 March, was a refreshing reminder of the efforts and initiatives of women in various roles promoting interfaith dialogue, providing leadership and fostering general goodwill, This successful event demonstrated the capabilities, strengths, and importance of female leadership in the community. The evening included presentations by representatives of each faith, performances, and award presentations to honour and encourage progress in this area, Master of Ceremonies Omnia Elmecery welcomed 250 guests followed by readings from the Quran, Torah and the Bible. Kirrily McDermott, the first speaker for the evening, presented a thought provoking account of leadership. Kirrily stated that “to be a leader you don’t necessarily need credentials, but you do need concern, Don’t ever think you can’t make a difference to the world”, She added that we need constant reminders that “just because we may not have an important role in public life, or carry a professional title which gives us formal recognition of a leadership role does not mean that we cannot consider ourselves as leaders. Our stories may not be remembered in history books, but if we live honestly and authentically, our lives will be remembered by individuals around us”. Kirrily also touched on the importance of seeking God and honestly searching for truth. “As Women of faith we cannot fail to influence the people with whom we come into contact. By consciously living for God, obedient to the voice of our conscience, we become people who ate open to God's will in our life, and we can become witnesses to goodness, integrity, and authenticity in our world. She also reflected on the life of Mary as an example of leadership and faith, “The Bible doesn’t tell tus much about the early life of Mary. She did not have degrees or rabbinical diplomas, and was probably your average woman 2000 years ago. However, against all human expectation God ‘chooses Mary, considered by all human standards to be powerless and weak and Mary became the instrument for humanity's salvation” Kirrily used the words of Mother Theresa to emphasise that “we can not do great things, only small things with great love”, Oma Lansky presented an interesting view of the changing roles of women in the Jewish faith. Ora explained that women are able to become Rabbi’s and is currently completing her studies in the area, ‘She emphasised the benefits of women in leadership and the positive impact that women can have in the community. She shared her own experiences and challenges and expressed the importance of providing women with the opportunities to get involved in various areas to make a difference, Zuleyha Keskin presented an overview from an Islamic perspective and explained that there is a great need for women in leadership today, Zuleyha professed her faith in Islam to encourage womenin leadership roles. “When we study the history of the Muslim world and take a look at the teachings of Islam, we certainly see an encouragement of Muslim female leadership” She recognised the need for leadership in all areas of life; personal, organisational or community leadership and the importance of time management, effective communication, commitment, perseverance, and dedication in the making of a good leader. Leadership, Zuleyha explained, “is not a role that can be confined to half the world’s population With the change in global environment, women play a key role in holding family and community together, This is another reason why women require leadership skills and empowerment by the community” “In addition, the contemporary material world is experiencing a lack of spirituality, with spiritual deserts evident in all parts of the world. We need women of faith (0 help fill the current spiritual void that tie world is experiencing”. Zuleyha also spoke on the common misconceptions that religion deters female leadership roles. “Since Islam and Muslim’s are under the spotlight so much and since there are so many misconceptions about Islam, the Muslim community has a huge task in clarifying these misconceptions”. “The maximum utility of the empowerment provided by Islam is seldom seen in the contemporary world. Today, for a Muslim woman there are many barriers which prevent her from taking on leadership roles. Firstly there is an overall challenge worldwide to have women in leading roles or for women to be acknowledged for their contribution to society whether the community is a secular one or a religious one. Muslim women also need to deal with additional challenges such as the geo- political condition of many Muslim nation states, including war and underdevelopment. “As a Muslim, the first place for me to find out the Islamic-point-of-view on a matter begins with a study of relevant verses from the Quran. For Muslims, the Quran the unaltered word of God as revealed to Prophet Mohammed in the seventh century”. Zuleyha ended her presentation by highlighting the need to encourage and support women in leadership to create balance by following the examples of great historical women. ‘The Award receivers of the evening Elizabeth Ban, Silma Ihram and Doctor Giovanni Farquer were honored for their contributions and efforts in the community. Dr Giovanni Farquer expressed her gratitude and said that “the dinner was so professionally organized, every aspect of the program sensitively and (astefully presented. It was no wonder that throughout the evening the whole group seemed actively involved in proceedings. I believe that the women of faith dinner are a symbol of the influence that women exert on one another and a powerful sign of the growing significance of their impact on the broader society, I encourage younger women to come, sec, and experience for themselves the richness of interfaith encounter”. Silma Ihram said she was “appreciative of the efforts taken to recognise women who are trying to make a difference in our society. While recognition is not required to continue our work, it helps others to see what you are doing and also to encourage them to also work to make a difference. It gives the opportunity for women to come together on a common platform when they would not normally interact”.Elizabeth Ban was surprised but pleased to receive her award. “This was my first such event and I was truly impressed by the quality of the presentations and the positive energy generated in the group, Women ate the teachers and the bearers of tradition in every community” ‘This unique event achieved many things. It collected women of many faiths to celebrate the work in various communities. It encouraged women of all ages to exercise their intellect and initiatives to get involved for a better, bigger cause, It highlighted the respect, tolerance, and understanding of different faiths and most importantly it was a reminder of our individual and collective responsibilities to express good will through the teachings of our faith by using our physical, practical, and spiritual tools to create harmony with the help of God. ‘The Need for Leadership by Women of Faith Today [The article below is the address written and delivered by Mrs Zuleyha Keskin at Affinity Intercultural Foundation’s 4th Annual Women of Faith Dinner. This dinner was held in 12th of March and included giving of awards to respective Muslim, Christian and Jewish ladies who have made significant contributions to harmony in our society.) The need for leadership by women of faith today is greater than ever. This need is felt just as much Within the Muslim world as other worlds of faith. The lack of Muslim female leaders is not due to Islamic teachings, since Islam actually empowers women to become leaders. Whether this empowerment is utilised is another issue in itself. Some of the factors which cause the under utilisation of this empowerment will be discussed, When we study the history of the Muslim world and take a look at the teachings of Islam, we certainly see an encouragement of Muslim female leadership. In the current times in which we live, leadership is extremely important, whether it is personal, organisational or community leadership. With globalisation and the advancement in technology, there is greater need to manage our time wisely, have effective communication skills, and develop qualities such as commitment, perseverance and dedication, This description is that of a good Teader. Leadership is not a role that can be confined to half the world’s population. The gender polarisation with regards to leadership needs to be balanced. Since women make up more than half the population, itis only natural that they take up leadership roles as well With the change in global environment, women play a key role in holding family and community together, This is another reason why women require leadership skills and empowerment by the community. In addition, the contemporary material world is experiencing a lack of spirituality, with spiritual deserts evident in all parts of the world. We need women of faith to help fill the current spiritual void that the world is experiencing. Unfortunately, there is a misconception that religion in general deters female leadership. Thus, this is an issue that women of all faiths need to address. Since Islam and Muslims are under the spotlight so much and since there are so much misunderstanding about Islam, the Muslim community has a huge task in clarifying these misconceptions. ‘The maximum utility of the empowerment provided by Islam is seldom seen in the contemporary world. Today, for 2 Muslim women there are many bartiers which prevent her from taking on leadership roles. Firstly there is an overall challenge worldwide to have women in leading roles or for women to be acknowledged for their contribution to society whether the community is a secularone or a religious one. Muslim women also need to deal with additional challenges such as the geo- political condition of many Muslim nation states, including war and underdevelopment. It should also be noted that pre-Islamic traditions in some societies and regions have been preserved, and Islam should not be held responsible for any faults inherent in them. For example, certain cultural habits and practices say that a woman ought to be modest, stay home and not venture into the public arena or they would be seen as immodest, This cultural attitude prevents many women to be active within their community or to play a significant role within society. The first place for a Muslim to find out the Islamic-point-of-view on a matter begins with a study of relevant verses from the Quran, For Muslims, the Quran is the unaltered word of God as revealed to Prophet Mohammed in the seventh century. "The only Quranic reference to female leadership (as in head of state) involves Bilqis, the Queen of Sheba. The Quranic story of Bilgis celebrates both her political and religious practices as she is held in high esteem. In the context of the Quran’s repetitive emphasis on the superiority of those who recognise the truth of God, at the expense of their prior beliefs and attachments, Bilqis proves herself capable of looking beyond material wealth and glory to find greater reward in submission to God. She stands out in the Quran as one of those whom the material world failed to blind from recognising the oneness of God and submitting to Him. What we see during the Prophet Muhammad’s (pbuh) time, reinforces the verses of the Quran. For instance, women were allowed to participate in battles; their education was not only desired, but also actively sought and encouraged. Women such as Aisha, Hafsa and Umm Salama were among the jurists and mujtahid s (the highest rank of scholarship and learning) of the Companions. Moreover, the women who were among the houschold of the Prophet were a source of information not only for other women but also for men for leaming religion. Many people from the next generation after the Companions consulted the Prophet's wives. ‘This situation was not only restricted to the Prophet's wives. In the periods that followed, qualified women were teachers to many people. In Islam there is no such thing as limiting the life of women or narrowing their fields of activity. The most important thing for a Muslim is his or her relationship God which is then reflected in his or her actions and deeds. As Prophet Muhammad has said, ‘the most superior of you are the righteous ones’. Thus a Muslim male or female strives to be righteous and plans his or her life accordingly. Personal leadership at the bare minimum is needed to achieve this goal. Many people have role models that they look up to and so do 1, One of my role models would have to be Aisha, who was the wife of Prophet Muhammad (pbuh). Aisha was one of the greatest scholars of her time. When Prophet Muhammad died, after 23 years of Prophethood, all of Arabia had become Muslim. After that, there were number of men and women who had been instrumental in the further spread of Islam, Aisha was one of those, She narrated 2,210 of Prophet Muhammad's (pbuh) statements. She also had a key input in terms of giving religious verdicts, explaining the meaning of verses in the Quran and the meaning of the words of the Prophet, Abu Musa AL-Ash’ari, himself a famous jurist and learned scholar, says ‘whenever we, companions of the Prophet Muhammed (pbuh), encountered any difficulty in the matter of any sayings of the Prophet, we referred it to Aisha and found that she had definite knowledge about it’. Eighty-eight great scholars learnt from her and there were a large number of others. In short, she was the scholar of scholars.However, her knowledge and expertise was not confined to religious teachings only. She had profound knowledge of medicine. Whenever foreign delegations came to the Prophet (pbuh) and discussed various remedies for illnesses, she used to remember them, She was also so well versed in mathematics that companions of the Prophet used to consult her on the problems concerning inheritance and the calculation of shares. One of her students, Urwah iba az-Zubayr, who let me add was a male, said of her, “I did not see a greater scholar than Aisha in the learning of Quran, obligatory duties, lawful and unlawful manners, poetry, literature, Arab history and geneology. Look at any other civilisation in the history of humanity; it would be very hard to identify a woman playing such a key role in its establishment. Aisha is not the only Muslim woman in history to shine like a star and enlighten those during her time and many centuries after. There are many others who have played a key role within their society, nation or faith community. Governor Cara Zon of Carcasson in Spain, the spiritual leader Rabiah Al-Adawiyah and Raja Ratu Biru of Patani in Thailand are some other examples of the many that exist. 1 often think that having numerous Aisha’s in today’s society would most definitely have a significant impact on humankind, Just as Aisha’s contribution has been critical, many women of today not only have the opportunity but it is imperative that they make a critical contribution to their society. It is comforting to talk about Aisha as a role model but we need contemporary Aisha’s in today’s time as well. From: __http://www.affinity.org awindex.php/cultural/263-4th-annual-women-of-faith-dinner-a- awards-2006Ajo STUDIES OF RELIGION IT RELIGION & WOMEN ISLAM - AISHA slam improved the lot of women, Society prior to Muhummad’s reforms was characterised by * Mele polygamy ‘Abandonment of wives without financial support ‘Women were not entitled to an inheritence Female infanticide ‘Women were subject to men in most cases Islam, however, restored their rights and dignity. Islam: «Prohibited female infanticide Limited the number of wives to four, Outlawed the practice of inheriting wives Gave women a share in inheritance and the right to own property Forbade marriage without a woman's consent Made the marriage dowry the wife’s property Sanctified the woman's role as wife and mother Allowed women to initiate divorce Insisted on “iddeh” Did not allow pregnant women to be divorced Insisted that male and female were created equal (Sura 4: 1, 39) Did not blame Eve for original sin Insisted that women fulfil their religious obligations — spiritual equality Encouraged leaning ~intellectual equality ‘Women also had diverse roles in the early years of Islam (note: Islam developed along both religious and political lines) ROLES: « Wives and Mothers Teachers ‘Nurses in Battlefields ‘Warriors Political Leaders Business Women Scholars Literary Figures Influential Counsel IMPORTANCE ‘Again, women helped form the history of Islam + were active in its political and religious growth. + The contribution of some of these women, such as Aisha and Rabia in the intervening years, was so significant it still has an impact in Islam today. 1M Cero Fajaréa Sues of Religion Women & Reign Cr Sady 1 a= AisAISHA Aisha was Mubummads third wife and is said to have been his favourite. She was very intelligent and learnt much from her father, Abu Bakr. Once married to Muhummad she leamt to read and write. She also became a pupil of the prophet and studied the Qur’an, HER ROLE: © Wife * “Mother of the Faithful” * Rolemodel * Theologian * Catalyst for change © Political activist * Scholar and Poet HER IMPORTANCE? Stories of her interaction with the Prophet contradict cultural restrictions placed on women today © Contributions to the Hadith ‘+ Helped form the history of Islam and shape its understanding of the Law Mi Conct-Faande Studies of Religion ‘Women & Religion Coss Study a Aslam Aishaheen, Yori Gmethe 1m 72 @ FOUNDING DISCOURSES F Selon Religion Broadly speaking, the evidence on women in early Muslim so- ciety suggests that they characteristically participated in and were expected to participate in the activites that preoccupied thelr community, those in- “Gladed religion as well as war. Women of the frst Muslim comunity at- tended mosque, took part in religious services on feast days, and listened to Muhammad's discourses. Nor were they passive, docile followers but ‘were active interlocutors in the domain of faith as they were in other mat- ters. Thus the hadith narratives show women acting and speaking out of a sense that they were entitled to participate in the life of religious thought and practice, to comment forthrightly on any topic, even the Quran, andj to do so in the expectation of having their views heard. The hadith show «what is equally important: chat Muhammad similarly assumed women's right to speak out and readily responded to théir comments. For example, his female followers, who, like the male, learned the Quran, reportedly com- plained on one occasion that the men were outstripping them and re- + quested that Muhammad set aside additional rime to instruct them so they 4 could catch up. This Muhammad did."° Presumably he had been instructing the men while the women were attending to household tasks, not just at the times of public prayer. The most important question the women asked Muhammad about Quran was why it addressed only men when women, too, accepted and his prophet."' The question occasioned the revelation of the Qu verses explicitly addressing women as well as men (Sura 33:35; § above}—a response that unequivocally shows Muhammad’s (and God readiness to hear women. Thereafter the Quran explicitly addressed wom a number of times. ‘weight, even concerning matters of spiritual and social import, continu to be a feature of the Muslim community in the years imimediately foley ‘women’s contributions to the hadith, From the start the preserva! these narratives was an exercise in the regulation of social conduct fi than merely an expression of the impulse to collect and preservei THE TRANSITIONAL AGE @ 73 memories. For a community newly beceft of their leader, the hadith rep- resented a means of searching out what was and was not acceptable conduct im situations for which Muhammad had left no explicit rulings. To accept ‘worten's testimony on the words and deeds of the prophet was to accept their authority on matters intended to have a prescriptive, regulatory re- lation to mores and laws, Indeed, in ensuing Muslim societies the hadith had a central place, next to the Quran, a sources from which to derive the law. ‘The women who made the largest contribution to that corpus were Mu hammad’s widows, though others are also cited as sources. ‘Aisha in par- ticular, with Umm Salama and Zeinab as distant seconds, was an important aditionist; all conceded that she had been particularly close to Muham- ‘mad. Soon after Muhammad's death the community began to consult her ‘ory Muhammad’s practice, and her accounts served t0 settle points of con duct and occasionally points of law. For example, when Safia, Mubammad’s formerly Jewish widow, died around 670, having willed a third of her estate to her nephew, a dispute arose as to whether his being a Jew nullified the bequest. ‘Aisha} upon being consulted, sent word that the will should be y honored; Even more important, ‘Aisha’s testimonies on the way Muham- mad prayed or the way he recited'a Curanic verse setled points regarding prayer and the correct reading of that verse. An eminent traditionist herself, ‘Aisha transmitted hadith to several of the foremost early Muslim tradi- tionists. Some 2,210 hadith are attributed to her. Al-Rukhari and Muslim, known for the stingency of thelr standards in hadith collection, included ~~ between them some three hundred hadith attributed to ‘Aisha.”? Even more important than the extensiveness of ‘Aisha’s and other wom- } cn’s contributions to the hadith is that they contributed at all—that Mu- hammad’s contemporaries and their immediate descendants sought them out and incorporated their testimony alongside and on a par with men's. This fact is remarkable, After all, how many of the world’s major living ‘eligions incorporate women’s accounts into their central texts or allow ‘woman’s testimony as to the correct reading of a single word of a sacred ‘text to influence decisions? Nor should the significance ofthis fact be min- imized on the grounds that the testimonies came chiefly from Muhammad's “wives and were accepted only by virtue of their connection with him. At many periods in Muslim history, including the Abbasid period, women were so debased that even their kinship with a great man would not have rendered their words worthy of note, Had the testimonies of women not already been considered authoritative by a previous age, itis entirely con- ‘eivable, for example, that al-Ghazali and his brother theologians and le-74% FOUNDING DISCOURSES gists would have set aside the testimony of women, however well grounded, ‘as to the correct reading of a Quranic verse or on any other matter of import, in favor of the opinion of a male authority, Similarly, the regula- tions recently introduced in Pakistan, where the testimony of two women is adjudged equal to that of one man, woilld have made it impossible, had such laws existed in early Islam, to accept the recollections of Muhammad's, female kin unless the word of one was backed by the word of another, Fortunately, the attitudes of men and women in the first Muslim society made women’s contributions part of the received texts; consequently, even in the most misogynistic periods women have been able to participate t0 some degree in the world of thought and learning. Women traditionists, usually taught by their fathers, were found in Muslim societies in all ages, including the Abbasid.!! ‘Many other details attest to the esteem in which the community held ‘Muhammad’s widows and to the weight they gave their opinions. Awarded the highest pensions in the state, the widows lived together in the mosque apartments they had shared with Muhammad, now one of the most sacred spots in Islam. Some of them commanded prestige and authority; all were independent women—4 u04 foyp2uun u] saadsau 31008 Rp om wep on Peg Pay EyEEY PY HY Py Joep 3969 *¢1 BqUURDAQ UQ “ mG 2p Jo HPO Pi, Buosporg 2.00 4 sae dus ul poe “wane abe anoge're mopue x por ssp ‘op olay “pry pn oo ay fiir) pouEpo sShehaca wots nen Bee aon 020 Be oe oe ald ‘nod 3} par powruseyopy 1 png, ,22ydory ap TEE we safuniod s} uemyes sn9q eo pro 9 fe ey, se ays aay poles use soy] o1U0 3H 424 Ind ops uo Suppuodap ‘sume jo [pe sed a20;99 suop jg 194 HER yo wiry Kuedusosoe gs pry usyr Lg oype Saydorg pauueg — 20ePP2NWOMEN IN ISLAM - RELIGIOUS TEXTS Islam emerged in the Arabian Peninsula in the early seventh century at a time of significant economic and social change, With growing prosperity and the beginnings of settled communities, individual families accumulated personal wealth, which challenged the traditional tribal system based on collectivism. The Muslim Prophet Muhammad was born into this traditional Arabian system which cared for all of its members, including the elderly and sick. As he was greatly disturbed by the changes in Arabian society, Muhammad's message from God was one of love, care and equity for all, The new Islamic faith proposed that all people are equal. Slavery was banned and female infanticide was abolished, Under the new religion women were also given many benefits and treated as equals in faith. WOMEN AND THE QUR’AN The religion of [slam gave women specific rights which are clearly detailed in the Islamic holy book, the Qur'an. These women’s rights are supported in another significant religious text, the Hadith, which is the written record of the sayings and doings of the Muslim Prophet Muhammad. Islam gave Muslim women unprecedented rights. For instance, women are permitted to own their own property and their earnings too are theirs to be dealt with how they wish. Women are entitled to mahr or a marriage gift. This gift, from the bridegroom to his wife, is hers alone, not her family’s or her fathers. Polygamy, a common Arabian practice at the founding period of Islam, generally involving numerous wives, was limited to four wives with considerable restrictions. In Islam monogamy is detailed as the preferred marital state. Women are given a share of inheritance and they can obtain a divorce from an unhappy marriage. Most significantly, equity in faith is strongly emphasised. For example, the Qur’anic story of the creation, unlike that of Christianity, says that humans were created equal from a single soul and that with the ‘fall’ of Adam and Eve both were guilty and both were forgiven by God. However, over the centuries, culture and traditions across the Muslim world have influenced the interpretation of some of these rights. For example, at the time of Muhammad, under particular historical circumstances and because of incidents that took place in Madina, when there was grave concern for Muhammad’s wives, a Qur’anic instruction emerged directing all members of the early Muslim community to dress modestly. An interpretation of this HSC SOR Women Islam Teachers’ Kit ‘directive, to dress modestly, will vary considerably from one culture to another today. The Qur'an is clear on the specific rights and responsibilities of women and it is clear too on the equal status of men and women in the eyes of God. For Muslim women the Quran is a liberating holy book and the Islamic faith provides them with many benefits. WOMEN AND THE HADITH While the Quran is the authentic source, and believed by Muslims to be the word of God through the Prophet Muhammad, in Islam another important source of information about, and for, Muslim women is the Hadith. Women of the founding period of Islam, including several of Muhammad's wives, have made major contributions to this significant Islamic text. The Hadith consists of short narratives about Muhammad’ sayings related by his Companions and contemporaries, which were collected and written down in the three or four centuries after Muhammad died. They are based on memorised accounts first related by Muhammad’s contemporaries and then passed down by a carefully authenticated chain of individuals whose knowledge and moral standing were recognised. This process is referred to as transmission. Of significance is that many of the authenticated accounts of early Islam were recounted on the authority of women. These accounts came in time to form a part of the basis for models of Muslim conduct and later for the emergence of Islamic Shariah law. As such Muslim women of the founding period made a most significant contribution to the development of the Islamic faith and the later development of Islamic law. A’isha bint Abu Bakr, the chosen wife of Muhammad, was one of these recognised individuals, as were many other women of her time. Aisha taught men and women about the new faith and responded to the many queries from the early community on religious matters. Umm Salma, another of Muhammad's wives, was also consulted on these matters by the religious leaders of the time as well as by the new community. The accounts of Muhammad's life by these women became part of the verbal texts of Islam, which in tuen became part of the official history of Islam and of the literature which eventually established the patterns of normative behaviour of Islamic society, HSC SOR Women Isiam Teachers’ KitAvisha was one of the major sources of these biographies of the Prophet, contributing some two thousand Haditit, Numerous Muslim women of the first generation are noted in the collections of the early Muslim biographers, in particular Bukhari and Muslim as well as in other carly Islamic sources. Over twelve hundred women, who were either witnesses or actively involved in events connected with Muhammad during his life and who related his sayings and actions, appear in these Islamic sources, ‘The contributions of Muslim women of the founding period, through their actions as well as through their spirituality and their intellectual knowledge, had a marked and positive impact on the development of this new faith. These women have become significant role models for Muslim women of all times. HSC SOR Women Islam TeachersMUSLIM WOMEN OF THE FOUNDING PERIOD ‘Modern day Muslim women strongly identify with the Muslim women of the founding period in Islam whom they see as significant role models for their own lives. Guided by Muhanunad’s presence and inspired in faith by the revelations from God through Muhammad, these founding women of Islam made major contributions to this emerging new religion. A reading of the Hadith indicates that women who lived in the time of the Muslim Prophet Muhammad were neither secluded nor subservient. Women, such as Khadija, Muhammad's first wife, owned their own businesses. Many women worked fora living, they fought along side Muhammad in battle and they worshiped freely with the men in the early mosques. Muslim women of this period were able to express their spirituality freely, participating in the new faith’s religious rituals of prayer, fasting, alms giving and in time the annual Hajj pilgrimage. As mothers and wives, sisters and aunts they prepared specific foods and actively participated in the Muslim feasts and they undertook the joyous task of teaching their children the tenets of the new faith. Muhammad's first wife Khadija played a major role in the emergence of Islam, as his first convert and by comforting and reassuring him during his early revelations. Fatima, one of Khadija and Muhammad's children, also played a role in the emergence of Islam, Her relationship with her father provides a model of parent-child relationships and her acceptance of a simple and non-materialistic life is also a model of faith. Women of the founding period in Istam expressed their spirituality also as teachers of the new religion. Throughout his lifetime Muhammad acknowledged their role and encouraged his followers to learn about Islam from all of his wives. A’isha, in particular, had a good intellect and excellent memory. After his death A’isha, and several of Muhammad's wives including, Umm Salma, made major contributions to the Islamic faith through the recounting and recording of what Muhammad said and did during his lifetime. Muslim women of the founding period were also regularly consulted by the Prophet's Companions about many aspects of the Islamic faith. 38Khadija Bint Khuwaylid 555-619 CE Khadija Bint Khuwaylid, the first and only wife of the Muslim Prophet Muhammad until her death, was a wealthy woman in her own right before she married Muhammad. She was a successful businesswoman, able to make a very good living as a merchant. Widowed twice before marrying Muhammad, Khadija was from the family of Asad, a more powerful and wealthy family than that of the Hashim, Muhammad’s clan. Along with most Meccans, Khadija would have worshipped multiple gods in the holy shrine at Mecca prior to her conversion to Islam. She was a remarkable woman; determined, noble and intelligent. At the end of the sixth century, when Muhammad was in his mid twenties, Khadija employed him to oversee her caravan trading between Mecca and Syria. She was impressed with Muhammad, as he had a good reputation with the people of Mecca. He was trustworthy, of good character and truthful, A number of stories from this time indicate Muhammad's impending spiritual journey and mission from God to be a Prophet among his people. One person who accompanied Muhamunad on his trading expeditions to Syria reported several incidences involving Muhammad. As the owner of the caravan Khadija was told the story of a monk, met on the journey, who had foretold that Muhammad was the Prophet whom the people of Arabia had so eagerly awaited. At another time a cloud was seen shading only Muhammad from the sun. ‘When she was forty and he twenty-five, around the year 594 CE, Khadija proposed marriage to Muhammad. They had a monogamous marriage of twenty-five years until her death at sixty-five years of age. As a member of a wealthy and influential family and with substantial income from the trading business, Khadija and Muhammad had a materially comfortable life in Mecca. Khadija bore Muhammad six children. Two sons, al-Qasim and Abdallah died in infancy and there were four daughters, Zaynab, Rugayyah, Umm Kulthum and Fatimah. Muhammad loved children and was called Abu al Qasim, father of Qasim and Khadija was called Umm al Qasim, mother of Qasim. All of his daughters witnessed Islam, embraced it and emigrated to Madina. Tragically for Muhammad during his lifetime, three of his daughters died and only Fatima outlived her father Their marriage and Khadija’s wealth freed Muhammad to lead a life of contemplation, that preceded his life as a Prophet. During his marriage to Khadija, Muhammad would often spend time in a cave in Hira, near Mecca, in solitary contemplation. When Muhammad was forty years of age he received 39 HSC SOR Women Islam Teachers’ Kithis first revelation from God. The angel Gabriel came to him commanding him to read and recite. ‘Read,’ T cannot read,’ he replied. But the voice again commanded him, “Proclaint! (or Read) In the name of thy Lord and Cherisher Who created-Created man, out of a leech-like clot: Proclaint! And thy Lord is Most Bountiful, He who taught (the use of) the Pen Taught mart that which ke knew not’. Sura 96:1-5 Iqraa or Al-Alaq - The Blood Clots Shivering and frightened, Muhammad went to Khadija who comforted him, wrapping him in a blanket and reassuring him. After a while Muhammad returned to his solitude, where He heard the voice again calling him: “You are the Messenger of God and Lam Gabriel.” Rushing back to Khadija, she again comforted him and covered him ina cloak. Then he heard the cail: O thou wrapped up (in a mantic) Arise and deliver thy warning And thy Lord do thou magnify And thy garments keep free from stain And all abomination shun Nor expecting, in giving, any increase (for thyself)! But, for thy Lord’s (Cause) be patient and constant! Sura 74; 1-7 Al Muddaththir - The Cloaked One Khadija comforted him with the words: “No, you have nothing to fear. God will never let you down; you are kind to your relatives, you are astute and patient, you give to the needy, you are generous to guests, and you never fail to relieve people from distress’. When Khadija heard these stories from Muhammad and saw his distress she went to her cousin, Waraqa ibn Nawfal, who had become a Christian and who had studied the Scriptures, He too had been eagerly awaiting the Arabian Prophet and when he heard Khadija’s stories of Muhammad’s revelations he confirmed to Khadjia that Muhammad was the Prophet sent from God a0 TSC SOR Women Islam Teachers’ KitKhadija became Muhammad's first convert to Islam. Whenever Muhammad was attacked by his enemies or shaken by his mystical experiences he went to her first for comfort. She helped strengthen him and lightened his burden. Her support and love for him and confidence in his reli him to venture into a hostile community to preach Islam. Khadija was from a wealthy and influential family in one of the major clans of Mecca, the Quraysh. While Khadija held a special place in Muhammad's life as his wife, other influential women from the key tribes in Mecca also converted to Islam, Among such women was Umm Habiba, the daughter of Abu Suafyan, a leader of the Quraysh who was one of Muhammad's foremost enemies. Three years before the Muslim migration to Medina and in the tenth year of Muhammad's Prophethood, Khadija died. She was sixty-five years old and had been married to Muhammad for 25 years. He was heart-broken at her death and always spoke of her with great love and affection. Even long after her death, he is reported to have gone white with grief when he thought that he had heard her voice. In the Hadith Muhammad is reported as saying of Khadija, “He did not give me a better one. She believed in me when no one else did. She considered me to be truthful when people called me a liar. She helped re with her fortune when the people had left me nothing. Allah gave me children from her while ‘he gave me none from other women’. ie HSC SOR Women Islam Teachers’ KitFatima Bint Muhammad c. 605- 633 CE. Fatima was the youngest daughter of Khadija and Muhammad. She was five when she heard that her father had become Rasul Allah- the Messenger of God, and under the guidance of her mother and father, Fatima and siblings embraced the new faith While being raised in material comfort in Mecca, Fatima was known to be very modest and humble. After the death of her mother and after the Hijrah, the Muslim migration to Medina, Fatima’s material life became austere and difficult. The early ‘Muslim community lived a frugal and humble existence. But Islamic history records that Fatima, as the daughter of the Prophet, gave food to those in need and supported people poorer than herself, as a lived expression of her faith. As the daughter of Muhammad, Fatima was deeply religious and knowledgeable about Islam and, with the early community, she participated in the ritual prayers of Islam. She was also beautiful and intelligent and several of Muhammad's companions asked for her hand in marriage, including among them Abu Bakr and Umar, but Fatima rejected them, When Ali Ibn Abu Talib, Fatima’s cousin, who had lived with them since he was five, asked for her hand in marriage, Muhammad would not announce his agrcement to the marriage without Fatima’s consent, thus making it clear that in Islam a woman's consent to the marriage is necessary. Ali had little material wealth but, as was the custom, was able to bring a small dowry to give to Fatima on their wedding day, demonstrating that in Islam a large dowry is not necessary for marriage. After the marriage, a communal feast was held, with much celebration. In time Ali and Fatima lived in a house attached to the first mosque in Medina, They had four children, Hassan and Hussain and two girls Zainab and Um Kulthum. While they and the fledgling Muslim community celebrated the Islamic feasts, their life was difficult. There is a record that once, after cleaning the house, collecting water and grinding the grain for bread until her hands were blistered, a family discussion took place about getting a servant to help with these things. When Fatima asked Muhammad, her father, for help in these matters he said to her: “Shall I teach you something that is better for you than a servant and the world with everything in it? When you lay down to sleep, glorify Allak thirty-three times and praise Him thirty-three times, and say Allah Akbar thirty-four times.” Hadith. Atanother time in a statement showing that all human beings stand on an equal footing before God, Muhammad addressed the following words to Fatima: ‘O Fatimah, daughter of Muhammad, [shall be of no help to you before Allah.” Hadith. 42 HSC SOR Women Islam Teachers’ KitAlong with other Muslim women in the founding period of Islam, Fatima was present at most of the major battles between the Muslims and the Quraysh. The battle of Uhud was one such battle in which the Muslims were engaged in the early days of Islam. Many Muslims were injured and many lives were lost, including one of the Prophet Muhammad’s beloved and loyal uncles, Hamza. In this battle the Prophet was also wounded. When Fatima heard of this injury she rushed to her father. Her husband Ali, who was with Muhammad, washed the wound with water but this did not stop the bleeding. Taking action, Fatima burnt some rope and put its ashes on the cut, which soon stopped the bleeding. In spite of all these difficulties, there were of course moments of joy for the family and Islamic history records the great love between Muhammad, his daughters and grandchildren, Muhammad's biography reveals that one day while the Prophet was kneeling at prayer, one of his little grandsons ran up to him, climbed on his back and rode him like a horse. Instead of being angry, the Prophet played with the child, then continued his prayers. As with other Muslim women of this and subsequent periods Fatima’s role as a Muslim mother involved teaching her children about Islam and involving them in the ritual prayers and in the various Muslim feasts and celebrations. Islamic history records that the relationship between father and daughter was also very strong and Muhammad's great love for Fatima is a model of father daughter relationships. He once said: Whoever pleased Patina has indeed pleased God and whoever has caused her to be angry has indeed angered God. Fatima is a part of me, Whoever pleases her pleases me and whoever angers her angers me. Hadith Avisha, who reported extensively on the life of Muhammad, said once: “Thave not seen anyone more similar to the Messenger in speech and dialogue than Fatima, Whenever she entered the house, he would greet her, kiss her hands and ask her to sit near him. Likewise, when he entered the house she would greet him and kiss his hands’. Hadith. Allof Muhammad’s male children died in childhood and three of his daughters died during his lifetime. Only Fatima outlived her father, but she died just five months after his death. She was just twenty- nine years old. All four children of Ali and Fatima lived to see their mother die and were witness to the many difficulties their father Ali suffered in the first schism in Islam. Zainab was also witness to the poisoning of her brother Hassan and the massacre of Hussain at Karbala by the Umayyads. During this conflict Zainab's life was saved but she was taken to Syria and then to Medina. She was later exiled to Egypt where she spent the rest of her life. Zainab's tomb is a well known religious site in Egypt and is visited by Muslims from all over the world, HSC SOR Women Islam Teachers’ Kitisha bint Abu Bakr 613-678 CE Avisha bint Abi Bakr was the third and alleged favourite wife of Muhammad after the death of his first wife Khadija, A’isha played a major role in the life of Muhammad and she was a significant and influential figure in the development of Islam after his death. Muhammad was severely grief stricken when Khadija died, aged around sixty five, in the year 619 CE. They had had a long and happy monogamous marriage and Khadija had supported him and had been his first convert to Islam. For several years prior to her death Muhammad had been active in gaining adherents to Islam in Mecca, but in so doing had challenged the religious beliefs of many leading Meccans. Khadija’s status in the Meccan community had also provided some protection, but after her death the lives of Muhammad and his followers were often threatened. In 622 CE Muhammad and his followers left Mecea for the city of Medina, where they were able to work to build the new religious community. This journey is referred to as the flight or Hijrah, In time, Muhammad sought advice regarding remarriage from Khawlah bint Hakim, the wife of ‘Uthman, one of his closest followers. He was counselled by her to marry Sawdah bint Zam‘ah, who was recently widowed, or A’isha, the young daughter of his close friend and follower Abu Bakr. He decided to marry them both. A’isha was only very young and stayed with her parents for several years before living with her husband when she was around fourteen or fifteen years old, When consulted about the marriage of his daughter, A’isha's father, ‘Abu Bakr, had some misgivings, as A'isha had been promised in marriage to her cousin Jubair, After consideration, Abu Bakr overcame his concerns and gave petmission for Muhammad to marry A’isha. ‘isha and her parents left Mecca with Muhammad in 622 CE, When she was about 14 to 15 years old, A’isha left her parent’s household and lived with Muhammad as his second wife, She and Sawdah lived a life of material simplicity in small apartments adjoining the new mosque in Medina. A’isha and Sawdah were among the eight women that Muhammad married, after the death of his first wife Khadija and during the founding years of Islam. As was the custom of the day, most of these marriages cemented religious or military ties or served as an example of support to the widows of men Killed in the early Islamic battles. For instance, when the husband of Hafsah bint Umar ibral-Khatiab died in an important battle, Muhammad married her and a year later married Zaynab bint Khuzaimah, who was also widowed. Later Muhammad married Hind, Umm Salma, As Muhammad’s own life illustrates, polygamy is condoned in Islam but, as can. be seen, this practice arose in special historical circumstances when many men were lost in battle, women were left alone and children were orphaned. But 44 HSC SOR Women Islam Teachers’ Kitwhile polygamy is permitted, there is a clear instruction in Islam that monogamy is preferred. If ye fear that ye shall not be able to deal justly With the orphans, marry women of your choice, Two, or three, or four; But if ye fear that ye shall not be able to deal justly (with them), Then only one, or that whick your right hand possess, That will be more suitable, to prevent you From doing injustice. Sura 4: 1-3 An-Nisaa - Women As Muhammad's position as a Prophet and leader of the Muslims gained strength he had many visitors, not only from the Arabian Peninsula but also from many areas around the region. At that time, Arabian women, including Muhammad's wives, were modestly dressed but did not wear veils, unlike the women in Persia and Byzantium, who were, with the exception of slave women, veiled. Some of these visitors from outside Arabia, used to seeing uncovered women as slaves, allegedly insulted Muhammad’s wives. When challenged on this matter they replied that they did not know that these women were Muhammad’s wives. As a result the Prophet was urged by many to seclude his wives. Around this issue, the hijab or veil was instituted for Muhammad's wives as a way of protection. This custom was legitimised in the Quran. O Prophet! Tell thy wives and daughters, And the believing women, That they should cast ‘Their outer garments over Their persons (when out of doors); That is most convenient, That they should be known (As such) and not molested And Allah is Oft Forgiving, and Merciful, Sura 33-59 Al-Ahzab ~ The Confederate Tribes During the founding period of Islamic history, as the community was growing and consolidating in Mecca, an incident known as the ‘affair of the slander’ took place. Along with the other women of the emerging Islamic community, A’isha was actively involved in the military campaigns, carrying water to the fighters and tending to the wounded, A’isha had accompanied Muhammad on one such military expedition against one of the Arabian tribes, that of the Banu al- Mustaliq, They were returning from this campaign and Aisha was travelling ina 45 HSC SOR Women Islam Teachers’ Kitclosed litter, placed on the back of a camel. When the group stopped, A’isha walked away from the group to perform her ablutions. When she returned, she noted that she had lost her necklace of Yemeni beads and she went back to look for them. As the curtain of the litter was closed Muhammad thought that she was inside and signalled the group to leave. Finding her beads and returning to where the group had been, A’isha found them gone, She sat down on the ground and waited for someone to notice she was not with the group. Soon after, a young man on his way to Medina came by and seeing her alone offered her a lift, on his camel. A’isha accepted his offer and Safwan al-Salami led the camel into Medina ‘This rescue caused much gossip and accusations of adultery and created considerable tension in the new community. The Prophet, consulted many people to see what could be done. Samat, the son of Muhammads own adopted son, supported A’isha, but ‘Ali, the husband of Fatima, Muhammad's daughter, urged him to repudiate her. A’isha herself was very upset and distressed and returned to her parent's house. After consultation with her parents, together they all went back to Muhammad’s house, where he asked Aisha to repent, saying that if she had done wrong, Allah accepted repentance from his servants. A’isha again told him that she had done nothing wrong and asked Allah’s help for a solution. Soon after, Muhammad received a revelation from Allah regarding A‘isha’s innocence. This revelation is contained in the Quranic verse: And those who launch a charge against chaste women, And produce not four witnesses (to support their allegations), Flog them with eighty stripes; and reject their evidence ever after; For such men are wicked transgressors: Sura: 24-4 An-Nur- Light ‘This crisis with A’isha, and the subsequent revelation, forms the basis of religious law on which cases of accusations of adultery are still judged. Muhammad's fondness for, and love of, A’isha was most obvious when he became seriously ill and was near dying. He asked permission from his other wives to be nursed in A’isha’s house and he died in A’isha’s arms in June 632. CE. After some debate it was recalled that Muhammad had said that a Prophet should be buried where he died and so he was buried beneath A’isha’s house. Avisha was eighteen when Muhammad died. She had had no children and there were no male heirs, but she continued to hold considerable influence within the new Muslim community as “Mother of the Faithful’. Her father Abu Bakr 46 HSC SOR Women Islam Teachers’ Kitbecame the first orthodox Caliph of Islam, from 632 to 634 CE, when he died. While this undoubtedly helped A’isha, her own learning and intelligence were also important factors in her influence in the affairs of the still fledgling Islamic community. It was known that the Prophet had received many revelations in her presence and even during his lifetime she had often been called upon for advice. After his death she was regularly consulted on matters relating to the Prophet. People asked her to interpret what he had said on key issues. Over time she became an authority on Islamic traditions. These sayings and doings of the Prophet and his interpretations of the various revelations given to him by Allah are recorded in the Hadith. Avisha was active in religious matters and participated in the Muslim rituals, She prayed with the community in the ritual prayers five times a day, prepared for and participated in the key Muslim feasts, the Id-ul-Fitr and Id-ul-Adha, contributed Zakah and with other members of the community undertook the annual Hajj. A‘isha lived a life of prayer, simplicity and alms-giving, focusing on her main role, that of teacher. But at times she was also active in the political affairs of the Islamic community. After her father, Abu Bakr died, another of Muhammad’s closest Companions, Umar, was made Caliph and after him “Uthman. There was some considerable controversy within the Muslim community over Umar’s succession after Abu Bakr, as Ali, Muhammad's son-in law, believed that he should have been leader of the community. Some twenty-four years after the death of Muhammad, when the third Caliph, ‘Uthman, was murdered in June 656 CE, ‘Ali, Muhammad's son-in-law and husband of Fatima, was accused of having arranged this murder. The supporters of A’isha, who was seeking justice over the death of ‘Uthman, and the supporters of Ali, clashed in the famous ‘Battle of the Camel’ at Basta in modern day Iraq on December 13" 656 CE, A’isha led the opposition to Ali’s forces, but in the battle “Ali was victorious. A’isha’s camel had been surrounded but she was not wounded. This was the first major battle between Muslims in the Islamic community and heralded the major schism which was to occur later, leading to the emergence of two major Islamic sects, the Sunni Muslims (or right guided Muslims) and the Shi'ite Muslims (or the party of ‘Ali), A‘isha was nearly sixty-five when she died, having mace a major contribution to the development of Islam in the founding period of one of the world’s great religions. Her place in Islamic history is secure and her life is recorded in the life of the Prophet and in the traditions of Islam, Her life illustrates too that Muslim ‘women can be teachers of religious knowledge, can inspire Muslims across the Islamic world and can be leaders of men and women alike. She is recorded as a devout ascetic, living a life of simplicity who wished to live as a true believer and whose intelligence and memory left a lasting legacy in the many traditions recorded in her name. She is recorded too as a great teacher of the Islamic faith, HSC SOR Women [slam Teachers’ Kitwife teacher warrior medical nursepolitical leader scholar influential counsel role model@ social reform leader